REVIEW ARTICLE

Autoimmune Encephalitis: Pathophysiology and Imaging

Review of an Overlooked Diagnosis
X B.P. Kelley, X S.C. Patel, X H.L. Marin, X J.J. Corrigan, X P.D. Mitsias, and X B. Griffith

ABSTRACT
SUMMARY: Autoimmune encephalitis is a relatively new category of immune-mediated disease involving the central nervous system that
demonstrates a widely variable spectrum of clinical presentations, ranging from the relatively mild or insidious onset of cognitive
impairment to more complex forms of encephalopathy with refractory seizure. Due to its diverse clinical features, which can mimic a
variety of other pathologic processes, autoimmune encephalitis presents a diagnostic challenge to clinicians. Imaging findings in patients
with these disorders can also be quite variable, but recognizing characteristic findings within limbic structures suggestive of autoimmune
encephalitis can be a key step in alerting clinicians to the potential diagnosis and ensuring a prompt and appropriate clinical work-up. In this
article, we review antibody-mediated encephalitis and its various subtypes with a specific emphasis on the role of neuroimaging in the
diagnostic work-up.

ABBREVIATIONS: NMDA ⫽ N-methyl D-aspartate; NMDAr ⫽ N-methyl D-aspartate receptor; VGKC ⫽ voltage-gated potassium channel

A utoimmune encephalitis is an important cause of new-onset

altered mental status, the scope of which has only recently
begun to be recognized in the medical literature.1-3 Despite this
spine, and peripheral nervous system based on the unique anti-
body profile.3,9-12 In addition, certain antibody subtypes consis-
tently lack imaging manifestations, while others characteristically
increased recognition, it has yet to become an established diag- demonstrate prominent “extralimbic” involvement.3,7,13-15
nostic consideration outside of large tertiary referral centers.1-5 Although it was initially thought to be relatively rare, there is
The term “autoimmune encephalitis” generally refers to a family growing consensus that autoimmune encephalitis is responsible
of closely related disease processes that share overlapping clinical for a subset of altered mental status previously considered idio-
features and neuroimaging findings but are ultimately differenti- pathic.3-5 Despite its growing recognition as a rare cause of altered
ated by the specific antibody subtypes driving the underlying im- mental status, autoimmune encephalitis remains a diagnosis of
mune-mediated attack on different CNS structures.6-8 This anti-
exclusion with more common causes often identified during the
body-mediated attack on neuronal structures results in a localized
standard diagnostic evaluation.16,17 However, more complex pre-
inflammatory response. Thus, the clinical and imaging manifes-
sentations of altered mental status may display atypical features
tations are dictated by the specific location of the underlying im-
without a clear etiology identified after routine testing.16,17 In
mune response within the nervous system, which leads to sub-
these situations, recognition of potential cases of autoimmune
stantial variability. While limbic dysfunction is the single most
encephalitis by the radiologist can be the first step to optimizing
consistent finding in autoimmune encephalitis, varying degrees of
involvement are seen within the neocortex, striatum, hindbrain, clinical outcomes through ensuring that a prompt and appropri-
ate clinical work-up is performed, including the use of specialized
serum/CSF antibody panels, with the ultimate goal of establishing
From the Departments of Neuroradiology (B.P.K., S.C.P., H.L.M., J.J.C., B.G.), and an effective treatment regimen before the onset of devastating
Neurology (P.D.M.), Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Michigan. complications.3,5,8,18
Paper previously presented, in part, at: Annual Meeting of the American Society of The purpose of this article is to discuss the subset of immune-
Neuroradiology and the Foundation of the ASNR Symposium, May 23–26, 2016;
Washington, DC. mediated CNS conditions with features of autoimmune enceph-
Please address correspondence to Brendan P. Kelley, MD, MSc, Department of alitis (ie, antibody-mediated inflammation of the brain), provide
Radiology, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 W Grand Blvd, Detroit, MI 48202; e-mail:
[email protected]; @brendanpkelley a framework for radiologists to understand the relevant neuroim-
Indicates open access to non-subscribers at www.ajnr.org munology, review the major antibody subtypes, and describe the
Indicates article with supplemental on-line table. constellation of clinical and imaging features that are most sug-
http://dx.doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A5086 gestive of this diagnosis.
