Banana Production Manual PDF

N
O
T
FO
R
SA
LE
LE
Disclaimer
SA
Trade names, manufacturers and distributors are mentioned solely to
provide specific information. The mention of a trade name, manufacturer,
and distributor neither endorses the product's name nor implies criticism
R
of similar ones not mentioned. It also does not constitute a guarantee or

FO
warranty of the product. The recommended practices or technologies

are based on research and best information available.
T
O
N
OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Dear Reader:
This Banana Production Manual, presented in an easy-to-read

format, is a package of technology for banana from production to
processing. It is an updated version of The Philippines Recommends
for Banana, first published by PCARRD in 1988. Some of the
LE
information on harvesting, postharvest handling and storage, and
processing, among other things, were retained for their relevance in the
SA
present situation.
The publication, except for the tissue culture laboratory and nursery
operation, is specifically for smallholders with less than 20-ha banana
R
farms.
We hope that this manual will guide our banana farmers in improving
FO
their farm productivity and help sustain our efforts to further develop the
banana production in the country.
You will be assured to receive our future publications if
T
you return the attached acknowledgment receipt. You may also

O
acknowledge the receipt of this publication through e-mail at

[email protected].
N
Sincerely yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD Book Series No. 175/2004
Banana
Production
Manual LE
SA
R
FO
T
O
N
Horticulture Information Network (HORTINET)

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL
RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (PCARRD)
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (DOST)
Los Baños, Laguna

2004
First Printing 2004
ISBN 971-20-0524-0
Bibliographic Citation:
LE
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources
Research and Development -Department of Science and Technology
SA
(PCARRD-DOST). Banana production manual. Los Baños,
Laguna: PCARRD-DOST, 2004. 129p. – (PCARRD Book Series
No. 175/2004).
R
FO
Principal Author: Dr. Modesto R. Recel

Recel Agricultural Consultancy Agency
T
O
Volume Editors: Dr. Roberto E. Coronel

N
Institute of Plant Breeding

University of the Philippines Los Baños
Mr. Joselito A. Payot

Crops Research Division
PCARRD
Ms. Eileen C. Cardona

Applied Communication Division
PCARRD
Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD 2004.
ii
Foreword
Banana is still the most important fruit crop in the Philippines. It

contributes about US$200 million annually, mainly through fresh exports
of the fruit. Processed bananas such as chips, crackers, and catsup have
also started to contribute dollar earnings.
Eighty distinct banana cultivars are grown in the country. However,
aside from the export cultivar ‘Cavendish,’ only a few cultivars such as
‘Lakatan,’ ‘Latundan,’ Buñgulan,’ ‘Saba,’ and ‘Señorita’ are being
cultivated.
In 2001, the country’s banana output reached 5 million tons from a
LE
total area of 386,782 ha. Many workers are employed in the banana
industry, both in the farms and in the processing plants. The commercial
SA
farms, which mostly grow ‘Cavendish’ cultivars, are concentrated in the
Mindanao area. Elsewhere in the country are numerous backyard farms,
whose produce is mainly destined for the local markets.
PCARRD has long recognized the importance of disseminating
R
generated technologies to banana stakeholders. This Banana Production

FO
Manual is one of the strategies to inform and guide banana growers in

improving their productivity. The information contained in this manual is
specifically for growing the banana cultivars mentioned above.
T
This manual presents the technology package on banana from

O
production up to processing. It follows the style of the sought-after

Mango Production Manual published by PCARRD’s Mango
N
Information Network (MIN) in 1999. This manual came out as part of

the expansion of the MIN to a Horticulture Information Network
(HORTINET) (http://www.hortinet.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph), starting with
banana.
May this manual provide insights and directions for those interested
in improving their banana production.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director, PCARRD
iii
Acknowledgments
PCARRD acknowledges with gratitude the financial assistance of

the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) through the Small
Enterprises Technology Upgrading Program (SET-UP).
PCARRD is likewise grateful to Dr. Modesto R. Recel of the Recel
Agricultural Consultancy Agency, Tagum City, for his laudable efforts
in writing the manual based on his hands-on experiences and research
work and for the photos used in this manual.
Gratitude also goes to the following for their help in preparing the
manual:
LE
• Dr. Roberto E. Coronel of the University of the Philippines Los
SA
Baños (UPLB) and Mr. Joselito A. Payot of the Crops
Research Division (CRD) of PCARRD for painstakingly
reviewing each chapter;
• Mr. David D. Gorrez of the Rural-Based Enterprise Development
R
(RED) Foundation, Inc. of Los Baños, Laguna, for providing

FO
insights on the format and contents of the manual;

• Dr. Domingo E. Angeles and Ms. Lydia M. Hernandez of
UPLB for their cooperation in providing a clear presentation of
T
the tissue culture laboratory operation;

O
• Dr. Jocelyn E. Eusebio, CRD director, and Dr. Ester L. Lopez,

CRD assistant director for their encouragement;
N
• Mr. Angelito T. Carpio and Ms. Joan C. Andres of CRD for

their initial help in preparing the manual; Ms. Edna A. Anit of
CRD for her help in completing the manuscript; and the MIN
staff, Ms. Lourdes B. Columbres and Mr. Thaddeus P. Lawas,
for supporting the information and communications technology
(ICT) activities of the division, including the preparation of this
manual;
• Ms. Leonarda Z. Ebron of CRD for helping with the section on
the cash flow of a tissue culture laboratory operation; and
• Mr. Larry M. Lapitan, Ms. Lilia V. Reyes, and Ms. Maurita R.
Arnisto for the sketches, financial help, and administrative
support, respectively.
iv
This manual was produced through the valuable editorial assistance
of the Applied Communication Division (ACD) of PCARRD, through
the leadership of Dr. Norma V. Llemit, director, and Dr. Lorna C.
Malicsi, assistant director; Ms. Eileen C. Cardona, editor; Ms. Marina T.
de Ramos, layout artist; Mr. Simeon R. Manahan, Jr., cover designer;
and Ms. Carmelita B. Alamban, printing press coordinator.
LE
SA
R
FO
T
O
N
v
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgments iv
Introduction 1
Growing Conditions 1
Banana Cultivars 1
Propagating the Planting Materials 3
Conventional Method 4
Tissue Culture Method 7
LE
Establishing a Banana Nursery 15
Operating a Tissue Culture Laboratory, a Nursery, and an
SA
Office 19
Establishing a Banana Farm 20
Establishing a Drainage System 20
Clearing and Preparing the Land 25
R
Lining and Staking 28

FO
Planting 32
Replanting 35
Plant Care Operations 36
T
Sanitation 36
O
Stem and Mat Spray 40

Fertilization 42
N
Plant Population Control 48

Irrigation 50
Fruit Care Operations 51
Propping 51
Removing Fruit Obstacles 54
Bunch Spraying 54
Fruit Bagging 57
Bud Injection 60
Pest Management 64
Major Insect Pests of Banana and Their Control 64
Thrips 64
Scarring Weevil (Philicoptus iliganus Heller) 66
Corm Weevil (Cosmoplites sordidus Germar) 68
vii
Banana Aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.) 69
Mealybugs (Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley) 70
Major Diseases of Banana and Their Control 72
Moko Disease (Bacterial wilt) 72
Panama Disease (Fusarium wilt) 74
Bunchy Top 75
Blackhead, Root Rot, and/or Toppling Diseases 79
Black Leaf Streak (BLS) Disease 79
Weed Control 84
Harvesting 88
Production Estimates 88
Fruit Marking/Preharvest Calipering 89
Grade-Fruit Age Control 89
Maturity Indices 90
Harvesting 92
LE
Postharvest Handling and Storage 97
Quality 97
SA
Quality Standards 98
Quality Control 99
Packinghouse Operation 100
R
Transport 103
FO
Storage 104
Ripening and Degreening 105
Processing Banana Fruits 108
Banana Flour 108
T
Banana Chips 108

O
Banana Powder 109

N
Banana Flakes 109

Banana Catsup 109
Banana Vinegar 110
Banana Wine 111
Pastillas de Saging 111
References 113
viii
Appendices
1 A model one-year cash flow for producing 25,000 banana
plantlets a week ('000 pesos) 115
2 Initial list of banana experts in the Philippines 118
List of Tables
1 Botanical characteristics of major banana cultivars in the

Philippines 2
2 Culture media requirements 9
3 Characteristics of drainage system types 24
4 Equipment needed to establish a road network and a drainage
system 27
LE
5 Symptoms of nutrient deficiency in banana leaves 45
6 Cost of insecticides used per hectare per year to control insect pests
of banana 71
SA
7 Suggested fungicide formulations for BLS control 81
8 Cost of fungicides per hectare per year to control the leaf diseases
of banana 82
R
9 Summary of establishment and maintenance costs for a 1-ha banana

FO
farm 95
10 Estimated rate of return to total operating cost (RRTOC) for a 1-ha
banana farm 96
11 Cost of establishing a mini-packinghouse for banana 97
T
12 Ripening guideline for banana 106

O
N
List of Figures
1 The banana plant 3

2 A flooded banana farm 21
3 Twisted fingers, hands, and bunch and “bunching” because of more
than 48 hours of flooding 21
4 An aborted bunch as a result of prolonged floods of 48 hours or
more 22
5 A minidam (left) to impound water in a drainage canal, and an
adequate supply of impounded water (right) during El Niño 22
6 A well-maintained drainage canal 23
ix
7 Preparing the land and staking the banana plants 26
8 Systems of growing banana 30
9 Stem (left) and mat (right) spray for the control of aphids and
mealybugs 39
10 Deep placement of fertilizer blend in a rolling terrain 46
11 Sucker control at 1:1 mother-follower ratio 48
12 Early-bagged bunch for early protection from pest attack 58
13 Hand-pruning for index tagging (left) and an index-tagged bunch
(right) ready for bagging 58
14 Bunch injection for the control of banana flower thrips 61
15 Corky scab damage caused by banana flower thrips 65
16 Adult banana scarring weevils 67
17 A scarred banana hand infected by the scarring weevil 67
18 A larva (left) and adults (right) of the corm weevil 68
19 Exposed mealybugs that are hiding in the leaf sheaths 70
LE
20 A Moko eradication site sprayed with formalin solution and burned
with rice hull 73
SA
21 Banana infected with bunchy top virus 77
22 Fullness of finger as a maturity index for banana 91
R
FO
T
O
N
x
Introduction
Growing Conditions
Banana grows in many soil types and land classifications. However,

it is most productive when grown in deep soil with loam, clay loam, or
silty clay-loam textures and in flat to undulating terrains. It can thrive at
an elevation of 1.5–1,000 m a.s.l. (meters above sea level). It produces
sweeter fruits at 600 m and above.
It tolerates a wide range of soil pH, from a strong acidity of pH 3.4
to a medium alkalinity of pH 7.8. However, the ideal soil pH for banana
LE
is pH 6.5. Also, banana requires a high soil organic matter content of not
less than 2.5%, moderate amount of soil phosphorus of about 24 ppm
SA
(parts per million), and large amounts of potassium of about
400–600 ppm. Calcium and magnesium are also critical for a balanced
nutrition. Micronutrients such as zinc and boron are deficient in most
R
banana plantations; thus, they should also be closely monitored.

Banana can grow in a wide range of climatic conditions, from Type
FO
1 to Type 4. However, it grows best in areas with a rainfall of 7 mm per

day in most nights and with full sunshine during the day, year round, to
produce maximum yields with the least production inputs.
T
Banana is sensitive to waterlogged conditions. It needs a good

O
surface and an internal drainage. The water table must be 100–125-cm

deep from the soil surface, with more than 100 cm of sand or gravel
N
layer. It must have a distance of more than 75 cm to a permeable or soft

limestone; more than 100 cm to a hard, impermeable rock; and more than
100 cm to a hardpan. It cannot thrive in flooded areas.
Wind speed is critical in banana production. A wind velocity of
95 km/hour can blow down an entire fruit-laden banana plant in a few
seconds because of the plant’s soft pseudostem (trunk) and heavy
bunch. The ideal wind speed is 10–14 km/hour. A 35-km/hour wind
speed is tolerable but it may inflict leaf shredding.
Banana Cultivars
The major banana cultivars with selected botanical characteristics

in the Philippines (Valmayor et al. 2002) are shown in Table 1.
BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL 1

2
Table 1. Botanical characteristics of major banana cultivars in the Philippines.
Length/
Planting Pseudostem Weight Weight No. of Diameter
to Height (kg) of No. of (kg) of Fingers/ of Finger
Name Harvest (m) Bunch Hands Hand Hand (cm) Peel Color
'Buñgulan' 12 moa
N
2.8–3.2 14–16 8–10 1.7–2.7 14–22 14–16/ Yellow-green
6 days 3.4–3.3 when ripe
O
'Cavendish' T
- 'Grand Naine' 11–13 mo 1.6–2.3 16–60 6–16 2.2–4.0 16–30 13.5–16.0/ Green-yellow
BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL

3.5–4.5 when degreened
- 'Giant Cavendish' 11–13 mo 4.5–5.0 17–60 6–18 2.2–4.0 16–30 13.5–6.0/ Green-yellow when
FO
3.5–4.5 degreened
'Lakatan' 12–13 mo 2.7–2.8 13–15 7–8R 1.3–1.8 12–16 13–14/ Orange-yellow
'Latundan' 12 mo 2.7–2.9 11–12 7–8 1.2–1.6 12–16 10–12/ Straw yellow
'Saba' 21 mo 4.5–5.0 26–28 9–11 2.1–3.2 15–22 12.5–13.0/ Yellow when ripe
SA
14 days 4.2–4.4
'Señorita' 15 mo 2.1–2.9 4.6–5.0 5–6 1.0–1.4 14–20 16.0–16.2/ Yellow-orange
LE
3.2–3.3 when ripe
a
Month.
Propagating the Planting Materials
Farmers can produce their own planting materials or they can buy
from reliable banana nurseries. For those who may wish to produce their
own planting materials, they can grow bananas by the conventional
method (e.g., corms, suckers, seed pieces, and ball heads) (Fig. 1) or by
tissue culture.
LE
SA
R
FO
Fruit bunch
T
Male bud
O
Hands
N
Sword leaf
sucker Pseudostem
Finger
Sucker
Corm
Fig. 1. The banana plant (Valmayor et al. 2002).

Conventional Method
Corm Digging or Desuckering
Sucker extraction and corm digging must be strictly supervised to

minimize the loss of planting materials and avoid unnecessary injury to
the mother plant and to the other suckers within the mat. Fertilization
must immediately follow.
Technology
For suckers
z Select only the sword leaf suckers––those with narrow leaves, big
corms, and are about 60-cm tall.
LE
z Detach the sucker from the mother plant using a desuckering bar,
then remove all the roots.
SA
For whole corms
R
z Select plants with corms that are at least 2 kg.

FO
z Dig the corms with a desuckering bar and remove the roots. Leave
about 20 cm of the pseudostem from the base of the corm.
For seed pieces

T
O
z Cut the corm into pieces, with each piece/bit bearing at least one
N
good bud.
For ball heads
z Follow the same procedure for corms. However, leave about 1.5 m
of the pseudostem from the base of the corm.
In preparing all these materials, cover the hole with soil to prevent
the mother plant from tipping over or leaning. Haul the corms to the
roadsides for pickup and bring them to a shaded place for treatment.
4 BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL

Requirements (Based on 2002 Prices)
Materials and Equipment

Quantity Item Unit Price (P) Cost (P)
1 pc Shovel 145 145

1 pc Desuckering bar 250 250
2,005 pc Suckers/corms/seed pieces
or ball headsa 5 10,025
1 unit Tractor-drawn trailerb 50,000 50,000
Total 60,420
a
The 2,000 plantlets are good for 1 ha at a planting distance of 2.5 x 2.0 m. The extra
five plantlets are intended for replanting.
b
Could be used for other operations.
Labor
LE
SA
Activity Corms/ Cost (P)
Man-day (MD)a MDb /ha
R
Corm digging 600 3.3 528

FO
Covering holes 1,200 1.67 267

Cleaning and hauling 600 3.3 528
Total 1,323
T
a
Good for 1 ha.
O
b
At 160/MD.
N
Total cost of corm digging or desuckering operation
Item Amount (P)
Materials and equipmenta 60,420

Laborb 1,323
Total 61,743
a
Breakdown of cost of materials and equipment is indicated above.
b
Breakdown of cost of labor is indicated above.

Treatment of Planting Materials
Planting materials should be treated with certain chemicals to

protect them from pests and to ensure their good growth and development.
Technology
The procedure is good for 2,000 corms.
z Cut back the corms to about 6–8 cm long from the tip. However, if
the corms are to be transported over long distances or if planting is
to be delayed by more than 48 hours, allow an extra 4 cm to be
trimmed prior to planting.
z Combine 2.5 kg of fungicide and 276 mL of insecticide with 900 L
of water in the treatment tank.
LE
z Fill up the treatment tank to its capacity. Soak the corms in the tank
for five minutes; remove and place them in the baskets. Use rubber
SA
gloves when treating, mixing, soaking, or retrieving.
z Restore the quantity of chemical solution in the tank by adding water
and one-third of the original chemical proportion to maintain the
R
desired potency of the treatment.

FO
Materials
T

O
N
1 pc Bolo 140 140

1 unit Treatment shed (temporary-
coconut leaves/bamboo) 200 200
1 unit Treatment tank (1,200 L
capacity) 600 600
4 pc Baskets 50 200
2 pairs Rubber gloves 150 300
Chemicals per 900 L water:
2.5 kg Fungicide (Dithane M-45) 110 275
276 mL Insecticides (Sumithion 50 EC) 240(/L) 67
Total 1,782

Labor
Activity Corms/MDa MD/hab Cost (P)/ha
Cleaning/paring/soaking of corms 600 3.3 462

Retrieving from treatment tanks 1,000 2.0 280
Total 742
a
Good for 1 ha.
b
At P140/MD.
Total cost of chemical treatment for planting materials

Item Amount (P)
Materialsa 1,782
LE
Laborb 742
Total 2,524
SA
a
Breakdown of cost of materials is indicated on page 6.
b
R
Total cost of the conventional method of propagation

FO
Item Amount (P)
Corm digging or desuckeringa 61,743

T
Chemical treatment for planting materialsb 2,524

O
Total 64,267
N
a
Breakdown of cost for corm digging or desuckering is indicated on page 5.
b
Breakdown of cost for chemical treatment is indicated above.
Tissue Culture Method
The banana shoot-tip culture technique is a rapid clonal

micropropagation that produces disease-free plantlets at optimum cost.
One banana sucker can produce a maximum of 1,500 plantlets or
meristems in eight months. It is a reliable means of mass-producing
planting materials for commercial banana farms.
Compared with suckers or corm seed pieces, tissue-cultured
plantlets have a higher survival rate at field establishment; more

uniform growth and fruiting; earlier flowering; and relatively higher
production.
Technology
The five stages in commercially micropropagating banana plantlets

by shoot-tip culture are 1) initiating aseptic culture; 2) multiplying the
shoots/buds; 3) rooting; 4) acclimatizing or hardening; and 5) potting
out in the nursery. The first three stages are done in the laboratory while
the rest are done in the nursery.
Aseptic culture initiation
All the activities on preparing the culture media/explants and

sterilizing should be done in the preparation room or laboratory.
Preparing the culture media

LE
SA
z Use the Murashige and Skoog (MS) mineral salt mixture
(Table 2) to prepare the culture media. For example, to prepare
R
a 1-L stock of Macro 1 medium, mix the following: 1) 95 g

FO
KNO3; b) 82.5 g NH4NO3; and c) 22 g CaCl2.2H2O. For a

1-L proliferation media, mix 20 mL Macro 1 medium, 20 mL
Macro 2, 20 mL Macro 3, 5 mL Micro, 5 mL Fe stock, 5 mL
vitamins and amino acid, 2 mL indole acetic acid (IAA), 2.25
T
mL Benzyl Adenine (BA), 30 g sugar, and 7 g gulaman bars.

