CHAPTER X: Ethnic Groups

 are groups of people occupying a common territory, having the same cultural heritage, a language
of their own, and a common ancestry.

Spanish Chronicles: Ethnic Groups Classification

• Christians - thought to be more civilized because it referred to the natives who embraced the faith
of the colonizers

• Non-Christians - were regarded as primitive because they continued to adhere to pagan and
animistic beliefs, which were contrary to the colonizers’ orientation

• Muslims - With the incursion of Islam in the southern part of the Philippines and the subsequent
conversion of the Filipino residents in the area

Ethnic Group is also used to refer to the major ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines:

 Ilocano

 Capampangan

 Cebuano

 Pangasinese

 Bikolano

 Hiligaynon

 Tagalog

 Samar-Leyte

Culture was also used as the basis for the grouping and categorization of Filipinos as majority cultural
groups and the minorities.

 These classifications have certain derogatory implications in the sense that those belonging to the
majority cultural groups have cultural orientations which are considered to be more of a blending
of Spanish, American, and native cultures, whereas the minorities have retained the indigenous
cultures and orientation of the past, as these groups have successfully thwarted the influences of
the colonizers.

• To these groups belong to upland people of Northern Luzon, the Kalinga, Bontok, Kalinga-
Apayao, Ibaloy, Kankanay, Ifugao, and Apayao. The Muslim community consists of the Tausog,
Maranao, Maguindanao, Samal, Yakan, Badjao, Jama Mapun, Sanggil, Melebuganon, and Molbog.

• The non-Muslims found in the interior parts of Mindanao who also comprise the cultural
minorities are the Bilaan, Subanon, Manuvuh, Tagabili, Ata, Bukidnon, Bagobo, Tagakaolo, Tiruray,
and others.
• Mangyan and are variously categorized on the basis of the names they have given themselves.
These are the Pula, Buhid, Bangon, Hanunoo, Iraya, Alangan, Neuhan, and Batangan. In Palawan, on
the other hand, the most famous groups are the Tagbanuwa and Batak.

• The most indigenous of these groups are the Aetas, described as c. They are scattered throughout
the archipelago. The names given to them vary, depending on upon their geographical location. In
Zambales, they are known as Pinatubo Ayta; in Palanan, Isabela, they are referred to as Dumagat and
Agta. In Tanay, they are called Remontados; in the south, they are the Mamanwa.

Whatever bases are used for categorizing them, all these groups are known altogether as ethnic groups.

The term ethnicity must therefore be defined in order to clarify the concept and other misconceptions
associated with the word.

An ethnic group is a type of community, with a specific sense of solidarity and honor, and a set of shared
symbols and values.

In a way, an ethnic group is identified with a specific area or territory so that some social scientists
equate it with the concept of regionalism.

Region refers to a category; an Ethnic Group is a community.

The sense of uniqueness as well as solidarity of the group can be traced to the fact that an ethnic group
has a sense of unique history from which the concept of common origin emanates. The factor has been
perpetuated through generations by the process of transmission, as the historic origin is embodied in the
myths and values of the group.

TRIBE –a social group sharing the same characteristics as the ethnic group and enjoys political
autonomy.

Some Important Issues Regarding Ethnicity

1. Ethnicity is a matter of identity.

2. In addressing and focusing attention solely on cultural differences, analysts have ignored the issues of
power and inequality.

3. Ethnicity is used to comprehend culture-based on ethnographic accounts of preliterate societies, the

preoccupation of anthropologies.

Culture has often been identified as the most important factor in the categories of ethnic groups.

In Western societies, owing perhaps to their heterogeneous characteristics, the term race cannot be
ignored. To resolve the issue, racial inequalities and identities are to be seen as social rather than natural
phenomena. In the Philippines, the matter of race need not to be raised but attention can be focused
solely on the question of ethnicity.

However, the question of race can be raised also when Filipinos choose to migrate and work abroad.
Positive Effects on Family Members of Having a Parent Working Abroad

1. Better living facilities in that if wives know how to manage resources sent by their husbands, they will
be able to save money and in no time at all buy a piece of lot and build their dream houses.

2. Better educational opportunities for the children who are able to study in the best schools and pursue
careers of their choice.

3. Savings in the bank and possible investments in real state for the future of the family and possible
early retirement for those fathers who worked abroad.

Negative Effects on Family Members of having a Parent Working Abroad

1. There is a psychological effect on family members, particularly the wife, for being temporarily
separated from her husband.

2. Wives, in the absence of their husbands, are sometimes enticed by friends to join them in parties and
discos. If the women do not have strong moral character, there is the possibility that they may disregard
the sacrifices of their husbands abroad.

3. Wives, who do not know how to manage household budgets, may become spendthrifts.

4. Separation, even on a temporary basis, has negative effects on the children, particularly when the
fathers left when the children were between the ages of four and six.

RACE and ETHNICITY

RACISM

• Has a long history, but considered to be intensed during the colonial period

• It became common usage, particularly after the Second World War, as a response to the horrors
of the Nazi holocaust.

