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26 Introduction—Concept of Stress
1.11 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE
UNDER AXIAL LOADING
In the preceding sections, axial forces exerted on a two-force
member (Fig. 1.26a) were found to cause normal stresses in that
P' P
member (Fig. 1.26b), while transverse forces exerted on bolts and
pins (Fig. 1.27a) were found to cause shearing stresses in those
connections (Fig. 1.27b). The reason such a relation was observed
(a) between axial forces and normal stresses on one hand, and trans-
verse forces and shearing stresses on the other, was because stresses
P' P
were being determined only on planes perpendicular to the axis
of the member or connection. As you will see in this section, axial
forces cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes which
are not perpendicular to the axis of the member. Similarly, trans-

verse forces exerted on a bolt or a pin cause both normal and
P'
shearing stresses on planes which are not perpendicular to the axis
of the bolt or pin.

(b)
Fig. 1.26 Axial forces.
P P


P' P' P'

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.27 Transverse forces.
Force P, causes both normal and shear stresses
in the inclined plane
Consider the two-force member of Fig. 1.26, which is subjected
to axial forces P and P9. If we pass a section forming an angle u with
P' P a normal plane (Fig. 1.28a) and draw the free-body diagram of the

portion of member located to the left of that section (Fig. 1.28b),
we find from the equilibrium conditions of the free body that the
(a) distributed forces acting on the section must be equivalent to the
force P.
P' Resolving P into components F and V, respectively normal and
P
tangential to the section (Fig. 1.28c), we have
(b) F 5 P cos u     V 5 P sin u (1.12)
A
A0 F The force F represents the resultant of normal forces distributed
 over the section, and the force V the resultant of shearing forces
P
P' (Fig. 1.28d). The average values of the corresponding normal and
V shearing stresses are obtained by dividing, respectively, F and V by
(c)
the area Au of the section:
 Normal-shear stress in the

P' 
inclined plane, Aθ s5
F
Au
t5    
V
Au
(1.13)

(d) Substituting for F and V from (1.12) into (1.13), and observing from
Fig. 1.28 Fig. 1.28c that A0 5 Au cos u, or Au 5 A0ycos u, where A0 denotes
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the area of a section perpendicular to the axis of the member, we 1.12 Stress Under General Loading Conditions;
Components of Stress
27
obtain
P cos u P sin u
s5 t5
A0ycos u A0ycos u
or
From (1.12), (1.13): P P
s5 cos2 u t5 sin u cos u (1.14)
A0 A0
We note from the first of Eqs. (1.14) that the normal stress s
P' P
is maximum when u 5 0, i.e., when the plane of the section is per-
pendicular to the axis of the member, and that it approaches zero as
u approaches 908. We check that the value of s when u 5 0 is (a) Axial loading

P
sm 5 (1.15) m ⫽ P/A0
A0
as we found earlier in Sec. 1.3. The second of Eqs. (1.14) shows that
(b) Stresses for  ⫽ 0
the shearing stress t is zero for u 5 0 and u 5 908, and that for
u 5 458 it reaches its maximum value
 ' ⫽ P/2A0
sin(2x45)=2sin(45)cos(45) -->
P P
sin(90)=2sin(45)cos(45) --> tm 5 sin 45° cos 45° 5 (1.16)
1/2=sin(45)cos(45) A0 2A0
 m ⫽ P/2A0
The first of Eqs. (1.14) indicates that, when u 5 458, the normal (c) Stresses for  ⫽ 45°
stress s9 is also equal to Py2A0: m ⫽ P/2A0
P P
cos(45)=sin(45)--> s¿ 5 cos2 45° 5 (1.17)
2 A0 2A0
cos(45)=sin(45)cos(45)  '⫽ P/2A0
The results obtained in Eqs. (1.15), (1.16), and (1.17) are (d) Stresses for  ⫽ –45°
shown graphically in Fig. 1.29. We note that the same loading may Fig. 1.29
produce either a normal stress sm 5 PyA0 and no shearing stress
(Fig. 1.29b), or a normal and a shearing stress of the same magni-
tude s9 5 tm 5 Py2A0 (Fig. 1.29 c and d), depending upon the
orientation of the section.

