Previous Next

Introduction and basic terms

So what is this accounting thing? Image credit stageandcinema.com

ZIMSEC O Level Principles of Accounts Notes: Introduction and basic terms

 Accounting is a system comprising the following elements: In summary Accounting is the

process of identifying, measuring and communicating business information to assist users in
making informed, useful decisions.
 Only monetary transactions are recorded in accounting using the historical and monetary
principles.
 This simply means that only transactions that can be recorded in monetary terms are recorded
and this is done on a historical basis i.e. we only record those amounts that we actually expended
or received.
 Capital-any resources; monetary or otherwise used by the business to start a business.

Assets
  In financial accounting, assets are economic resources. Anything tangible or intangible that is
capable of being owned or controlled to produce value and that is held to have positive economic
value is considered an asset.
 There are two classes of assets namely:
 Non Current assets-these are assets held by a business for more than one accounting period
e.g. motor vehicles, buildings. Non-current assets are sometimes known as Fixed Assets.
 Current assets-assets-held by a business for less than one accounting period .They can easily
be converted into cash e.g cash ,bank,debtors and inventory.
 At times a business may have assets that may be classified as intangible assets for example
goodwill. These assets and their nature will be examined in the relevant topic.

Liabilities

 Present obligations resulting from past events, the settlement of which leads to decreases in
economic benefits. Liabilities,therefore represent amounts that the entity/business owes to
outside parties or debts of the business which it has to settle at some future point in time.
 There are two classes of liabilities namely:
 Current liabilities– these are liabilities which have a repayment date of less than one year.e.g
creditors
 Non current liabilities-these are liabilities which have a repayment date of more than one
accounting period.e.g loans and debentures. Usually an accounting period lasts for one year
although companies have different policies so customarily non current liabilities are those that
have a payment date of more than one year.

Other important accounting terms and their definitions

 Purchases-goods bought for resale.

 Sales-goods sold by a business which were originally bought with the intention of reselling them.
 Drawings-Goods or money taken out of the business by the owner for private purposes.
 Returns inwards/Sales Returns-goods returned to the business by its customers.
 Returns outwards/purchases returns-goods returned by the business to its suppliers.

NB You will learn more accounting terms as you progress with the course and each term will be defined
when it is introduced for the first time.

To access more topics please go to the Principles of Accounts Notes page.

Previous Next
Users of Accounting Information

There are various users of accounting information. Image credit Enlgish-Today-Jarkata.

ZIMSEC Principles of Accounts Notes: Users of Accounting Information.

 Users of accounting information can be divided into two groups:

 Internal users and,
 External users.
 Users of accounting information are sometimes known as stakeholders since they are affected
and in turn affect the concerned entity’s operations.

Internal Users

 These are found inside the business entity itself and they include:
 Owners– Determine profitability and financial viability.
 Managers– Ensure a business operates efficiently and identifies and develops plans towards
problem areas highlighted. Measure results against targets and evaluate variances.
 Employees– Determine if employer is able to provide stable employment and remuneration.
External Users

 These are found outside the business itself.

 Customers– Determine if business can provide products over long period of time. Assess ability
for growth in product range, pricing and profitability and aftermarket support potential.
 Competitors– Competitor intelligence, to maintain competitive edge.
 Lenders– Determine if business can repay capital payments on loans and interest. Assess the
liquidity, solvency and gearing of the business to assess whether further loans can be granted
without security etc.
 Government– Determine the amount of taxes and levies that should be paid. Assess the
corporate governance and social responsibility of the business.
 Suppliers– Determine if business can pay for goods purchased on credit. Assess whether
associations with a business are beneficial or not.
 Investors– Determine if business would be good investment, and to assess risk and return of an
investment in business.

To access more topics go to the Principles of Accounts page.

