Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department .

INTRODUCTION

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 2

MODULE 1: GRAVITY DAMS

A dam is a hydraulic structure built across a river. Gravity dams are massive in construction.
The forces acting on the dam are resisted by its massive weight.

Classification of Dams

Dams can be classified according to different criteria, as given below:

(a) Based on Function Served:

1. Storage dams: Storage (or conservation) dams are constructed to store water during the rainy
season when there is a large flow in the river. The stored water is utilized later during the period
when the flow in the river is reduced and is less than the demand.
2. Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. The water
retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying
capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam.
3. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of
the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit).
4. Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 3

drift wood flowing in the river with water.

(b) Based on Hydraulic Design: On the basis of hydraulic design, dams may be classified as

1. Overflow dams:
surplus water which cannot be retained in the reservoir is permitted to pass over the crest of the
overflow dam which acts as a spillway Most of the gravity dams have overflow sections for some
length and the rest of the length as a non-overflow dam. The overflow dam is also called the
spillway section

2. Non-overflow dams: a non-overflow dam can be built of any material, such as concrete,
masonry, earth, rockfill and timber. As already mentioned, the non-overflow dam is usually
provided in a part of the total length of the dam.
(c) Based on Materials of Construction: Based on the materials used in construction, the dams
are classified as follows: (1) Masonry dam, (2) Concrete dam, (3) Earth dam, (4) Rockfill dam,
(5) Timber dam, (6) Steel dam, (7) Combined concrete-cum-earth dam, and (8) Composite dam.

(d) Based on Rigidity: On the basis of the rigidity, the dams are classified into 2 types:

1. Rigid dams: It is constructed of stiff materials such as concrete, masonry, steel and
timber. These dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to water pressure and other
forces.

2. Non-rigid dams: A non-rigid dam is relatively less stiff compared to a rigid dam. The dams
constructed of earth and rockfill are non-rigid dams. There are relatively large settlements and
deformations in a non-rigid dam.Rockfill dams are actually neither fully rigid nor fully non-rigid.
These are sometimes classified as semirigid dams.

(e) Based on the structural action:

This is the most commonly used classification of dams. Based on the structural action,
the dams are classified as
(1) Gravity dams,
(2) Earth dams,
(3) Rock fill dams,
(4) Arch dams,
(5) Buttress dams,
(6) Steel dams,

1. Gravity dams: A gravity dam resists the water pressure and other forces due to its weight.Thus
the stability of a gravity dam depends upon its weight. The gravity dams are usually made of
cement concrete.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 4

Advantages
(i) Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
(ii) Gravity dams are quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and gorges having
steep slopes where earth dams, if constructed, might slip.
(iii)Gravity dams can be constructed to very great heights, provided good rock
foundations are available.
(iv) Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section. Earth dams
cannot be used as an overflow section. Even in earth dams, the overflow section is
usually a gravity dam.
(v) Gravity dams are specially suited to such areas where there is very heavy
downpour.The slopes of the earth dams might be washed away in such an area.
(vi) The maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
(vii) The gravity dam does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the imminent
failure and the valuable property and human life can be saved to some extent.
(viii) Gravity dam can be constructed during all types of climatic conditions.
(ix) The sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a gravity dam can be
somewhat reduced by operation of deep-set sluices.

Disadvantages
(i) Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on sound rock foundations.
These cannot be constructed on weak or permeable foundations on which earth
Dams can be constructed. However, gravity dams upto 20 m height can be
constructed
even when the foundation is weak.
(ii) The initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that of an earth dam. At the
sites where good earth is available for construction and funds are limited, earth dams
are better.
(iii)Gravity dams usually take a longer time in construction than earth dams, especially
when mechanised plants for batching, mixing and transporting concrete are not
available.
(iv) Gravity dams require more skilled labour than that in earth dams.
(v) Subsequent raising is not possible in a gravity dam.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 5

Forces Acting on Gravity Dam

A gravity dam is subjected to the following main forces:

1. Weight of the dam 2. Water pressure 3. Uplift pressure 4. Wave pressure 5. Silt pressure 6. Ice
pressure 7. Wind pressure 8. Earthquake forces

These forces fall into two categories as: a) Forces, such as weight of the dam and water
pressure, which are directly calculable from the unit weights of the materials and properties of
fluid pressures; and b) Forces, such as uplift, earthquake loads, silt pressure and ice pressure,
which can only be assumed on the basis of assumption of varying degree of reliability. It is
convenient to compute all the forces per unit length of the dam.