O
z Adjust the pH of the culture media to pH 5.7 by using 1 N NaOH

N
or 1 N HCL. If the pH is low, add a drop of 1 N NaOH while

constantly stirring the media. Test the pH. Do it until the desired
pH is reached. If the pH is high, add 1 N HCL.
Sterilizing
z Put 20 mL of the culture media into the packet jar. Cover the
jar with an autoclavable plastic, securing it with a rubber band.
Cover the entire jar with a clean paper, securing it with a rubber
band.
z Sterilize the jars in the pressure cooker at 15 pounds per square
inch (psi) for 20 minutes. Take out the jars and put in the culture
room.

Table 2. Culture media requirements.
Establishment Regeneration
g/stock Proliferation Semisolid Liquid
Medium (mL/L media) (mL/L media)
1. Macro 1 (MSIa): (50%) –

1L stock 20 20 20
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 95.00
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) 82.50
Calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O) 22.00
2. Macro 2 (MSIb): (50%) – lL stock 20 20 20
Magnesium sulfate
(MgSO4.7H2O) 28.50
3. Macro 3 (MSIc): (50%) – 1L stock 20 20 20
Potassium phosphate
Monobasic (KH2PO4) 8.50
LE
4. Micro (MSII): (100%) – 0.5 L stock 5 5 5
Manganese sulfate (MnSO4.4H2O) 2.23
Boric Acid (H3BO4) 0.62
SA
Potassium iodide (KI) 0.08
Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4. 4H2O) 0.86
Sodium molybdate
(Na2 MO 4.H 2O) 0.025
R
Copper sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) 0.0025

Cobalt chloride (CoCl2.6H2O) 0.0025
FO
5. Fe Stock (100%)- 0.5 L Stock 5 5 5

Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O) 2.785
NaEDTA.2H2O 3.725
T
6. Vitamins and amino acids

(100% - 0.5L stock) 5 5 5
O
Glycine 0.2
Thiamine HCl 0.04
N
Pyridoxine HCl 0.05

Nicotinic acid 0.05
7. IAA:0.175 ppm (100 mL stock) 0.00875 2
8. NAA:0.186 ppm (100 mL stock) 0.0093 2 2
9. BA:4.5 (establishment) –
100 mL stock 0.2 2.25 0.12
:0.225 ppm (reagent) –
100 mL stock
10. Sugar 30 g 20 g 20 g
11. Activated charcoal 0.25 g 0.25 g
12. Gulaman bars 7g 6g

Preparing the explants
z Use gloves in washing the corms/suckers under tap water. Trim

the roots, outer leaf sheaths, and corms, leaving about 2.5 cm3
of the corms with the shoot tip or apex.
z Place the trimmed corms in a clean polyethylene bag (good
enough for 10 corms).
z Wash the trimmed corms with soap solution. Rinse, drain, and
soak in 30% commercial bleach (1.57% NaOCl) for 30 minutes.
If the intention is to use 5–6 cm-sized corms, soak them in 90%
commercial bleach for 30 minutes.
z Decant the bleach solution.
Establishing the initial culture
LE
z In the culture room, cut the corms further into 1 cm3. Make sure
that the cube still contains the shoot apex.
SA
z Cut the shoots longitudinally to produce explants containing the
shoot tip and inoculate them into the culture media.
z Place three to four sections or tissues in each jar and incubate
R
at 26oC in the culture shelves.

FO
z Expose to artificial light for 16 hours daily for four weeks inside
an air-conditioned room. Make sure to maintain the required
temperature.
T
Multiplying the shoots/buds

O
N
z After three weeks, when the explants have already proliferated,

subdivide the shoot cluster into two or four sections depending on the
size.
z After another three weeks, examine the culture. Subculture again.
Subculture up to eight cycles at a three-week cycle each.
Rooting
z For rooting, transfer the bigger shoots individually into milk bottles
containing either a solid or liquid rooting medium. For the rooting
medium, add a rooting hormone like IAA. For small clusters of
shoots/buds, inoculate back into the multiplication medium until they
can be transferred to a rooting medium.

z Incubate the subcultures at 26oC for 16 hours daily for two weeks.
z Control insect pests such as aphids, mites, and mealybugs by
spraying with insecticides every two weeks. Prevent the spread of
leaf diseases such as Sigatoka and leaf spots by sanitizing the stems
and leaves, roguing the infected plants, or spraying with fungicides.
z Water the plants whenever necessary.
z Expose the plants gradually to full sunlight within four weeks before
field establishment.
Requirements for the tissue culture laboratory
The operation of a tissue culture laboratory cannot be dissociated

from the nursery operation. Meristems produced in the tissue culture
laboratory are reared in the nursery before they can be transplanted
after two or three months. Most of the personnel, fixtures, furniture,
LE
equipment, facilities and space are shared among the laboratory,
the nursery, and the office. Manpower requirement is shown in
SA
Appendix 1.

R
FO
Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus
Item Unit Cost

No. Qty. Unit Item Price (P) (P)
T
O
1 1 set Distilling apparatus 195,000 195,000

2 1 set Analytical balance 166,980 166,980
N
3 1 set Double laminar flow hood 150,000 150,000

4 1 set Toploading balance 80,000 80,000
5 1 unit pH meter 45,000 45,000
6 1 unit Hotplate magnetic stirrer 35,000 35,000
7 4 unit Pressure cooker 28,000 112,000
8 1 set Computer with printer 25,000 25,000
9 4 unit Air conditioner (2 hp) 23,000 92,000
10 1 unit Refrigerator (20 cu ft) 12,000 12,000
11 1 unit Mobile phone 4,000 4,000
12 1 unit Fire extinguishers 4,000 4,000
13 5 unit Wood box transfer chambers 3,500 17,500
14 1 unit Land line telephone 3,000 3,000
15 3 pc Office table 2,500 7,500
16 1 unit Heavy duty gas stove 2,500 2,500

Item Unit Cost
17 2 unit Refillable gas tank (50 kg cap) 2,500 5,000

18 1 pc Volumetric flask (2,000 mL Pyrex) 2,100 2,100
19 1 set Stove accessories 2,000 2,000
20 2 pc Beakers, plastic (5,000 mL) 1,500 3,000
21 2 pc UV lamp tube (30 watts) 1,350 2,700
22 1 pc Volumetric flask (1,000 mL Pyrex) 1,300 1,300
23 6 pc Adjustable propagator’s chair 1,250 7,500
24 6 pc Office chairs 1,200 7,200
25 8 pc UV lamp tube (15 watts) 1,200 9,600
26 6 pc Scissor forceps 1,200 7,200
27 6 pc Stool (high chair 0.68 m) 1,000 6,000
28 6 pc Amber bottles (3L cap) 875 5,250
29 1 pc Magnetic stirrer retriever 750 750
LE
30 6 pc Coupling jar (aluminum) 600 3,600
31 1 pc Respiratory gas mask 550 550
32 3 pc Beakers, plastic (2,000 mL) 510 1,530
SA
33 1 pc Graduated cylinder, clear ( 1,000 mL) 507 507
34 2 pc Casserole (30 L cap) 500 1,000
35 3 pair Scissors 450 1,350
36 3 pc Aluminum stirring rod (0.30 m) 350 1,050
R
37 6 pc Laboratory gown 350 2,100

FO
38 2 pc Knife 350 700

39 3 pc Beakers, plastic (1,000 mL) 292 876
40 1 pc Scotch tape dispenser 250 250
41 4 pc Chopping board 250 1,000
T
42 2 pc Slashing bolo 200 400

43 2 pc Tumbling bolo 200 400
O
44 1 pc Puncher 180 180

N
45 2 pc Pipette (50 mL) 180 360

46 2 pc Pipette (10 mL) 175 350
47 8 pc Carbuoy alcohol lamp (20 L cap) 160 1,280
48 3 pc Goggles 160 480
49 12 pc Apron 150 1,800
50 2 pc Clear graduated cylinder ( 10 mL) 125 250
51 3 pc Sharpening stone 125 375
52 3 pc Heavy duty stapler 120 360
53 15 pc Plastic trays 80 1,200
54 6 pc Atomizer 75 450
55 12 pc Fluorescent tubes ( 20 watts) 70 840
56 6 pc Thumb forcep 70 420
57 6 pc Surgical blade handle no. 4 55 330
58 15 pc Cap 40 600

Item Unit Cost
59 3 pc Staple remover 20 60
60 5,000 pc San Miguel packet jars (0.18 L) 7 35,000
61 5,000 pc San Miguel packet jars (0.12 L) 6 30,000
62 7,000 pc Magnolia bottles (nos.1–3) 6 42,000
63 24 pc Mask 5 120
Total 1,142,848
Supplies
Item Unit Cost

LE
1 25 kg Agar-agar 1,500 37,500
2 1,500 L Coco water 10 15,000
SA
3 2,500 pc Test tube rubber stopper 5 11,250
4 1 set Assorted office supplies 10,000 10,000
5 1 drum Ethyl alcohol 9,500 9,500
6 1,500 pc Corms/suckers 5 7,500
R
7 100 gal Purified water 60 6,000

FO
8 1 unit Fectant-3 5,500 5,500

9 4 load LPG (50 kg) 1,300 5,200
10 1 roll Welded mesh wire 0.6 cm eye 5,000 5,000
11 50 kg Detergent powder 60 3,000
T
12 1 roll Heavy duty welded mesh

wire 2.5 cm eye 3,000 3,000
O
13 2 bag White sugar 1,350 2,700

14 3 roll Surgical gauze ( 0.9 x
N
91.4 m) 750 2,250

15 25 roll Cotton (400 g) 80 2,000
16 10 kg Rubber band 175 1,750
17 1 pc Surgical blade no. 22 1,200 1,200
18 25 bot Rubbing alcohol ( 70%
isopropyl 500 mL) 45 1,125
19 100 kg Scratch paper 10 1,000
20 6 pc Leather slippers 150 900
21 10 gal Zonrox 60 600
22 3 cone Crochet thread 135 405
23 5 pack Flat tissue paper 65 325
24 6 pc Household gloves 48 288
25 12 pc Towel 24 288
26 10 pc Bottle brush 25 250

Item Unit Cost
27 10 pc Rubber slippers 25 250

28 2 roll Heavy duty aluminum foil 120 240
29 10 pc Disposable lighter 15 150
30 2 pack Precut tissue paper 65 130
Total 134,301
Chemicalsa
Item Qty. Unit Unit Cost

No. (in bottle) Item Price (P) (P)
1 10 500 g Ammonium nitrate 1,025 10,250
LE
2 10 500 g Potassium nitrate 1,025 10,250
3 1 1 kg Sodium EDTA 10,000 10,000
4 1 100 g Biotin 9,420 9,420
SA
5 1 1g Benzyl adenine 9,420 9,420
6 1 1g Folic acid 5,760 5,760
7 3 25 g Thiamine HCl 1,690 5,070
8 3 25 g Naphthalene acetic acid 1,500 4,500
R
9 6 500 g Zinc sulfate 667 4,002

FO
10 1 100 g Myo-inositol 3,810 3,810

11 1 500 g Cobalt chloride 3,187 3,187
12 1 1 kg Activated carbon powder 2,500 2,500
13 1 1 kg Potassium permanganate 2,400 2,400
T
14 1 25 g Pyridoxine HCl 2,362 2,362

15 1 100 g Glycine 2,280 2,280
O
16 3 500 g Magnesium sulfate

N
(MgSO4.7H2O) 620 1,860

17 3 500 g Calcium chloride 612 1,836
18 1 500 g Sodium molybdate 1,830 1,830
19 1 500 g Potassium iodide 1,800 1,800
20 1 1L Buffer solution no. 6 1,800 1,800
21 1 23 g I-NAA 1,740 1,740
22 2 500 g Potassium phosphate 862 1,724
23 2 2.5 L Formalin AR (formaldehyde) 840 1,680
24 2 2.5L Hydrochloric acid 712 1,424
25 1 100 g Nicotinic acid 1,400 1,400
26 2 500 g Boric acid 650 1,300
29 1 500 g Copper sulfate 960 960
30 1 2.5 L Acetone 712 712

Item Qty. Unit Unit Cost
No. (in bottle) Item Price (P) (P)
31 1 100 g Magnesium sulfate

(MgSO4.4H2O) 576 576
32 1 500 g Sodium hydroxide 500 500
33 1 50 g Ferrous sulfate 160 160
Total 108,565
a
All chemicals quoted are in the smallest packaging.
Establishing a Banana Nursery
In the Philippines, banana corms or suckers are not normally

produced in nurseries. They are usually ordered and bought from banana
LE
farms at a designated time. No information on nurseries maintained
specifically for corms or suckers is available.
SA
The banana nursery discussed here is specifically for tissue culture
plantlets. Clients can modify some requirements if there is a need to set
up a nursery for corms or suckers.
R
Once the decision to establish a commercial banana farm is made,

it becomes necessary to put up a nursery as a year-round source of
FO
planting materials. The planting materials may be meristems that are

produced in a tissue culture laboratory or suckers and seed pieces from
corms. Meristems are reared for two to three months in the nursery
T
before being planted on the farm.

O
The nursery area is about 2,900 m2. It has a hardening area,

pathways/canals, a bagging area, and an office/bodega. It can be made
N
of either a bamboo framework or G.I. (galvanized iron) pipes that will

have a capacity of 100,000 plantlets per month. It must have good
ventilation, a good source of water, and good drainage. It must be located
in an exposed area that is not too far from the laboratory. The laboratory
should not be located along the roadways.
Technology
Roofing and Netting
z Use bamboo poles as posts and beams. For the long term, use G.I.
pipes (2.5 cm and 5.1 cm). The distance between posts should be
5 m for G.I. pipes or 2.5 m for bamboo poles.

z Construct the roof with a 2.4-m height.
z Use fishnets in four layers.
Flooring Materials
z Put gravel and sand (3–5-cm thick) over the topsoil for flooring.
z Provide enough walkway.
z Elevate the floor at least 10 cm from the level of the walkway.
Acclimatizing or Hardening the Tissue Culture Plantlets
z Place the subcultures in a screen house with 80% shade. Harden

rooted cultures for one week.
Potting Out in the Nursery
LE
Prepare the potting media using the following: a) 1 part coir dust plus
SA
5 parts decomposed sawdust or b) 5 parts sawdust plus 1 part rice
hull plus 1 part compost. Fill the plastic (black) bag with soil mixture
to capacity.
R
z Bag out rooted shoots when they have three to four expanded
FO
leaves, generally after four to six weeks in the rooting medium.

z Carefully remove the hardened plants from the jar. Wash thoroughly
to remove the media residues. Sort out according to size and place
in a tray.
T
z Prepare a systemic fungicide (e.g., Aliette) solution in an appropriate

O
container. Dip the roots of the plantlets quickly and allow the
N
residues to drip in the same tray.

z Plant the medium- and large-sized (up to 12.7 cm) plantlets in the
prepared plastic bag. For small plants, prick in trays containing
sterilized potting media. Place all the plantlets in a nursery with a net.
z Leave the small plantlets in the nursery for another 10–15 days, and
plant.
• Water the plantlets at the establishment stage as this stage is critical.
Do not over water to prevent rotting.

Fertilizing
z Apply fertilizer a month after planting following the table below.

Age Method of
(week) Fertilizer Frequency Mixture Application
1 No fertilization
2–3 Foliar twice a week 1 tbsp/L spraying
water
Foliar (19-19-19) once a week 5 g/L water drenching
4 Foliar (19-19-19) or once a week 5 g/L water spraying or
drenching
Solid (14-14-14) once a month 3 g/bag topdressing
LE
Managing Pests
Chemicala Frequency Mixture Time of Spray Application
SA
Captan 50 WP once a week 2 g/L Early morning and late
afternoon
Dithane M-45 once a week 2 g/L Early morning and late
R
afternoon
FO
Decis once a week 0.5 mL/L Early morning and late

afternoon
Malathion every 2 weeks 1.2 mL/L Early morning and late
afternoon
T
a
O
The brand names given above are only examples of many other recommended
fungicides and insecticides. Use banana oil or stickers to improve the effectivity of the
pesticides.
N

Labor, Materials, and Rental

Unit Price Cost
Quantity Item (P) (P)
Rental Nursery area (2,900 m2) 5,000

Construction materials:
250 pc Bamboo posts (2.5 x 2.5 m) 30 7,500
200 pc Bamboo beam/rafter (10 m) 25 5,000
24 rolls Net (orchid net) 90 m/roll 2,500 60,000
3 kg Nylon twine 220 660
10 kg Tie wire no. 12 40 400
4 kg Common nails no. 2 27 108
LE
Total SA 78,868
Structure and Facilities

Item Cost (P)
R
Construction of nursery area 5,000

FO
Raised plantlet beds or plots 2,500

Sections containing growth medium, blending
and bagging, store room office/rest house 50,000
Rest room (labor and materials) 10,000
T
Total 62,500
O
N
Equipment and Tools

4 pc Wheel barrow 2,000 8,000

4 pc Shovel 300 1,200
2 pc Rake 250 500
2 pc Bolo 200 400
3 pc Grass hook 150 450
1 unit Power sprayer (1 hp) 15,000 15,000
1 unit Weighing scale (25 kg) 1,200 1,200
Total 26,750

Supplies and Materials
25,000 pc Black bags (15.2 x 15.2 x 0.003 cm) 0.50 12,500

300 bags Coir dust 30 9,000
3 pc Plastic drums 800 2,400
3 pc Complete fertilizer (14-14-14) 400 1,200
20 kg Crop Giant (19-19-19) 94 1,880
1L Decis 1,200 1,200
20 kg Captan 40EC 350 7,000
1L Malathion 240 240
1L Lorsban 365 365
10 L Algafer 115 1,150
1L Karate 915 915
20 kg Dithane 350 7,000
2 pairs Rubber boots 250 500
LE
2 pc Gas mask 300 600
Total 45,950
SA
Labor Requirements for Nursery Operation
R
FO
The requirements are already subsumed in the laboratory portion.