1070 Kelley Jun 2017 www.ajnr.org
 plastic limbic encephalitis across differ-
ent antibody profiles that found that 39
of 50 patients (79%) had similar T2-
FLAIR hyperintense signal changes in
their temporal lobes and limbic struc-
tures.19 This study, conducted by
Gultekin et al19 in 2000, proposed the
first diagnostic criteria for paraneoplas-
tic limbic encephalitis, which included
the following: 1) short-term memory
loss, seizures, or psychiatric symptoms;
2) ⬍4 years between symptom onset and
cancer diagnosis; 3) exclusion of metas-
tases, infection, metabolic, or other
causes; and 4) one of the following: in-
flammatory CSF findings, temporal lobe
T2 or FLAIR hyperintensity on MR im-
aging, or electroencephalogram abnor-
mality in the temporal lobes.19 Tüzün
and Dalmau27 subsequently modified
FIG 1. Anti-Hu encephalitis. A 68-year-old man with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
presented with gradually worsening memory deficits and confusion, with subclinical seizures. MR these criteria in 2007 to account for the
imaging of the brain demonstrates T2-FLAIR hyperintensity and mild expansion in the right medial growing subset of nonparaneoplastic
temporal lobe (A), right insular cortex (not shown), and left dorsal thalamus (not shown), without forms of autoimmune encephalitis,
restricted diffusion (not shown) or postcontrast enhancement (not shown). FDG-PET of the brain
demonstrates a hypermetabolic focus within the right medial temporal lobe lesion (B). PET of the which also demonstrated prominent
body demonstrates a hypermetabolic focus in the left lung (E), consistent with biopsy-proved limbic involvement.
small-cell lung cancer. The patient was in remission following treatment with intravenous immu- In addition to the “paraneoplastic-
noglobulin infusions, oral steroids, and chemotherapy, but he presented approximately 2.5 years versus-nonparaneoplastic” categoriza-
later with worsening memory decline. MR imaging at that time (C and D) shows new T2-FLAIR
hyperintensity in the left medial temporal lobe (white arrow) with volume loss within the right tion, antibody-mediated encephalitides
medial temporal lobe (white arrowhead). An old right occipital lobe infarct is also incidentally can also be characterized as either group
noted. I or group II according to the location of
their neuronal antigens (On-line Table),
Pathophysiology: Models for Disease Classification with group I antibodies targeting intracellular antigens and group
Antibody-mediated CNS disorders can be classified into 2 broad II antibodies targeting antigens on the cell surface.1,2,6,7,9,27 This
categories, paraneoplastic or nonparaneoplastic, based on the distinction is clinically relevant because it has implications for
presence or absence of an underlying malignancy, respective- treatment response, association with an underlying malignancy,
ly.18-20 Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting the CNS are generally and overall long-term prognosis.9,20,22,28
thought to develop in cancer when antigens shared by tumor cells
and native nonneoplastic neuronal cells result in an antibody- Group I Antibodies: Autoimmune Encephalitis with
mediated attack on previously immune-privileged neuronal Intracellular Antigens
structures.2,6-8,19 Initially thought to occur in ⬍1% of patients Group I antibodies target intracellular neuronal antigens, are more
with cancer, more recent data suggest that the true incidence is closely associated with an underlying malignancy, and use the same
likely much higher.3-6 Paraneoplastic syndromes are most often cytotoxic T-cell mechanisms when targeting the intracellular neuro-
seen in small-cell lung cancer but can also be seen in a variety of nal antigens and onconeuronal antigens as part of the immune re-
other cancers as well, such as neuroblastoma, germ cell tumor of sponse to cancer.1,7,9,29 Group I antibodies are also associated with