Previous Next

The Double Entry Concept

Introduction to double entry. Image credit snwmo636sriverct.biz

ZIMSEC O Level Principles of Accounts Notes

 You need to pay close attention because this is where the accounting part in accounting begins.
 This is the basic rule in accounting which states that any accounting transaction should be
recorded twice.
 Every debit should have a corresponding credit and every credit should have a corresponding
credit.
 No matter the case,there are always two sides or aspects to every financial transaction a debit
and a credit.
 In accounts you should always credit the giver and debit the receiver.
 Often times the receiver and the giver are not actual persons but “accounts” or representations
for example a business might an account for J. Jimu but can also have a Wages account where
they record all the wages payments they make to their employees.
 An account therefore is a collection of summarised financial transaction of a similar class,
category and nature or pertaining to the same person, entity or expense, revenue, liability,asset
etc.
 The first thing you need to do when recording a transaction is to identify the accounts involved.
 Identify which account is giving and therefore must be credited
 Next identify the account receiving which therefore must be debited
 The identify the effective amounts involved int the transaction.
 Below are some of the most business transactions that you will encounter during your course.

Illustration of the double entry principle.

Example 1 Transactions involving capital

 M. Mukoyi started a business by depositing a cheque of $25 000 into the business bank account
 Account to be debited: Bank
 Account to be credited: Capital
 This is typical of all transactions involved in the starting of a business. You should never record
the proprietor (owner’s) name in his/her own book of accounts.
 The proprietor’s stake in the business is always represented by the Capital account which is
almost always Credited except in instances that are beyond the scope of Ordinary Level
accounts.
 It is therefore a safe bet to assume that whenever you encounter the Capital account it must
therefore be credited.
 Amount involved:$25 000

Example 2 Cash Purchases

 Goods (intended for resale) are bought on cash for $1 500.

 Account to be debited: Purchases
 Account to be credited: Cash
  Amount involved: $1 500
 You should never confuse the Purchases account ( which always has a debited balance) and the
Purchases (Ledger) Control account which will be examined later in your studies.
 Most students confuse these too invariably leading to their failing the question involved.

Example 3 Credit Purchases

 Goods (intended for resale) worth $800 bought on credit from Mohammed Mussa.
 Accounts to be debited: Purchases accounts.
 Accounts to be credited: Mohammed Mussa.
 Amount involved: $800
 When goods from a supplier on credit the supplier’s name is recorded into an account named
after the supply i.e. the amount is eponymous.

Example 4 Accounts involving assets

 Bought a Motor Vehicle on cash for $5 000.

 Account to be debited: Motor Vehicle
 Account to be credited: Cash
 Amount involved: $5 000
 Asset accounts are usually named after the asset involved in the transaction e.g. Property Plant
and Equipment Account, Buildings Account, Furniture and Fittings Account etc

Example 5 The sale of an assets

 Sold Buildings to ABC Limited for $ 50 000 cash.

 Account to be debited: Cash
 Account to be credited: Buildings
 Amount involved: $50 000
 The temptation would have been somehow to include an account named ABC Limited
 This would have been incorrect as all transactions involving cash must be recorded into the cash
account without involving the name of the other party paying cash.
 This is consistent with example two above.

To practice double entry go and try the following exercise.

To access more topics go to the Principles of Accounts Notes page.

Double Entry Exercise and Solutions

Remember there are two sides to every transaction. Image credit teslamotors.com

ZIMSEC O Level Principles of Accounts: Double Entry Exercise and Solution[/title

 You are required to open the asset and liability and capital accounts and record the following
transactions for June 20X8 in the records of T. Moyo. 20X8

1. June 1 Started business with $12,000 in cash.

2. 2 Paid $11 700 of the opening cash into a bank account for the business.
3. 5 Bought office furniture on credit from Musorowegomo Ltd for $1 900.
4. 8 Bought a van paying by cheque $5 250.
5. 12 Bought equipment from Mutape and Sons on credit $2 300.
6. 18 Returned faulty office furniture costing $120 to Dream Ltd.
7. 25 Sold some of the equipment for $200 cash.
8. 26 Paid amount owing to Musorowegomo Ltd $1 780 by cheque.
9. 28 Took $130 out of the bank and added to cash
10. 30 E Makandiwa lent us $4 000 – giving us the money by cheque.
  Always remember the following steps.
 The first step is to identify the accounts involved.
 The second step is to identify the account “Receiving” and therefore is to be debited.
 The third step is to identify the account which is “giving” and therefore is to be credited.
 With practice you can become more proficient and will not need this checklist.

