Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke

Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Diesel Engines on
Diesel Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused
Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation*
by Increased Acid Condensation＊

Luis
Luis García＊＊García**, Stefan Gehle
　　Stefan Gehle＊＊l**& John Schakel**
　　John Schakel＊＊

1. Introduction turbo charger capacity and in more recent installations by

managing exhaust flow through the waste heat recovery
Slow steaming emerged as a standard operational mode system (i.e. closing exhaust by pass). Moreover, latest
for ship-owners and charters as a result of the success of this engine designs operate at even higher combustion pressures
strategy to reduce bunker consumption and idle capacity. across a broad loading range to offer better fuel efficiencies.
Until recently modern low speed 2-stroke diesel engines Higher operating pressures particularly at low engine load
have been designed to continuously operate optimally on have resulted in major lubrication challenges especially in
engine load above i.e. 60 % MCR and their flexibility to regard of corrosive wear control. The lower liner wall
reduce load was initially thought only for short periods of temperatures, typical for this operational regime, in
time, as during maneuvering. combination with increased pressures create conditions
It has been reported that continuous low engine load under which cold corrosion can occur. It is the purpose of
might result in increased carbonization and low temperature this article to highlight the influence of increased
corrosion. In engines not optimised for slow steaming, the combustion pressure on cylinder liner wear in modern low
scavenging air pressure drops affecting combustion speed 2-stroke diesel engines favoured by increased
efficiency; this may lead to increased carbon deposits on sulphuric acid condensation (when operated with heavy fuel
injection nozzles as well as on piston rings grooves and ring oil).
lands which ultimately can increase the thermal load on the
piston assembly. In pure mechanical engines, the 2. Engine P-Max Evolution
combustion system can suffer of poor atomization by the
fuel nozzles reducing further combustion efficiency. In
Engine manufacturers have effectively evolved hardware
addition, low load operation will also affect the exhaust gas
temperature, which can reduce the efficiency of the exhaust design in line with the marine industry needs to increase
boiler (and the overall thermal efficiency of the engine). As efficiency by reducing operating costs and improving its
well, turbocharger efficiency is affected by increased CO2 footprint. Engine technology developments have
deposits and carbonization problems, resulting in a further targeted flexibility and reduced specific fuel oil consumption
reduction of air flow [1, 2, 3].
Major OEM’s have introduced engine upgrading (SFOC) across all operational modes [4], ranging from
measurements for slow steaming to overcome these ultra-slow steaming up to full engine power, without
operational challenges and improve engine efficiency at part compromising reliability.
and low load operation. The most effective measurement has Reduced SFOC is achieved by higher compression ratios,
been to boost combustion pressure by increasing scavenging
implying higher maximum pressures in the same cylinder
air pressure through different tuning methods like cutting out
geometry. This strategy has become particularly attractive at
*Received November 1, 2013 part/low engine loads in latest designs since operators
**Shell Global Solutions (Deutschland) GmbH, Germany. Company benefit not only from reliable reduced ship speed but also
or Organizations
from a lower SFOC having a competitive advantage over
operators with less flexible/efficient engines. From figure 1

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Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Dieselof the JIME
Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation 101

it is clear that the max-operating-pressure has increased in for a two-phase system (assumed in equilibrium). The
latest designs and the gap between part/low and high load model predicted much higher dew point temperatures than
has been reduced. As cylinder liner temperatures are those previously proposed by other authors [7, 8], these
significantly reduced at low engine load, the combination of appear to better explain acid condensation at higher
high pressure and low temperature is presenting new pressures (see section 6). In a similar way a specific dew
challenges for latest engine designs operating under these point curve dependant on pressure can be calculated for a
conditions. specific fuel assuming complete combustion, knowing the
air/fuel ratio and assuming or measuring the fraction of SO2
that it is converted to SO3. Figure 2b presents dew point
curves calculated for a diesel fuel oil containing 3.5% S at
different air/fuel ratios (λ) at a SO2/SO3 conversion rate of
2.5%. In this particular figure it is interesting to remark that
the leaner combustion the lower the calculated acid dew
point, which can be explained by a higher dilution of SO3
(H2SO4) in the combustion gas.

Figure 1 Maximum cylinder operating pressure at 50 and

100% engine load for MAN Diesel & Turbo (MDT) designs
(source: Man Diesel & Turbo).