the testis, breast cancer, Hodgkin lymphoma, thymoma, and im- poor clinical outcomes, characterized by a decreased response to im-
mature ovarian teratomas.19-22 munomodulatory therapy and an increased prevalence of “irrevers-
Regardless of the etiology and antibody profile, there is a clear ible” neuronal damage, and often have the additional burden of an
predilection in autoimmune encephalitis for antigens within the underlying malignancy.9,19,21 Compared with group II antibodies,
3,10,23,24
limbic system (Figs 1 and 2). Paraneoplastic limbic en- group I antibodies are less specific clinical markers of disease for
cephalitis, a specific paraneoplastic syndrome affecting the tem- autoimmune encephalitis and can also be seen in patients with cancer
poral lobe and limbic structures, was first described by the British without paraneoplastic syndromes.29,30
25
neuropathologists Corsellis et al in 1968 after identifying
postinflammatory changes in the mesial temporal lobes of pa- Anti-Hu
tients with progressive memory loss after being diagnosed with Anti-Hu (anti-neuronal nuclear antibody 1) encephalitis is the
lung cancer. Kohler et al26 later correlated these inflammatory most common paraneoplastic form of autoimmune encephalitis,
changes with T2-weighted hyperintense signal changes on MR has a relatively poor prognosis compared with other subtypes, and
imaging of the brain. These characteristic neuroimaging findings is associated with small-cell lung cancer in most cases (75%).19,31
were later validated by a larger study of 50 patients with paraneo- Anti-Hu syndrome is a distinct clinical phenotype described in
AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 38:1070 –78 Jun 2017 www.ajnr.org 1071
 minority of patients (26%) had classic
symptoms of limbic encephalitis, and
most patients with brain stem involve-
ment had ophthalmoplegia (92%).13
Abnormal findings on brain MR imag-
ing were common (74%) and often in-
volved classic T2-FLAIR hyperintense
lesions in the medial temporal lobes
with variable involvement of the thala-
mus and brain stem.13 Although not
classic, nodular postcontrast enhance-
ment that can mimic tumor or infection
has also been described.13,35,36

Anti-CV2
Anti-CV2 (collapsin response mediator
protein 5) encephalitis is a unique sub-
type associated with small-cell lung can-
cer and malignant thymoma that has
prominent T2-FLAIR hyperintense le-
sions in the striatum and clinically re-
sembles choreiform movement disor-
ders.3,37 MR imaging features are also
FIG 2. Graves ophthalmopathy with anti-Hu encephalitis. A 63-year-old woman with severe atypical compared with other types of
encephalopathy and diffuse enlargement of the extraocular muscles developed fatal autonomic autoimmune encephalitis in that there is
dysfunction. MR imaging of the brain demonstrates prominent T2-FLAIR abnormalities in the less prominent involvement of the me-
mesial temporal lobes (A), right thalamus (B), right ⬎ left insular cortex (B), and posterior right 3,37
temporal lobe (B), without enhancement (C) and with T2 shinethrough but no restricted diffusion dial temporal lobe. Most important,
on DWI (D) and the corresponding ADC map (E). There is also diffuse symmetric enlargement of there is typically no restricted diffusion
the extraocular muscles, resulting in exophthalmos (F). or T2-FLAIR hyperintense lesions in the
striatum, which can help differentiate
patients with cancer expressing anti-Hu antibodies and has this condition from prion diseases like Creutzfeldt-Jakob dis-
features of paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis, paraneoplastic sub- ease.3,16 When one considers this relatively rare diagnosis, it is
acute sensory neuropathy, and paraneoplastic cerebellar degener- important to first rule out more common toxometabolic dis-
ation.19,31,32 While anti-Hu encephalitis is not as closely associ- orders such as hyperammonemia, carbon monoxide poison-
ated with seizures as some of the other major subtypes of ing, and hypoglycemia.