T
Operating a Tissue Culture Laboratory,

a Nursery, and an Office
O
N
The cash flow for operating a commercial tissue culture laboratory

that can produce 25,000 meristems per week and a complementary
nursery that can accommodate 100,000 at any given time is given in
Appendix 1. If the plan is to establish a smaller laboratory and nursery
of about one-fourth the capacity of the given model, the cost of the
laboratory hardware may be reduced. The glassware, chemicals,
laboratory and nursery supplies, and manpower may also be reduced
proportionally.

Establishing a Banana Farm
Before establishing a banana farm, which may range from a

backyard to a 20-ha farm, it is best to do the following:
z Determine the suitability of the prospective site by getting the

necessary requirements such as climatic data; rainfall
distribution; soil analysis; and soil properties such as depth,
texture, and pH.
z Conduct a feasibility study to serve as a guide on the anticipated
cost of establishing a banana farm, payout time, and expected
LE
profit.
z Prepare a plantation layout that includes drainage and irrigation;
SA
road network; building that will serve as a packinghouse; office
and accommodation for farm personnel; and a communication
system.
R
z Check labor availability.

FO
The following services can be contracted out at a cost of P2,500:

sketch of property; physical and chemical analysis of soil sample;
topographic survey and soil classification; and farm layout.
T
O
Establishing a Drainage System

N
Bananas require adequate drainage. A drainage system is important

in waterlogged areas. A good drainage system enhances soil aeration
and provides adequate oxygen in the root zone, preferably at a depth of
1.2–1.5 m. It gets rid of flood and stagnant water at the soil surface,
reducing yield losses (Figs. 2, 3, and 4). It is also used to impound water
during prolonged dry spells (Fig. 5). Hence, the drainage system must
be maintained regularly (Fig. 6).
A good drainage enhances the uptake of soil nutrients; prevents
leaf- and soil-borne diseases; and aids in developing better roots and in
producing quality fruits.

LE
SA
Fig. 2. A flooded banana farm.
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 3. Twisted fingers,

hands, and bunch
and “bunching”
because of more
than 48 hours of
flooding.

Fig. 4. An aborted bunch as a
LE
result of prolonged
floods of 48 hours or
SA
more.
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 5. A minidam (left) to impound water in a drainage canal, and an

adequate supply of impounded water (right) during El Niño.

LE
SA
Fig. 6. A well-maintained drainage canal.
Technology
R
FO
A drainage system has the following: primary or main canals,

secondary canals, tertiary canals, and supplementary ditches. The
supplementary ditches are designed to drain very small areas not
indicated in the topography map. Table 3 shows the characteristics of
T
each type.
O
N
Labor
For installation
Activity Cost (P)/ha
Main canal excavation 11,000

Secondary canal excavation 10,000
Tertiary canal excavation 9,787
Tertiary canal soil spreading 2,900
“Boquete” excavation/silted stagnant water 2,333
Total 36,020

24
Table 3. Characteristics of drainage system types.
Indicator Primary or Main Canals Secondary Canals Tertiary Canals Supplementary Ditches
Spacing Usually spaced 800 m apart, Generally 400–600 m From 20 to 100 m apart Depends on soil surface
but may be more or less, apart depending on soil depending on soil gradient
depending on the terrain, properties and land properties and land
soil texture, topography, conditions conditions
rainfall, and other
N
environmental conditions
O
Direction Depends on land
TPreferably at right angles At right angles to the Depends on the local

physiography to the main canals. secondary canals topography and the
However, it may vary spacing
depending on the terrain
FO
of the area R
Ratio of depth 1:1 1:1 1.5:1–1:1 1:0.5–1:1
to width
Depth Usually 4–5 m but of Normally about 3 m To provide the minimum About 1.5 m or less depending
SA
sufficient depth to allow 1.5-m drainage on the area to be drained
approximately 1.5 m at
the end of tertiary canals
LE
Gradient From 0.05% to 0.25% (i.e., From 0.05 to 0.25% About 0.05% depending Depends on local topography
0.5–2.5 m per 1,000 m on topography
of length)
For maintenance (deepening)a
Cycles/ Cost (P)/ha Total Cost
Component m3/MD Year per Cycle (P)/ha per Year
Primary canal 9 2 320 640

Secondary canal 10 2 480 960
Tertiary canal 13 2 1,600 3,200
Total 4,800
a
Deepening covers side slashing and a minimum depth of 0.30 m of silt, soil, and trashes.
Total cost of drainage installation and maintenance

Amount (P)
LE
Item Year 1 Year 2a Year 3a Year 4a
Labor
SA
For installationb 36,020 - - -
For maintenancec 4,800 5,280 5,808 6,388
Total 40,820 5,280 5,808 6,388

R
a
FO
Assumption: 10% increase in cost per year per hectare.

b
Breakdown of cost for installation is indicated on page 23.
c
Breakdown of cost for maintenance is indicated above.
T
Clearing and Preparing the Land

O
N
Land preparation maximizes the potential of the land in producing

quality banana fruits over a long time (Fig. 7). It is accomplished by
ripping (sub soiling), plowing, and harrowing to improve soil conditions.
For smallholders farming 1 ha or less, heavy equipment is not
necessary; animal-drawn plowing and harrowing will suffice. In sloping
areas, clearing the area and digging planting holes will suffice.
Moreover, the drainage system should be laid out and installed
before land cultivation.
Technology
z Remove or burn all trees and logs. Other nonwoody plants should
be cut into small pieces and plowed into the soil.

LE
SA
Fig. 7. Preparing the land and staking the banana plants.
R
z Lay out, by using markers, the road network, including the drainage
FO
system.
z Level the irregular soil surface and provide slight slope areas to
avoid water ponding.
Use a ripper in ripping or subsoiling in the center of the block,
T
between the two tertiary canals. Finish ripping along the tertiary
O
drainage canals to ensure a more uniform land level and prevent

N
water ponding.
z Harrow the land once to incorporate the applied soil ameliorants
(e.g., lime).
z Establish the road network of the banana farm by bulldozing.
The equipment to establish the road network and drainage system

described in Table 4 can be rented. However, the whole operation can
be done manually or by hired labor.

Table 4. Equipment needed to establish a road network and a drainage system.
Equipment Description Use
D-7 caterpillar, K-10 With dozer blade attach- Land clearing

Hanomag or ment to remove trees
equivalenta or logs from the area
to be planted
Towner harrowa A serrated 4-gang disc Clearing and final
(0.51 m diameter to plowing
knockdown and
uproot herbaceous
plants)
Stump cuttera A heavy-framed 2-gang Chopping herbaceous
implement consisting and small woody
of 0.8 m diameter blades plants into small
LE
spaced at 0.3 m. The pieces
rear seven blades are
arranged in such a way
SA
that each blade is in
between the two
blades of the front gang.
R
Disc plowa A 6-bottom overhead with Plowing, pulverizing

a disc diameter of 0.8 m, soil, and final
FO
provided with individual plowing

disc scraper, land and
furrow wheels, and a
T
drag to level the

O
pulverized soil
Davis plowa A 6-disc gang implement Plowing, uprooting,
N
that can also be used and knocking down

for uprooting of corms weeds
Heavy duty plowa A single moldboard plow Plowing
with a length of 2.2 m
weighing about
one ton
Depth of cut = 0.66 m–0.81 m
Width of cut = 0.76–0.91 m
Tractor speed = 2nd to 3rd gear
Plow rate/hour = 0.25 ha
Animal-drawn plow Plowing and harrowing
and harrow
a
Applicable to medium- and large-size farms or plantations.

Manpower
Activitya Cost (P)/ha
Dozing/leveling/sloping 32,785
Ripping 10,000
Moldboard plowing 4,000
Harrowing 2,582
Road clearing 1,813
Total 51,180
a
The amount includes both the rental of equipment and manpower cost.
LE
Lining and Staking
Bananas are planted in various planting patterns to ease movement

SA
inside the farm and to maximize the plants’ exposure to sunlight. Lining
is done to achieve straight-row planting and straight spacing between
plants in a row at any given planting pattern. Lining allows convenience
R
in predetermining the actual number of hills per unit area.

FO
Technology
Use a transit and nylon twine or wire, premarked or knotted at a

T
predetermined planting distance.

O
z Mark each planting spot with a stake to guide the planting crew.
N
Orient the rows along drainage canals, cable ways or road networks,
or perpendicular to the path of the sun, from sunrise to sunset.
z Use a nylon twine to establish two base lines that are perpendicular
to each other (for small farms). Put a reference stake at one corner
of the land at half the predetermined planting distance from the
fence. Tie one end of the nylon twine that is knotted at a predetermined
planting distance and extend the other end up to the opposite side of
the land. Do the same for the second twine toward the other side of
the land, forming a right angle. Stake the knotted parts of the twines
and use these as references in staking the other rows.

z Choose the planting pattern or plant arrangements (Fig. 8) from
the following:
For smallholders
- Rectangular system – when using bamboo props
- Square system
For mechanized plantation

- Double-hedge rows – when using aerial props and cable,
fertigation, tractor-drawn, or power sprayer
z Choose the number of plants per hill from the following:
- Single plant per hill (for double-hedge rows)

- Alternate single and double plants per hill (for rectangular and
LE
square system)
- Triple plants per hill (along roadsides and canals)
SA
z Estimate the planting distance depending on the following:
R
- Variety or cultivar (for tall varieties like 'Saba,' 'Giant Cavendish,'

FO
and 'Lakatan,' wider distance; for dwarf varieties like 'Grand

Naine' and 'Dwarf Cavendish,' closer distance)
- Soil type or land class (the poorer the soil type like sandy/
infertile soil, the closer the distance; the more fertile the soil, the
T
wider the distance)

O
- Planting pattern (the distance between double-hedge rows is

N
wider than the distance between plants; for the rectangular

system, the distance is wider between rows and the distance is
closer between plants in the row; for the square system, the
spacing is equidistant)

Double-hedge rows
1.5–2.0 m
1.5–
2.0
m
4–5 m
m
2.0
1.5–
LE
Rectangular system
1 2
SA
1
R
2
FO
1 2
T
1.5–2.0 m
O
N
2–3 m
Square system
2m
2m
Fig. 8. Systems of growing banana.


1 pc Steel tape 150 150

1 kg Polyethylene twine 76 76
2,000 pc Bamboo stakes (1.0 m) 0.02 40
1 pc Triangular frame (30 x 40 x 50 cm) 50 50
Total 316
Labor
Activity MD)/ha Cost (P)/MD Cost (P)/ha
LE
Lining and stakinga 4 160 640
SA
Total 640
a
Two line men and two stakers.
R
FO
Total cost of lining and staking operation

Item Amount (P)
Supplies and materialsa 316

T
Laborb 640
O
Total 956
N
a
Breakdown of cost of supplies and materials is indicated above.
b

Planting
One of the most important cultural practices that determine the

ultimate outcome of a banana farm is the technique of planting. Healthy
and strong tissue-cultured plantlets or appropriately treated corms and
suckers must be used.
Technology
z Start planting as soon as the drainage system is established and the

land preparation is completed.
z Follow the following planting distances, considering the variety to be
planted, and the land classification: 1.5–2.0 m between plants in a
row; 2.0–3.0 m between rows; and 4.0–5.0 m between double-
hedge rows. These specifications may yield a population density
LE
ranging from 1,667 to 3,333 plants per hectare.
z Plant at the start of or during the rainy season; also if irrigation is
SA
available.
z Dig the planting holes of about 30–40 cm3. Prepare 2 kg of compost
or organic fertilizer and 0.33 kg of the recommended ameliorants
R
(i.e., 0.22 kg of calcic lime and 0.11 kg of dolomitic limestone) and

FO
mix them with the soil in the hole.

z For tissue-cultured plantlets, prepare 1–2 kg of organic fertilizer plus
0.2 kg of the recommended inorganic fertilizers (ammonium
sulfate–20% N; super phosphate–20% P2O5; and muriate of
T
potash–60% K2O), and 0.33 kg of ameliorants.

O
z Haul early the required quantity of planting materials to the field.

N
Leave the remaining planting materials in the nursery for

replanting.
z Distribute the planting materials in strategically located areas so that
planters can readily access them. Cover the planting materials with
appropriate materials to protect them from excessive heat.
z Distribute the planting materials on each stake.
z Properly place the planting material into the hole, cover it with soil
to not more than 6 cm, and firm it up with the foot.

Supplies and Material

2,005 pc Plantlets 12 24,060

2 pc Spades or shovels 200 400
5 pc Calibrated containers 20 100
5 pc Bucket (37.8 L) 160 800
Fertilizersa:
4t Farm manure 2,400 9,600
4.4 bags Ammonium sulfate (20-0-0) 270 1,188
1.76 bags Super phosphate (0–20-0) 240 423
2.2 bags Muriate of potash (0-0-60) 420 924
Ameliorantsa:
8.8 bags Calcic lime (35% Ca) 50 440
LE
4.4 bags Dolomitic limestone 95 418
Total 38,353
SA
a
The recommended fertilizers and ameliorants will vary depending on soil analysis.
R
Labora
FO
Activity MDb Cost (P)/ha
Hauling, holing, applying fertilizers and 6.0 960

mixing with soil inside the planting holec
T
Distributing planting materials in staked spots 0.5 80

O
Planting 2.0 320

N
Total 1,360
a
Requirements to plant 1 ha at a population density of 2,000 hills.
b
At P160/MD.
c
Hauling 13 bags fertilizers; holing 2,000 holes/ha.

Total Cost of the Planting Operation
Item Amount (P)
Supplies and materialsa 38,353

Laborb 1,360
Total 39,713
a
Breakdown of cost of supplies and materials is indicated on page 33.
b
Breakdown of cost of labor is indicated on page 33.
LE
SA
R
FO
T
O
N

Replanting
It is normal to have some planting materials that die. They should be

replaced within eight weeks so that they can catch up with the initial
plants. Off-types like mutants should also be replaced. Replanting
restores the desired population density.
Technology
z Determine the number of dead hills.

z Use the remaining plants maintained in the nursery for replanting.
Labor
LE
Activity MD/ha Cost (P)/MD Cost (P)/ha
SA
Replanting 1 160 160
Total 160
R
FO
T
O
N

Plant Care Operations
Sanitation
Base Cleaning and Ring Weeding
Base cleaning, together with ring weeding, removes the hiding

places of insect pests, specially the corm weevils.
Technology
LE
z Remove trash and grasses around the base of the mat within a radius
of 0.60–0.75 m.
SA
z Do not cut or damage the mother plant and the followers (suckers).
z Clean the base and ring weed before fertilization, population control,
and stem and mat spray operation.
R

FO
Materials/Tools
Unit Price Cost (P)/ha
T
Quantity Item (P) per year

O
2 pc Sickle 150 300

N
2 pc Slashing bolo 200 400

2 pc Sharpening stones
(2.5 x 5.1 x 20.3 cm) 100 200
Total 900

Labor
Cost (P) Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha /MD per year
Base cleaning/ring weedinga 2 160 2,560
Total 2,560
a
At eight cycles per year. This activity is an integral part of controlling plant population,
cutting dropped bunches, chopping mediocre bunches, removing dried leaf sheaths,
cutting dried stumps (50% rotten), filling dried leaf sheaths/stumps, base cleaning at
1-m radius, and removing other obstacles.
Total Cost of Base Cleaning and Ring Weeding Operation

Amount (P)
LE
Materialsb 900 990 1,089 1,197
Laborc 2,560 2,816 3,098 3,408
SA
Total 3,460 3,806 4,187 4,605
a
R
b
Breakdown of cost of materials/tools is indicated on page 36.
c
FO
Leaf Pruning or Trimming

T
O
Leaf pruning or trimming reduces the source and the spread of the
inoculum, especially that of the black leaf streak or Sigatoka. It is done
N
13 times or more a year depending on disease pressure.
Technology
z Cut all nonfunctional and disease-infected leaves.

z Pile all the cut leaves along the rows at a little distance away from
the base of the plant.

Materials/Tools
Quantity Item (P) per Year
1 pc Pruning knife 150 150

1 pc Bamboo pole 8 8
Total 158
Labor
Cost (P) Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha /MD per Year
LE
Leaf pruning or Trimming 13 160 2,080
Total 2,080
SA
Total Cost of Leaf Pruning or Trimming Operation
R
Amount (P)
FO
Materials/Toolsb 158 174 191 210

T
Laborc 2,080 2,288 2,517 2,769

O
Total 2,238 2,462 2,708 2,979

N
a
b
Breakdown of cost of materials/tools is indicated above.
c

Stem and Mat Sanitation
This operation (Fig. 9) gets rid of the habitat of insect pests,

particularly aphids, mealybugs, thrips, and corm weevils; exposes
aphids, mealybugs, and thrips to heavy rains, direct sunlight, and
insecticide sprays that adversely affect their life systems; and improves
the look of the farm/plantation.
Technology
z Cut the dried portions of the leaf sheaths left after leaf pruning.
z Cut the base of dried or semi-dried harvest stumps.
z Remove the weeds and debris from the base of the mat to enhance
proper growth and to improve fertilizer placement.
Requirements
LE
SA
The requirements for stem and mat sanitation are the same as that
of base cleaning and ring weeding.
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 9. Stem (left) and mat (right) spray for the control of aphids and
mealybugs.

Stem Sanitation after Harvest
This operation eliminates dead stumps that may harbor pests in the
farm. Removing the decayed pseudostem helps destroy the life cycle of
pests. This is done regularly at a 45-day cycle or eight times a year.
Technology
z Remove all dried bracts (15 cm from the dried portion) to expose
mealybugs and all other insects dwelling inside the bracts.
z Cut carefully the dead stumps using a bar. Avoid inflicting damage
to the mother plant and the followers (suckers) while cutting the
stumps.
Requirements
LE
The requirements for stem sanitation after harvest are the same as
SA
that of base cleaning and ring weeding.
Stem and Mat Spray

R
FO
Stem and mat spray controls the aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa

Coq. It is also a supplemental control for mealybugs, scarring beetle,
and thrips. This operation requires a power sprayer to cover wider areas
in a shorter time and to cope with the required interval between spray
T
cycles. If a power sprayer is not available, a knapsack sprayer may be

O
used.
N
This operation is done six times a year depending on the degree of

pest infestation.
Technology
z Prepare all the materials required (see chemicals under supplies and
materials).
z Mix appropriate chemicals (i.e., 7.9 L water, 320 mL Basudin 60
EC, 11.8 mL Sumithion, 17.8 mL Lorsban, and 3.9 mL Decis).
z Spray the pseudostem, starting from the base going up to the base
of the leaf petiole, but avoid directly hitting the fruits to prevent
possible phytotoxicity. Other precautionary measures include

conducting stem sanitation before stem and mat spraying, mixing
spray solution thoroughly; avoiding spraying when there is rain or
eminent rain; and avoiding spraying against the direction of the wind.