3. The Role of Pressure and Temperature

Upon combustion of heavy fuel oil, fuel sulphur is

oxidised mainly to SO2 and to a lesser extent further to SO3.
Temperature and pressure conditions in the combustion
chamber (and the exhaust gas system) determine whether
SO3 in interaction with water vapour, abundantly present as
a combustion product, will condense as sulphuric acid (and Figure 2a H2SO4/H2O dew points at different absolute
water) at surfaces with temperatures normally below the pressures for stoichiometric combustion of diesel fuel
exhaust gas temperature. The condensed phase thus formed varying fuel sulphur content [5].
is assumed to be a solution of H2SO4, corrosive to the
carbon steel combustion chamber. It is for this reason that
cylinder lubricants have been formulated with additives
providing an alkaline reserve (i.e. containing CaCO3) that
can neutralise the acid condensed at cylinder liner walls in
low speed 2-stroke diesel engines.
Sulphuric acid dew point calculations for flue/exhaust
gases have been previously published [5, 6, 7, 8].
Figure 2a presents a set of these curves modelled for the
stoichiometric combustion of a diesel fuel containing
different levels of sulphur at a fixed conversion rate of SO2
to SO3 of 2.5% [5]. Each curve, valid at a certain pressure,
shows the temperature below which sulphuric acid
condenses vs. sulphur content of the fuel. These particular Figure 2b H2SO4/H2O dew point curves calculated for a
calculations were done based on an experimental diesel fuel oil containing 3.5% S at different air/fuel ratios
thermodynamic data set for sulphuric acid-water mixtures (λ) at a SO2/SO3 conversion rate of 2.5%, λ=1 corresponds
[9] that were built into a proprietary thermodynamic model to stoichiometric combustion.

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102 Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Diesel Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation
日本マリンエンジニアリング学会執筆要項

Figure 3 Cylinder liner wall temperature/cylinder pressure profiles for two 90 cm bore engines with different piston designs
under similar operating conditions in relation to theoretical acid dew point curves calculated for diesel fuels
containing 3% and 0% sulphur.

In a diesel engine, due to the high pressures occurring, a 4. Corrosive Wear in the Modern Low Speed
part of the SO3 will condense as sulphuric acid (with water) 2-Stroke Diesel Engine
on surfaces with temperatures below the corresponding dew
point of the exhaust composition at a given pressure, this Different engines will present different liner wall
process is therefore dependent on engine load and crank temperature vs. cylinder pressure profiles depending on
angle for a particular engine design. As well, the amount of engine design and operating conditions. It is to be expected
condensate, at a particular cylinder liner position exposed to that two different designs will be sensitive towards sulphuric
the exhaust gas, strongly depends on the pressure, the condensation at different levels even if they burn the same
temperature deviation from the dew point, the air/fuel ratio, fuel and run at similar power output. If the cylinder liner
the sulphur content of the fuel and the degree of sulphur area exposed to the combustion gases has a temperature
conversion to its highest oxidation state (SO3). The above the acid dew point at a given pressure during the
remaining part of the sulphur, present in the form of SO2, is expansion stroke, condensation of sulphuric acid will not
supposed to have no significant corrosive effect. occur, although formation of sulphuric acid within the
It must also be considered that condensation is not the lubricant is in theory still possible.
only way sulphuric acid can reach the lubricating oil film As an example figure 3 illustrates different sensitiveness
and metal surfaces, SO3 adsorption/diffusion and conversion towards cold corrosion for two particular hardware designs
to sulphuric acid within the lubricant is also possible. This that have been in service for a number of years. In this
will occur by the interaction of SO3 with water molecules particular comparison the major difference highlighted by
bound to lubricant additives or neutralisation products (i.e., the manufacturer is the two different piston designs. The
CaSO4 is highly hygroscopic) under high pressures and HTL design is less sensitive towards corrosive wear
temperatures. This process can also result in a depleted compared to the LTL design. From the figure, it can be
alkaline reserve of the lubricant and ultimately in corrosive recognized that the LTL temperature vs. pressure profile has
attack of the cylinder liner wall. SO3 diffusion rates (mass a larger area under the theoretical acid dew point curve used
transfer) are influenced by total pressure, partial pressure of for this comparison and shall therefore be more sensitive
SO3 (as well as other competing species) and temperature. In towards corrosive wear, despite same bore size, stroke and
this paper only corrosive wear related to sulphuric acid engine load. This has been confirmed in the past by the
condensation is discussed. manufacturer’s service experience.
More recently, major engine manufactures have reported
some cases with increased wear rates (attributed to cold