autoimmune encephalitis, a subset of patients with anti-Hu en-
cephalitis can present with epilepsia partialis continua, a specific Anti-Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase
seizure disorder characterized by extended focal motor epileptic Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) is an intracellular enzyme
seizures prominently involving the face and distal extremities that that catalyzes the synthesis of ␥-aminobutyric acid, the major in-
recur every few seconds/minutes.32,33 MR imaging findings cor- hibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Anti-glutamic acid decar-
relate with clinical features and typically include T2-FLAIR hy- boxylase antibodies are unique because they are a group I anti-
perintense lesions in the medial temporal lobes with variable in- body not typically associated with malignancy and are also
volvement of the cerebellum and brain stem (Figs 1 and associated with other nonneoplastic autoimmune conditions
2).3,19,21,23 such as type 1 diabetes mellitus.9,38 The anti-glutamic acid decar-
Anti-Ma/Ta boxylase antibody subtype can cause a form of autoimmune en-
Anti-Ma (Ma1/Ma2/Ma3) encephalitis has a better prognosis cephalitis with classic temporal lobe lesions on MR imaging with
than anti-Hu and is strongly associated with testicular tumors in the expected clinical findings of limbic encephalitis plus addi-
young men and small-cell lung cancer or breast cancer in older tional features of stiff person syndrome with early and prominent
patients.7,9,34,35 The association with testicular tumors in young development of seizures (Fig 3).9,38
men is so strong that some authors have advocated empiric orchi-
ectomy in refractory cases of severe anti-Ma encephalitis for pre- Additional Type I Antibody Subtypes
sumed microscopic neoplastic testicular tumors if certain diag- Amphiphysin antibodies are most often seen in breast cancer and
nostic criteria are met and no other etiology is found.36 According small-cell lung cancer with associated clinical features of stiff person
to a review of 38 patients with anti-Ma encephalitis, most patients syndrome, myelopathy, myoclonus, and encephalomyelitis.7,39 Ri
(62%) presented with neurologic symptoms before the identifi- (anti-neuronal nuclear antibody 2) antibodies are also most often
cation of their malignancy, which included any combination of seen in breast cancer and small-cell lung cancer, with features of brain
limbic, diencephalic, or brain stem dysfunction.13 Notably, only a stem encephalitis and opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome.7,39 Yo (pa-
1072 Kelley Jun 2017 www.ajnr.org
FIG 3. Anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase encephalitis. A 61-year-old
woman presented with headaches, mild confusion, and nystagmus FIG 4. Anti-N-methyl D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. A 32-year-
without development of psychosis, severe encephalopathy, or sei- old woman presented with headaches, vertigo, and psychosis with
zures. MR imaging of the brain demonstrates T2-FLAIR hyperintensity subsequent development of encephalopathy and seizures. MR imag-
in the right ⬎ left hippocampus (A and B), right ⬎ left insular cortex ing of the brain performed after the onset of seizures 2 weeks after
(B), and bilateral cingulate gyrus (C and D) without restricted diffusion initial presentation demonstrates T2-FLAIR hyperintensity in the left
(not shown), hemorrhage (not shown), or postcontrast enhancement inferior temporal lobe (A), left ⬎ right insular cortex (B and C), and
(not shown). left ⬎ right cingulate gyrus (B–D), without restricted diffusion (not
shown), hemorrhage (not shown), or postcontrast enhancement (not
shown).