1. Weight of the dam

The weight of the dam is the main stabilizing force in a gravity dam. The weight of the dam per
unit length is equal to the product of the area of cross-section of the dam and the specific weight
(or unit weight) of the material. The specific weight of the concrete is usually taken as 24 kN/m 3,
and that of masonry as 23 kN/m3.For convenience, the cross-section of the dam is divided into
simple geometrical shapes, such as rectangles and triangles, for the computation of weights. The
areas and centroids of these shapes can be easily determined. Thus the weight components W1,
W2, W3 etc. can be found along with their lines of action. The total weight W of the dam acts at
the C.G. of its section.

2. Reservoir and Tail water loads (Water pressure)

The water pressure acts on the upstream and downstream faces of the dam. The water pressure on
the upstream face is the main destabilizing (or overturning) force acting on a gravity dam. The tail
water pressure helps in the stability. The mass of water is taken as 1000 kg/m 3. The water
pressure intensity p (kN/m2) varies linearly with the depth of the water measured below the free
surface y (m) and is expressed as p = γw h2 where γw is the specific weight of water (=9.81 kN/m3).
The water pressure always acts normal to the surface. While computing the forces due to water
pressure on inclined surface, it is convenient to determine the components of the forces in the
horizontal and vertical directions.

U/s face vertical: When the upstream face of the dam is vertical, the water pressure diagram is
triangular in shape with a pressure intensity of γwh at the base, where h is the depth of water. The
total water pressure per unit length is horizontal and is given by

p = γw h2

It acts horizontally at a height of h/3 above the base of the dam.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 6

(U/s face inclined: When the upstream face ABC is either inclined or partly vertical and partly
inclined, the force due to water pressure can be calculated in terms of the horizontal component
PH and the vertical component PV. The horizontal component acts horizontal at a height of (h/3)
above the base. The vertical component PV of water pressure per unit length is equal to the weight
of the water in the prism ABCD per unit length. For convenience, the weight of water is found in
two parts PV1 and PV2 by dividing the trapezium ABCD into a rectangle BCDE and a triangle ABE.
Thus the vertical component PV = PV1 + PV2 = weight of water in BCDE + weight of water in ABE.
The lines of action of PV1 and PV2 will pass through the respective centroids of the rectangle and
triangle.

3. Uplift pressure

Water has a tendency to seep through the foundation, joints between the body of the dam and its
foundation at the base, and through the body of the dam. The seeping water exerts pressure and
must be accounted in the stability calculations. The uplift pressure is defined as the upward
pressure of water as it flows or seeps through the body of the dam or its foundation.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 7

Silt Pressures

IS code recommends that a) Horizontal silt and water pressure is assumed to be equivalent to that
of a fluid with a mass of 1360 kg/m3, and b) Vertical silt and water pressure is determined as if
silt and water together have a density of 1925 kg/m3.

Wave Pressure

In addition to the static water loads the upper portions of dams are subject to the impact of waves.
The force of waves depend mainly on the extent of the water surface, the velocity of wind and the
depth of reservoir water. The wave pressure diagrams can be approximately represented by the
triangle l-2-3 as in Fig below.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 8

Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam

In the absence of any force other than the forces due to water, an elementary profile will be
triangular in section, having zero width at the water level, where water pressure is zero, and a
maximum base width b, where the maximum water pressure acts. For reservoir empty condition,
a right angled triangular profile will provide the maximum possible stabilizing force against
overturning, without causing tension in the base. The main three forces considered are weight of
the dam, water pressure, and uplift pressure acting on the elementary profile of a gravity dam.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 9

Base width of the elementary profile

The base width of the elementary profile can be found under two criteria: (1) No Tensile
Stress (2) No Sliding
No Tensile Stress Criterion: when reservoir is empty, for no tension to develop, the resultant
should act at the inner third point. For the reservoir full condition, for no tension to develop, the
resultant R must pass through the outer third point. Taking the moment of all forces about M2 and
equating it to zero we get,

Practical Profile of a Gravity Dam

The elementary profile of a gravity dam is triangular in shape, having zero width at the top.
The elementary profile of the gravity dam is only a theoretical profile. However such a
profile is not possible in practice because of the provision of (i) top width or roadway at the
top, (ii) additional loads due to the roadway, and (iii) freeboard. Fig. shows the dimensions of
the practical profile of a gravity dam.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 10

Galleries:

A gallery is a opening left in a dam. This run in transverse or longitudinal direction The shape
and size varies from dam to dam and is generally governed by the functions it has to perform.
Following are the purposes for which a gallery is formed in the dams.

