This paper attempts to discuss the elements found in a research proposal in each chapter, and will

further justify why these elements are key in research. However, the paper begins by defining the

concept of a research proposal and thereafter, discusses the main purpose of the paper.

A research proposal is an engagement strategy the candidate uses to get the attention of the

academic advisor or prospective thesis supervisor; and market their research project for

prospective supervisor to buy into it, and consider if they would be willing to supervise your

piece of work. The process of proposing a research project helps candidate to conceptualize their

research project, crystallize their own thoughts about their thesis, and give evidence of some

independence, capacity (resource) and capability (readiness) to work.

According to Guba (1961), research proposal may be described as an executive summary of

individual’s project endeavour without which a research may not start. He further added that a

research proposal is a document of usually ten to fifteen pages that informs others of a proposed

piece of research. In simplicity, a research proposal is a planning document that outlines your

thinking about a research problem and describes what is to be studied and how. Therefore, a

research proposal is a fundamental part of the process of thesis production.

However, a research proposal normally begins with the introductory section as chapter one this

comprises sub-tittle up to methodology section corresponding to chapter three. Hence, the

elements found in a research proposal discussed below;

One of the elements found in a research proposal is the he Table of Contents (TOC) is an

organized listing of the chapters and major sections of your document. Readers will immediately

be able to see how your manuscript is organized and then skip down to sections that are most

relevant to them. A clear, concise, and well formatted TOC is the first indicator of a good

research paper. According to Fisher (2007), whether to include a table of content depends on (a)

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the direction in the guidelines, and (b) the complexity and length of the proposal. Very brief

proposals with few sections ordinarily do not need a table of contents; the guiding consideration

in this is the reader's convenience. And on the other hand, long and detailed proposals may

require, in addition to a table of contents, a list of illustrations (or figures) and a list of tables.

Therefore, if all of these are included, they should follow the order mentioned, and each should

be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals. If they are brief, more than one can be put on a

single page.

Then the introductory section of chapter one which comprises sub-tittle such as; Background, the

statement of the problem, he objectives of the study, research question(s), Hypotheses, purpose

of the study, limitations of the study, assumptions, significance/scope of the study, and

definitions of key terms, concepts and variables

The element of introduction typically begins with a background, general statement of the

problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rationale or

justification for the proposed study. However, Wilkinson (1991: 96) argues that “The

introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for

the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that

readers can understand how it is related to other research.

In an introduction section, Creswell (1994: 42) pointed out that the writer should; create reader

interest in the topic, lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study, place the

study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and reach out to a specific audience.

Hence, introduction to the study is a brief description of what the research proposal is about.

Background to the study is another sub-element contained under the introduction section. It is the

choice of a specific subject for research begins in its wider context, comprising a variety of

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issues. This background (or context) helps to understand the specific problems addressed by the

researcher. The various elements considered at this stage should be related among them to show

how they lead to the problem that is going to be isolated and treated by the researcher.

Statement of the problem according to Wiersma (1995: 404) asserts that the problem statement is

another sub-element that describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general

analysis approach”. Against the above background the research isolates the problem that he/she

finds to be particularly crucial and needs to be looked into. Isolating the problem entails stating it

in clear and specific terms, as much as possible at this initial stage. This delimitation helps the

researcher to manage and deal with it effectively. Stating the problem of study could be said to

involve stating “how things are” and “how they should be”. Or simply, “the situation is this or

that and yet it ought to be like this or that.”

Creswell (1994: 50) further stipulates that a problem might be defined as the issue that exists in

the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study. It is therefore, important in a

proposal that the problem stand out - that the reader can easily recognize it. Sometimes, obscure

and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers

and/or committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem.

Additionally, a problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should

be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical

framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem

within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that undergirds the study.

This is of major importance in nearly all proposals and requires careful attention. It is a key

element that associations such as AERA and APA look for in proposals. It is essential in all

quantitative research and much qualitative research (Dawson, 2002). However, Effective

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problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be conducted.” If a

researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and without resorting to

hyper-speaking (i.e., focusing on problems of macro or global proportions that certainly will not

be informed or alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come off as

ambiguous and diffuse.

Significance of the Study is another element under chapter of introduction which indicates how

your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under investigation.

Bell (1999) notes that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have substantive,

theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash value).