rietal cell autoantibodies 1) antibodies are most often seen in ovarian
cancer and breast cancer, with characteristic features of paraneoplas- body or malignancy is not identified but the diagnosis is strongly
tic cerebellar degeneration, but they can also demonstrate features of suggested by a combination of characteristic clinical features, typ-
autoimmune encephalitis.7,39,40 ical neuroimaging findings, good empiric treatment response,
and no convincing alternative diagnosis.43-45
Group II Antibodies: Autoimmune Encephalitis with
Cell-Surface Antigens N-Methyl D-Aspartate Receptor
Group II antibodies target cell-surface neuronal antigens, are less N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAr) encephalitis is one of
likely to be associated with an underlying malignancy, and use the most common and best characterized subtypes of autoim-
more “restricted” humoral immune mechanisms of neurotoxicity mune encephalitis classically seen in young women and children
that typically respond better to early immunomodulatory ther- with autoimmunity not associated with cancer (Fig 4).20,28,46 This
apy.9,20,41 Group II antibodies also represent a more specific clin- subtype is mediated by immunoglobulin G antibodies against the
ical marker of disease for antibody-mediated encephalitis, with GluN1 subunit of the neuronal NMDAr, with inflammatory neu-
reduction in serum antibody titers following treatment directly ronal dysfunction that is thought to be initially reversible but
associated with improved neurologic outcomes.41,42 Group II an- potentially progresses to permanent neuronal destruction if un-
tibodies often target synaptic proteins and can result in the down- treated, due to prolonged inflammation and N-methyl D-aspar-
regulation of receptors that leads to altered synaptic transmission tate (NMDA)-mediated glutamate excitotoxicity.9,47,48 NMDAr
associated with epileptiform activity.9,11,15 Patients with non- encephalitis has a well-characterized progression of features char-
neoplastic forms of autoimmune encephalitis associated with acterized by an initial viral-like prodrome (fever, malaise, head-
group II antibodies may have an underlying systemic autoim- aches, and anorexia), followed by psychiatric symptoms (anxiety,
mune disorder or can develop symptoms following a viral infec- depression, schizophrenia, and psychosis), which progress to in-
tion or vaccination, but in many cases, no clear etiology is identi- clude temporal lobe dysfunction (amnesia and seizures) and
fied.1,4,11,43 The current list of group II antibodies will likely ultimately culminate in severe neurologic deficits, including
continue to grow on the basis of the number of case reports in the autonomic dysfunction, dystonia/dyskinesia, and profound en-
medical literature of “suspected autoimmune encephalitis” or cephalopathy.3,20,49,50 There are many cautionary reports in the
“steroid-responsive limbic encephalitis,” in which a specific anti- medical literature of young women with NMDAr encephalitis and
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FIG 5. Anti-voltage-gated calcium channel encephalitis. A 39-year-old woman presented with left-sided weakness and left visual field deficits
with subsequent development of encephalopathy and seizures. Initial MR imaging of the brain (A–D) demonstrates multifocal T2-FLAIR
hyperintense lesions in the right parieto-occipital region (A), with associated pial/sulcal enhancement (B) and mild cortical restricted diffusion
and T2 shinethrough within the subcortical white matter on DWI (C) and the corresponding ADC map (D). Follow-up MR imaging of the brain
performed 34 days later (E–H) demonstrates decreased T2-FLAIR hyperintensity (E) with cortical laminar necrosis and petechial hemorrhage (F)
at the original lesion, with progressive development on subsequent examinations of similar cortical lesions in the contralateral frontal, parietal,
and occipital lobes (E–H).

no significant medical history who present with initial psychiatric California Encephalitis Project found that the number of young pa-
symptoms that prompt admission to a psychiatric facility but later tients in the study with NMDAr encephalitis was greater than those
require transfer to the intensive care unit after development with any single viral etiology.54 Anti-NMDAr antibodies have even
of the more severe neurologic deficits associated with this been found in patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis55 and
condition.18,20,48,51 Rasmussen encephalitis,56 which can further complicate the diag-
With early diagnosis and treatment, patients with NMDAr en- nostic work-up.