1 pc Drum 600 600

Calibrated cupsa
1 pc Graduated cylinder
(100 mL capacity) 250 250
1 pc Pail 50 50
LE
Chemicals:b
320 mL Basudin 60 EC 462 (/ L) 148
11.8 mL Sumithion 50 EC 240 (/ L) 3
SA
17.8 mL Lorsban 1,460 (/gal [4L]) 26
3.9 mL Decis 1,200 (/ L) 5
Total 1,082
R
FO
a
Used caps/cans could be used at no cost.
b
This is intended for a one-cycle operation and sprayed for 2,000 mats.
T
Equipment
O
Unit Price
Quantity Item (P) Cost (P)/ha
N
1 pc Knapsack sprayera 6,000 6,000

Total 6,000
a
Life span is two years.

Labor
Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha Cost (P)/MD per Year
Sprayinga 6 140 5,040
Total 5,040
a
Six cycles per hectare per year depending on the degree of pest infestation.
Total Cost of Stem and Mat Spray Operation

Amount (P)
LE
Supplies and materialsb 1,082 1,191 1,311 1,442
Depreciation of equipmentc 3,000 3,000 3,300 3,300
Labord 5,040 5,544 6,098 6,708
SA
Total 9,122 9,735 10,709 11,450
a
Assumption: 10% increase in cost per year per hectare except for the depreciation cost
R
that is dependent on the life span of the equipment.

b
FO
c
Breakdown of cost of equipment is indicated on page 41.
d
T
O
Fertilization
N
Banana requires large amounts of nutrients to produce the desired

bunch size and weight. Banana plant nutrition is very essential in
producing healthy plants to build up pest resistance and high-quality
fruits.
Fertilization supplies and maintains adequate and balanced nutrition
of the plant and replenishes the soil nutrients used up by the plants,
including losses due to leaching; volatilization; physical, chemical, and
biological nutrient fixation; and runoff.

Technology
Field fertilizer trial is the most accurate method of determining the

appropriate kinds and amounts of fertilizers to apply. However, this kind
of assessment is expensive, laborious, and time-consuming. Rapid,
inexpensive, and relatively dependable methods are soil and leaf
analyses.
Procedure for Soil Analysis
z Establish permanent sampling stations. For smallholdings, assign

permanent sampling rows.
z Collect random samples at least 40–70 cm away from the base of
the follower.
Get a soil sample from the soil surface down to 20 cm and another
LE
z
separate sample at 21–40 cm. Do the same in at least ten locations

to represent one soil class or soil group. The groupings will depend
SA
on soil texture, soil color, slope, or any other soil-differentiating
physical properties.
z Submit 1 kg of one composite sample to the Bureau of Soils and
R
Water Management (BSWM) near the locality or to other soil

FO
laboratories for analysis. The soil test value will indicate the kind and
amount of nutrient reserve in the soil. Follow the recommendations
of the laboratory.
T
Procedure for Leaf Analysis

O
N
z Select the plants that are at shooting to bending stage.

z Get the leaf lamina (third youngest fully opened leaf) on both sides
of the midrib at the midsection of the leaf. Take leaf strips from the
midrib to the margin.
z Sample at least ten plants to represent a soil class or soil group.
z Submit leaf samples to BSWM near the locality. The leaf test values
will reflect the kind and amount of nutrients that are in excess or
deficient and will be the other basis for formulating the fertilizers to
be applied. Follow the recommendations of the laboratory.

The paired soil and leaf samples should be taken from the same mat.
If laboratory analyses are not available, nutrient needs of the plants
may be manifested as deficiency symptoms in the leaves as described
by E. Lahav and Y. Israeli (1999) in Table 5.
Procedure for Fertilizer Application
For Solid Fertilization
z Formulate the correct amount and right kind of fertilizers and

ameliorants to be used based on the result of soil and leaf analyses.
z Mix the recommended kind and amount of fertilizers and ameliorants
per hectare in the working area.
z Haul the required quantity of mixed fertilizers for the day to the field
to prevent the leftover from caking when exposed to rains. Distribute
LE
around the area to be fertilized prior to actual application.
z Blend the mixture with an equal volume of soil from the planting hole
SA
as a basal treatment.
z For a standing crop, apply the fertilizer/ameliorant at 40–70 cm
away from the base of the mat and at “half-moon” oriented to the
R
follower.
FO
z In the highlands or undulating areas, deeply place or dibble the

fertilizers/ameliorants in two to three holes at the same distance and
orientation as above (Fig. 10).
Defer the application of fertilizers/ameliorants during periods of
T
prolonged dry spells and during successive heavy rains.

O
N
For Foliar Fertilization
Foliar fertilizer supplements soil fertilization. It helps correct nutrient

deficiencies, avoids fixation and leaching losses of applied nutrients in
the soil, and provides nutrients to the plant when nutrient uptake through
the roots is impeded by lack of soil moisture, root damage, or waterlogged
conditions.
z Do it immediately after prolonged dry spells and stop as soon as

normal rainfall is back. Apply foliar fertilizer when nutrient
deficiency symptoms appear, especially the micronutrients that
are needed in small amounts.
z Follow the recommended dosage of the product’s manufacturer.

Table 5. Symptoms of nutrient deficiency in banana leaves.
Age Symptoms Additional Element

of Leaf of Leaf Lamina Symptoms Lacking
All ages Uniform light-green or Pink petioles; stunted N

yellow coloration growth
Old "Sawtooth" marginal Petiole breaking; dark P

leaves chlorosis green-purple color
of young leaves
Midribs curving resulting Cu
in weeping, drooping
leaves
Yellow-orange and Leaf bending; rapid leaf K
brown scorching desiccation
LE
along margins
Marginal chlorosis Thickening veins; necrosis Ca
from margins inward;
SA
leaves deformed
Yellow discoloration in Limit of chlorotic borders Mg
midblade; midrib and not clearly defined;
R
margins remain green pseudostem

disintegrating
FO
Dirty yellow-green Mn
Young Yellow strips along veins Reddish coloration on Zn

T
leaves lower side of young

O
leaves
Yellow to almost white Fe
N
coloration with inter-

veinal chlorosis
Streaks across veins Leaf lamina incomplete B
Pale green to yellow Thickening of secondary S
coloration including veins; leaves deformed
veins

Fig. 10. Deep placement of
LE
fertilizer blend in a
rolling terrain.
SA
R
Materials
FO

4 pc Plastic pail containers 50 200

T
4 pc Calibrated tin (sardine) cans - -

2 pc Spades or shovels 300 600
O
Fertilizersa
N
23 bags Ammonium sulfate (20–0–0) 270 6,210

10 bags Urea (45–0–0) 410 4,100
1 bag Ammonium phosphate (18–46–0) 400 400
18 bags Muriate of potash (0–0–60) 420 7,560
80 bags Compost or organic fertilizer 120 9,600
Ameliorantsa
40 bags Calcic lime 40 1,600
80 bags Dolomitic limestone 60 4,800
Total 35,070
a
The recommended rate of fertilizers and ameliorants is based on ‘Cavendish’ banana
for export and on soil and leaf analyses. The rates are not fixed. This is just for
computation. For ‘Lakatan’ and other local varieties except ‘Saba,’ the rate may be
proportionally reduced by 10–30% depending on the population density and market
requirements. For ‘Saba’ or ‘Cardaba,’ the rates may be reduced further by 40–50%.

Equipment
Unit Price
1 pc Weighing scalea 8,000 8,000
Total 8,000
a
Labor
Cost/MD Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha (P) per Year
Hauling, mixing, applying,

and returning of sacks 33.6a 160 5,376
LE
Total 5,376
a
SA
The total is based on the efficiency of application of 7.5 bags/MD including hauling,
mixing, applying, and returning of bags.
R
Total Cost of Fertilization Operation

FO
Amount (P)

T
Materialsb 35,070 38,577 42,435 46,678

O
Depreciation cost
of equipmentc 4,000 4,000 4,400 4,400
N
Labord 5,376 5,914 6,505 7,156
Total 44,446 48,491 53,340 58,234

a
b
c
Breakdown of cost of equipment is indicated above.
d

Plant Population Control
Regularly pruning the suckers (Fig. 11) every six weeks, on

average, controls the plant population. The operation adjusts the population
density according to the desired fruit size, carrying capacity of the soil,
disease pressure, and field operations; obtains the desired chronological
production schedule based on market demand; and eliminates excess
suckers that are not used or marketed.
Plants with hanging bunches should not be considered as part of the
total plant population control because they will be cut after harvesting.
Technology
Three sucker pruning methods can be adopted: 1:1 practice or one

mother plant and one follower (sucker); 2:2 practice or two mother
LE
plants, one follower each; and 1:2 practice or one mother plant and two
followers.
SA
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 11. Sucker control at 1:1 mother-follower ratio.

A laborer can handle two rows per pass, following the length of the
block from end to end.
z Remove the old, dried, diseased, and/or broken leaves and those
leaves that come in contact with the fruit.
z Remove the weeds away from the base of the mat.
z Chop down fallen trunks or weak nonbearing plants and pile them
neatly between the rows.
z If suckers or corms are needed, mark them way ahead before the
sucker pruning operation. Mark by pruning the desired suckers to
about 5-cm high.
z Retain the first sucker and all sword suckers, and remove other
suckers that exceed the desired density in a hill.
For 1:1 method, retain the first sucker unless the following
conditions are prevalent: sucker is damaged; its growth and
LE
development are obstructed by the nearest neighboring plants; is
growing toward the canal, cable line, or road; and is located in such
SA
a position that its bunch will be damaged. Otherwise, retain the first
sword leaf sucker as a follower. For the 2:2 method, retain one
sucker for each mother plant. The suckers should almost be of
R
similar height. For the 1:2 method, retain the two suckers that are
FO
of almost similar heights.
Requirements
T
The requirements for materials and labor are the same as that of
O
base cleaning and ring weeding.

N

Irrigation
Banana requires a large amount of water. In the tropics, it has been

shown that banana requires from 1.0 to 1.4 x class A pan evaporation
per week (Stover and Simmonds 1987). The rainfall requirement of
‘Cavendish’ banana in Davao is 7–9 mm/day, or 196–252 mm/month.
These measurements may not be necessary for small banana farms, but
irrigation is commonly practiced in provinces or regions where there are
distinct wet and dry seasons.
Experiences in Davao show that during prolonged dry spells and
more severely during El Niño, banana plantation yields can drop from
40% to 70%. There had been instances where plantation operators gave
up the venture because of prolonged droughts. This suggests the need
for irrigation to save the farm investment during periods of droughts.
This can also happen to smallholders.
LE
Four irrigation systems are well known in banana farms. They are
the overhead irrigation system where sprinklers are installed above the
SA
canopy; the under-tree system where sprinklers are below the canopy;
the drip irrigation system; and the furrow irrigation system which
smallholders commonly use. Each has its own advantages and
R
disadvantages.
FO
Irrigation is an optional management practice for smallholders.

T
O
N

Fruit Care Operations
Propping
The aerial stem of banana entirely depends on the surrounding mass

of leaf sheaths for support. Such a limp structure is mechanically
incapable of supporting the vegetative portion of the plant and much less
in supporting a huge bunch. Physiologically, the pseudostem mainly
provides vascular connections from the roots to the leaves and to the
bunch. Hence, there is a need for a mechanical support by propping.
Propping supports the pseudostem in carrying a heavy bunch and
LE
preventing fruit losses. SA
Technology
The three methods of propping are cable propping, pole propping,

R
and guying. For large plantations, cable propping is practiced. For

smallholdings, pole propping and guying are more practical.
FO
Procedure for Pole Propping

T
z Prepare wooden or bamboo poles of appropriate size for propping.

O
The two common techniques are single propping and double

propping. In single propping, only a single pole is used to support the
N
plant. Two poles intersecting each other at the upper ends of the
poles to form an "x," wherein the base of the bunch is anchored, are
used in double propping. Another technique is called umbrella
propping, wherein one single big pole is installed at a point equidistant
to four or more plants and are anchored by a guy (rope).
z Bury the poles firmly into the ground close to the hill or cluster of
hills.
z Position the poles so that they will not touch or obstruct the
developing bunch.
z Slightly push the poles upward to tighten the hold on the stalk for
more stability and to make the plant more upright to reduce the risk
of tipping over.

z Tie the adjacent fruit-bearing plants for support.
z After propping, clear the bunch from all fruit obstructions.
Procedure for guying
Guying involves using a twine in tying the propped plant to two

adjacent plants for support.
z Tie the bunch with looped twine at the base.

z Pass an appropriate length of twine through the loop and make a
knot in the middle of the long twine so that both ends of the twine
are free.
z Tie the two ends of the twine to the stem, 0.6–0.9 m from the base
of two separate plants big enough to support the plant being propped
and located on the opposite side where the bud bunch had bent.

LE
SA
Material Specifications for Pole Propping
Variety
R
Item ‘Giant Cavendish’ ‘Dwarf Cavendish’

FO
Wooden pole
Lengtha (m) 5–6 3–5
T
Butt diameter (cm) 8–10 8–10

Tip (cm) 3–5 3–5
O
Bamboo pole
N
Length (m) 5–6 3–5

Butt diameter (cm) 10 (maximum) 10 (maximum)
Tip (cm) 2.5 (maximum) 2.5 (maximum)
Polytwine
Length (m) 1.0–1.5 1.0–1.5
a
Length of the pole depends on the height of the variety at fruiting.

Materials

4,000 pc Bamboo pole 7 28,000

4 kg Polytwine 220 880
Total 28,880
Labor
Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha Rate//MD Cyclea per Year
LE
Propping 0.33 160 once a week or 2,534
48 weeks/year
SA
Total 2,534
a
Based on an average shooting rate of nine buds per hectare per day or a harvest spread
of six months per year and a population density of 2,000 hills per hectare.
R
FO
Total Cost of Propping Operation

Amount (P)
T

O
Materialsb 28,880 31,768 34,945 38,440

N
Laborc 2,534 2,787 3,066 3,372
Total 31,414 34,555 38,011 41,812

a
b
Breakdown of cost of materials is indicated above.
c

Removing Fruit Obstacles
The operation can be integrated with bunch spraying, bud injection,

and leaf pruning. It avoids or minimizes bruising and malformation of
young developing fruits.
Technology
z Remove fruit obstruction like spadices, flag leaves, and follower

leaves, and relocate props that touch the bunch.
Requirements
The requirements for materials and labor are the same as that of leaf
pruning or trimming.
LE
SA
Bunch Spraying
Bunch spraying is regularly done to protect the fruits from fungal

R
infection and insect damage. It is done from the time the first hand is out
FO
until the bunch is due for bagging.
Technology
T
Mixing Procedure
O
N
Centralized mixing is recommended.
z Mix in a mixing tank the recommended chemicals and dosage

enough for a one-day operation. Wear a respirator (cartridge type)
for safety while mixing and spraying.
Bunch Spray Procedure
z Remove fruit obstacles before spraying.

z Start spraying from the bended floral stem down to the bud and then
reverse with a total swath of eight for the two different positions.
z Be sure that the four sides of the bunch are sprayed. The dosage per
hand ranges from 8 to 10 mL depending on the size of the bunch.

z Direct the nozzle 25–30 cm from the bunch.
z Spray with full pressure.
z Do not spray when raining. Re-spray the bunch after a heavy
downpour before bagging.
z Spray all bunches before bagging the fruits.
z Stir the spray solution as often as necessary to achieve a homogenous
mixture.
z Discard leftover solution after 48 hours.
z Always observe the DOs and DON’Ts in the safe handling of
chemicals.
z Spray three times a week at 2–3-day interval for six months (or
24 weeks x 3 sprayings = 72 sprayings) for the first year.
z For the second year and onward, spray thrice a week for 48 weeks,
or a total of 144 sprayings.
LE
SA
Materials
Quantity Itema (P) per Year
R
Chemicalsb and Dosages:

FO
320 mL Basudin at 0.16 cm3/budc 462 (/L) 148

75.60 g Myco SF 202 at 0.0378 gc 1,137 (/kg) 86
Total 234
T
O
a
Solution: Mix the above chemicals in 7.3 L water or any other recommended treatment.
b
Many other choices of chemicals can be used in rotation to avoid insect pest resistance.
N
c
2,000 bunches sprayed.
Equipment
Unit Price
1 unit Knapsack sprayera 6,000 6,000

with TX-3 nozzle
and extended lancer
Total 6,000
a

Labor
Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha Rate/MD per Year
Bunch spraya 0.1 160 1,152
Total 1,152
a
For six months, spray (72 sprayings) for the first crop or year one.
Total Cost of Bunch Spray Operation

Amount (P)
Materialsb 234 257 283 311
LE
Depreciation
of equipmentc 3,000 3,000 3,300 3,300
SA
Labord 1,152 2,534e 2,787 3,066
Total 4,386 5,791 6,370 6,677

R
a
FO
b
c
d
e
144 sprayings for second and succeeding years.
T
O
N

Fruit Bagging
Fruit bagging protects the bunch from pest damage and the fruit
from mechanical injuries. It hastens fruit maturity by providing a
favorable microclimate for fruit development inside the bag, and it
makes the fruit skin smoother and glossier.
Technology
z Use polybags with 50–100% colorant on bunches along roads,

canals, and other exposed areas within the blocks to minimize
sunburning the fruits during the summer months. Otherwise, use
lightly shaded polybags at other times of the year, especially during
the rainy months to avoid pale-colored fruits.
Perforate the polybags to complement an open bottom to aerate the
LE
z
fruits and to regulate the relative humidity and temperature inside

the bag.
SA
z Space the bagging rounds every seven days at most to ensure an
accurate bagging census from which fruit projections are based.
z Cut the guard leaf or kapote if it tends to damage the bunch. If there
R
is any danger of bunch exposure to the sun, the guard leaf could be
FO
used to cover the bunch temporarily.

z Use a bamboo ladder to start bagging when about 4–6 male hands
are already exposed or when the last female hand starts curling
upward. Early bagging can also be done (Fig. 12). Make sure that
T
the bunch is freshly sprayed with a mixture of fungicides before

O
bagging.
N
z Use newspapers to protect the bunch from sunscalding in exposed

areas or in plants with a low number of functional leaves. Place the
newspaper inside the bag or outside the bag during sunny days.
z Remove the male hands and cut the bud 10–15 cm from the false
hand. Likewise, remove some of the fingers of the false hand to
serve as index fingers where the date of bagging and block number
are written. Remove the last one or two distal hands, depending on
the hand-pruning scheme for the area.
z Remove all fused fingers in a hand and fingers that form a three-
layered hand or prune one or more hands if the number of functional
leaves is low (i.e., four or less functional leaves) (Fig. 13).
z Slowly slip the bag (open on both ends) on the bunch from the bottom
upward. Avoid damaging the fingers.