Furthermore, scope of study (time /space or geography or disciplinary) refers to the boundaries

or limits within which the study needs to be kept. The reasons for such limits may be

geographical, historical, ideological, person or any other. The researcher focuses on the precise

issue he/she intends to consider. This helps the researcher to focus and exhaustive.

Moreover, Locke (1987: 5) postulates that “the purpose statement should provide a specific and

accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study”. If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it

cannot be clear to the reader. The purpose or objectives describe the final target that one foresees

to reach in one’s study. In a number of cases there is a general objective that entails smaller

objectives, called specific objectives. They also need to be stated clearly and precisely.

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is

there a relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although

their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to

theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states

hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of the

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assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data,

hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework. However, a research question poses a

relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a

hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables

(Krathwohl, 1988).

Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the

study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research (at times even

the taste and preference of committee members, particularly the Chair). The practice of using

hypotheses was derived from using the scientific method in social science inquiry. They have

philosophical advantages in statistical testing, as researchers should be and tend to be

conservative and cautious in their statements of conclusions (Armstrong, 1974).

A researcher always posits a possible solution(s) to the problem envisaged and this is called

Hypothesis for quantitative researchers. A hypothesis is a provisional supposition put forth to

account for known facts, and to serve as a starting-point for further investigation by which it may

be proved or disapproved (Cooper, 1998). Hence a hypothesis is an assumption of causality, a

proposed interconnection among phenomena, a tentative solution to be verified by the

researcher‘s investigation. In a single study, one can have a number of hypotheses, although it

may be easier to have one. Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements, namely;

Literary null - a “no difference” form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, “There is

no relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college

women.” Or, “There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulated

students.”

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Operational null - a “no difference” form in terms of the operation required to test the

hypothesis. For example, “There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-

aged college women use the student union and their persistence at the college after their

freshman year.” Or, “There is no difference between the mean grade point averages achieved by

students in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory.” The

operational null is generally the preferred form of hypothesis-writing.

Literary alternative - a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is

rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope

the results will show. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged women use support

services, the more they will persist academically.” Or, “High self-regulated students will achieve

more in their classes than low self-regulated students.”

Operational alternative - Similar to the literary alternative except that the operations are

specified. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student

union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman year.” Or, “Students in the

upper quartile of the Self-regulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade

point averages than do students in the lower quartile.”

In general, the null hypothesis is used if theory/literature does not suggest a hypothesized

relationship between the variables under investigation; the alternative is generally reserved for

situations in which theory/research suggests a relationship or directional interplay.

Under limitations and delimitations – a limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.

Think about your analysis, the nature of self-report, your instruments, and the sample. Think

about threats to internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid or minimize explain. On

the other hand, delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is

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bounded. This is the place to explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen

not to do them - the literature you will not review (and why not), the population you are not

studying (and why not), the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not

use them). Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to do

but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do (Cryer, 2000).

Definition of key terms is another sub-element of chapter one. In most cases, there are main

terms related to the study that require to be specified or clarified in order to provide a correct

understanding of the study on the part of the reader. These terms need to be defined precisely and

concisely and should not be necessarily a dictionary definitions but a researcher’s definition; the

way he or she understands it.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework is another key element of a research proposal. According to

Armstrong (1974), a conceptual framework contributes to a research study because it identifies

research variables and clarifies relationships among the variables. It is also valuable in that it sets

the stage for presentation of the research questions that drive the study. In nearly all studies,

there are grand theories or ideas which act as an internal structure of the study. This structure

gives the study a “logical frame” or a logical explanation, particularly because, most studies are

only additional to the already existing body of knowledge and not the first ones.

Therefore, every study is depending on previous studies whose ideas are already known. These

ideas, especially if they have been significant and have had extensive influence in their domains,

serve to support the fresh owns (Awoniyi, 2011). Moreover, every study relates to theory, either

to negate it or confirming it to improve upon it. Whereas the theoretical framework tends to refer

to the theoretical critique with a view to identifying the most appropriate to one’s study, the

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conceptual framework tends to refer to the diagrammatic presentation to the logical flow of the

ideas presented in the dissertation.