cephalitis have a relatively good prognosis and can experience a re- One unique feature of the NMDAr encephalitis subtype is that
turn to their baseline functional status with complete resolution of it is unlikely to have associated neuroimaging abnormalities on
neuroimaging abnormalities on follow-up examinations.20,41,49 Re- initial presentation (89%) or follow-up MR imaging of the brain
lapsing forms of nonparaneoplastic NMDAr encephalitis have been (79%).14 The lack of neuroimaging findings in NMDAr enceph-
reported, and long-term prophylaxis with steroid-sparing agents like alitis is consistent across the medical literature, with another study
rituximab may be required in a subset of cases.42,48,50 A minority of reporting that most patients with NMDAr encephalitis (66%) had
cases of NMDAr encephalitis can be associated with an underlying normal brain MR imaging findings, and the remaining 44% had
malignancy, especially in older patients.20,52,53 According to 1 study, wide variation in the distribution and degree of T2-FLAIR hyper-
45% of adult women with NMDAr encephalitis had an underlying intense signal changes throughout the brain.53 Recognizing this
ovarian teratoma but only 9% of young girls had this finding.53 In established progression of specific symptoms and a lack of neuro-
women older than 45 years of age, this same study found that 23% of imaging findings is essential to prospectively consider the diagno-
women had an ovarian carcinoma instead of a teratoma.53 This find- sis in the appropriate clinical setting, particularly when patients
ing highlights the need to screen all patients with autoimmune en- demonstrate characteristic electroencephalogram findings.57
cephalitis for an underlying malignancy, regardless of the antibody When brain MR imaging abnormalities are present, these T2-
profile, and even to consider the possibility of a contralateral or con- FLAIR hyperintense lesions can typically demonstrate mild tran-
current tumor with a poor response to treatment despite removal of sient cortical enhancement without restricted diffusion or hem-
a tumor.27,49 NMDAr encephalitis is an especially important diagno- orrhage (Fig 4).3,14,53 When brain MR imaging findings are
sis to consider in young patients with limbic encephalitis because the absent but the clinical findings suggest the possibility of an auto-
1074 Kelley Jun 2017 www.ajnr.org
 poral sclerosis on follow-up imaging
(48%).24 A subset of patients with me-
dial temporal lobe lesions demonstrated
additional findings of restricted diffu-
sion and postcontrast enhancement
(21%) that was highly associated with
the development of mesial temporal
sclerosis (66%).24 Another important
finding was that “extralimbic” involve-
ment in VGKC encephalitis was exceed-
ingly rare (5%).24 The number of spe-
cific antibodies within the spectrum of
VGKC encephalitis continues to grow,
with distinction now being made for an-
tibodies to particular antigens like leu-
cine-rich glioma-inactivated 1, contac-
tin-associated protein-like 2, and
dipeptidyl-peptidase-like protein-6,
which represent distinct subtypes of au-
toimmune encephalitis because these
antibodies bind not to the Kv1 neuronal
antigens of the VGKC but to other jux-
taparanodal proteins with a different
FIG 6. Anti-voltage-gated calcium channel cerebellitis. A 23-year-old woman with a history of clinical profile.6,60-63
autoimmune hepatitis presented with altered mental status. Initial brain MR imaging (A–E) dem-
onstrates T2-FLAIR hyperintensity within the bilateral cerebellar hemispheres with mass effect on
the fourth ventricle (A and B), without evidence of postcontrast enhancement (C) and with mild Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel
restricted diffusion on DWI (D) and the corresponding ADC map (E). A follow-up scan 1 month Voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC)
later (F) demonstrates resolution of the T2-FLAIR hyperintensity and associated mass effect on encephalitis is a relatively rare subtype
the fourth ventricle following a steroid taper.