LE
Fig. 12. Early-bagged bunch for
early protection from
SA
pest attack.
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 13. Hand-pruning for index tagging (left) and an index-tagged bunch
(right) ready for bagging.

z Girdle around the bunch stalk and tightly tie with a piece of string
several inches above the first hand.
z Tie color strips at the cut portion of the bunch stem to indicate the
age of the bunch or the number of hanging days as reference for
harvesting the bunch.
z Leave the bottom of the polybag open to avoid the accumulation of
floral rubbish/water. Close the bottom of the polybag in areas
infested by scarring beetles and other insects.
Materials
LE
3.44 kg Color strips, standard width 75.60 260
and length currently used
SA
in the plantations
84.5kg Lorsban impregnated polybag 119 10,055
1pc Bamboo ladder (standard 28 28
length of 5–7 steps)
R
1pc Knife – selector or pruning 150 150

FO
knife
1pc Coding tool – pointed wood 5 5
or metal
1 pair Tally sheets and pencils 50 50
T
Newspaper – especially along

O
open areasa
N
Total 10,548
a
Use whenever necessary.

Labor
Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha Rate/MD per Year
Fruit bagginga 0.125 160 960
Total 960
a
Bagging is done once a week for 24 weeks for the first crop or year one. Bagging will
be done for 48 weeks in the succeeding year.
Total Cost of Fruit Bagging Operation

Amount (P)
LE
Materialsb 10,548 11,603 12,763 14,039
Laborc 960 1,056 1,162 1,278
SA
Total 11,508 12,659 13,925 15,317
a
R
b
c
FO
Bud Injection
T
Bud injection controls flower thrips that blemish banana fruits. The
O
blemishes are known as corky scab and blotching (Fig. 14).

N
Technology
z Use nonphytotoxic insecticides such as monocrotophos.

z Use the right dosage and volume of solution, that is, monocrotophos
at 1.0 mL/L of water. The volume of solution is 50–70 mL to be
injected into the inflorescence.
z Observe the right timing of injection.
z Look for injectable inflorescence or flower bud. The correct age is
when one-half or three-fourths of the total length of the bud is
exposed.
z Inject each inflorescence 10–15 cm below the tip of the bud at 45o
angle by using an injector connected to a knapsack sprayer.

LE
SA
Fig. 14. Bunch injection for the control of banana flower thrips.
z Allow the whole length of the needle to penetrate the bud, but do not
R
pierce the other side of the bud.

FO
z Mark with a marking pen the pseudostem of the injected bud to

indicate that the bud has been injected.
z Inject each bud only once. However, the laborer has to survey his
area every other day or at least three times a week to accomplish
T
10 ha per day.
O
N

Materials
Unit Price Buds Cost (P)/ha
Quantity Item (P) Injected per Year
1 pc Bamboo pole 7 - 7
Insecticides:
175.5 cm3 Agrimek 8.108 975 1,423
66.3 cm3 Ascend 1.38 195 91
46.8 cm3 Success 5.807 780 272
93.6 cm3 Confidor 7.926 780 742
Total 2,535
LE
Equipment SA
Unit Price
1 pc Bud injectora 500 500

R
Total 500
FO
a
Life span is 5 years.
Labor
T
Total Cost
O
Activity Cycles/mo MD/ha Rate/MD (P)/ha per Year

N
Surveying/injecting
bunchesa 10 0.1 160 960
Total 960
a
For the first crop, bud injection is done for six months; for the succeeding crops,
12 months.

Total Cost of Bud Injection Operation
Amount (P)
Materialsb 2,535 2,788 3,067 3,374

Depreciation of equipmentc 100 100 100 100
Labord 960 2,112 2,323 2,555
Total 3,595 5,000 5,490 6,029

a
b
c
d
LE
SA
R
FO
T
O
N

Pest Management
Major Insect Pests of Banana and Their Control
Thrips
These are minute insect pests that blemish the fruits. There are
several kinds of thrips.
1. Flower thrips (Thrips florum Schunts)
Description
LE
SA
The larva is whitish-yellow with no distinct body region at an early
stage. It becomes yellow after sometime. The adult’s head and thorax
R
are yellow while its forewings and hindwings are light brown. The
adult’s length ranges from 1.4 to1.7 mm. Both the larva and the adult
FO
inhabit and feed on undeveloped fruits in unopened buds.
Damage Symptoms
T
O
The blemishes on the infected banana are referred to as blotching

or small water-soaked spots caused by the thrips’ feeding punctures
N
usually at the basal and lower parts of the fingers. Corky scab (Fig. 15)
is another fruit blemish caused by the thrips' egg-laying injuries. It starts
as a brown, irregular eruption on the peel that becomes rough and often
turns into brown-colored cracks when the fruit matures. These injuries
are inflicted while the bud is still unopened.
Control
z Inject bud with insecticide solution (see entry on bud injection).

z Stem and mat spray with insecticide (see entry on stem and mat
spray).

Fig. 15. Corky scab damage
caused by banana
flower thrips.
LE
SA
z Bunch spray with an insecticide-fungicide combination (see entry
on bunch spray).
z Do stem sanitation (see entry on stem and mat sanitation).
R
FO
2. Red rust thrips (Chaetanaphothrips signipennis Bagnall)
Description
T
O
Its nymph or larva is white without markings, while its adult has a
yellow thorax with two dark spots on the back toward the anterior end
N
of the body.
Damage symptoms
The damage on the young fruit initially appears to be water-soaked

areas, which later become reddish-brown or rusty as the fruit reaches
maturity. The damage is commonly observed at points of contact
between adjacent fingers.
Control
Same as that for flower thrips.

3. Red rust thrips (Etixothrips brevisetes Bagnall)
Description
This is another type of red rust thrips identified by Bagnall, but it

differs with the earlier type described earlier. The adult has a light brown
thorax and a dark brown body. The head is subrectangular that is distinct
from the thorax. The nymph carries globules of liquid feces at the tip of
the abdomen.
Damage Symptoms
The red rust blemish is a reddish-brown discoloration on the fruits.
Control
Same as that for flower thrips.

LE
SA
Scarring Weevil (Philicoptus iliganus Heller)
R
FO
Description
The weevil or beetle is metallic-green and its body length is about

6–8 mm (Fig. 16). Its scales look metallic green as they appear in
T
irregular patterns on the elytra, thorax, head, and abdomen.

O
N
Damage Symptoms
The adult feeds and inflicts scars along the ridges of the fruits
(Fig. 17). These scarred fruits are rejected in the export market. The
scars are also observed at the base of the youngest leaf veins and on
flower bracts.
Control
z Use chlorpyrifos-impregnated, miniperforated polyethylene bags

with closed bottom ends.
z Stem and mat spray with insecticide (see entry on stem and mat
spray).
z Handpick adults.

LE
SA
Fig. 16. Adult banana scarring weevils.
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 17. A scarred banana hand infected by the scarring weevil.

Corm Weevil (Cosmoplites sordidus Germar)
Description
The destructive stage of this insect is at its larval stage. It has a

creamy white body with a reddish-brown head (Fig. 18). The adult
weevil, a nocturnal that hides in the pseudostem of the harvested plants
and under the piled trashes during the day, is black. The female lays its
eggs in small chambers on the corm at ground level, while the larvae
feed on the banana corm.
LE
SA
R
Fig. 18. A larva (left) and adults (right) of the corm weevil.
FO
Damage Symptoms
T
The larva makes tunnels into the banana corm and damages large
O
portions of the corm tissues, nutrient vessels, and root origins resulting
N
in poor uptake of nutrients and water. The damage also weakens the root
anchorage resulting in tip-over losses. The damaged tissues become the
entry points of secondary attack by pathogens.
Control
Mechanical trapping
z Cut a disc on the pseudostem stump. This is done by cutting
crosswise a 15-cm thick portion of the harvested pseudostem then
putting it back to the original stump to attract adults. Another way
is to split the pseudostems into trap cuts by cutting a 45-cm portion
of the harvested pseudostem then splitting it into two. Invert the split

pseudostems on the top of the ground near the base of the mat to
attract adults.
z Collect the trapped weevils and place them into any insecticide
solution.
Cultural method
z Use bagged seed pieces or tissue-cultured plantlets instead of
suckers.
z Clean the surroundings of the corm and remove the old leaf sheaths.
z Chop the harvested pseudostem into pieces in order to hasten
drying, and eventually disrupt the pest’s life cycle.
Chemical Method
Apply the recommended insecticides, like Counter 10G, at 30 g/mat
LE
z
at two cycles per year in blocks with critical weevil population level.
SA
Banana Aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.)
R
Description
FO
Banana aphids can be winged or wingless. The wingless aphid has

a shiny brown dorsal part, while the winged aphid has very prominent
dark wing venation. Aphids are found between the leaf sheaths and at
T
the base of the trunk.

O
N
Damage Symptoms
The aphids do not directly cause significant injury to the banana

plant. They transmit the bunchy top virus, while they suck the juice of
the plant and consequently inject the virus into the plant system. This
results in banana bunchy top virus disease, a very deadly disease that
makes the banana plant totally nonproductive.
Control
z Use disease-free planting materials, preferably tissue-cultured

plantlets.

z Practice good sanitation in the plantation.
z Stem and mat spray by using recommended botanical biocides
(e.g., neem extracts and tubli).
z Properly eradicate infected plants. Spray them, including the
surrounding healthy-looking plants, first with insecticides prior to
eradication.
Mealybugs (Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley)
Description
The nymph is pinkish-yellow. The adult has a soft body with a white
powdery wax (Fig. 19). Both nymph and adult are found inside the leaf
sheaths and fruit bunches. They move very slowly and are transported
LE
by ants to the different parts of the banana plant where food is abundant.
In return, the ants feed on the honeydew excreted by the mealybugs.
SA
R
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 19. Exposed mealybugs

that are hiding in the
leaf sheaths.

Symptoms
The sooty mold, which is caused by the presence of mealybugs, makes

an unsightly appearance on the peel of the fruits. Mealybugs excrete
honeydew on the fruit, which is attacked by fungi that form the sooty
mold. To save the fruits from rejections and be accepted in the export
market, they have to be cleaned of their sooty molds. Doing so becomes
an added cost. It may also inflict bruises on the fruits that may end up
being rejected.
Control
z Bag the bunches with Lorsban-impregnated polyethylene. Use only

newly extruded polyethylene bags. Do not stock for more than a
month. Store the bags in a tight, well-sealed container.
LE
z Do selective control, for stem and mat spray, during outbreaks of
mealybugs in pinpointed critical blocks.
SA
z Do stem sanitation to expose mealybug colonies to the sun and rain,
which can reduce their population.
R
A number of insecticides (Table 6), aside from those earlier

FO
mentioned, can be used to control insect pests of banana.
Table 6. Cost of insecticidesa used per hectare per year to control insect
pests of banana.
T
Rate/Bud Mats Cost/ha

O
Unit Cost per Ha Applied/Bud per Year

Chemicals Quantity (P) per Mat Injection (P)
N
Agrimek 175.5 cm3 8.108/cm3 0.18 975 1,423

Success 46.8 cm3 5.807/cm3 0.06 780 272
Confidor 93.6 cm3 7.926/cm3 0.12 780 742
Basudin stem spray 405.6 cm3 0.485/cm3 0.16 2,535 197
Basudin Erad 29.0 cm3 0.335/cm3 20.00 - 10
Furadan 40,956 g 0.142/cm3 21 1,950 5,816
Formalin 5L 18.90/L 5 - 94
Myco 47.91 g 1.137/g 0.0189 2,535 54
a
Other choices of insecticides can be used.

Major Diseases of Banana and Their Control
Moko Disease (Bacterial wilt)
Causal organism: Bacterium (Pseudomonas solanacearum B.F. Smith)
This bacterium has four major strains (strains D, B, SFR, and I).
Strains SFR and I are readily transmitted by insects visiting flowers, but
these have low soil persistence. Strain B can persist in the soil for up to
18 months. Strain D infects Heliconia spp. and has low virulence on
banana.
Symptoms
Moko is a very contagious disease that can kill an infected banana
LE
in just a few weeks. At its initial stage, bacterial wilt develops as a
yellowish coloration of the inner leaf lamina, close to the petiole. Then
SA
the inner leaves, except the unrolled heart leaf, wilt. In some cases, the
heart leaf also collapses. The disease symptoms are manifested within
ten days or more after the entry of the bacterium into the plant.
R
The lower leaves of ‘Cavendish’ become yellow, followed by

FO
similar changes in the other leaves. The leaves later become dull,
whitish-yellow, dry and placid, and readily droop in the heat. Later, the
petiole, with the lamina or trunk, breaks at its junction. When the affected
leaves break down in quick succession, they droop around the trunk.
T
When a diseased trunk is cut transversely, practically all the

O
vascular strands are discolored, ranging from pale yellow to dark-brown

N
or bluish-black. Dirty-white, yellow, and/or brown exudates are observed.

In bearing plants, individual fingers appear distorted or turn yellow.
The pulp turns very dark-brown.
External symptoms of late-stage Moko can be confused with
Panama disease. Moko disease, however, is differentiated with two
diagnostic internal symptoms: 1) presence of bacterial exudates and the
2) browning or blackening of the fruit pulp.

Control
Option 1
z Detect early and immediately eradicate the infected plants as
follows:
- Conduct a disease survey once a week in areas with previous
disease occurrence.
- Immediately eradicate infected plants.
- Remove and chop the plants surrounding the infected mat
within a radius of 6 m from the infected plant (Fig. 20).
Option 2
z Immediately eradicate infected plants.
z Remove and chop the plants surrounding the infected mat within a
radius of 6 m from the infected plant.
LE
z Fallow the area after spraying the chopped plant debris and soil with
formalin.
SA
z Keep the area free from any weeds by spraying with Round-up
(Glyphosate).
z Disinfect used tools and implements with 10% formaldehyde
R
solution.
FO
T
O
N
Fig. 20. A Moko eradication site sprayed with formalin solution and
burned with rice hull.

z Enforce stringent plant quarantine and phytosanitary measures.
z Replant after one year.
Option 3
z Cordon off the 6 x 6-m area, with about a 3-m radius from the Moko-
infected mat.
z Excavate and chop all the healthy mats within the 3-m radius into
small, halved pieces, leaving the plant debris in place.
z Excavate the Moko-infected mat, then chop into small pieces, then
immediately burn them to ashes by using the following materials:
rice hull at 10–15 sacks per incidence, old bamboo props, or dried
saw dust.
z During the rainy days, place all the plant debris of the Moko-infected
mat inside big plastic bags sprayed with 1:3 formalin/water solution.
Tie the bottom of the bag to close it. Burn the bagged plant debris.
LE
z Place a small placard indicating the day, month, and year on the site
of the Moko-infected hill to determine the replanting date.
SA
z Disinfect all tools and rubber boots before leaving the quarantined
area by immersing them for 10 seconds in 1:3 formalin/water
solution or Dowicide-A at 10 g/L of water.
R
z Cultivate the 1-m radius from the site of the Moko-infected mat
FO
14 days after eradication.

z Keep the Moko-quarantined area free of weeds by applying
herbicides and kill all the banana regrowth during the one-year
fallow period.
T
z Replant the quarantined area after one year with disease-free,

O
tissue-cultured plantlets.
N
Panama Disease (Fusarium wilt)
Causal organism: Fungus (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense

[E.F. Smith])
Description
The soil-borne fungus enters only through the roots and grows and
then sporulates abundantly in the xylem vessels. The transport of the
spores upward in the transpirational stream facilitates the fungal
invasion of the entire vascular system. The growth of the fungus blocks
the vascular system, causing the plant to wilt.

The most common means of spreading the pathogen is through
infected rhizomes. The fungus can also be spread in the soil, in running
water, and from farm implements. The root tips are the natural, initial
sites of infection.
Symptoms
The oldest lower leaf turns yellow and continues to collapse and dry
up. The upper leaves show the same symptoms one after the other until
eventually, all the leaves wilt. The pseudostem may crack at the base but
it may remain standing for several weeks until it decays and falls. When
cut horizontally, the pseudostem shows brown to purple discoloration of
the vascular tissues with a reddish tinge. The discoloration may extend
throughout the pseudostem, including the fruit stalk, without any symptom
observed on the fruit.
Control
LE
SA
An economical method to eliminate the fungus from an infested soil
is not yet available. What can only be done is to implement strict
R
quarantine measures to prevent the transfer of diseased planting

FO
materials into new areas. Infected banana plants, including those within
a 6-m radius, must be immediately eradicated to minimize the spread of
the disease.
Some chemical control approaches such as fumigation with methyl
T
bromide; injection of rhizome with 2% carbendzin; injection of 20%

O
potassium phosphonate; and heat treatment of the soil have not always
N
been found effective.
Bunchy Top
Causal organism: banana bunchy top virus
Description
The banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. transmits the

virus. It acquires the virus as it feeds on the virus-infected plant and
transmits it into a healthy plant for as fast as two hours after feeding.
When introduced into the plant, the virus multiplies and moves to all parts
of the plant.

The vector
The brown aphids that transmit the bunchy top virus are found in
colonies in the crown of the plant, around the base of the pseudostem,
and between the sheaths of the outer leaf and the pseudostem. The
wingless aphids reproduce for 7–10 generations and then alate (winged)
adults are produced. These are similar in color to the wingless generations
and have dark-brown to black wing veins. The alate aphids migrate to
new host plants.
Symptoms
The affected leaves show green streaks on the secondary veins on

the underside of the lamina and on the midrib and petiole. The streaks
are about 0.75 mm-wide and vary in length up to 2.5 mm. The dark-green
LE
streaks can be clearly seen on the midrib and petiole when the powdery
bloom is rubbed off. The streaks vary from a series of dark-green dots
SA
to a continuous dark-green line with a ragged edge.
The other leaves subsequently show similar symptoms as that in the
first affected leaf. The plant is dwarfed and shows marginal chlorosis
R
and curling (Fig. 21). The affected leaves are brittle and the petioles are
FO
incompletely elongated. As the disease progresses, the subsequent

leaves unfurl prematurely but slowly. In this case, several leaves unfurl
at the same time, resulting in smaller leaves, and eventually producing
stunted leaves on the crown of the plant.
T
The infected plants seldom bear fruit and if they do, the hands are
O
deformed and the fingers are reduced in size.

N
Control
z Do an early detection survey of initial symptoms and eradicate

promptly.
z Do a weekly survey of symptoms when disease incidence reaches
epidemic proportions. Tolerable degree of incidence should be one
case per hectare per survey schedule.
z Enforce strict quarantine measures by preventing the movement of
virus-infected materials into new areas.

LE
Fig. 21. Banana infected with
SA
bunchy top virus.
R
Eradicating an infected plant

FO
Option 1
Spray all the plants, including the ground and grasses, within a 6-m
T
radius from the infected plant. Use Lorsban 40 EC at 1.25 mL/L

O
water, or Malathion at 1.0 mL/L water, or Sumithion at 2.6 mL/L

N
water. The last plant to be sprayed should be the infected plant.

z Excavate the infected plant, including all the suckers.
z Chop all the rogued (damaged) plant parts into small pieces and
carefully pile them up on top of the leaves, with the corm at the
topmost position, to prevent re-growth and enhance drying.
z Re-spray the chopped and piled-up plant parts.
z Use bunchy top-free planting materials when replanting the eradicated
area.
z Replant three or more days after eradication.