Solution

Show entries
Search:

DATE ACCOUNT DEBITED ACCOUNT CREDITED AMOUNT

1 June Cash Capital $12 000

2 June Bank Cash $11 700

5 June Office Furniture Musorowegomo $1 800

8 June Van Bank $5 250

12 June Equipment Mutape and Sons $2 300

18 June Musorowegomo Office Furniture $120

25 June Cash Equipment $200

26 June Musorowegomo Bank $1780

28 June Cash Bank $180

30 June Bank E Makandiwa $4 000

Showing 1 to 10 of 10 entries
PreviousNext

To revise go back to the notes on Double Entry accounting.

To access more topics to the Principles of Accounts Notes page.

Previous Next
The Ndebele under Mzlikazi Khumalo: South of the Limpopo

Matopos the burial place of Mzilikazi Khumalo Chief of the Ndebele: Image by Vantage Magazine

Origins of the State

 Mzilikazi was the leader of the Khumalo who were originally part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe state but
had joined the Zulu state.
 Mzilikazi broke away from the Zulu in 1822 after a conflict he had with Tshaka.
 Mzilikazi was one of Tshaka’s trusted Generals and had been tasked to raid a certain group.
 Mzilikazi, however, did not surrender the loot from this raid which angered Tshaka who
demanded an explanation.
 Tshaka sent out a regiment to punish Mzilikazi but the regiment was defeated and Mzilikazi
managed to escape accross the Drakensburg mountains.
 He led a group of about 300 young warriors, men, women and children across the Drakensburg
and first settled at Ekupumuleni (Ndebele for Place of rest)

At Ekupumuleni

 This settlement was too close to Zululand and the Zulu’s attacked it on a fairly regular basis and
so did the surrounding ethnic groups like the Pedi.
  Groups such as the Sotho, Dhlodos, Pondo and Swazi joined the Ndebele so as to be protected
from the Zulu attacks. Mzilikazi also absorbed the Ndzundza into his group.
 The Sotho were good farmers while the Ndebele were good herders which formed the basis of a
strong state.
 Mzilikazi had good leadership skills which helped unite people of different origins and cultures
into a single nation.
 Women who were captured during the raids, which the Ndebele still took part in after fleeing
Zululand, were send to Ndebele homesteads to live with the Ndebele families.
 He encouraged intermarriages to ensure the growth of the state and the offspring of these
marriages were groomed into the leadership ranks of the Ndebele society.
 Mzilikazi promoted people on merit so they could become Indunas and chiefs.
 Mzlikazi also persuaded other ethnic groups to join the state as he allowed them to retain their
possessions and privileges in society.
 Cattle rearing and settled agriculture were difficult because of the constant attacks from he Zulu,
Pedi and Griqua.
 His tribe was also greatly affected by the drought of 1823 which destroyed grazing lands.
 Mzilikazi raided other groups to obtain food, cattle and captives to strengthen his state.
 Other supplies came from tribute from the surrounding loyal tribes.
 Due to insecurity Mzilikazi decided to wait for the harvest and raided other groups of their crops
before leaving Ekupumuleni.
 Despite the hardships and people leaving his state grew in size.

Mhlahlandela

 This was Mzilikazi’s second settlement, but it was still close to Zululand and faced many attacks
from Dingane who was now King of the Zulu
 He established other military towns such as Endinaneni and Enkungqini and raided as far as
Botswana, Lesotho and Zimbabwe.
 The state lost a lot of man and cattle leaving it depleted.
 Mzilikazi met with Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society in 1829 and the two became
friends.
 There were hostile groups of the Kora, Khoisan who would team up with the Kwena people and
attack the settlement.
 The state was almost destroyed by the gun carrying Griqua and Rolong warriors (part of the
Tswana) who captured a lot of the Ndebele cattle and almost destroyed the Ndebele state.
 Many people became disgruntled and deserted though a lot of people stayed behind.
 Realizing agriculture was impossible and cattle pastures scarce, Mzilikazi decided to move on.
 His state had been further ravaged by disease which attacked the cattle thus spurring him to
move.
 People were also attacked by diseases such as malaria
Mosega