y P2
Body with forces
1.12 STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING
CONDITIONS; COMPONENTS OF STRESS P3

The examples of the previous sections were limited to members

under axial loading and connections under transverse loading. Most
structural members and machine components are under more
involved loading conditions.
Consider a body subjected to several loads P1, P2, etc. (Fig. P1
1.30). To understand the stress condition created by these loads at P4
some point Q within the body, we shall first pass a section through
Q, using a plane parallel to the yz plane. The portion of the body to x
the left of the section is subjected to some of the original loads, and
to normal and shearing forces distributed over the section. We shall z
denote by DFx and DVx, respectively, the normal and the shearing Fig. 1.30
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y P2 y P2 Internal forces in a
28 Introduction—Concept of Stress
specific point Q
Vxy
A
Vxz
x
V  Fx  Fx
At point Q, internal forces appear. Due to Q Q
these forces, both normal and shear stresses
arise at Q.
P1 P1

x x

z z
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.31

y forces acting on a small area DA surrounding point Q (Fig. 1.31a).

xy Note that the superscript x is used to indicate that the forces DFx
and DVx act on a surface perpendicular to the x axis. While the nor-
mal force DF x has a well-defined direction, the shearing force DV x
x may have any direction in the plane of the section. We therefore
xz Q resolve DVx into two component forces, DV yx and DV zx, in directions
parallel to the y and z axes, respectively (Fig. 1.31b). Dividing now
the magnitude of each force by the area DA, and letting DA approach
zero, we define the three stress components shown in Fig. 1.32:
¢F x
sx 5 lim
¢AS0 ¢A (1.18)
x
¢Vyx ¢Vzx
z txy 5 lim
¢AS0 ¢A
    
txz 5 lim
¢AS0 ¢A
Fig. 1.32
We note that the first subscript in sx, txy, and txz is used to indicate
that the stresses under consideration are exerted on a surface per-
pendicular to the x axis. The second subscript in txy and txz identifies
the direction of the component. The normal stress sx is positive if
the corresponding arrow points in the positive x direction, i.e., if the
y
body is in tension, and negative otherwise. Similarly, the shearing
xz stress components txy and txz are positive if the corresponding arrows
Q
point, respectively, in the positive y and z directions.
The above analysis may also be carried out by considering the
x
portion of body located to the right of the vertical plane through Q
xy (Fig. 1.33). The same magnitudes, but opposite directions, are
x
obtained for the normal and shearing forces DF x, DV yx, and DV xz.
Therefore, the same values are also obtained for the corresponding
stress components, but since the section in Fig. 1.33 now faces the
negative x axis, a positive sign for sx will indicate that the corre-
sponding arrow points in the negative x direction. Similarly, positive
signs for txy and txz will indicate that the corresponding arrows
z point, respectively, in the negative y and z directions, as shown in
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.33.
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Passing a section through Q parallel to the zx plane, we define 1.12 Stress Under General Loading Conditions;
Components of Stress
29
in the same manner the stress components, sy, tyz, and tyx. Finally,
a section through Q parallel to the xy plane yields the components
y
sz, tzx, and tzy. y
To facilitate the visualization of the stress condition at point
Q, we shall consider a small cube of side a centered at Q and the a yx
yz
stresses exerted on each of the six faces of the cube (Fig. 1.34). zy Q xy
The stress components shown in the figure are sx, sy, and sz, a x