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Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation 103

corrosion) in engines of latest design operated at part or low introduced successful countermeasures in these latest
loads and in some other engines where low load operation designs to prevent cold corrosion such as: jacket cooling
has been optimised by boosting scavenging air pressure by water bypass, increasing jacket cooling water outlet
means of turbo charger cut-out. temperature to 90 °C, utilising insulated cooling pipes in all
For instance MDT reported having seen few cases with cylinder liner cooling bores and decreasing their number to
excessive cold corrosion in the top of cylinder liners when reduce cooling intensity and recommending higher
engines operate at low load with (retrofitted) reduced alkalinity cylinder oils and optimised feed rates according to
turbocharger capacity (TC cut out). This, particularly in the engine corrosion sensitivity and the lubricant in use [10].
cases where one out of two turbochargers has been cut out
as this results in significant scavenge air pressure increase at 5. Engine Load Proportional Lubrication and
low load and consequentially in a higher cylinder pressure at Lubricant Exposure
lower temperature exposure of the cylinder liner top
(compared to high load operation). As a countermeasure for The cylinder lubricating film in low speed 2-stroke diesel
these cases, MDT has introduced a jacket cooling water engines is fully refreshed only after several strokes,
bypass that can effectively increase liner wall temperature depending on lubricating feed rates, hardware design,
when jacket cooling water is by-passed the cylinder cooling maintenance and operational conditions. Only a relatively
bores, reducing the tendency to cold corrosion. In addition small amount of lubricant is exposed, for a short period of
cylinder oil feed rate is increased at low load by setting the time, to significant amounts of combustion products at
load proportional lubrication breakpoint for rpm-dependent temperatures and pressures defined by engine design and
lubrication at 50% load [10]. operating conditions [11]. For a particular engine it is
MDT has also reported a number of cases of increased understandable that if the load proportional lubricating feed
corrosive wear in cylinder liners in more recent engine rate (g/kWh) is maintained across the load range, lower
designs and identified several reasons for these, varying engine loads imply longer exposures for the lubricant. In
from uneven circumferential temperature distribution at the other words, at low engine load less absolute amount of oil
top of the cylinder liner to various combinations of low-load is used to lubricate the same surface area and at the same
operation and tuning methods increasing the pressures in the time oil film thickness may increase on cylinder top due to a
combustion chamber at low load. higher lubricant viscosity and lower piston ring loading on
In the cases of uneven temperature distribution around the the oil film due to lower temperatures and combustion
circumference of the cylinder liner it is possible that a lower pressures, implying longer oil film refreshment cycles.
temperature in one direction (i.e. exhaust-manoeuvring) As introduced, lower cylinder liner wall temperatures
favours more sulphuric acid condensation in contrast to a under slow steaming operation might promote increased
higher temperature in the other direction (i.e. acid condensation. The later combined with a longer
forward-aftward) resulting in uneven wear. Excessive oval lubricant exposure will result in a more degraded lubricant
wear leads to too early wear-out of the cylinder liner and it in terms of alkaline reserve and insoluble matter carrying
also shortens the time between piston overhauls due to a capacity (including water) and eventually in cold corrosion
high piston ring wear and poor gas-sealing condition. MDT and excessive deposit. Thus, low load operation at load
has introduced special insulated cooling bores for these dependent minimum lubricating feed rates represents a risk
cases that can selectively be installed to help to increase liner for the lubrication process in terms of corrosive wear
wall temperature where needed around the cylinder liner protection. Major OEM’s have introduced measurements to
circumference [10]. increase cylinder oil feed rate at part/low loads to address
In latest generation engines operating at higher pressures this phenomenon, either by setting rpm-dependent
across a broad load range, MDT also noticed and increase in lubrication at higher load values and/or compensating by
wear rates as early as during the first 1000 running hours, means of correction factors at each load stage in
which exceeded maximum accepted figures (i.e., >>0.1 electronically controlled engines or by rebuilding lubricators
mm/1000h). It is assumed that the higher pressures at part in mechanical engines. The effect of engine loading and
and low load in these engines in combination with “typical” extended oil exposure is better illustrated in figures 4a and
operating liner wall temperatures have promoted increased 4b.
acid condensation leading to corrosive wear. MDT has also

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104 Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Diesel Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation
日本マリンエンジニアリング学会執筆要項

Figure 4a Calculated average residence time for cylinder lubricant in an oil film averaging 5 μm thickness in a 96 cm bore
cylinder with 250 cm stroke at variable load proportional cylinder lubricant feed rates [11].
Figure 4b Alkalinity reserve depletion and response on iron content varying engine load in a 96 cm bore engine at a flat
lubricating feed rate (field data) [11].