 The Ndebele moved further west closer to Moffat’s mission in Mosega

 The land was good for cattle and at this point around Marico he drove out the Hurutshe
 He also became friends with Dr Andrew Smith of the Central African Expedition in 1835
 His friendship with the whites did deter or stop the Griqua and Kora from attacking.
 In 1831 a combined Tswana-Griqua (the Rolong warriors) force had attached while his army was
away on a raiding mission in Lesotho resulting in many casualties.
 This was followed in 1834 by another attack by the Griqua and Kora
 Attacks continued as hunting expeditions from these groups crossed the Vaal
 At Mosega he faced the real threat of the Boers under the leadership of Potgieter who were keen
to expand eastwards after they had been driven away from the south by the British.
 In 1837 the Ndebele were defeated by the Boers who had allied with the Griqua, Tlokwa and
Rolong warriors.
 During this time Dingane sent another expedition to attack the Ndebele. The expedition was
defeated by the Ndebele incurred heavy losses.
 This encouraged the local Hurutshe and Griqua to raid the Ndebele for cattle.
 The mounting problems finally compelled the Ndebele to migrate further north into Botswana
absorbing the Tswana and proceeding across the Limpopo
The Kololo under Sebetwane

The Okavango River. Image from Flcker

The Kololo under Sebetwane (ZIMSEC O Level Notes)

Origins and migration of the Kololo people

 The Kololo were Sotho speaking people from the Transorangia area composed of two Fokeng
groups which migrated under Sebetwane during the period of Mfecane (a.k.a Defecane).
 The Patsa Fokeng under Sebetwane left as a result of attacks from the Tlokwa of Mma Ntatisi.
 Sebetwane fled across the Vaal river to move as far away as possible from the threats and
disturbances of the Mfecane
 They arrived in Tlapini capital Dithakong in 1823 facing resistance from the Tlapini
and Griqua who had guns and fought on horseback.
 Sebetwane continued through Botswana reaching Molopo River where he defeated the
northern Rolong around Kunwana.
 The Kololo proceeded further into Hurutshe and defeated them but they were in turn defeated by
the Ndebele.
  In Botswana they managed to defeat Kgabo-Kwena and Tshwane-Tlokoa but they were forced to
leave Kwena by the Ngwakwetsi.
 Sebetwane attacked the Ngwato who sought refugee in the Kutswe Mountains.
 The Kololo marched through the Kalahari Desert travelling mostly at night in small groups.
 They rested at Lake Ngami where they carried out raiding expeditions to replenish the cattle they
had lost in the desert heat.
 From Lake Ngami they travelled across the Okavango River reaching Chobe where they
established their capital at Dinyati.
 They defeated and ruled the Sibya fisherman and some Tswana.
 The Kololo left the Chobe Valley as it proved to be unhealthy as they journeyed towards the
Zambezi where they raided the Tonga for cattle.
 They established a settlement on the Toka Plateau south of Kafue an area excellent for cattle.

Settlement in Zambia

 After having subdued most of the chiefdoms on the Toka Plateau they crossed the flood plain of
the Kafue River.
 They were assisted to cross into Illa by local fishermen who resisted the intruders by force.
 The Kololo reached the Sala area near Lusaka capturing the Sala religious leader, Priestess
Chief Longo.
 Sebetwane was warned against trekking further because of the danger of the Portuguese and
their Chikunda allies and Swahili traders.
 he was advised to turn west to a land of red cattle called Luyi country or Bulozi
 On their way the Kololo defeated the Ndebele in the Tlokoa Plateau in Kolomo.
 The hill at which the fighting took place was named Thaba yabasadi (the women’s mountain) in
honor of the brave Kololo women who took part in the battle.
 The Kololo finally arrived in Bulozi which was under the rule of the Litunga and Mubhukwanu.
 Sebetwane took advantage of a weak state divided by succession disputes.
 The kingdom had been divided into south and north and there was also division into Lozi proper
and the conquered subject peoples.