described in women and young chil-
dren, which is associated with the classic
immune encephalitis, brain FDG-PET imaging may be indicated, clinical progression of symptoms described in group II antibodies
especially early in the disease process if clinical suspicion for au- (viral prodrome 3 neuropsychiatric symptoms 3 limbic dys-
toimmune encephalitis is high, because it appears to be a more function 3 seizures) and can have prominent “migratory” extra-
sensitive imaging technique for detecting temporal lobe abnor- limbic involvement with gyriform postcontrast enhancement and
malities with normal brain MR imaging findings.29,40,44,58 cortical laminar necrosis (Figs 5 and 6).64,65

Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel

␥-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor
Voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) encephalitis is one of
␥-aminobutyric acid encephalitis (GABAr) has 2 subtypes that
the most common group 2 subtypes of autoimmune encephalitis,
both have clinical features similar to those of VGKC encephalitis
which can demonstrate classic features of limbic encephalitis but
but are less common and have a better overall prognosis.3,15,43,66
is primarily defined by the early and prominent development of
The 2 ␥-aminobutyric acid receptor subtypes have different clin-
medically intractable epilepsy.24 The near-universal development
of seizures in patients with VGKC encephalitis is partially ex- ical profiles and are characterized by antibodies to either the
plained by the high concentration of potassium channels in the ␥-aminobutyric acid A-receptor or B-receptor subunits.3,15,43,66
limbic structures, and the epileptogenic potential of these anti- Patients with antibodies to the ␥-aminobutyric acid B-receptor
bodies is further supported by the observation that up to 6% of present with classic features of limbic encephalitis defined by early
patients with a long-standing history of epilepsy were found to and frequent seizures with the development of T2-FLAIR hyper-
have circulating VGKC autoantibodies.59 It remains unclear intense signal changes in 1 or both temporal lobes.3,43,66 Patients
whether VGKC antibodies directly contribute to neuronal dys- with ␥-aminobutyric acid B-receptor antibodies have a higher
function independent of seizure activity, but there is growing con- association with cancer than most other group II antibodies and
sensus that a genetic predisposition to VGKC autoimmunity is are more often seen with small-cell lung cancer or pulmonary
probably an independent risk factor for the development of tem- neuroendocrine tumors.3,43,66 The development of autoimmune
poral lobe epilepsy.9,59 encephalitis in these patients usually precedes the diagnosis of
According to a recent review of 42 patients with VGKC en- cancer but responds well to immunosuppression and removal of
cephalitis, most (69%) demonstrated MR imaging findings classic the underlying tumor.66 Patients with ␥-aminobutyric acid A-re-
for autoimmune encephalitis in the acute setting (T2-FLAIR hy- ceptors also have a good prognosis with adequate treatment, are
perintense lesions in 1 or both medial temporal lobes) and had an not associated with cancer, and are unique because in addition to
increased propensity to develop chronic findings of mesial tem- classic MR imaging findings, these patients often demonstrate
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FIG 7. Hashimoto encephalitis. A 41-year-old woman presented with gradually worsening headaches and memory impairment without the
development of psychosis or seizures. MR imaging of the brain (time, 0) demonstrates T2-FLAIR hyperintensity in the inferior left temporal lobe
(A) without evidence of restricted diffusion (B and C). MR imaging of the brain (time, 21 days) demonstrates enlargement of the lesion on
T2-FLAIR (not shown) without postcontrast enhancement (D). MR imaging of the brain (time, 3 months) demonstrates resolution of the prior
lesion (not shown) but development of similar T2-FLAIR hyperintensity in the right frontoparietal junction (E). A subsequent scan at approxi-
mately 5 months shows near-complete resolution of that lesion with a new T2-FLAIR hyperintense lesion more posteriorly (F). A follow-up scan
(G and H) nearly 1 year from onset shows complete resolution of the imaging abnormalities.