6. Testing Acid Dew Point Calculations on Cylinder and liner wall temperature monitoring (and other operational
Liner Wear (To Estimate Lubrication Needs) data) are required to interpret and allow the comparison of
test results in terms of wear as per to establish relationships
It is recognized that increasing cylinder liner wall to acid dew points and lubrication. Figure 5 presents an
temperatures has a major effect in reducing acid impression of 4 out of 16 cylinder liner temperature probes
condensation and consequentially in corrosive wear. In and combustion pressure data monitored for this engine.
addition high alkalinity throughput (high lubricant TBN & Running engine tests at same power output and speed on
high lubricating feed rate) for the lubrication of the cylinder the same fuel batch, whilst cylinder liner cooling is adjusted,
liner has also proven to be a successful counter allows direct evaluation of the effect of liner wall
measurement. However, finding the optimum set point in temperatures keeping the same cylinder pressure profile
terms of managing liner temperatures (to avoid thermal along the expansion stroke. Lubrication is kept constant or
fatigue and loss of thermal efficiency) and adequate varied to understand the effect of lubricating feed rate and of
lubricating feed rates in relation to particular operating course of different lubricants. Figure 6a presents cylinder
conditions for every specific engine design is nearly an pressure vs. liner wall temperature profiles for two testing
impossible task. OEM’s have opted for more general regimes differing only on cylinder liner cooling water
recommendations in terms of cylinder liner cooling and temperature (CWT outlet at 80 and 110 °C) in relationship
lubrication that incorporate safety margins based on millions to the acid dew point curve calculated for the combustion
of running hours of service experience with many different gases of a 2.3% S fuel in this engine at a fixed air/fuel ratio.
engine designs. In terms of lubrication, these recommended
set points can be optimized by close engine monitoring on a
case by case basis [10].
To better understand sulphuric acid condensation and its
effect on corrosive wear, in order to determine cylinder liner
cooling needs and lubrication requirements, wear and
operational data of a set of tests in a 2-stroke diesel research
engine under highly controlled conditions used to simulate
field low engine load conditions are under investigation. The
engine is a Bolnes 3(1) DNL 170/600 HF 2-stroke engine
(Bolnes Motorenfabriek B.V., 1987); operational data have
been previously described [11]. Accurate cylinder pressure

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Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Dieselof the JIME
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Figure 5 Impression of cylinder liner temperature probes and combustion pressure records in the Bolnes 3(1) DNL 170/600 HF
2-stroke research engine.

CWT, this is more than 250 % increase, despite the same

As previously discussed, it can be expected that the lower lubricant (70 BN MCL) and feed rate in use. It is quite
CWT increases corrosive wear. For figure 6a, the acid de possible that total sulphuric acid condensate has actually
point calculation model has predicted that comparing both increased by almost 250%. From a lubrication perspective,
liner temperature profiles at 1st ring highest position, running this engine with CWT at 80°C would require a
sulphuric acid condensation increases by 71% (once prohibitive increase in the alkalinity throughput to
exposed to the combustion gases), however as the model re-establish the wear rate observed with CWT at 100°C.
assumes a system in equilibrium, it is not possible to Thus corrosive wear must be addressed with both, a
calculate how large are the differences further down the reasonable increase in CWT and a more effective lubrication.
stroke after the first droplet of corrosive condensate is As the investigation progresses the authors expect it possible
formed; for this purpose a dynamic model is under to establish correlations, varying both cooling and
development. Figure 6b presents liner wear profiles lubrication, so an optimum can be calculated.
determined for two tests with the different cylinder liner Considering test conditions with CWT at 80°C, possibly
cooling. It must be noticed that liner wear increased from closer to some extreme cases observed in the field, two
average 0.074 up to 0.186 mm/1000h due to the reduced additional tests with 2 different lubricants of a higher

6a 6b

Figure 6a Cylinder pressure vs. liner wall temperature profiles for two testing regimes differing only on cylinder liner cooling
water temperature in the Bolnes 3(1) DNL 170/600 HF 2-stroke research engine.
Figure 6b Cylinder liner wear profiles determined for this comparison. Average wear rates at 0.074 and 0.186 mm/1000h for
CWT at 110°C and 80 °C respectively.