Settlement in Bulozi

 Sebetwane found support of the local people as well as the Ngambe who did not like the Litunga.
 Sebetwane defeated the Litunga and forced him into exile.
 He took the heir to the throne and all the young men of the royal family and educated them as
members of the Kololo aristocracy.
 The Kololo control of Bulozi was hampered by invasions from the Msene-Ngoni under Nxaba in
1843 that were driven away at great cost.
 The Ndebele also invaded in 1845 and 1850 but were cleverly defeated as they were lured to an
island where they were later flooded.
 The final defeat of the Msene-Ngoni and the Ndebele brought unity in Sebetwane’s new kingdom.
  Trusted local chiefs were left in charge of their areas while some of them were given positions in
local government councils.
 Sebetwane mixed freely with is subjects, both the Kololo and the Lozi.
 Sebetwane took wives from among the conquered groups to ensure unity and trust.
 He encouraged the use of the Kololo language in his kingdom.
 Raids were carried out into the surrounding Tonga, Livingstone, Illa, Mazabukwa and north
western Zimbabwe.
 Even in areas where Kololo rule was permanent Sebetwane did not force the conquered people
into the age regiment system.
 He allowed the Lozi to continue with their political and administrative institutions but did his best
to persuade them to adopt his methods.
 He placed one or two Kololo families in every village as Lords of the Land.
 Villages were grouped into provinces under Kololo provincial governors.
 Subject peoples were encouraged to cultivate the land but aid tribute in grain ,nuts, spears, hoes,
ivory, skins and canoes.
 he took some of the tribute and distributed it among his people.
 In 1850 the capital was moved Naliele at the southern end of the upper Zambezi flood plain to
Dinyati for strategic and economic reasons.
 At Dinyati Sebetwane was able to defend his kingdom against any threat from the south.
 Dinyati was also good for cattle as it was situated where the wagon road from Ngamiland and the
Cape ended.
 Dinyati was also free from mosquitoes.

The end of Kololo rule

 Upon his death, Sebetwane was succeeded by his daughter who in turn abdicated her throne in
favour of her brother Sekeletu.
 Sekeletu, however lacked his father’s courage, intelligence and ability as a leader.
 He did not trust his official advisers especially the Lozi.
 He became suscipisous of his councillors and got them killed.
 After he became a leper Sekeletu accused most people especially the Lozi of bewitching him.
 During Sekeletu’s rule the Kololo became arrogant and treated the Lozi as inferior or even slaves.
 The Lozi did all the farm work while the Kololo did the harvesting.
 The Kololo became involved in the slave trade with the Portoguese in 1853
 The Kololo from the South were decimated by malaria as they had less resistance to the disease.
 Sekeletu’s death was followed by succession disputes and civil war whcih destroyed the stat.
 Tired of the Kololo rule the Lozi organised themselves and rose up in arms against their rulers.
 They were supported by the Tonga and the Kololo were defeated. Old men were killed and young
men and women were incorporated into the Lozi kingdom.
 The desire by the Lozi to be independent proved to be the major drive behind the collapse of the
Kololo state.

Share this:
The Shangaane under Soshangane

Save Valley: Image by Homeopathy Community

The Gaza State

Origins of the Gaza State

 Soshangane and Zwangendaba were Zwide’s generals who fought alongside Zwide in the 1819
war against Tshaka.
 Soshangane emerged as the most powerful leader amongst the Nguni groups expelled from
Zululand.
 After escaping from Tshaka, Soshangane and his people settled in the area South of modern day
Mozambique and south eastern of what is now Zimbabwe. The area is otherwise known as the
lower Limpopo region.
 They settled down and intermarried with the Shona speaking people of the area.
 They had migrated from Zululand in the 1820s as a small group of men,women and children.
 On their way north they absorbed the Swazi and other Nguni related groups.
 Between 1825 and 1845 they established control over most of southern Mozambique and south
eastern Zimbabwe.
 They first settled east of the Save River in the old Mandaba kingdom.
 The Ndau and other Shona speaking people were ruled by Soshangane and paid tribute to him.
 He defeated the Portoguese traders in the area and forced them to pay taxes in order to continue
trading.
 The first capital of Gaza state was Moyamuhle (“cool breeze).
  Soshangane was the son of Ndwandwe who was a descendant of Gaza thus the state was
named after him. The state was thus called Gaza after Soshangane’s grandfather.
 In honour of their founder the people caled themselves the Shangaane.