extensive T2-FLAIR hyperintense lesions outside of the limbic drome, stiff person syndrome, or progressive encephalomyelitis
system.3,15 with rigidity and myoclonus.6

Alpha-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Systemic Autoimmunity with Encephalopathy

Acid Receptor Neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic autoimmune
Alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid re- conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus can occur
ceptor (AMPAr) encephalitis is an uncommon subtype character- and may be mediated by an antibody profile that includes an-
ized by the subacute onset of purely psychiatric symptoms with tiphospholipid antibodies and anti-glutamate receptor anti-
T2-FLAIR hyperintensities isolated to the hippocampus. This bodies.68 Catastrophic antiphospholipid antibody syndrome is
subtype has a higher association with cancer than other cell-sur-
a condition that can present with strokelike symptoms and
face antibody subtypes and is most often seen in women with
multifocal petechial hemorrhages throughout the brain, which
lung, breast, or thymic tumors.3,67
are best seen on susceptibility-weighted MR imaging se-
quences.68 Patients with thyroid dysfunction and antithyroid
Additional Type II Antibody Subtypes
Anti-glutamate receptor 3 (GluR3) antibodies have been associ- antibodies in conditions like Graves disease or Hashimoto thy-
ated with Rasmussen encephalitis.7 Anti-metabotropic glutamate roiditis can develop encephalopathy associated with their au-
receptor 1 (mGluR1) antibodies have been described in patients toimmune thyroid disease that has a characteristic “migratory
with lymphoma with cerebellar ataxia.7 Anti-metabotropic gluta- pattern” of neuroimaging findings with cortical T2-FLAIR le-
mate receptor 5 (mGluR5) antibodies have been linked to limbic sions in different regions of the brain on sequential MR imag-
encephalitis associated with Hodgkin lymphoma (Ophelia syn- ing examinations (Fig 7).11,69 Hashimoto encephalopathy, in
drome).7 Anti-D2 dopamine receptor antibodies represent a rare particular, is closely associated with autoimmune encephalitis,
subtype associated with basal ganglia encephalitis.8 Anti-glyoxy- given its propensity for the combination of encephalopathy,
late reductase 1 (GlyR1) antibodies can be seen in 3 related groups psychiatric symptoms, and seizures.69,70 MR imaging findings
distinguished by having dominant clinical features of stiff leg syn- in Hashimoto encephalopathy often have more prominent fea-
1076 Kelley Jun 2017 www.ajnr.org
tures of leukoencephalopathy (patchy and confluent T2- 9. Bien CG, Vincent A, Barnett MH, et al. Immunopathology of au-
FLAIR hyperintense lesions in the subcortical, periventricular, toantibody-associated encephalitides: clues for pathogenesis. Brain
and deep white matter).2,43,70 2012;135:1622–38 CrossRef Medline
10. Demaerel P, Van Dessel W, Van Paesschen W, et al. Autoimmune-
mediated encephalitis. Neuroradiology 2011;53:837–51 CrossRef
CONCLUSIONS Medline
Autoimmune encephalitis is an important diagnostic consider- 11. Moscato EH, Jain A, Peng X, et al. Mechanisms underlying autoim-
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tus of unclear etiology. It includes a myriad of clinical conditions ior and cognition: insights from molecular, cellular and synaptic
that have a common pathophysiology (ie, antibodies directed studies. Eur J Neurosci 2010;32:298 –309 CrossRef Medline
12. Oyanguren B, Sánchez V, González FJ, et al. Limbic encephalitis: a
against CNS structures). The 2 distinct groups (group I, intracel-
clinical-radiological comparison between herpetic and autoim-
lular directed antibodies, and group II, cell-surface directed anti- mune etiologies. Eur J Neurol 2013;20:1566 –70 CrossRef Medline
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tias, part 2: prion, inflammatory, neoplastic, and other etiologies.
We are grateful to our clinical colleagues in the Department of AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2014;35:424 –31 CrossRef Medline
Neurology within the Henry Ford Health System for their role in 18. Mittal MK, Rabinstein AA, Hocker SE, et al. Autoimmune encepha-
litis in the ICU: analysis of phenotypes, serologic findings, and out-
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Daniel Newman, Director of the Henry Ford Hoenselaar ALS encephalitis: neurological symptoms, immunological findings and
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would also like to thank Dr Chunhai Hao, Chief of Neuropathol- CrossRef Medline
ogy in the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at 20. Dalmau J, Lancaster E, Martinez-Hernandez E, et al. Clinical experi-
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