Option 2
The use of Glyphosate-impregnated sticks is a faster, easier, and

more economical method of eradicating bunchy top-infected mats than
the manual way. The latter involves much time and effort in digging out
large, heavy corms, placing them on top of the piled leaves and
pseudostems, and paring off all the bud eyes from the corm.
z Prepare the Glyphosate (Round-up)-impregnated bamboo sticks.

- Select an immature bamboo pole of the ‘Botong’ or ‘Laac’
variety.
- Cut the pole into sticks measuring 16-cm long, 2-cm wide, and
0.5-cm thick after slicing off the inner and outer epidermis of the
bamboo.
- Sharpen one end of the bamboo stick.
LE
- Allow the sticks to dry under the sun for three days.
z Immerse the sticks in pure Glyphosate (Round-up).
SA
- Pour 240 mL of pure Glyphosate into an empty container. The
volume in the container is based on the maximum absorbing
capacity of 3 mL/stick.
R
- Place the sticks with the sharpened ends, which are in contact
FO
with the Glyphosate, into the container

- Immerse the sticks for five days. Be sure that the calculated
volume of absorption is achieved by examining any remaining
volume of the solution. If the desired volume of absorption is not
T
yet accomplished, continue immersion for another two more

O
days.
N
z Use the Glyphosate-impregnated sticks.

- Spray all the banana mats within a 6-m radius from the bunchy
top-infected mat with the appropriate insecticides mentioned
earlier.
- Cut the pseudostem of the mother plant in the bunchy top-
infected mat, leaving only 4–6 cm of the pseudostem intact with
the corm of the mother plant. Cut the leaves and lay them on the
ground. Chop the pseudostem into 45-cm pieces and pile them
on top of the leaves.
- Chop off all the followers and peepers.
- Position one Glyphosate-impregnated stick at the center of the
remaining pseudostem of the mother plant and drive it full length
into the corm using a wooden stick as hammer. Also, drive one

Glyphosate-impregnated stick into each of the corms of the
followers in the bunchy top-infected mat.
- Re-spray the eradicated mat, including the ground surrounding
it, with insecticide.
Blackhead, Root Rot, and/or Toppling Diseases
Causal organism: nematode (Radopholus similis)
Description
This nematode is slender and microscopic, about 0.69-mm long. It

spends much of its life within the banana roots and lays its eggs in the
root tissues. Its life cycle is completed in 25 days. All its larval stages and
females are infective.
Symptoms
LE
SA
The infected banana roots have reddish-brown lesions that extend
throughout the cortex. The disease first appears on the surface of the
R
roots as small, elongated lesions that eventually form a dark patch. The
FO
stele (the central portion of the stem and roots) is not invaded by the
nematode and remains healthy and white until late in the infection when
fungi damage the root tissues, causing necrosis, which penetrates into
the stele, thus severing the root. Severely infected plants become
T
weakly anchored resulting in tipping over.

O
N
Control
z Use nematode-free planting materials such as tissue-cultured

plantlets.
z Treat soil with nematicides and fumigants.
Black Leaf Streak (BLS) Disease
Causal organism: Fungus (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)
The fungus produces two types of microscopic spores (seeds)

called conidia and ascospores. Conidia form dark-brown and black
streaks on portions of the banana leaf. They emerge from the leaf

stomata and are disseminated by wind. Ascospores develop massive
brown spots inside the portions of the leaf. They are released into the air
when the leaf gets wet. When the spores land on the unfurling (opening)
ear leaf and the first fully opened leaf (the most susceptible leaf of
bananas), they germinate when they are covered with a film of water.
The fungus then grows over the leaf surface for several days before it
enters the stomata and infects the cells in the leaf.
Symptoms
Tiny brown streaks (lines) appear around the stomata a few weeks
after infection. The streaks enlarge, turn blackish, and later on become
brown oval spots with yellow margins. Under highly favorable conditions
(frequent and high rainfall, and temperatures above 20°C) and in the
presence of abundant inoculum (spores from streaks and spots), streaks
LE
which may group together, appear abundantly causing the leaf to turn
black and dry up prematurely. When few leaves are left in a bearing
SA
banana at harvest, the fruits may ripen prematurely in the field or while
they are in transit to the market.
R
Control
FO
Apply contact fungicides (e.g., Dithane M-45 and Bravo 720) to kill
fungal spores on the leaf surface and systemic fungicides (e.g., Tilt,
Calixin, and Benlate) to kill fungal growth inside the leaf. Use banana oil
T
(at 0.5 L/ha) to facilitate the entry of systemic fungicides into the leaf,
O
inhibit fungal growth by itself, and improve the sticking ability of

N
contact fungicides. The suggested fungicide formulations are indicated

in Table 7.

Table 7. Suggested fungicide formulations for BLS control.
Fungicide Interval Application

Formulations Rate/ha (days)a (mo)b
Tilt 0.4 L 11–14 January 5, February 7, May 8,

June 10, July 18, October 31,
December 3
Oil 5.0 L
Lutensol (spreader/
sticker) 0.05 L
Calixin 0.60 L 11–14 March 28, August 29,
September 29
Oil 5.0 L
Lutensol 0.05 L
Dithane M-45 2.0 kg 10–21 January 26, May 29, July 5,
August 8 and 18, October 10
LE
and 20, November 21,
December 24
SA
Oil 6.0 L
Lutensol 0.06 L
Bravo 720 1.56 L 10–14 February 28, March 14,
April 10 and 24
R
Dithane M-45 2.0 Kg 10–21 September 8 and 19

FO
Benlate 0.28 Kg
Oil 5.0 L
Lutensol 0.05 L
T
a
Spray intervals depend on disease pressure; the greater the disease infection, the closer
the interval of the sprays.
O
b
Twenty-five sprayings during normal climatic conditions in Mindanao. The more
rains, the more cycle of spraying by reducing intervals (days) of application using the
N
same rate of chemicals.

BLS disease monitoring
If the threshold level for any of the parameters listed below occurs,
then apply the suggested fungicide formulation for BLS control indicated
in Table 7.
Parameters Threshold Level
1. Average number per area of youngest

leaf spotted (counting from the topmost open
leaves going downward) 9
2. Percentage of plants having spotted leaves
younger than leaf 8 20%
3. Number of functional leaves at shooting
stage 12 or less
LE
4. Number of functional leaves eight weeks
after bagging 8
5. Number of functional leaves at harvest 6
SA
Other fungicides (Table 8), aside from those earlier mentioned, can
R
be used to control leaf diseases of banana.

FO
Table 8. Cost of fungicides per hectare per year to control the leaf
diseases of banana.
T
Chemicalsa Cost (P)/ha per Year

O
1. Banana oil 2,817

N
2. Baycor 4,256
3. Sico 1,332
4. Manzate 25,301
5. Daconil 17,350
6. Triton X-45 12,984
7. NU Film Surfactant 11,036
8. Vondozeb 42 EC 14,560
9. Folicur 1,788
Total 91,424
a
Other choices of fungicides for the control of leaf diseases of banana include Bankit,
Basudin, Dithane, Bumper, Bravo, Calixin, Indar, Dithane, Kocide, Tilt, Zinc Mono,
Al – 100, and Mancozeb WP.

Labor
Cost (P)/ Cost (P)/ha
Activity MD/ha MD per Year
Field control of Mokoa 0.25 140 420

Chemical control of Panama diseasea 0.16 140 269
Eradicating bunchy top-infected planta 0.25 140 420
Soil treatment for nematodeb 2.00 140 560
BLS fungicide controlc 2.00 140 7,000
Total 8,669
a
Once a month.
b
Twice a year.
c
Twenty sprayings per year (Table 7).
LE
SA
Total Cost of Disease Management Operation
Amount (P)
R

FO
Chemicalsb 91,424 100,566 110,623 121,685

Laborc 8,669 9,536 10,490 11,539
Total 100,093 110,102 121,113 133,224

T
a
O
b
Breakdown of cost of chemicals is indicated on page 82.
c
N

Weed Control
Weeds can significantly reduce banana yield. The most common

weeds in banana-growing areas are as follows:
Local Name English Name Scientific Name
Alikbangon Spreading dayflower/

Commelina Commelina diffusa Burm. f.
Gatas-gatasan Garden spurge Euphorbia hirta L.
Kogon Cogon grass Imperata cylindrica (L.)
Beauv
Kulape Sour paspalum/
Carabao grass Paspalum conjugatum Berg.
Kulatai/Kawad-
kawad Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
LE
Mutha Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus L.
Para grass Para grass Brachiaria mutica (Forsk.)
Stapf.
SA
Pulang puit Jungle rice Echinocloa colona (L.) Link
Sabung-sabungan Goose grass Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Ulasiman Common purslane Portulaca oleracea L.
Urai Spiny amaranthus Amaranthus spinosus L.
R
FO
Weeding reduces or eliminates weed competition for light, water,

and nutrients; eliminates weeds as secondary hosts for pests; removes
weeds that may reduce the effectiveness of drainage systems; and
T
minimizes poor drainage caused by weeds that may contribute to the

O
incidence of fruit spotting diseases.

Weeding is done periodically. However, it cannot be scheduled at
N
regular intervals. It is very necessary during the early stages of plant

growth and development when the banana canopy has not yet closed.
Weeding cycles are established according to the need and to varying
conditions.
Several weeding techniques are given below. Each has its own
specific purpose in the weeding operation at different periods, stages of
the plant development, and section or part of the farm such as along
canals, road networks, and eradication or re-entry areas.

Technology
For smallholdings, use the following procedure:
Manual weeding
z Use a slashing bolo in weeding along drainage canals and road

network.
z Use a sickle or a slashing bolo to ring weed by scraping the weeds
in either an inward or an outward motion around the base of the plant
to a distance of 0.75–1.0 m.
For plantation type, use the following procedures:
Mechanical weeding
LE
This procedure uses a tractor equipped with a grass cutter that
SA
makes a pass through the pathways between the rows.
z Do line weeding in a strip along the rows at a specified distance from

R
the base of the plant. This can be done by slashing the weeds close
FO
to the ground when the weeds are about 15-cm tall or before the
weeds produce flowers or seeds.
Chemical weeding
T
O
z Calibrate the knapsack sprayers by checking the air pressure and

N
the speed of the laborers. This is done to calculate the required

volume of spray for a complete coverage of the weed growth.
z Direct a spray swath on one-half of the row, the other half on the
return trip. The spray nozzle should normally be less than one foot
from the ground, and the spray mist must be at least one foot from
the base of the plant.
z Slash weeds one week before herbicide application to encourage
regrowth. The succulent and active regrowth makes the herbicide
more effective.
z Ring weed before herbicide application to avoid hitting the mother
plant and the follower.
z Spray a booster spot application of herbicide about two weeks
following the initial spray if needed.

The frequency of herbicide sprays, especially systemic, should not
exceed 4–6 cycles per year to avoid the buildup of herbicide residues.
Cost (P)/ha
Quantity Items Unit Price (P) per Year
Manual weeding
4 pc Slashing bolos 200 800
2 pc Sharpening stones 100 200
Chemical weeding
1 pc Pail 50 50
LE
1 pc Mixing drums 600 600
1 pc Respirator 400 400
1 pc Goggles 300 300
SA
1 pc Gloves 150 150
Herbicides:
2L Round-up 379.05 758
R
3L Basta 400.56 1,202

FO
Total 4,460
Equipment
T
O
Quantity Items Unit Price (P) Cost (P)/ha

N
Manual weeding
1 unit Grass cuttera 15,000 15,000
Chemical weeding
1 unit Knapsack sprayera 6,000 6,000
Total 21,000
a

Labor
Cost (P)/ha
Activitya MD/ha Cycles/year per Year
Manual weeding
General weeding 4.000 2 1,280
Ring weeding 1.300 12 2,496
Mechanical weeding
Line weeding 2.000 12 3,840
Chemical weeding
Transporting chemicals to the
block; spraying around the
mat, drainage canals, cables
ways, and sidewalks 0.165 12 317
Total 7,933
LE
a
Rate is P160/MD.
SA
Total Cost of Weed Control Operation
Amount (P)
R
FO
Supplies/Materialsb 4,460 4,906 5,397 5,937

Depreciation of equipmentc 10,500 10,500 11,550 11,550
T
Labord 7,933 8,726 9,599 10,559

O
Total 22,893 24,132 26,546 28,046

N
a
b
c
d

Harvesting
Harvesting consists of various stages. It actually starts by estimating

the production to ensure the desired volume demand in the market. This
is followed by fruit marking and calipering (measuring the dimensions of
the fruit) to ensure the right age and grade-fruit age control, and the right
age and fruit size upon reaching the market destination.
In the export market, maturity requirement is dependent on the
buyer. Here, fruit calibration and age of the fruit are the most commonly
used indices. Determining these parameters is integrated in the fruit care
operations. Hence, cost of materials and labor are no longer presented
LE
in the manual under harvesting operations.
For the plantation type, the standard procedures, particularly for
SA
‘Cavendish’ and ‘Lakatan,’ are estimating the production, marking the
fruits or preharvest calipering, and controlling the grade-fruit age.
R
Production Estimates
FO
This operation is applicable to ‘Cavendish’ and ‘Lakatan’ if shipped

to distant markets.
T
O
z Assign a row in the middle of the one-hectare farm.

Bag the fruits from the assigned row per week. Use colored ribbons
N
to indicate the time of bagging to harvest. Establish your own color-

coding scheme when using the colored ribbons (e.g., white ribbon
for the first week, then another color for the next week, and so on).
z Record the date of bagging, the number of bunches bagged per
week, and the number of days or weeks from bagging to harvest.
The information will determine the number of bunches to be
harvested per hectare.
z Harvest the bunches.
z Determine the number of hands per bunch, weight of bunch, and the
number of boxes per bunch. The information will provide the grower
with the production estimate per hectare.
z Carry out this operation for at least one year. Two years will provide
a more accurate information.

Fruit Marking/Preharvest Calipering
This is another standard practice for ‘Cavendish’ to complement the

age criteria in harvesting. This is not necessary for ‘Saba’ and ‘Cardaba,’
and may not be necessary for ‘Lakatan’ if shipped to distant markets.
This is used when the weather affects the maturity of the fruits.
z Mark or caliper, on the day prior to harvest, all fruits to be harvested

for a given shipment or delivery. Use the reference values established
by using the production estimate discussed earlier.
A bunch is calipered as follows:

- When the marker finds a bunch that appears to be at or near
harvesting grade, the bunch will be calipered in one of the three
fingers in the center of the outer whorl of the second hand from
LE
the top.
- The bunch is ready for harvest when any of the three fingers fail
SA
to enter the caliper or when they enter with difficulty or they fit
tightly.
R
z Mark a bunch for harvesting by removing all the plant’s leaves,

FO
except those that actually protect the bunch from direct sunlight or
which, when removed, would allow the latex from the cut leaves to
drip into the bunch.
T
O
Grade-Fruit Age Control

N
This operation, done after establishing the reference values, is for

commercial purposes. This applies only to ‘Cavendish’ and sometimes
‘Lakatan’ when shipped green to the market. It is one important
measure that permits maximum grade fruits to attain maximum yield
without ripening while in transit to the market. It permits greater
flexibility to increase the grade when there is a lesser risk of ripening.
z Get the record of the age of the fruit from the time of bagging to
harvest and the caliper size.
z Place all the colored ribbons in chronological order on the fruits that
are bagged each week.

z During the first two weeks, when the fruits have reached the
minimum grade as calibrated, harvest all the fruits with ribbons
pertaining to the designated week’s color.
z In the third week of the three-ribbon sequence, harvest all the fruits,
whether they have reached the minimum grade or not. Here, grade
is used as the determining factor in the first two weeks of the three-
week cycle and age in the third week.
Maturity Indices
This technology is intended for smallholders growing the local

varieties such as ‘Señorita,’ ‘Latundan,’ Lakatan,’ ‘Buñgulan,’ ‘Saba,’
and even ‘Cavendish.’
Banana fruits are harvested before they are fully ripened so that
LE
they can reach their market destination fresh and green. The fruits must
be harvested at a mature stage in order to attain their natural sweetness.
SA
The following are visual physical appearances of the fruit that
indicates certain maturity stages (PCARRD 1988):
R
z Angularity or shape of the fingers (Fig. 22), which describes the

FO
fruits as follows:
- three-quarters (fruits with clearly visible angles, about one-half

of their maximum size)
T
- full three-quarters (fruits with less prominent angles)

O
- full stage (fruit angles have virtually disappeared)

N
It is recommended that bananas should be harvested when the

fruits’ shape is full three-quarters or full stage, depending on the
target market.

70% 80% 90% 100%
Light 3/4 Light full 3/4 Full 3/4 Full
LE
SA
Fig. 22. Fullness of finger as a maturity index for banana (PCARRD 1988).
z The physiological age of the fruit based on the number of days from
R
shooting to maturity is as follows:

FO
Variety Weeks after Shooting
‘Señorita’ 6–8
T
‘Latundan’ 9–11
O
‘Cavendish’ 11–14
‘Buñgulan’ 12–14
N
‘Lakatan’ 12–14
‘Saba’ 20–24

Harvesting
For Smallholdings
z Harvest the bunches preferably in the morning.

z Cut the trunk slowly and partially, about one-third from the top for
the bunch to fall slowly. Use a knife, bolo, or sickle.
z Hold the tail end of the bunch before it touches the ground.
z Cut the peduncle, leaving about 30 cm of the stalk, for easy handling.
z To transport bananas from steep hillsides, tie the bunches in pairs
(already dehanded) to each end of a yoke or pingga (usually made
of bamboo) and carry them on the shoulder.
z On flat or moderately rolling lands, place the bunches on animal-
drawn sleds and move toward the roadside or to a packing shed. Put
banana leaves in between the bunches to prevent bruising.
For Plantations
LE
SA
z Harvest all the bunches that have already attained full maturity.
z Use the pole props or other poles to help lower the bunch for harvest
R
to the shoulder pad.

FO
z Before finally cutting off the bunch, place plastic sheets of proper
thickness between the hands that will directly rest on the shoulder
pad in order to minimize new bruises.
After cutting off the bunch, cut the pseudostem in V-shape about
T
1 m from the base, or leave the pseudostem standing, but cut off the
O
leaves that directly shade or obstruct the follower. This is done to

N
continue nourishing the follower.

z Take the bunches to the fruit patio by using a tractor-drawn trailer.
z In some cases, dehand the bunches in the field before transporting.
z Provide cover on all hauling trailers to avoid sunscalding the fruits
while in transit to the packinghouse.
z Under no circumstances should the bunch ever be placed on the
ground or stood up alongside a banana plant. This is to avoid bruising
the hands.
z Strictly supervise the cutting and hauling process because harvesting
is the major source of bruising.