Besides this, Creswell (1994: 58) states that if a researcher is working within a particular

theoretical framework/line of inquiry, the theory or line of inquiry should be introduced and

discussed early, preferably in the introduction or literature review. Remember that the theory/line

of inquiry selected will inform the statement of the problem, rationale for the study, questions

and hypotheses, selection of instruments, and choice of methods. Ultimately, findings will be

discussed in terms of how they relate to the theory/line of inquiry that undergirds the study.

However, theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in

quantitative and qualitative endeavors.

For instance, in quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the

beginning of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the

study advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was

confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework for the

entire study, an organizing model for the research questions or hypotheses for the data collection

procedure” (Creswell, 1994: 87).

On the other hand, qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the

nature of the investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,” for example, theory and

theoretical tenets emerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or

verify theory, hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be

identified and discussed early on.

Furthermore, the chapter two of a research proposal involves the element of literature review.

Wiersma, (1995: 406) alludes that the review of the literature provides the background and

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context for the research problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that

the writer is knowledgeable about the area. The researcher review a sample list of literally

sources closely related to the research topic. This list of sources does not have to be exhaustive,

but should be adequate to demonstrate the existing gaps or problems. For each source, the

researcher briefly mentions and relates the major ideas raised to the problem, identifies or

highlights the gap /lacuna and states what one intends to add. This is crucial to the authenticity of

the research because it points to the novelty of the contribution of the researcher vis-à-vis the

contribution of the reviewed sources (Marshall and Rossman, 1989).

Bell (1999) notes that the literature review accomplishes several important things; it shares with

the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported, it relates

a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and

extending prior studies. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as

well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings. It also “frames” the

problem earlier identified. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point.

Be judicious in your choice of exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and

relevant (Baxter, et al., 2001). Therefore, it is advisable to select and reference only the more

appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly.

Furthermore, the methodology element of chapter three it comprises of research design, the

population, sample size, sampling procedure, research methods and Instruments, data collection

procedure, data analysis, ethical considerations.

Wiersma (1995: 409) states that the methods or procedures element is really the heart of the

research proposal. The activities should be described with as much detail as possible, and the

continuity between them should be apparent. Under this element, the researcher precisely

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explains the steps he/she intends to follow to accomplish the research. The description of one’s

methodology should not be so generic as to apply to any research; it should be fairly specific,

showing particularly how a researcher is going to handle each stage and area. For instance, in the

case of doctoral research, it is expected that the research is elaborate. This section is crucial to

the study because the objectivity or believability of the results should depend on the results

(Cryer, 2000.).

Orodho, in Kombo (2013), defined research design as the scheme, outline or plan that is used to

generate answers to research problems. While Kerlinger (1973) defined it as a plan and strategy

of investigating a problem and seeking to obtain answers to questions. In this study the

researcher used the descriptive design. Awoniyi et al. (2011) explained that the descriptive

design is concerned with practices that prevail, points of view, collection of data for the purpose

of describing and interpreting an existing condition. Thus the use of the descriptive design

enabled the researcher to establish how effective the study will be. In addition, the design

enabled the researcher to describe and explain the respondent’s views and opinions in detail for

purposes of understanding.

Kasonde (2013) defined population as a group of individuals, objects or items from which

samples are taken for measurement e.g. a population of students. This could be an entire group of

persons or elements that have at least one thing in common. Sidhu (2013) also explained that a

population in a study is the group that has the common characteristics which are of interest to the

researcher. The population for a study should be that group whom the researcher would be able

to draw conclusions from.

Bless and Craig (1995) stated that a sample is a portion of the population. This is the number of

participants selected from a population to constitute a desired sample. The key reason for being

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concerned with sampling is that of validity - the extent to which the interpretations of the results

of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to

other situations with other people.

According to Schumacher and McMillan (2006), sampling is a process by which a researcher

gathers people, artifacts or places for study. Therefore, sampling is critical to external validity—

the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those

observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined

population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of

several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the probability of

inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori.

According to Shavelson (1988), all probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at

some stage. In experimentation, two distinct steps are involved; random selection - participants

to be included in the sample have been chosen at random from the same population. Define the

population and indicate the sampling plan in detail. On the other hand, random assignment -

participants for the sample have been assigned at random to one of the experimental conditions.

Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validity—the extent to

which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or

selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated. Without probability

sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed (Shavelson, 1988: 44). Perhaps the key word in

sampling is representative. One must ask oneself, “How representative is the sample of the

survey population (the group from which the sample is selected) and how representative is the

survey population of the target population (the larger group to which we wish to generalize)?”

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Instrumentation is also a key element under chapter three of methodology section. Outline the

instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols, observation grids). If

instruments have previously been used, identify previous studies and findings related to

reliability and validity. If instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will

follow to develop and test their reliability and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly

essential. Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of

constructs, this is a crucial step in the proposal (Guba, 1961). For example, it is at this step that a

literary conception such as “self-efficacy is related to school achievement” becomes “scores on

the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale are related to Grade Point Average.” Strictly speaking,

results of your study will be directly relevant only to the instrumental or operational statements.

Another key element of research proposal under chapter three of methodology is data collection.

According to Kombo and Tromp (2006) data collection is gathering of specific information to

prove or refute some facts. Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include

survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit

statement covering the field controls to be employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained

entrée.

Besides this, Kerlinger (1973) defined analysis as categorization, ordering, manipulation and

summarizing of data to obtain answers to research questions. Kombo and Tromp (2013) also

referred to data analysis as the critical examination of coded data and making inferences.

Similarly, Sidhu (2013) explained that data analysis means studying the tabulated material in

order to determine inherent facts and meanings. In order to attain this, content data analysis was

employed for qualitative data in order to have descriptive results in the area of interest. Content

analysis is used to determine the presence of certain words, concepts, themes, phrases and

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characters or sentences within texts or sets of texts and to quantify this presence in an objective

manner. It is equally a research focused on the actual content and internal features of the media.

Additionally, in content analysis, a classification system is developed to record the information.

Data collected is coded (or shortened while still preserving the core) into themes and later

categories, which is a group of content that shares a commonality. In interpreting results, the

frequency with which ideas or concepts appear may be interpreted as a measure of importance,

attention or emphasis or as a measure of direction bias (Dawson, 2002).

Ethical considerations - the Researcher has to observe research norms. Sekaran (2006) defined

ethics as a code of conduct or expected behavior while conducting a research. The ethics govern

the research right from instituting the study to collecting, analyzing and interpreting the data to

report writing. It also guides the researchers on how to relate to the respondents and handle the

data. With regard to ethical considerations, Creswell (2003) cautioned researchers that they have

an obligation to respect the rights, needs, values and desires of the informants.

References - the reference section of the proposal should not be long but sufficiently indicative

of the sources the researcher is going to consult. References are the list of sources that have been

specifically cited or referred to in the dissertation. Please use the recommended Harvard

Referencing system.

Lastly, work plan - the work plan shows the specific time which specific tasks are to be

completed (or time framework).

Nevertheless, a research proposal is intended to convince others that the student has a

worthwhile research project and that s/he has the competence and the work-plan to complete it.

Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research

process. The proposal should have sufficient information to argue that the student has an
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important research idea, that s/he has a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues,

and that the methodology is sound (Fisher, 2007). The research proposal provides a coherent and

concise outline of the intended research. This allows students to assess the originality of the

proposed topic.

However, the above elements found in a research proposal are key in the main research. To

justify this, the following points are articulated below;

The abstract as a key element, is a brief summary of the entire proposal, typically ranging from

150 to 250 words. It should outline the proposal’s major headings: the research question,

theoretical framework, research design, sampling method, instrumentation, and data and analysis

procedures. A good abstract accurately reflects the content of the proposal, while at the same

time being coherent, readable, and concise.

The introduction serves to orient the reader about the research project. It may also include the

rationale, legal basis, and historical setting. In effect, the introduction is a preview of the whole

study. Under the introduction section, we have the background of the study which helps the

researcher, supervisors and others presents the context of the study, stating the external factors

which gave rise to the research proposal.

Consequently, it is very important in defining the scope of the project and provides an important

development of the topic summarized in the abstract, and is an important opportunity for the

student to demonstrate competence in the relevant area as well as familiarity with the field. Its

main purpose is to provide the necessary background or context for the research problem. How

to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing. If the research

problem is framed in the context of a general literature review, then the research question may

appear uninteresting (Guba, 1961). However, if the same question is placed in the context of a

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very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident. Therefore, the

introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a

specific research problem, to be followed by the rationale or justification for the proposed study.