1. To provide drainage' of the dam section. Some amount of water constantly seeps through the
upstream face of the dam which is drained off through galleries.
2. To provide facilities for drilling and grouting operations for foundations etc. Drillings for
drain is generally resorted to clean them if they are clogged. High pressure
grouting and required drilling for it is generally carried out after the completion of
dam. This can be best done through galleries.
3. To provide space for header and return pipes for post cooling of concrete and grouting
the longitudinal joints after completion of dam.
4. To provide access to observe and measure the behavior of the structure after its completion by
fixing thermocouples and examining development of cracks etc.
5. To provide an access of mechanical contrivances needed for the operation of outlet gates and
spillway gates.

Safety Criteria

Safety against Overturning

If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam passes outside the base, the dam would
overturn. Since the dam is usually designed on no tension basis, it follows that the resultant
should pass through the middle third. If other safety criteria like maximum compressive
stresses and sliding are also fulfilled, then usually a factor of safety between 1.5 to 2.5 is
available against overturning. Factor of safety against overturning may be defined as the ratio
of the stabilizing moments to the overturning moments about the toe of the dam.

Safety against Sliding

In order that the dam may not slide the total forces tending to slide the dam should not exceed
a certain ratio Expressing mathematically H/V < µ, where µ is the coefficient of friction.
The safe value of ' µ ' is usually taken up to 0.75.In certain cases this value, under abnormal
loading conditions, becomes more than 0.75. When ' µ, becomes more than 0.75, the shear
friction factor may be calculated.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 11

MODULE 2 : EARTH DAMS

INTRODUCTION

Earth dams have been built for the storage of water for irrigation since the
earliest times. These dams were however, limited in height. Earth dams are
constructed basically using earth material.

Classification of Earth Dams:

Earth dams are classified as follows:

1) Based on method of construction :

a) Rolled fill earth dam
b) Hydraulic fill earth dam
2) Based upon section of the dam :
a) Homogeneous earth dam
b) Zoned earth dam
c) Diaphragm type earth dam

Rolled fill earth dam: In this type of dam, successive layers of soil are laid one
over the other of thickness about 15 cm- 30cm.The layers are compacted by
using rollers. Once the layer is fully compacted, next layer is laid and
compacted. This type of construction gives more stability and imperviousness
and hence this method is popular and commonly used

Hydraulic fill earth dam: In type of dam, excavation, transportation and

construction is done using hydraulic methods. Mixture of soil materials in slurry
condition is pumped and discharged in to the place where construction of dam is
carried out. No compaction is done here. The soil mixture settles gradually once
the saturation is dried. This method of construction leads the development of
pore pressures and shrinkage effects. This method is almost outdated nowadays.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 12

Homogeneous earth dam: Constructed with uniform and homogeneous

material and is suitable for low height dams. The u/s face is relatively flatter
compares to the d/sface.Percolation of water is most common in earth dam, this
can be prevented by providing stone revetments on u/s face and at the d/s toe

A fully homogeneous section might be found convenient where the slopes are required to be
flat because of a weak foundation, although even in this case some drainage measures may be
necessary. The modified homogeneous type of embankment is most suitable in localities
where readily available soils show practically no variation in permeability.

Zoned earth dam : These are also known as non homogeneous earth dams. The
central portion of the dam, known as core is made-up of impervious material
and made watertight to prevent the leakage of water through the body of dam.
The cross section of the core is trapezoidal and can be constructed using puddle
clay or concrete or masonry.Cutooff walls may also provide to check the
seepage.

Diaphragm type earth dam: This type of dam is constructed using pervious
materials with a thin impervious diaphragm at the centre portion of the dam to

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 13

prevent the leakage of water. The diaphragm can be constructed using puddle
clay or concrete or masonry
.

