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Anjum MED, UET, Taxila 1

 ME-5102
Research Methodology &
Design of Experiments
Lect. # 4
Introduction to Research
Types of Research

Dr. Nazeer Ahmad Anjum

Mechanical Engineering Program
University of Engineering Taxila
 Classifying Research 3
 Reviewing related past research studies is an
important step in the process of carrying out
research as it helps in problem formulation,
hypothesis construction and selection of
appropriate research designs.
 It is beneficial if you can classify a research
study under a specific category because
each category or type of research uses a
specific set of procedures.

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 Types of Research 4
i. Descriptive ii. Analytical

iii. Applied iv. Fundamental

v. Quantitative vi. Qualitative

vii. Conceptual viii. Empirical

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 i. Descriptive vs. Analytical 5
Descriptive Research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.

In social science and business research we quite often

use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies (how an independent variable affects a
dependent variable i.e. possible effects of an environmental
factor that has occurred prior to the study itself).

The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
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 i. Descriptive vs. Analytical 6

Example, frequency of shopping, preferences of

people, or similar data.
Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods.

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 i. Descriptive vs. Analytical 7
Analytical Research the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.

It involves Critical Thinking skills and the evaluation

of facts and information relative to the research being
conducted.
A variety of people including students, doctors and
psychologists use analytical research during studies to find
the most relevant information.

From analytical research, a person finds out critical details

to add new ideas to the material being produced.

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Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
Critical thinkers:
• Care that their beliefs be true and that their
decisions be justified; that is, care to “get it right”
to the extent possible. This includes the
dispositions to
 Seek alternative hypotheses, explanations,
conclusions, plans, sources, etc. and be open to
them.
 Endorse a position to the extent that, but only to
the extent that it is justified by the information that
is available.
 Be well informed.
 Consider seriously points of view other than their
own.
 Characteristics II
Critical thinkers:
• Care to present a position honestly and clearly,
theirs as well as others'. This includes the
dispositions to:
 Be clear about the intended meaning of what is said,
written, or otherwise communicated, seeking as
much information and precision as the situation
requires.
 Determine, and maintain focus on, the conclusion or
question.
 Seek and offer reasons for their
opinions/conclusions
 Take into account the total situation
 Be reflectively aware of their own basic beliefs
 Characteristics III
Critical thinkers:
• Care about other’s point of view and treat it with
respect. These are:
Discover and listen to other’s views and
reasons
Avoid intimidating or confusing others, taking
into account others' feelings and level of
understanding.
Are concerned about other’s welfare
Are concerned about educating others on the
issues.
 Steps in Critical Thinking:
Formulating your argument
• Focus on a Question
– Identify and formulate the question
– Develop criteria for judging possible answers
– Develop a plan for collecting data
• Develop an Argument
– Generate premises and conclusions (the
“whereas” and “therefore”)
– Develop reasoning steps/support for
conclusions (the “why”)
 Steps in Critical Thinking:
Deconstructing your Argument
Analyze Arguments
1. Identify conclusions
2. Identify unstated reasons (assumptions)
3. Identify stated reasons
4. Identify and handle irrelevance
5. See the structure of an argument
6. Summarize.
 Steps in Critical Thinking:
Clarifying Arguments
Ask and answer questions of clarification
and/or challenge, such as:
1. Why?
2. What is your main point?
3. What do you mean by…?
4. What would be an example?
5. What would be an exception?
6. How does that apply to this case (describe a case,
which might well appear to be a counter example)?
7. What difference does it make?
8. What are the facts?
9. Is this what you are saying: ____________?
10. Would you say some more about that?
 Steps in Critical Thinking:
Knowing/Analyzing Sources
Judge the credibility of a source. Major
criteria (but not necessary conditions):
1. Expertise
2. Lack of conflict of interest
3. Agreement among sources
4. Reputation or risk to reputation
5. Use of established procedures
6. Ability to give reasons
 ii. Applied vs. Fundamental 15
Applied Research is a form of systematic inquiry
involving the practical application of science.

It accesses and uses some part of the research

communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories,
knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often
state, business, or client-driven purpose. To find a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.

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 ii. Applied vs. Fundamental 16
Examples:
1. Researching which strategies work best to motivate
workers .
2. Studying different keyboard designs to determine which
is the most efficient and ergonomic.
3. Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to
volunteer their time to charities.
4. Investigating which treatment approach is the most
effective for reducing anxiety.

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 ii. Applied vs. Fundamental 17
Fundamental Research or pure research is scientific
research aimed to improve scientific theories for improved
understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena.
Examples: 1. A study into the role of Federal Reserve into
the emergence of global economic crisis.
2. An investigation into the main elements of brands and
branding.
3. A critical analysis of factors impacting each stage of
product life cycle.
4. An assessment of factors leadership style in Coca Cola
Company.
5. Investigation on advanced Material Strengthening
Techniques (SPD)
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 ii. Applied vs. Fundamental 18
Fundamental research
The central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas
Fundamental research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

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Difference b/w Applied & Fundamental19
Fundamental research Applied research
• Expand knowledge of • Improve understanding of
processes of business and particular business or
management management problem
• Results in universal • Results in solution to problem,
principles relating to the New knowledge limited to
process and its relationship problem
to outcomes • Findings of practical relevance
• Findings of significance and value to the manager(s) in
and value to society in organization(s)
general • Undertaken by people based
• Undertaken by people in a variety of settings
based in universities including organizations and
• Choice of topic and universities
objectives determined by • Objectives negotiated with
the researcher originator
• Flexible time scales • Tight time scales 4/25/2019
 iii. Quantitative vs. Qualitative 20
Quantitative Research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity. OR
Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements
and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of
data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys,
or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using
computational techniques.
Examples: 1. Research that consists of the percentage
amounts of all the elements present in a particular material.
2. Survey that concludes that the average patient has to
wait two hours in the waiting room of a certain doctor
before being selected.