The statement of the research problem is the foundation for the construction of any research

proposal. It is not only an integral part of selecting a research topic rather helps to select most

likely research design as well. It serves as the bases for determining research objectives,

formulation of research hypotheses, planning research design and the budgetary requirements. It

allows the researcher to describe the problem systematically, to reflect on its importance, its

priority and to point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken. It also

facilitates peer review of the research proposal by the funding agencies. Wiersma (1995: 404)

posited that the problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the

general analysis approach.

It may be useful to present the research as a series of research questions to be examined by the

thesis. An effective structure might be to use each question as a sub-heading to a paragraph or

two of elaboration and detail on the “problem” or “issue” contained in each research question.

Research questions ask what relationships exist between the different variables in the study.

Research hypotheses are assumptions about the tentative solution of the research. These

assumptions are derived on personal experience, review of the related literature, consultations/

focused interviews with the experts / professionals or combination of all. Therefore, the reasons

why the hypothesis is a key in research it’s because they direct the research inquiry, saying in

effect what has to be done. They enable the researcher, by the way of their general relational

statements, to make deductions on specific manifestations implied by the inquiry problem

(Kasonde-Ng’andu, 2013).

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Under definitions of terms, Kombo et al (2013) states that universally accepted terms are not

defined in the research study. Terms whose meanings may be different in the context of the

inquiry need to be defined in this section. Operational definitions of terms are preferred over

dictionary definition of terms.

Moreover, the limitations and delimitations they expresses the nature and magnitude of the

constraints likely to affect the conduct of the research. A limitation identifies potential

weaknesses of the study. It includes all those factors which are impossible to avoid thereby

affecting the internal validity of research; forced choice analysis, instruments, the sample etc.

Delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bounded. The

literature that the research will not review (and why not), the population not studying (and why

not), so on and so forth. It includes or excludes; time or period, geographical boundaries or areas,

social / political / cultural/ ethnic or demographic groups etc. It may take some assumptions as

well (Wilkinson, 1991).

The literature review serves several important functions (Kothari, 1985). It demonstrates one’s

knowledge of the research problem. It demonstrates the student‘s understanding of the

theoretical and research issues related to the research question. It shows the student‘s ability to

critically evaluate relevant literature information. It indicates the student’s ability to integrate and

synthesize the existing literature. It provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as

the conceptual framework for the research. And it also convinces the student‘s reader that the

proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e.,

resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

Kumar (2005) further states that literature review is a key element in research because it helps

you to acquire methodologies used by other researchers to find and solve research questions

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similar to the ones you are investigating. It will explain the procedures other researchers used

and methods similar to the ones you are proposing. It will give you an idea whether the methods

other researchers used worked for them and what are the problems they faced. By doing a review

of literature, you will become aware of pitfalls and problems and could strategize well to select a

methodology that you feel will suit your research work better.

Moreover, Review of literature could help you shape your research problem because the process

of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to

conceptualize your research problem clearly and precisely. In addition, it also helps to

understand the relationship between your research problem and body of knowledge in your

research area.

One of the most important objectives of literature review according to Locke et al. (1987), is to

ensure that you read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct research

study. It is fundamental that you know what others are doing in your field of interest or the

similar topic you have been working on as well as understanding theories that have been put

forward and gaps that exist in the particular field. M.Sc. and PhD candidates are expected to be

experts in their area of study, therefore a thorough review of literature helps to fulfil this

expectation.

Obtaining answers for your research questions is easy. The difficulties lie in how you examine

your research findings in the existing body of knowledge. How do you answer your research

questions compared to what other researchers concluded? What is the new knowledge

contribution from your research work? How are your findings distinguished from those of other

researchers? To answer these questions, you need to go back to the review of literature. It is

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important to put your findings in the context of what is already known and understood in your

field of research. Thus, literature review helps to contextualize research findings.

In simple terms, Kerlinger (1979) states that the literature review helps to provide a framework

for the research, validate the research, ensure the research hasn’t been done, show where the

research fits into the existing body of knowledge, enable the researcher to learn from previous

theory on the topic, demonstrate how the subject has previously been studied, highlight errors in

previous research, outline cracks in previous research, show that the work is adding to the

understanding and knowledge of the field, refocus or even change the topic.