Materials
Quantity Unit Price Cost (P)/ha
(pc) Items (P) per Year
2 Bolo or machete 180 360

15 Shoulder pad made of lightweight
plywood that is curve-shaped to receive
the bunch. The concave side should be
lined with a spongy material such as
foam rubber. The shoulder pad should
be of sufficient length and width to
accommodate the bunch and prevent it
from falling while being carried by the
backer or conchero to the cable or tractor-
LE
drawn trailer-hauler. 550 8,250
2 Fixed aluminum calipers of different
SA
grades or measurements (e.g., 43”/32”
and 44”/32”), mounted on a wooden
rod to reach the fruits. 200 400
R
Total 9,010
FO
Labor
T
Efficiency Stems/ha Cost (P)/ha

Activitya (Stems/group/day) per Year per Year
O
N
Harvesting/Dehanding 60 2,000 9,600

Total 9,600
a
For four persons (e.g., one pair of harvesters composed of cutter and a backer as well
as two bunch carriers) doing the operation at a rate of P160/MD. The efficiency is
8.33 stems/MD for four persons.

Total Cost of Harvesting Operation
Amount (P)
Materialsb 9,010 9,911 10,902 11,992

Laborc 9,060 9,966 10,963 12,059
Total 18,070 19,877 21,865 24,051

a
b
c
LE
SA
R
FO
T
O
N

Table 9. Summary of establishment and maintenance costs for a 1-ha
banana farm.a
Amount (P)
Activity Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Prior to establishment 2,500 - - -

Drainage 40,820 5,280 5,808 6,388
Clearing and preparing
the land 51,180 - - -
Lining and staking 956 - - -
Planting 39,713 - - -
Replanting 160 - - -
Base cleaning and ring
weedingb, stem and mat
sanitationb, stem
LE
sanitation after harvestb,
and plant population
control 3,460 3,806 4,187 4,605
SA
Leaf pruning or trimming,
fruit obstacle removal 2,238 2,462 2,708 2,979
Stem and mat sprayb 9,122 9,735 10,709 11,450
R
Fertilization 44,446 48,491 53,340 58,234

FO
Irrigationc - - - -
Propping 31,414 34,555 38,011 41,812
Bunch sprayb 4,386 5,791 6,370 6,677
Fruit bagging 11,508 12,659 13,925 15,317
T
Bud injectionb 3,595 5,000 5,490 6,029

O
Disease management 100,093 110,102 121,113 133,224

Weed control 22,893 24,132 26,546 28,046
N
Harvesting 18,070 19,877 21,865 24,051

Total Costd 386,554 281,890 310,072 338,812
a
See preceding sections for details. Based on 2002 prices.
b
Includes pest management for major insect pests.
c
Optional management practice for smallholders.
d
Rounded off to the nearest peso.

Table 10. Estimated rate of return to total operating cost (RRTOC) for a
1-ha banana farm.
Year
Parameters 1 2 3 4 Total
Harvestable fruits (kg)a 37,800 41,580 45,738 50,312 175,430

Gross incomeb (P) 378,000 415,800 457,380 503,112 1,754,292
Production costc (P) 386,554 281,890 310,072 338,812 1,317,328
Yearly net income (P) (8,554) 133,910 147,308 164,300 436,964
a
Based on ‘Cavendish’ yields (conservative). For year 1, approximately 2,800 boxes
at 13.5 kg/box. For years 2–4, assume an increase of 10%/year.
b
At P10/kg of fruit (domestic price).
c
See Table 9.
Average RRTOC = 436,964 x 100%
LE
1,317,328
SA
= 33%
R
FO
T
O
N

Postharvesting Handling
and Storage
This is the final stage of packing the fruits into crates for the
domestic market and cartons for the export market.
Quality
Constant upgrading of the product quality is the key ingredient in

capturing the market. The ever-changing tastes of consumers demand
LE
a continuing process of improving product quality. Quality is a concern
in all aspects of banana production, but in the succeeding topics, it is
SA
focused on fruit quality in the mini-packinghouse (Table 11).
As soon as the bunch reaches the mini-packinghouse, close scrutiny
is absolutely necessary to ensure that the fruit does not suffer further
R
quality deterioration. Below are the basic guidelines to achieve

consistency and uniformity of product quality:
FO
Table 11. Cost of establishing a mini-packinghouse for banana.a

T
Items Amount (P)

O
Shed (bamboo and nipa)b 20,000

Wash/dehanding tanks (steel)b 6,000
N
Furniture (e.g., bench, table) b 1,000

Hog wire (250 rolls) b 800
Labor costc 24,000
Electrical, plumbing, and related costsd 5,000
Total 56,800
a
Floor area is 30 m2. Based on 2002 prices.
b
Life span is four years.
c
One year only.
d
Maintenance cost.

Quality Standards
Standards differ from one exporter to another and from one buyer
to another. This situation is more so in the domestic market. Below are
the generalized export requirements and many changes have been made
with time.
Qualities of a Good Hand
General appearance of an ideal hand:

z No blemishes, spots, or bruises.
z No malformed fingers.
z No underdeveloped fingers.
z The diameter and length of fingers are of even sizes.
No finger is cut off from the cushion.
LE
z
z The cushion is cleanly cut of sharp corners and the arc of the crown
is very visible.
SA
General appearance of an acceptable hand:
z Fingers have slight blemishes because of natural causes.
R
z A whole hand has only one major bruise.

FO
z Any single finger has no more than one spot with a diameter of
3”/32”.
z No more than two visible spots on any single finger.
No more than four fingers affected by visible spots.
T
z No more than a single cut finger in the hand.

O
N
Qualities of a Good Cluster
General appearance of an ideal cluster:

z No blemishes or spots and bruises.
z No deformed or underdeveloped fingers.
z All fingers have uniform diameters and lengths.
z Each cluster must have no less than six fingers or more than
11 fingers.
z Clusters should come from big hands weighing at least 4 kg.
z No fingers should be cut off between existing fingers in the cluster.
z The cushions should be clean and should have no sharp corners,
with the outside portion rounded off.

General appearance of an acceptable cluster:
z One or two fingers in the cluster have slight blemishes caused by the
reaction of chemicals and mechanical damage in the field.
z Any single finger has no more than two visible spots.
z Slightly visible spots must not affect no more than three fingers in
the cluster.
z Slight bruising must not be visible in more than three fingers in the
cluster.
z The cushions are cleanly cut of sharp corners, with rounded outside
portion.
z Total fingers must be no less than five but not more than 12.
Quality Control
LE
The following are important measures to be adopted in order to
ascertain that established quality standards are met:
SA
Strict supervision on
z Proper fruit calibration for bunches delivered into the packinghouse
R
z Proper way of dehanding (rate must be proportional to the rate of

FO
selection)
z Selection as fruit recovery depends on it
Fruits must be well-selected as the quality of the fruit can hardly
be improved when it reaches the flotation tank.
T
z Accurate weighing and combination of uniform hands

O
z Correct packaging
N
z Loading of finished products

Random inspection of finished product needs to be done to
confirm whether or not control measures in the process of packing
are being strictly adhered to.
Statistical chart
z Production per hour and proportion of cluster packs to hand packs
z Box/stem ratio to determine recovery per bunch
z Information regarding bunches damaged by handling, insects, fruit
spots, sunburn, and chemical spots
z Percent shrinkage (as fruit and as stalk)

Packinghouse Operation
Small-scale banana growers usually dehand bunches right in the

field. Here, harvested fruits should be cushioned and covered with
banana leaves and placed under the shade before they are brought to the
packinghouse to maintain freshness.
In commercial banana plantations, the harvested bunches are
hauled on aerial cables to the packinghouse or are dehanded in the field
and loaded to tractor-drawn trailers and brought to the packinghouse.
The processing operation that follows is routine for the fruits for
export but can also be applied to the fruits for the domestic markets. This
measure ensures fruit quality and a higher price in the market.
Procedure
LE
z Provide the packing plant with clean water with approximately
378.5 L per minute (lpm) in the dehanding tank and 227.1 lpm in each
SA
flotation tank at a pressure of 30–40 psi. For smallholders’
packinghouse, the preceding specifications are not necessary. A
small dehanding tank and a wash tank, filled up with clean water to
R
a certain level for a specific duration, may suffice.

FO
z Keep the water relatively free of bacteria by applying chlorine that

is maintained at 10 ppm in the tank.
z Inspecting - Prior to actual fruit processing, first check the bunches
in the packinghouse whether or not they reach the prescribed
T
calibration or other required maturity indices.

O
z Deflowering - Deflower the bunches in the fruit storage area within

N
2–3 minutes before cutting the hands off the stem to keep the latex
from drying and causing spots. Avoid scratching the fruit. Deflower
each finger completely.
z Dehanding - In removing a hand from the stem, leave as much
crown as possible in the hand. Carefully hold the banana hand by
having the palm support the lower part of the hand being cut. Do not
just take hold of two or three fingers, which may break the neck.
Once dehanded, carefully place, not throw, the fruits in the flotation
tank, to avoid bruising. Control the speed of dehanding so as not to
overfill the dehanding tank. Maintain the floating fruits no closer
than 0.9 m from the border of the tank. Gently lower the hands into
the tank to avoid bruising.

z Washing - Wash off the dirt and spores of fungus adhering to the
fruits, then transfer the fruits to selectors or sorting tanks where the
hands are selected and sorted according to quality specification.
z Culling – Remove/cull fruits with bruises, scabs, scars, oversized or
undersized fruits, and small or malformed fingers.
z Weighing - Combine a number of hands, never more than seven, to
meet the required weight standard for a fruit pack. Apply alum on
the crown using spray or sponge to control fungus.
z Controlling crown mold – For the Japan market, dip, spray, or brush
the crown with foam soaked with alum (homogeneous alum-
chlorine solution of 10g alum/L water + 0.2 g chlorine/L water). For
the Middle East, use the preceding solution plus 1.5 cm3 Bycor
300 EC/L water.
z Labeling - Place labels on two fingers per hand prior to packaging,
in which case, the labels are usually the brand names of the company
LE
growing or marketing the fruit.
z Packaging - Place the hands in a box according to a specified
SA
pattern, which is determined by the net weight of the fruit to be
packed in each carton. One kind of packaging is for the domestic
market and the other, for the world market.
R
FO
For the Domestic Market
z Use rectangular wooden crates as packaging containers. These

crates are most commonly used because they are more resistant to
T
rough handling and are easier to load in container vans than the
O
cylindrical-shaped kaing or bamboo baskets.

N
z Line the inner side of the crates or baskets with any of the following:
cool and durable leaf sheaths from the pseudostem. Sometimes,
banana leaves, polyethylene plastic sheets, or newspapers may be
used. The linings are necessary to minimize fruit bruises and injury
during handling and transport.
For the World Market
z Use carton boxes for packing the fruits.

For the Japan market, line the inner side with a closed-bottom
polyethylene bag such that when the fruits are loaded inside the
carton, the upper end of the polyethylene bag is closed and tied with
a rubber band.

For the Middle East market, line the inside of the carton boxes
with the “Vac-pack polytube.” After loading the fruits inside the
carton, suck the air out to create a vacuum inside the Vac-pack
polytube.
z Provide hand separators inside the carton to prevent fruit bruises as
a result of vibration of the fruits inside the box. Hand separators are
either thick cardboards or foam.
Materials
Unit Price Cost

Quantity Itemsa (P) (P)/Year
LE
4.0 kg Alum (at 10g/L water) 24.15 97
19.13 kg Chlorine (at 0.2 g/L water) 94.50 1,808
SA
3.0 kg Detergent soap 36.60 110
3,500 pc Polyethylene bags or 4.00 14,000
3,500 pc Vac-pack polytubes 4.00 14,000
R
2,000 pc Wooden Crates or 15.00 30,000

3,500 pc Carton boxes 14.00 49,000
FO
Total 109,015
a
Label for the fruit will be provided by the buyer.
T
O
Equipment
N
Unit Price Cost

Quantity Items (P) (P)/Year
1 unit Weighing balance (20 kg capacity)a 30,500 30,500

4 pc Scoop-shaped, sharp-edge
dehanding instrumentb 150 600
2 pc Banana knivesb 100 200
Total 31,300
a
Life span is five years.
b

Labora
Cost (P)/ha
Activityb MD/week per Year
Inspection/deflowering 1 3,840
Dehanding 1 3,840
Washing 1 3,840
Classifying/weighing/applying alum 1 3,840
Labeling/packaging 1 3,840
Total 19,200
a
Includes one inspector and one washer.
b
Rate is P160/MD at 1 day/week for 24 weeks for the first cropping year and at 48 weeks
for succeeding years.
LE
Total Cost of Packinghouse Operation
Amount (P)
SA
Facilities for establishing mini-

R
packinghouseb 38,350 12,450 13,000 13,605

FO
Materialsc 109,015 119,916 131,908 145,099

Depreciation of equipmentd 8,025 8,025 8,065 8,065
Labore 19,200 42,240 46,464 51,110
T
Total 186,915 182,631 199,437 217,879

O
a
Assumption: 10% increase in cost per year except for the depreciation cost that is
dependent on the equipment’s life span.
N
b
Breakdown of cost to establish a mini-packing plant is indicated on page 97.
c
d
e
Transport
Bunches are either transported on trailers pulled by tractors or on

cable lines to the packinghouse. The former is more commonly used for
small growers. From the packinghouse to market destinations, they are
transported by land transportation and by ocean vessels.

For the domestic markets, the fruits are transported by land in trucks
or small trailer vans and by inter-island shipment. For inter-island
shipment, the crates are loaded in container vans (ten-footers) with
pallets, wherein doors are left open during transport to reduce heat
buildup inside the van.
Fruits for export are kept refrigerated in the ship at 13°–14°C.
Whether the fruits are for the domestic or the world market, they
should be packed tightly inside the cartons to reduce bruising.
The buyer normally shoulders the transport cost from the
packinghouse to the port.
Storage
The buyer handles the following storage technology. It is presented
LE
for the benefit of the producer and buyer.
SA
Low Temperature
The most effective way of prolonging the shelf life of banana fruits
R
is to store them at a low temperature. The optimum storage condition for

FO
most bananas, either mature green or ripe, is 13°–14°C with a 95%

relative humidity. Storing fruits below the optimum temperature results
in chilling injury. Mature green fruits are more susceptible to chilling
injury than ripe fruits.
T
O
Modified Atmosphere
N
Modified atmosphere (MA) can also delay ripening. MA storage at

an ambient condition can be adopted for varieties (e.g., ‘Cavendish,’
‘Lakatan,’ ‘Latundan,’ ‘Señorita,’ and ‘Buñgulan’) that respond
favorably. Before being packed in cartons or crates, the fruits that are
free from blemishes are sealed in polyethylene bags with suitable
thickness of about 0.05 mm. Ethylene scrubbers are enclosed in the bag
to further increase the storage life of the fruit.
A low temperature, combined with MA, further increases the shelf
life and minimizes chilling injury.

Village Level Storage
Moist sawdust can delay fruit ripening by the principle of evaporative

cooling, at a condition of 1 part sawdust with 1.5 parts of water (weight/
volume). Under this condition, the fruits will ripen one month later. One
kilo of sawdust mixed with 1.5 L water can cover one big hand weighing
2 kg.
Ripening and Degreening
Many ripening agents can be used for bananas. Table 12 presents

a ripening guideline for bananas for the appreciation of the producer and
buyer.
Ethylene gas is released into a room containing boxes of exportable
LE
banana fruits, and the temperature is maintained at 20oC. The pulp
temperature should reach 18oC prior to ethylene treatment. The ripening
SA
room should not be opened unnecessarily for the first 24 hours.
After that, the room must be ventilated, by opening the door for about
15–20 minutes.
R
The optimum ripening temperature for banana is 25oC. Below or

FO
above this temperature results in delayed or inhibited ripening.

T
O
N

Table 12. Ripening guideline for banana.a
106
Method of Length of No. of Days
Cultivar Kind Concentration Application Exposure to Ripen
‘Saba’ Ethephon 5,000 ppm Dipping, 5 minutes Two days at
(Bondad 1972) spraying ambient condition
CaC2 N 125 g/200-L drum Place at the 24 hours 3–5 days at
(Espanto 1985) 125 g/52 x bottom ambient condition
98 cm sack
O
1 kg/100 kg fruit
Immature 5% of fruit
T Enclosed in 1–2 days Five days at
gliricidia leavesb weight PEB with 16 ambient condition
DH

Mature rain tree
leavesc (Acedo
FO
and Bautista 1987)
‘Latundan’ Ethrel (Nermal 500 ppm

R
Spraying Until dipping 2–3 days at
et al. 1983) wet ambient condition
‘Lakatan’ Ethrel 2,500 ppm Dipping 5 minutes Six days at 25oC

SA
(Bondad 1971) Seven days at 20oC
‘Morado’ Ethephon 5,000 ppm Dipping, 5 minutes 2.5 days at

(Bondad spraying ambient
LE
1972) condition
‘Buñgulan’ Ethrel 500 ppm Dipping 5 minutes Eight days

(Mendoza & at 20oC
Pantastico 1980)
Table 12. (Continued).
Method of Length of No. of Days

Cultivar Kind Concentration Application Exposure to Ripen
‘Cavendish’ Ethylene gas 1,000 ppm Spraying or 24 hours Three days from
release of gas
N metered gas release (color
in enclosed index 3) at
O
chamber with 18o–20 oC
controlled
T
temperature
a
PCARRD 1988.
b
FO
Gliricidia sepium locally known as kakawate or madre de cacao.
c
Samanea saman locally known as acacia. R
SA
LE

107
Processing Banana Fruits
The following are some of the major processed banana products

and their procedures, some of which are cited in The Philippines
Recommends for Banana. Unfortunately, the information on the cost
to produce each product is not available.
Banana Flour
1. Separate unripe bananas (‘Cavendish’ or ‘Saba’) by fingers and
LE
wash.
2. Immerse in water at 70o–75oC for five minutes to facilitate the
SA
removal of peel from the unripe fruit.
3. Cut peeled banana fruits into 0.6-cm thick.
4. Immerse in 0.2% sodium metabisulfite solution for one hour or
R
place in a sulfur chamber and expose to sulfur dioxide gas for

20–25 minutes.
FO
5. Dry in a cabinet dryer up to 8% moisture at a temperature of 75oC.

6. Cool and ground into flour and sift through a sieve.
7. Pack the flour in sacks lined with polyethylene to maintain the
T
desired moisture content.

O
N
Banana Chips
1. Choose round and mature banana fruits.

2. Weigh and wash the fruits.
3. Peel and immediately immerse in 0.05% sodium metabisulfite for
15 minutes.
4. Slice the peeled banana to about 32 mm.
5. Soak the slices in sodium metabisulfite solution for an hour to
prevent browning.
6. Remove slices and drop in boiling water for 30 seconds and in cold
water for 5 seconds.
7. Deep fry at 175oC for 2–3 minutes or until the temperature lowers
to 110oC.

8. Soak in 50o brix syrup with flavoring for five minutes.
9. Refry at 150oC for 2–3 minutes or until the temperature lowers to
135oC.
10. Pack in layers of polyethylene-foil-polyethylene and place in
containers.
11. Store in a cool, dark, and dry place.
Banana Powder
1. Wash and peel fully ripe banana fruits.