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 Quantitative Approach 21
It can be sub-divided into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches to research

Inferential approach to research is to form a data base

from which to conclude characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed)
to determine its characteristics, and it is then concluded that
the population has the same characteristics.

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 Quantitative Approach 22

Experimental Approach is characterized by much

greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated
to observe their effect on other variables.
For example setting strain rate while performing
monotonic testing.

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 Quantitative Approach 23
Simulation Approach involves the construction of an
artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behaviour of a system under controlled
conditions.
The term ‘simulation’ refers to “the operation of a numerical
model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.
Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and
exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behaviour of the process over time.”
Simulation approach can also be useful in building models
for understanding future conditions.

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 Qualitative of Research 24
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,
opinions, and motivations.
It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas
or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
It concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind.
Example: when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for behavior of materials or people (i.e., why people think or do
certain things), we termed it ‘Motivation Research’.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and
similar other projective techniques. 4/25/2019
 Qualitative of Research 25
Attitude or Opinion Research i.e., research designed to
find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyze the various factors
which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research
in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while
doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.

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Quantitative Research Methods 26
1. Natural phenomenon
2. Mathematical modeling
3. Experiments
4. Optimization
5. Game theory
6. Surveys

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Qualitative Research Methods 27
1. Social & cultural phenomenon
2. Case studies
3. Focus groups
4. Observations
5. Usability testing
6. Interviews
7. Questionnaires

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 iv. Conceptual vs. Empirical 28
Conceptual Research it focuses on the concept or theory
that explains or describes the phenomenon being studied.
It is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
What causes disease?
How can we describe the motions of the planets?
What are the building blocks of matter?
The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with pen in hand
and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. It
required using the brain, not the hands.

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 iv. Conceptual vs. Empirical 29
Empirical Research It is a way of gaining knowledge
by means of direct and indirect observation or
experience.
It relies on experience or observation alone, often without
due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research.
In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand,
at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
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 Research Validity 30
• Internal Validity – the validity of findings with the
research study; the technical soundness of a study,
particularly concerned with the control of extraneous
(5 Types) influences that might effect the outcome
• External Validity – the degree to which the
findings can be inferred to the population of interest
or to other populations or settings; the generalizability
of the results
• Both are important in a study but they are frequently
at odds with one another in planning and designing
a study
• Internal validity is considered the basic minimum for
experimental research

Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila

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 Internal Validity 31
• . . . this is the basic minimum without which any study
is not interpretable
• Particularly important in experimental studies
• Did, in fact, the experimental treatment (X) produce a
change in the dependent variable (Y)
– To answer yes, one must be able to rule out the possibility of
other factors producing the change
• To gain internal validity, the researcher attempts to
control everything and eliminate possible extraneous
influences
• Lends itself to highly controlled, laboratory settings

Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila

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 Threats to Internal Validity 32

• History – events occurring during the experiment

that are not part of the treatment
• Maturation – biological or psychological processes
within participants that may change due to the passing of
time, e.g., aging, fatigue, hunger
• Testing – the effects of one test upon subsequent
administrations of the same test
• Instrumentation – changes in testing instruments,
raters, or interviewers including lack of
agreement within and between observers

Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila

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 Threats to Internal Validity 33

• Statistical Regression – the fact that groups selected

on the basis of Extreme scores are not as
extreme on subsequent testing
• Selection Bias – identification of comparison groups in
other than a random manner
• Experimental Mortality – loss of participants from
comparison groups due to nonrandom reasons
• Interaction Among Factors – factors can operate
together to influence experimental results.(Influence of
any two variable on third)

Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila

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 External Validity 34
• Generalizability of results . . . to what
populations, settings, or treatment variables
can the results be generalized?
• Concerned with real-world applications
• What relevance do the findings have beyond
the confines of the experiment?
• External validity is generally controlled by
selecting subjects, treatments, experimental
situations, and tests to be representative of
some larger population
• Random selection is the key to control most
threats to external validity
Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila
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 Types of External Validity 35
Population Validity
– refers to the extent to which the results can
be generalized from the experimental sample
to a defined population.
• Ecological Validity
– refers to the extent to which the results of an
experiment can be generalized from the set of
environmental conditions in the experiment
to other environmental conditions.

Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila

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 Threats to External Validity 36
• Interaction Effects of Testing: The fact that
the pretest may make the participants more aware of or
sensitive to the upcoming treatment
• Selection Bias: When participants are selected in
a manner so they are not representative of any particular
population
• Reactive Effects of Experimental
Setting: The fact that treatments in constrained
laboratory settings may not be effective in less
constrained, real-world settings
• Multiple-Treatment Interference:
When
participants receive more than one treatment, the effects
of previous treatments may influence subsequent ones
Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila
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 DFM 37
Definition: DFM is the method of design for ease
of manufacturing of the collection of parts that will
form the product after assembly.
• Simplify and reduce the number of manufacturing
operations.
• Standardize materials and use common parts.
• Design for efficient joining.
• Open tolerance as much as possible.
• Avoid special tooling and frequent tool changes.
• Select materials for best manufacturability.
• Specify ‘acceptable’ surface finish for functionality.
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Dr. Nazeer A. Anjum MED, UET, Taxila