.
Failure of Earth Dams:

Like other hydraulic structures earth dams are also subjected to failures due to
faulty design, improper construction, poor maintained etc.The various causes of
failure of earth dams may be classified as follows:

1) Hydraulic failures
2) Seepage failures
3) Structural failures

Hydraulic failures: Following are the various types of hydraulic failures:

1) Overtopping :when the free board and capacity of the spillway is

insufficient the flood water may flow over the dam
2) Erosion of the d/s toe: The d/s toe may be eroded due to heavy cross
currents of water falling from the spillway also from the tail water. This can
be prevented by providing side walls to check the entry of water towards
the earth dam
3) Erosion of the u/s face: due to the action of waves generated on the u/s
side of the face, gradually the soil mass may erode resulting failure. This
type of failure can be prevented by providing stone revetment on the face.
4) Gully formation at d/s side: When the heavy rain falls on the d/s face over
longer period of time, the soil mass stars eroding and lead to the formation
of gully traps. By properly grassing the face can reduce this type of failure.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 14

Seepage failures:

Even though the seepage is most common in case of earth dams, when the
seepage is uncontrolled seepage failure may occur in the dam.

Following are the various types of seepage failures:

1) Piping through body of the dam:

The body of dam contains pores through which water slowly starts seeping from
u/s to d/s which leads to the formation of small channels inside the body of dam
called pipes.

2) Piping through foundation of the dam:

When highly pervious material is used in the construction foundation of the

dam, allow heavy seepage into foundation which forms pipes in the
foundation

Structural failures: structural failures occur due to the sliding of soil mass.

Following are the various types of seepage failures:

1) Slide in embankment: if the side slopes of the dam is steep, the soil mass
slide gradually.
2) Foundation slide: If the foundation material is fine sediment, it may settle
vertically over longer period of time leading to the foundation slide.
3) Failure due to earthquake: The earthquake forces may destroy the whole
dam or part of the dam.The shocking waves create sliding of soil mass
4) Faulty design of the dam: If the dam is not designed as per standard design
specifications, then structural failure may occur.

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 15

Types of failures—Earth dams

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 16

Design Criteria of Earth Dams

Based on the experience of failures, the following main design criteria may be laid down for
the safety of an earth dam.

1. To prevent hydraulic failures, the dam must be so designed that erosion of the
embankment is prevented.

The conditions to be satisfied are as follows.

(a) Spillway capacity should be sufficient to pass the flood flow.

(b) Overtopping by wave action at maximum water level should be prevented.
(c) The original height of structure is sufficient to maintain the minimum safe freeboard after
settlement has occurred.
(d) Erosion of the embankment due to wave action and surface run-off does not occur.
(e) The crest should be wide enough to withstand wave action and earthquake shock.

2. To prevent the seepage failures, the flow of water through the body of the dam and its
foundation must not be sufficiently large in quantity to defeat the purpose of the
structure nor at a pressure sufficiently high to cause piping.

The conditions to be satisfied are as follows

(a) Quantity of seepage water through the dam section and foundation should be limited.
(b) The seepage line should be well within the downstream face of the dam to prevent
Sloughing.
(c) Seepage water through the dam or foundation should not remove any particle which cause
piping.
(d) There should not be any leakage of water from the upstream to downstream face. Such
leakage may occur through conduits, at joints between earth and concrete sections or through
holes made by aquatic animals.

3. To prevent structural failures, the embankment and its foundation must be stable
under all Conditions.

(i) The upstream and downstream slopes of the embankment should be stable under all
loading conditions to which they may be subjected including earthquake.
(ii) The foundation shear stresses should be within the permissible limits of shear strength of
the material.

SEEPAGE CONTROL IN EARTHEN DAMS:

If proper measures are not taken to control the seepage, water will percolate through the
embankment and through foundation. Following are some measures taken to control the
seepage in the earth dams:

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535

 Dr.H.S.Govardhana Swamy , Head of Civil Engineering Department . 17

Control of Seepage through Foundations

1. by providing drainage trenches.

2. by providing impervious cut-offs
3. by providing Sheet piling
4. by providing Cast in situ concrete diaphragm
5. by providing Upstream impervious blanket on u/s slope
6. by providing Pressure relief wells.

Control of Seepage through Embankments

1. by providing horizontal drainage filters.

2. by providing toe filter
3. by providing Sheet piling
4. by providing coarse section on the d/s side
5. by providing chimney drains
6. using relatively impervious material for construction of dam

SECTION OF AN EARTH DAM:

RajaRajeswari College of Engineering / 9663736535