Reviewing the literature or the literature review occupies very important place in developing

research proposal and writing research report. Working with literature is an essential part of

the research process because it helps to; generates ideas, form appropriate questions and facilitate

process of research designing.

Oleary (2004) avers that the review of literature may provide solid and a comprehensive

knowledge base provided the researchers are able to readily access and draw on a wide variety of

resources such as; reference materials, printed and e. books, research journals, official

publications and archives etc. A good literature review is an argument that is more purposeful

than a simple review of relevant literature. Writing a good review requires researcher to read a

few good reviews, develop a structure, write purposefully , use the literature to back up your

arguments, review and write throughout the research process, get feedback, and be prepared to

redraft

Furthermore, the element of methodology of chapter three is very important because it tells how

the student plans to tackle the research problem. It will provide the student’s work plan and

describe the activities necessary for the completion of the project. The student needs to

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demonstrate his knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that his approach is the

most appropriate and the most valid way to address the research question (Krathwohl, 1988).

Research methods may include experiment, descriptive, or historical– survey, activity analysis,

trend study, program evaluation, follow-up study, document (content) analysis, case study,

ethnographic (field) study, comparative and correlational, data collection tools –tests/inventories,

observations, inquiry forms, interviews. Where research visits are a key part of the project, it

may be useful to explain the decision to undertake the research in some place. This could include

the decision to work with particular individuals, for example.

Therefore, the instruments used in the study helps the researcher to determine what is occurring

or what individuals are doing through observation. To determine the perceptions of individuals

or group through interview or the direct method which is an oral type of questionnaire? Marshall

et al. (1989) added that the questionnaire or the indirect method use carefully planned and

printed items given to respondents in order to elicit answers to question of the research. Further,

instruments they also help the researcher to assess opinions, perceptions and attitudes through

surveys that are administered.

The bibliography should be a short list of the key relevant literature in the area. Therefore, the

student should know how to get: related documents to be consulted/studies follow technicalities

in writing bibliography/references; to present the bibliography in alphabetic order, to present it in

classified manner, manuscripts, books, journals, commission reports, newspapers, etc.

A research proposal should be viewed as more than the outcome of a formalized procedure. It

tests in particular the student’s ability as a researcher to conceptualize clearly and to plan and

organize carefully and thoroughly. It must be done well in order to be fair to the research idea,

and to ‘sell’ the idea. It needs to be kept in mind however, that student plan needs not be rigidly

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adhered to as opportunities to refine his topic arise, unforeseen circumstances come his way or if

unexpected data or sources of data arise (Wilkinson, 1991).

In conclusion, it can be said that a research proposal is an engagement strategy the candidate

uses to get the attention of the academic advisor or prospective thesis supervisor; and market

their research project for prospective supervisor to buy into it, and consider if they would

be willing to supervise your piece of work. The process of proposing a research project helps

candidate to conceptualize their research project, crystallize their own thoughts about their

thesis, and give evidence of some independence, capacity (resource) and capability (readiness)

to work. Hence, nothing can be precisely executed unless it is not properly planned and the same

is the case with a research inquiry. The research is as good as its proposal as it serves as a

tentative plan of an intended research. It describes research problem, justifies research by

explaining its background that led to the need of research, specifies its significance and likely

users and details of the methods to be employed and reasons of their appropriateness. A poor

quality proposal dooms the research and a well-conceived proposal promises quality outcome

from approval to conduct phase. Thus, the above elements prove to be the major key elements in

writing a research proposal and the main research as articulated above.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armstrong, R. L. (1974). Hypotheses: Why? When? How? Phi Delta Kappan, pp. 54, 213-214.

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Ababa Press.

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and Social Science Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Cooper, H. (1998). Synthesizing Research: A Guide For Literature Reviews. Thousand Oaks,
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Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand

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Kasonde-Ng’andu, S. (2013). Writing a Research Proposal in Educational Research. Lusaka:

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Krathwohl, D. R. (1988). How to Prepare a Research Proposal: Guidelines for Funding and
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Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Approach. New York: Holt,

Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W., and Silverman, S. J. (1987). Proposals That Work: A Guide For
Planning Dissertations And Grant Proposals (2nd Ed.). Newbury
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Marshall, C., and Rossman, G. B. (1989). Designing Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, CA:
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O‟Leary. Zina (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London, sage publication.

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