which represent the normal stress on faces respectively perpen- z zx xz
dicular to the x, y, and z axes, and the six shearing stress compo-
nents txy, txz, etc. We recall that, according to the definition of the a
shearing stress components, txy represents the y component of the
shearing stress exerted on the face perpendicular to the x axis, z
while tyx represents the x component of the shearing stress exerted x
on the face perpendicular to the y axis. Note that only three faces Fig. 1.34
of the cube are actually visible in Fig. 1.34, and that equal and
opposite stress components act on the hidden faces. While the y
stresses acting on the faces of the cube differ slightly from the y  A
yx A
stresses at Q, the error involved is small and vanishes as side a of yz  A
xy A
the cube approaches zero.
zy  A
Important relations among the shearing stress components will Q
xA
now be derived. Let us consider the free-body diagram of the small z  A
cube centered at point Q (Fig. 1.35). The normal and shearing
xz A
forces acting on the various faces of the cube are obtained zx  A
by multiplying the corresponding stress components by the area DA
of each face. We first write the following three equilibrium
equations: z
x

oFx 5 0     oF y 50     oF z 50 (1.19) Fig. 1.35

Since forces equal and opposite to the forces actually shown in Fig.
1.35 are acting on the hidden faces of the cube, it is clear that Eqs.
(1.19) are satisfied. Considering now the moments of the forces
about axes x9, y9, and z9 drawn from Q in directions respectively
parallel to the x, y, and z axes, we write the three additional
equations
oM x¿ 5 0     oM y¿ 50     oM z¿ 50 (1.20)
Using a projection on the x9y9 plane (Fig. 1.36), we note that the y'
only forces with moments about the z axis different from zero are
the shearing forces. These forces form two couples, one of counter- y A
clockwise (positive) moment (txy DA)a, the other of clockwise (nega- yx A
tive) moment 2(tyx DA)a. The last of the three Eqs. (1.20) yields, xy A
x A
therefore, z' x'
xy A x A
a
1l oMz 5 0: (txy DA)a 2 (tyx DA)a 5 0 yx A
y A
from which we conclude that
Fig. 1.36
By using equilibrium of the
infinitesimal body in 2d, appears that: txy 5 tyx (1.21)

The relation obtained shows that the y component of the shearing

stress exerted on a face perpendicular to the x axis is equal to the x
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30 Introduction—Concept of Stress component of the shearing stress exerted on a face perpendicular to

the y axis. From the remaining two equations (1.20), we derive in a
similar manner the relations

P
Q
  tyz 5 tzy tzx 5 txz (1.22)
P'  We conclude from Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22) that only six stress
components are required to define the condition of stress at a given
(a) (b)
point Q, instead of nine as originally assumed. These six components
are sx, sy, sz, txy, tyz, and tzx. We also note that, at a given point,
Fig. 1.37
shear cannot take place in one plane only; an equal shearing stress
must be exerted on another plane perpendicular to the first one. For
y
example, considering again the bolt of Fig. 1.27 and a small cube at
Only normal stresses at the considered cube
the center Q of the bolt (Fig. 1.37a), we find that shearing stresses
of equal magnitude must be exerted on the two horizontal faces of
P' P
x x the cube and on the two faces that are perpendicular to the forces
x ⫽ P P and P9 (Fig. 1.37b).
z A
Before concluding our discussion of stress components, let us
(a) consider again the case of a member under axial loading. If we con-
Both normal and shear stresses at the sider a small cube with faces respectively parallel to the faces of the
considered, inclined cube member and recall the results obtained in Sec. 1.11, we find that the
conditions of stress in the member may be described as shown in Fig.
' ' 1.38a; the only stresses are normal stresses sx exerted on the faces of
P' 45 P
m ⫽ P  the cube which are perpendicular to the x axis. However, if the small
2A m
' cube is rotated by 458 about the z axis so that its new orientation
matches the orientation of the sections considered in Fig. 1.29c and
' ⫽ P
2A d, we conclude that normal and shearing stresses of equal magnitude
(b) are exerted on four faces of the cube (Fig. 1.38b). We thus observe
Fig. 1.38
that the same loading condition may lead to different interpretations
of the stress situation at a given point, depending upon the orientation
of the element considered. More will be said about this in Chap 7.