2. Chop and pass through a colloid mill.
3. Add 1–2% solution of sodium metabisulfite before drying.
4. Dry the pulp or slurry up to a final moisture content of 2% by spray
drying, drum drying, or foam mat drying.
LE
5. Pack the powder in a moisture-proof container.
SA
Banana Flakes
R
1. Wash and peel fully matured banana fruits (not overripe).

FO
2. Blanch the fruits in steam for five minutes and then whip into a
creamy pulp.
3. Add 500–550 ppm (160 mg/100 g banana pulp) sodium metabisulfite.
4. Dry to a moisture content below 2.6% in a drum dryer heated at
T
181oC.
O
5. Pack in a moisture-proof container.

N
Banana Catsup
Ingredients Quantity (g)
Vinegar 100.0
Pepper, labuyo 1.0
Onion, powdered 5.0
Garlic, powdered 1.0
Refined salt 10.0
Sugar 80.0
Red dye (No.2) 2.7

Yellow dye (No. 5) 2.8
Cinnamon 5.0
Banana (‘Saba’) 200.0
Water 200.0
1. Cook, peel, and grind fully ripe banana fruits.

2. Weigh the ground pulp and add an equal amount of water.
3. Blend in a Waring Blender for 1 minute.
4. Adjust the pH of the puree to pH 4.0–5.3 by adding citric acid
(0.05% of puree) and/or sodium hydroxide.
5. Adjust the pH of the vinegar to pH 4.0–4.3.
6. Grind the spices and dissolve in vinegar. Add to the puree.
7. Cook the mixture for 10 minutes at 75o–85oC, with continuous
stirring to prevent scorching.
8. Add coloring and continue heating up to the desired consistency.
LE
9. While catsup is hot, pour it into a clean sterile bottle.
SA
Banana Vinegar
R
Ingredients Quantity
FO
Banana fruits 1 kg
Sugar 250 g
Water 2L
T
Yeast 5g
O
Mother vinegar 100 mL

N
1. Wash, peel, and cut ripe bananas into pieces.

2. Add water and boil for 5 minutes.
3. Allow to cool. Strain.
4. Add sugar and heat again. Cool again.
5. Pour into suitable containers.
6. Add yeast.
7. Plug the mouth of a demijohn with a clean piece of cloth and loosely
cover it with a piece of paper to protect it from dust.
8. Allow to ferment for 2–3 weeks.
9. Transfer out clear fermented liquid into a sterile container.
10. Add 100 mL of mother vinegar. Plug the mouth of the container with
cotton and cover loosely with clean paper.

11. Allow to ferment for 1–2 months.
12. Pasteurize at 70oC for 20 minutes.
Banana Wine
1. Peel and cut bananas (‘Buñgulan,’ ‘Cavendish,’ or ‘Latundan’).

2. Add two parts water for every part of banana pulp. Heat until boiling
point.
3. Strain juice through a cheesecloth and add one part sugar to five
parts of juice.
4. Adjust with citric or ascorbic acid the pH of the mush to 4.0–4.5.
5. Add 15% yeast starter (Saccharomyces cerevisiae var.
allipsoideus) and ferment for one month.
6. Siphon the clear wine, then age for one year.
LE
SA
Pastillas de Saging
Ingredients Quantity
R
FO
Banana puree (‘Cavendish’ or ‘Saba’) 5 cups

Sugar 2 ½ cups
Margarine
T
1. Follow the procedure of the banana puree recipe.

O
2. Mix the banana puree and sugar in a cooking pan.

N
3. Add margarine.

References
Davao Hijo Twin Rivers Incorporated (DAHITRI). Banana production

manual. Twin Rivers Research Center, 1993. – (Mimeographed).
Jones, D.R., ed. Diseases of banana, abaca, and enset. United Kingdom:
CABI Publishing, 1999.
Lahav, E.; Israeli, Y. Mineral deficiencies of banana and enset. In:
Diseases of banana, abaca. United Kingdom: CABI Publishing,
1999.
Stover and Simon. Bananas. In: Tropical agriculture series, 3rd edition.
New York: John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. 461p.
LE
Philippine Packing Corporation. 1980. Banana cultivation manual. 1980.
–(Mimeographed).
SA
The Banana Technical Committee. The Philippines recommends for
banana. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD, 1988. 136p. – (PCARRD
Philippines Recommends Series No. 66/1988).
R
Valmayor, R.V.; Espino, R.R.C.; Pascua, O.C. The wild and cultivated
bananas of the Philippines. Los Baños, Laguna: Philippine Agriculture
FO
and Resources Research Foundation, Inc. and Bureau of Agricultural

Research, 2002. 242p.
T
O
N

Appendix 1
A Model One-year Cash Flow for Producing 25,000 Banana Plantlets a Week ('000 Pesos)
LE
Month
Expenses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
SA
Manpower
General Manager 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 360.00
Production manager 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 300.00
Supervisor II 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 120.00
R
Propagator 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 66.00
4.04 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 38.38 387.84
FO
Laboratory aide 4.17 4.17 4.17 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 12.50 125.01
4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 40.50
Utility man 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 4.30 51.60
Secretary/Cashier 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 60.00
Bookkeeper/Accountant
Purchaser/Driver 4.50 4.50
T
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
45.00
54.00
O
Washers 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 78.30
Cotton plug making 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.50
N
Test tube rack making 2.50 2.00 1.30 5.80

Accountant 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 36.00
Legal 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 48.00
SSS and EC 3.28 3.28 5.61 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 6.54 71.03
Pag-ibig 1.65 1.65 2.85 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 36.84
PhilHealth 0.72 0.72 1.40 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 17.96
115
Appendix 1. (Continued).
116
Month
Expenses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
Other Bills
Electricity 5.00 5.00 10.00 18.00 20.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 23.00 219.00
Water 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 16.50
Building rental 60.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 280.00
LE
Communications 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 84.00
Internet 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 3.60
Drinking water 1.80 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 15.00
SA
Representation 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 120.00
Meal allowance 0.30 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 5.60
Overtime pay 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 25.00
Equipment/Apparatus 685.70 125.70 125.70 205.75 1,142.85
R
Supplies 48.35 1.60 4.00 1.35 12.00 24.20 8.00 1.60 28.40 1.60 1.60 1.60 134.30
Chemicals 54.28 54.28 108.56
FO
Business permit 10.00 10.00
BIR documentary stamps 20.00 20.00
Insurance 20.00 20.00
Building improvement 150.00 150.00
Electrical 120.00 120.00
Culture shelves 120.00 T 120.00
O
Transformer deposit 78.00 78.00
Pick up 800.00 800.00
N
Motorcycle 80.00 80.00
Total (Laboratory) 2,372.35 276.76 334.54 440.24 246.64 317.12 246.64 240.24 267.04 240.24 240.24 235.74 5,457.79
Appendix 1. (Continued).
Month
Expenses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
Nursery
Nursery construction 62.50 62.50
LE
Land rental 5.00 5.00
Labor and materials 73.87 73.87
Supplies and materials 2.90 22.70 20.35 45.95
SA
Equipment and tools 2.90 0.40 0.45 23.00 26.75
Manpower
Nursery-in-charge 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 60.00
R
Laborer 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 1.40 1.40 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 23.80
Job contracts:
FO
Soil bagging/hauling 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 300.00
Sorting/hauling/filling 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 75.00
Loading 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 75.00
Total (Nursery) 55.40 45.00

T
67.75 224.32 43.90 43.90 44.60 44.60 44.60 44.60 44.60 44.60 747.87
O
Total (Laboratory
& Nursery) 2,427.75 321.76 402.29 664.56 290.54 361.02 291.24 284.84 311.64 284.84 284.84 280.34 6,205.66
N
Sales
Year 1
(8th–12th mo) 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 6,000.00
Year 2
(13th–19th mo) 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 8,400.00
117
Total (Sales) 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 1,200.00 14,400.00
Appendix 2
Initial List of Banana Experts in the Philippines
1. Abejuela, Neil
Production
Mt. Kitanglad Agri-Ventures, Inc.
Malaybalay, Bukidnon
Tel. 088-813-3962
Fax. 088-813-3965
2. Abejuela, Ricarte
LE
SA
Plantation Management
Mt. Kitanglad Agri-Ventures, Inc.
Malaybalay, Bukidnon
R
Tel. 088-813-3962
Fax. 088-813-3965
FO
3. Acedo, Antonio L., Ph.D.

Postharvest Handling
T
Associate Professor
O
Department of Horticulture
Leyte State University (LSU), ViSCA, Baybay, Leyte
N
Tel. 053-335-2628/2752
E-mail address: [email protected]
4. Agravante, Josephine U., Ph.D.

University Researcher
Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Center (PHTRC)
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-2444/5283
Fax. 049-536-3259

5. Aguilar, Edna A., Ph.D.
Cropping Systems
Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute (FSSRI)
UPLB, College, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-3229/2459
6. Angeles, Domingo, Ph.D.

Production, Propagation, and Multiplication
Associate Professor
Tel. 049-536-7344/3537
Fax. 049-536-2478
LE
SA
7. Apolinares, Nora
Nematology
AMS, Davao City
R
FO
8. Apolinares, Renato
Agronomy/Soils
Tri-Star Group of Companies
Aguho St., Davao City
T
O
9. Araneta, Emilio
N
Production
Torril, Davao City
10. Atabug, Rodolfo

Plant Pathology
Tri-Star Group of Companies

11. Bajet, Narceo B., Ph.D.
Virology
Assistant Professor
Department of Plant Pathology
Tel. 049-536-3534
12. Cadion, Bienvenido E.

Soils
Lapanday Foods Corporation
Davao City
13. Calma, Antonio C.

Banana Production and Export
LE
Cool Shipping Group Corporation
Davao City
SA
14. Carreon, Celso R.
Tissue Culture
R
Agriculturist II
FO
BPI-Philippine Tropical Fruits Research Institute

Bago-Oshiro, Davao City
Tel. 082-293-0108
Fax. 082-293-0107
T

O
N
15. Castillo, Rose Marie G.

Trade and Product Promotion
Chief
Food and Food Preparation Division
Bureau of Export Trade Promotion (BETP)
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)
5F-8F New Solid Building
357 Sen. Gil Puyat Ave., Makati City
Tel. 02-890-4643
Fax. 02-890-4707

16. Corcolon, Benny M.
Plant Pathology
Davao City
17. Coronel, Roberto E., Ph.D.

Production and Physiology
Associate Professor
IPB-UPLB, College, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339/1919
Fax. 049-536-3438
18. Damasco, Olivia P., Ph.D.

Tissue Culture
LE
SA
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
Fax. 049-536-3438
R
FO
19. Dawi, Nicolas

Nematology
Davao City
T
O
20. dela Cruz, Felipe P., Ph.D.

N
Breeding/Conservation
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
Fax. 049-536-3438
21. de la Cruz, Lito

Nematology
AMS Group of Company
Davao City

22. Esguerra, Elda B., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Center (PHTRC)
Tel. 049-536-2444/5283
Fax. 049-536-3259
E-mail address: [email protected] or [email protected]
23. Espino, Rene Rafael C., Ph.D.

Breeding
Associate Professor
Tel. 049-536-7344/3537
LE
Fax. 049-536-2478
SA
24. Espino, Teresita M., Ph.D.
Biochemistry
R
National Institutes of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology

FO

Tel. 049-536-2723/2725
Fax. 049-536-2721
T
O
25. Fabregar, Emily G., Ph.D.

N
Horticulture
Research Director
Lapanday Foods Corporation, Davao City
Tel. 082-562-7117
26. Garcia, Francisco M.

Agronomy
Tri-Star Group of Co.

27. Gil, Jose P.
Export Marketing
28. Gorrez, David D.

Production
Umali Subdivision, Los Baños, Laguna
29. Guillergan, Eduardo G.

Plantation Management
AMS Group of Co.
Davao City
LE
30. Hautea, Desiree M., Ph.D.
Breeding
SA
Director
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
R
Fax. 049-536-3438
FO
31. Herradura, Lorna E.

Virus Management
T
Supervising Agriculturist
O

N

Tel. 082-293-0108
Fax. 082-293-0107
32. Justo, Hilario, Ph. D.

Entomology
Senior Manager
R&D Division
Del Monte, Davao City
Tel. 082-233-1838 loc. 38

33. Lantican, Flordeliza, Ph.D.
Economics
College of Economics and Management
Tel. 049-536-2452/3292
Fax. 049-536-4750
34. Laurena, Antonio C., Ph.D.

Biotechnology
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
Fax. 049-536-3438
35. Leh, William L.

LE
SA
Export Marketing
R
FO
36. Loquias, Virgilio I.

Production
Senior Agriculturist
T

O
Tel. 082-293-0108
N
Fax. 082-293-0107
37. Magnaye, Lydia V.

Disease Management
Sitio Basak, Mintal, Davao City
38. Maunahan, Matilde DV

PHTRC-UPLB, College, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-2444/5283
Fax. 049-536-3259
E-mail address: [email protected] or [email protected]

39. Molina, Agustin B., Ph.D.
Production/Disease Management
Regional Coordinator
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain
(INIBAP)
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Los Baños, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-0532
40. Mora, Joel G.

Leaf Diseases
LE
41. Navarro, Alfredo A.
Soils
SA
42. Nuevo, Perlita, A., Ph.D.

R
FO
Assistant Professor
PHTRC-UPLB, College, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-2444/5283
Fax. 049-536-3259
T

O
N
43. Obello, Mar

Pest Management
Mt. Kitanlad Agri Ventures
Lantapan, Bukidnon
Tel. 088-813-3962
Fax. 088-813-3965
44. Opina, Oscar S., Ph.D.

Plant Pathology
Associate Professor
Department of Plant Pathology

Tel. 049-536-3534/2617
Fax. 049-536-3534
45. Oria, Demetrio V., Ph.D.

Production
University of Southern Mindanao (USM)
Kabacan, Cotabato
Tel. 064-248-2679; 064-248-2339
Fax. 064-248-2138
46. Paningbatan, Rodolfo

Plant Pathology
47. Pascua, Gliceria S., Ph.D.

LE
SA
Production and Breeding
Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU)
Batac, Ilocos Norte
R
Tel. 077-792-2563/2660
FO
48. Pascua, Orlando C.

Production
T
Supervising Agriculturist
O

N

Tel. 082-293-0108
Fax. 082-293-0107
49. Pateña, Lilian F.

Tissue Culture
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
Fax. 049-536-3438

50. Pedrosa, Anacleto, Jr., Ph.D.
Plant Pathology
AMS Group of Company
Davao City
51. Quimio, Arcadio, Ph.D.

Plant Pathology
Dept. of Plant Pathology
Tel. 049-536-2617/0752
Fax. 049-536-3534
52. Quinon, Vivencio L.

Plant Pathology
LE
TADECO Davao, Davao City
SA
53. Raros, Edwin
Entomology
STANFILCO Dole, Davao City
R
FO
54. Raymundo, Asuncion K., Ph.D.

Microbiology
Chairman and Associate Professor
Institute of Biological Sciences
T

O
Tel. 049-536-2893
N
55. Recel, Modesto R., Ph.D.

Soil and Plant Nutrition
Lot 34 Block 17
Villa Paraiso, Visayas Village, Tagum, City
Tel. 084-217-2755
56. Roca, Harem R.

Tissue Culture
USM
Kabacan, Cotabato
Tel. 064-248-2339

57. Roperos, Nerius I.
Plant Pathology
Central Park Subdivision
Bangkal, Davao City
58. Sales, Emma K.

Tissue Culture
USM
Kabacan, Cotabato
Tel. 064-248-2688
59. Silva, Joselito A.

Marsman Drysdale Group
Davao City
60. Soguilon, Concepcion E.

LE
SA
Mycology/Bacteriology
Senior Agriculturist
R

FO
Tel. 082-293-0108
Fax. 082-293-0107
T
61. Sotto, Rachel C. Ph.D.

O
Taxonomy
N
Tel. 049-536-2512/2339
Fax. 049-536-3438
62. Tañafranca, Daisy E.

Food Processing/Packaging
Researcher
ITDI-DOST
Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila
Tel./Fax. 02-837-7530

63. Temanel, Billy E.
Production/Tissue Culture
Director for Research and Associate Professor
Quirino State College (QSC), Diffun, Quirino
64. Valmayor, Ramon V., Ph.D.

Production/Taxonomy
PARRFI
Paseo de Valmayor
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
Tel. 049-536-0578
Fax. 049-536-0016
65. Zamora, Alfinetta B., Ph.D.
LE
Tissue Culture
Retired University Researcher
SA
3349 Aguila St.
Rhodas Subdivision
Los Baños, Laguna
R
Tel. 049-536-0310
FO

T
O
N

Banana Production Manual PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Banana Production Manual PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Banana Production Manual PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of this manual?

What is the purpose of this manual?

Who is the manual intended for?

Who is the manual intended for?

N

of similar ones not mentioned. It also does not constitute a guarantee or

warranty of the product. The recommended practices or technologies

This Banana Production Manual, presented in an easy-to-read

you return the attached acknowledgment receipt. You may also

acknowledge the receipt of this publication through e-mail at

Horticulture Information Network (HORTINET)

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (DOST)

Los Baños, Laguna

Principal Author: Dr. Modesto R. Recel

Volume Editors: Dr. Roberto E. Coronel

Institute of Plant Breeding

Mr. Joselito A. Payot

Ms. Eileen C. Cardona

Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD 2004.

Banana is still the most important fruit crop in the Philippines. It

generated technologies to banana stakeholders. This Banana Production

Manual is one of the strategies to inform and guide banana growers in

This manual presents the technology package on banana from

production up to processing. It follows the style of the sought-after

Information Network (MIN) in 1999. This manual came out as part of

PCARRD acknowledges with gratitude the financial assistance of

(RED) Foundation, Inc. of Los Baños, Laguna, for providing

insights on the format and contents of the manual;

the tissue culture laboratory operation;

• Dr. Jocelyn E. Eusebio, CRD director, and Dr. Ester L. Lopez,

• Mr. Angelito T. Carpio and Ms. Joan C. Andres of CRD for

Lining and Staking 28

Stem and Mat Spray 40

Plant Population Control 48

Banana Chips 108

Banana Powder 109

Banana Flakes 109

1 Botanical characteristics of major banana cultivars in the

9 Summary of establishment and maintenance costs for a 1-ha banana

12 Ripening guideline for banana 106

1 The banana plant 3

Banana grows in many soil types and land classifications. However,

banana plantations; thus, they should also be closely monitored.

1 to Type 4. However, it grows best in areas with a rainfall of 7 mm per

Banana is sensitive to waterlogged conditions. It needs a good

surface and an internal drainage. The water table must be 100–125-cm

layer. It must have a distance of more than 75 cm to a permeable or soft

The major banana cultivars with selected botanical characteristics

BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL 1

BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL

Fig. 1. The banana plant (Valmayor et al. 2002).

BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL 3

Corm Digging or Desuckering

Sucker extraction and corm digging must be strictly supervised to

z Select plants with corms that are at least 2 kg.

For seed pieces

For ball heads

4 BANANA PRODUCTION MANUAL

Materials and Equipment