• The concept was used to highlight biological differences and therefore the superiority of one race
over the other.

RACE

• Basically the categorization of humans according to physical differences, took place among very
early human societies

ETHNIC ABSOLUTISM

• Refers to an idea of an ethnically pure nation sharing a common way of life

• Critics consider it a myth.

• “a conceptual and political view of ethnic groups which sees them as possessing distinct and
separate traditions and cultures which are fixed and absolute”
ETHNIC GROUPS PARTICIPATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY

In the 20th century, however, we see that the ethnic groups, not as marginalized group and therefore
expected in due time to weaken and be integrated into the mainstream of society, have emerged as major
political elements and major collective actors in several societies. The choice to be integrated is a decision
made by the ethnic members themselves and consistent with their goal of self-determination, that is, the
idea of determining for themselves what they want to be in the future. In addition, communication as well
as transportation has made it possible for people to reach far flung areas. At this age and time, there are
no areas impossible for people to reach and “occupy”.

ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION IN CONTEMPORARY PLURAL SOCITIES

These ethnic distributions will enable us to understand how demographic combinations affect ethnic
politics:

1. Countries that are virtually homogenous in ethnic composition (with 90-100 percent being ethnically
the same). We find this to be true in Japan, Korea and Bangladesh.

2. Countries that have one dominant ethnic majority that constitutes 75-89 percent of the population.
This is the characteristics of countries like Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Turkey.

3. Countries where the largest ethnic group constitutes about 50-75 percent of the population and we see
other “minority groups.” Countries like Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Singapore, and perhaps Nepal have this kind of ethnic distribution.

4. Countries where two large dominant groups roughly of the same size exist side by side but may not
have other small ethnic groups existing as in the case of No. 3.

5. Finally, the genuine plural societies, in which several ethnic groups exist side by side but there is not
one of them considered dominant and that all of other ethnic groups actively participate in ethnic politics.

ETHNIC IDENTITY

• Ethnicity has gone through a process of revitalization

• The persistence of ethnicity id tied to identity formation in early socialization
• May be rooted in early socialization and cultural tradition of society, the significance of this ethnic
identity is reflected in current situations

ETHNIC SYMBOLS

• houses where people reside

• the food they eat
• kinds and even colors of dress worn
• musical instruments played
• other cultural facts associatedwith the group
• language (Cebuano, Tagalog, Pangasinense, Ilokano, Pampango, etc.)
 Ex.
Negritoes – bow and arrow
Badjaos – boats used as living quarters
Muslims – malong and batik; gong kris
Groups in Northern Luzon – bulol, bahag, ulog and ator
Bikolanos – coconut and hot pepper
Capampangan – pindang or cured meat

ETHNIC RELATIONS

Ethnic Identity is a product of interaction among members of social group who perceive themselves to be
different

a. Marriage Patterns
b. Occupational Specialization

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNIC GROUPS

Cordillera – clothes they wear and the weaving of clothes using different colors
Muslim – use of gong
Hanunuo – betel nut chewing

PROBLEMS AND ISSUES CONFRONTING ETHNIC GROUPS

A. CONCEPT OF LAND
• To the cultural minorities, land is important
• Their concept of land, however, is different from those of the lowlanders
• They believe that they belong to the land instead of the land belonging to them

In the case of swidden agriculturalists, Maceda cited two instances when land can be acquired:

1. Through original acquisition, that is, by clearing a piece of land in the forest, and

2. Through second-hand acquisition, which occurs whenever land passes intro one’s hand as
inheritance, as part of the bride price, and through barter or outright purchase

In the case of the latter, land is usually “sold” to the residents of the area in order to maintain the
homogeneity of the group. Since swidden agriculture demands the extensive use of the land for
only a period of three years, after which the farmers have to shift to another area and clear it,
even if the previous lot had been abandoned, no one can cultivate it without prior notice to the
previous owner. Custom law dictates that the farmer who first cleared the area is the owner and
therefore it is only he who can dispose of it.
 TIRURAY

• Like all other cultural minorities are also swidden agriculturalists, and therefore their
concept of land ownership “should not be divorced from their swidden system of agriculture
• Their concept of land ownership is their concept of the system of land utilization”

NEGRITOS AND BADJAOS

• Do not have an “indigenous concept of land being individually owned.

• The forest, the chosen habitat of the Negritos, belongs to everybody”

Though cultural minorities have various adaptive strategies in extracting environmental resources
for economic subsistence such as hunting, foraging, and swidden agriculture, these groups have
maintained the same concept ad attitude towards land. As stated elsewhere, land to them is an
inalienable property. It cannot be transferred from family to family. It is not only a symbol of
wealth but is wealth in itself.

B. EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

• Since the Philippines has been deeply involved in urbanization like the other Southeast Asian
countries, the thrust, therefore, has been in the development of infrastructure, one of which is the
construction of irrigation dams.
• These dams are important in providing electricity, as well as irrigation to a number of people
• Yet, while the intention is good - it is for the development of rural communities in general – the
implication of such development projects on affected has been overlooked

It was not only in the Cordilleras where irrigation dams are or would have been constructed. For
Mindanao, for instance there are five projects on the drawing board:

1. In South Cotabato, the Lake Cebu Dam would greatly affect about 3, 000 hectares.
2. In Agusan del Sur, about 1,060 families will e displaced and about 17,000 hectares will be affected
by the construction of three dams.
3. In Surigao del Sur, an estimated 2,500- 3,000 Manobo families will be displaced by the
construction of the Tandog-Tago dams.
4. In Pulangi, Bukidnon and Cotabato, about six dams will be constructed affecting about 500,000
hectares.
5. In Lanao del Sur and del Norte, about seven dams will be constructed, affecting about 126,000
hectares. All of these projects are financed by Asian Development Bank.

• If all of these projects are constructed, imagine the number of people that would have been
socially and economically displaced and the hectares of land devoted to agricultural activities
destroyed.
• Dislocation is not only a socio- economic problem but also a psychological one as the people
concerned will undergo stress and depression over the loss of identity, tradition, and culture.
 • Oftentimes, the relocation areas do not only lack the facilities and amenities important to a life of
dignity but also job opportunities. Thus, many of the relocates had to move to other places in
order to seek better opportunities
• Minorities do not only lose their land to development projects, as n case of the irrigation dams, but
also to multinational companies which need land for their plantations.
• For instance, the Manobos of Paitan, Bukidnon, Quezon lost their land when a rancher sold it to
the Bukidnon Sugar Company. The natural reaction of the Manobos was to protect their rights
and to appeal for assistance from various government agencies
• In spite of this, the court had ruled in favour of the BUSCO and has declared the Manobos as
“squatters”.
• Another case would be that of the Philippine Packing Corporation, a subsidiary of the Del Monte
Pineapple Company, where about five barrios and a total of 371 families are affected by the
expansion project
• There are a number of other cases which have contributed to the displacement of minorities in the
areas where they have settled and resided for a long period of time

C. SECURIY OF LAND TENURE

• The basic problem of all cultural minorities can be traced to lack of security or land tenure.
• This problem was compounded by the implementation of a series of the land laws (1913, 1912,
1919) which encouraged the landless peasantry of the Visayans and Luzon to acquire public lands
in Mindanao
• There were a number of minorities of the Philippine government.
• One of the non-Muslim groups affected by the above law was the Tiruray who did not only lose
their land but also their means of livelihood.
• The number of contemporary cultural communities are more politicized, more aware of their
rights as a group, ad more exposed to issues and problems that concerned them.
• The minorities awareness of their human rights and privileges are embodied in the message of
solidarity issued by the Episcopal, Commission on Tribal Filipinos on October 25, 1984 to the
participants of Dialog- Asia.

EPISCOPAL COMMISSION ON TRIBAL FILIPINOS

• Pointed out the fact that the problem of land is not unique to Filipino cultural communities, it is a
problem shared by all indigenous groups throughout the world, including the American Indians in
the United States
• Enjoined all other indigenous group to “struggle for their rights to their lands, and the
preservation and enhancement of their identity where corrupt power and greed systematically
exploit the resources of the people”
DIALOG-ASIA
(DIALOGUES OF INDIGENOUS AND LAND DEPRIVED AND OPPRESSED GROUPS)

• Was made possible by the Christian Conference of Asia Urban-Rural Mission and was held on
October 20-30, 1984.
• It’s primary objective was the Asia minority groups to share their “experiences, their mythologies,
traditions, problems, and aspirations, and in the process express their solidarity in each other’s
struggles”
• The conference was held in Manila and attended by all indigenous leaders from the Philippines
and Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Hongkong, and Japan.

In this conference, the people of the Cordillera cited three important demands:

• In politics, the Cordillera people demanded the establishment of the Cordillera Autonomous
Region under a democratic coalition government which guarantee genuine regional autonomy.
• In economics, they demanded the right to use ancestral lands, to the disposition, utilization, and
management of all natural resources within the ancestral domain, and the right to all socio-
economic development.
• In culture, they asked for the institutional rectification of discriminatory practices against the
Igorots, the prohibition of vulgarization and commercialization of indigenous culture, and the
promotion of a progressive consciousness.

The most important objective of all indigenous groups throughout the world is to achieve the right to self-
determination. The idea is to enable them to decide their future for themselves. Decisions about
problems concerning them must be decided by the people themselves. To put it in another way, it is the
desire of the people to free themselves from outside intervention This is also one way of saying that the
perception of the people of a country is definitely different from that of outsiders.

OFFICE OF MUSLIM AFFAIRS (OMA)

• Was created at the advent of the Aquino Administration in order to attend to the needs of the
Muslim Filipinos in the south.
• Its creation, however, has brought about a clamor for similar attention from the people of the
north.

Thus, at present there are two offices established in order to attend to the interests and problems of these
indigenous groups:

• OFFICE OF THE NORTHERN CULTURAL COMMUNITIES (ONCC)

• OFFICE OF SOUTHERN CULTURAL COMMUNITIES (OSCC)

PREPARED BY

SHERWIN A. ARAGO
BSEd-IV