1.13 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In the preceding sections you learned to determine the stresses in
rods, bolts, and pins under simple loading conditions. In later chap-
ters you will learn to determine stresses in more complex situations.
In engineering applications, however, the determination of stresses
is seldom an end in itself. Rather, the knowledge of stresses is used
by engineers to assist in their most important task, namely, the design
of structures and machines that will safely and economically perform
a specified function.

a. Determination of the Ultimate Strength of a Material. An

important element to be considered by a designer is how the material
that has been selected will behave under a load. For a given material,
this is determined by performing specific tests on prepared samples
of the material. For example, a test specimen of steel may be pre-
pared and placed in a laboratory testing machine to be subjected to
a known centric axial tensile force, as described in Sec. 2.3. As the
magnitude of the force is increased, various changes in the specimen
are measured, for example, changes in its length and its diameter.
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Ultimate load and ultimate stress (normal-shear) definition:

Eventually the largest force which may be applied to the specimen is 1.13 Design Considerations
31
reached, and the specimen either breaks or begins to carry less load.
This largest force is called the ultimate load for the test specimen and
is denoted by PU. Since the applied load is centric, we may divide the
ultimate load by the original cross-sectional area of the rod to obtain
the ultimate normal stress of the material used. This stress, also known P
as the ultimate strength in tension of the material, is
PU
sU 5 (1.23)
A
Several test procedures are available to determine the ultimate
shearing stress, or ultimate strength in shear, of a material. The one
most commonly used involves the twisting of a circular tube (Sec. Fig. 1.39 Single shear test.
3.5). A more direct, if less accurate, procedure consists in clamping
a rectangular or round bar in a shear tool (Fig. 1.39) and applying P
an increasing load P until the ultimate load PU for single shear is
obtained. If the free end of the specimen rests on both of the hard-
ened dies (Fig. 1.40), the ultimate load for double shear is obtained.
In either case, the ultimate shearing stress tU is obtained by dividing
the ultimate load by the total area over which shear has taken place.
We recall that, in the case of single shear, this area is the cross-
sectional area A of the specimen, while in double shear it is equal
to twice the cross-sectional area. Fig. 1.40 Double shear test.

b. Allowable Load and Allowable Stress; Factor of Safety. The

maximum load that a structural member or a machine component will Design or allowable load, must be smaller
be allowed to carry under normal conditions of utilization is consider- than the ultimate load.
ably smaller than the ultimate load. This smaller load is referred to as
the allowable load and, sometimes, as the working load or design load. Thus, the factor of safety is introduced.
Thus, only a fraction of the ultimate-load capacity of the member is
utilized when the allowable load is applied. The remaining portion of
the load-carrying capacity of the member is kept in reserve to assure
its safe performance. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable
load is used to define the factor of safety.† We have
ultimate load
Factor of safety 5 F.S. 5 (1.24)
allowable load
An alternative definition of the factor of safety is based on the use
of stresses:
ultimate stress
Factor of safety 5 F.S. 5 (1.25)
allowable stress
The two expressions given for the factor of safety in Eqs. (1.24) and
(1.25) are identical when a linear relationship exists between the load
and the stress. In most engineering applications, however, this rela-
tionship ceases to be linear as the load approaches its ultimate value,
and the factor of safety obtained from Eq. (1.25) does not provide a

†In some fields of engineering, notably aeronautical engineering, the margin of safety is
used in place of the factor of safety. The margin of safety is defined as the factor of safety
minus one; that is, margin of safety 5 F.S. 2 1.00.
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32 Introduction—Concept of Stress true assessment of the safety of a given design. Nevertheless, the
allowable-stress method of design, based on the use of Eq. (1.25), is
widely used.