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106 Impact of Low Load Operation in Modern Low Speed 2-Stroke Diesel Engines on Cylinder Liner Wear Caused by Increased Acid Condensation
日本マリンエンジニアリング学会執筆要項

alkaline reserve (80 BN) but differing in additive technology as a consequence of cold corrosion. Engine manufactures
were compared, a traditional marine cylinder lubricant have successfully introduced a number of counter
technology (MCL) formulated at 80 BN vs. Shell’s new measurements to reduce corrosive wear by increasing
MCL technology formulated also at 80 BN. Figure 7 cylinder liner wall temperatures (reducing cylinder cooling)
presents liner wear profiles after 96 h testing time for this and recommending higher lubricant alkalinity throughputs
comparison, both tests were carried out using a 0.8 g/kWh for cylinder lubrication.
lubricating feed rate. The traditional technology exhibited a To explain increased corrosive wear in the low speed
cylinder liner average wear rate of about 0.17 mm/1000h 2-stroke diesel engine, the authors revisit sulphuric acid dew
whereas the new MCL resulted in an average wear rate of point calculations at high pressures. The modeled acid dew
0.11 mm/1000h. Compared to the previous example, the points can effectively explain different sensitivities towards
traditional 80 BN MCL reduced corrosive wear by less than acid condensation in different engine designs, provided
10% if compared to the 70 BN MCL test under the same exhaust gas composition (including a calculated or
operating conditions, the new MCL technology at 80 BN measured fraction of SO3) and liner wall temperatures and
reduced the wear rate by almost 50 %. This is an indication corresponding pressures in the cylinder are known.
that the optimum set point shall not only look at cylinder Examples on a 2-stroke diesel research engine are discussed
liner cooling, alkalinity throughput (BN & feed rate) but also to highlight the influence of liner wall temperatures and
the lubricant technology in use. different lubricants on corrosive wear. It is proposed that by
Wear [µm] the ongoing investigation, relationships between cylinder
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 pressure, cylinder liner cooling and lubrication can be
0
established to better understand sulphuric condensation
25
50 under the dynamics of a diesel engine it in order to control it
75
and reduce corrosive wear.
100
Liner height [mm]

125
150
175
200 References
225
250
275 [1] Gard AS. “Slow Steaming on 2-stroke Engines” - Loss
300 Prevention Circular No. 03-09, February 2009.
[2] MAN Diesel: Service Letter SL09-511/MTS, May 2009.
Commercial MCL technology at 80 BN
[3] Wiesmann, A., Wärtsilä – “Slow Steaming – a viable long-term
New MCL technology at 80 BN (Shell) option ?”, Wärtsilä Technical Journal (2010),02.2010: 49-55.
[4] MAN Diesel & Turbo: “SFOC Optimisation Methods for MAN
Figure 7 Bolnes 3(1) DNL 170/600 HF cylinder liner wear B&W Two-stroke IMO Tier II Engines”, Sept 2010.
profiles determined for comparative testing of two [5] Hengeveld, J., Schenk, C. & Aabo, K.: “The Role of
Temperature and Pressure in Wear Processes in Low Speed
different cylinder lubricant technologies at same Diesel Engines”. Ship en Werf de Zee (2003), 13:10, 14-19.
base number (80 BN) and lubricating feed rate [6] Pierce, R.R.: “Estimating Acid Dew Points in Stack Gases”,
Chem. Eng. (1977), 84:8, 125-128.
under highly corrosive conditions (CWT = 80 °C).
[7] Haase, R. & Borgman, H.W.: “Präzisionsmessungen zur
Ermittlung von Säuretaupunkten”, Korrosion (1962), 15,
7. Summary 47-49.
[8] Banchero, J.T. & Verhoff, F.H.: “Evaluation and Interpretation
of the Vapour Pressure Data for Sulphuric Acid Aqueous
Sustained low engine load in modern low speed 2-stroke Solutions with Application to Flue Gas Dew Points", J. Inst.
Fuel (1975), June, 76-80.
diesel engines is an established operational mode in the [9] Bolsaitis, P. & Elliott, J.F.: “Thermodynamic Activities and
marine industry and proven solution for operators to reduce Equilibrium Partial Pressures for Aqueous Sulphuric Acid
bunker consumption. To further increase engine efficiency, Solutions”, J. Chem. Eng. Data (1990) 35, 69-85.
[10] MAN Diesel & Turbo: “2-stroke engines – Service
newer and latest low speed 2-stroke engine designs have Experience”, May 2013.
successfully incorporated increased combustion pressures [11] Garcia, J.L., Hammett, J., Moeller, J. & Schakel, J.: “Cylinder
Lubrication - Utilising the Latest Findings on Low Speed
across a broad engine load profile resulting in lower SFOC 2-Stroke Diesel Engine Oil Stress from Field and Laboratory
also at part and low engine loads. Lower cylinder liner wall Engine Testing in the Development of a Wide Range Cylinder
temperatures at reduced engine loads in combination with Lubricant - Shell Alexia S4”, Paper No. 84 CIMAC Congress
(2013), Shanghai.
increased cylinder pressures have resulted on increased wear

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