c. Selection of an Appropriate Factor of Safety. The selec-

tion of the factor of safety to be used for various applications is one
of the most important engineering tasks. On the one hand, if a factor
of safety is chosen too small, the possibility of failure becomes unac-
ceptably large; on the other hand, if a factor of safety is chosen
unnecessarily large, the result is an uneconomical or nonfunctional
design. The choice of the factor of safety that is appropriate for a
given design application requires engineering judgment based on
many considerations, such as the following:
1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member
under consideration. The composition, strength, and dimen-
sions of the member are all subject to small variations during
manufacture. In addition, material properties may be altered
and residual stresses introduced through heating or deforma-
tion that may occur during manufacture, storage, transporta-
tion, or construction.
2. The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of
the structure or machine. For most materials the ultimate stress
decreases as the number of load applications is increased. This
phenomenon is known as fatigue and, if ignored, may result in
sudden failure (see Sec. 2.7).
3. The type of loadings that are planned for in the design, or that
may occur in the future. Very few loadings are known with
complete accuracy—most design loadings are engineering esti-
mates. In addition, future alterations or changes in usage may
introduce changes in the actual loading. Larger factors of safety
are also required for dynamic, cyclic, or impulsive loadings.
4. The type of failure that may occur. Brittle materials fail sud-
denly, usually with no prior indication that collapse is immi-
nent. On the other hand, ductile materials, such as structural
steel, normally undergo a substantial deformation called yield-
ing before failing, thus providing a warning that overloading
exists. However, most buckling or stability failures are sudden,
whether the material is brittle or not. When the possibility of
sudden failure exists, a larger factor of safety should be used
than when failure is preceded by obvious warning signs.
5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis. All design methods are
based on certain simplifying assumptions which result in calcu-
lated stresses being approximations of actual stresses.
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor main-
tenance or because of unpreventable natural causes. A larger fac-
tor of safety is necessary in locations where conditions such as
corrosion and decay are difficult to control or even to discover.
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole
structure. Bracing and secondary members may in many cases
be designed with a factor of safety lower than that used for
primary members.
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In addition to the these considerations, there is the additional 1.13 Design Considerations
33
consideration concerning the risk to life and property that a failure
would produce. Where a failure would produce no risk to life and
only minimal risk to property, the use of a smaller factor of safety
can be considered. Finally, there is the practical consideration that,
unless a careful design with a nonexcessive factor of safety is used,
a structure or machine might not perform its design function. For
example, high factors of safety may have an unacceptable effect on
the weight of an aircraft.
For the majority of structural and machine applications, factors Design codes: they define (among others)
of safety are specified by design specifications or building codes writ- factors of safety
ten by committees of experienced engineers working with profes-
sional societies, with industries, or with federal, state, or city agencies. Structural design codes:
Examples of such design specifications and building codes are
1. Steel: American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification - SANS codes
for Structural Steel Buildings - Eurocodes
2. Concrete: American Concrete Institute, Building Code Require- - British Standards
ment for Structural Concrete
3. Timber: American Forest and Paper Association, National
Design Specification for Wood Construction
4. Highway bridges: American Association of State Highway Offi-
cials, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges

*d. Load and Resistance Factor Design. As we saw previously,

the allowable-stress method requires that all the uncertainties associ-
ated with the design of a structure or machine element be grouped
into a single factor of safety. An alternative method of design, which
is gaining acceptance chiefly among structural engineers, makes it pos-
sible through the use of three different factors to distinguish between
the uncertainties associated with the structure itself and those associ-
ated with the load it is designed to support. This method, referred
to as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), further allows the
designer to distinguish between uncertainties associated with the live
load, PL, that is, with the load to be supported by the structure, and
the dead load, PD, that is, with the weight of the portion of structure
contributing to the total load.
When this method of design is used, the ultimate load, PU, of
the structure, that is, the load at which the structure ceases to be
useful, should first be determined. The proposed design is then
acceptable if the following inequality is satisfied:
gD PD 1 gL PL # fPU (1.26)
The coefficient f is referred to as the resistance factor; it accounts
for the uncertainties associated with the structure itself and will
normally be less than 1. The coefficients gD and gL are referred to
as the load factors; they account for the uncertainties associated,
respectively, with the dead and live load and will normally be greater
than 1, with gL generally larger than gD. While a few examples or
assigned problems using LRFD are included in this chapter and in
Chaps. 5 and 10, the allowable-stress method of design will be used
in this text.