Expansion of the Gaza State

 The soldiers were organised into disciplined Nguni regiments known as Amabutho.
 They were strong enough to send forces or impis to luanch military expeditions in all directions.
 In 1834 they conquered a Portuguese trading station at Inhambane.
 By 1836 they had wiped ou the Portuguese garrisons in the area as far north as Sofala.
 After raiding Tete and Sena they succeeded in overpowering the Portuguese political and
economic bases along the Zambezi river.
 This resulted in the disruption of the trading systems of the Portuguese between the interior and
their coastal settlements.
 The Gaza took over ivory trade in the areas of Sofala, Inhambane and Maputo controlling the
movement of goods from the interior in the process.
 The wealth and power of the Portuguese and the sub chiefs established over time declined.
 Soshangane expanded into the old kingdom of Uteve and Manyika.
 Most of the area south of the Zambezi paid tribute to the Gaza which was allocated to the soldiers
each year.
 The soldiers also crossed the Save River to raid the Mutoko area.
 This area brought in a lot of taxes and those who resisted were often killed, for example, Chief
Munyarari and Chief Sweswe.
 However most chiefs were treated as vassal sub chiefs and their young men integrated into the
Gaza military system.

Political Organisation

 The king’s court was the political centre of the state.

 The Royal family and the advisers including several hundred wives of the king lived at the royal
court.
 The king made the laws with the assistance of the advisers.
 The king was the judicial, religious and military commander of the state.
 The state was divided into districts each headed by a resident Induna.
 The Induna and his regiment collected taxs each year from his district as a way of ensuring
control and loyalty of the people.
 The king had kinship ties with his Indunas and marriage ties with the sub chiefs as a way of
communication and exerting control of the state.
 Daughters of sub chiefs visited the Kng’s court each year.
 Prisoners of war were brought to the king along with cattle and goods taken during the raids.
 People appealed against the Induna’s and chief’s decisions at the King’s court.
 The army was the main instrument of control as all young men were conscripted into the age
regiments.
  They used traditional spears and shields but were later on armed with guns.
 The political system of the Gaza was integrative as it allowed people to retain their land as to be
able to pay taxes.

The economic organisation

 The state was basically a raiding state.

 Besides raiding the surrounding peasant communities the Shangaane also overran the
Portuguese settlements ofSofala, Inhambane and Lourence Marques.
 The Gaza was involved in agriculture.
 They grew traditional crops such as sorghum, rapoko, millet, pumpkins, beans and other
vegetables.
 The king was responsible for distributing the land through the sub chiefs and Indunas.
 Cattle heading was practiced and cattle were a symbol of wealth in the society.
 Cattle were important for paying bride price and were also slaughtered in important ceremonies.
 The king received tribute from his people and also taxes from the Portuguese traders.
 Trade was a central part of the economy controlled by the king through his Indunas.
 The Gaza state traded with the Portuguese in ivory, cloth, gold and other metals as well as
animal skins.
 Hunting also contributed to the economy and welfare of the state.
 The Gaza state was thriving because different ethnic groups were allowed to continue carrying
out their economic activities undisturbed as long as they were loyal to the central state.

The social system

 The social system of the Gaza was divided into three classes.
 The first class or the aristocracy consisted of the original Nguni speaking people and their
relatives.
 They called themselves Gaza, Ngumi or baNgoni.
 The second class consisted of the absorbed groups who were recruited into the Gaza ranks
called the baTshangane (the Shangane).
 These were divided into regiments with the Ngoni officers.
 However they were treated as less important people and were used in the front line in battle.
 Most senior government officials came from the fist class though assimilated subjects were
allowed to rise to positions of political power, for example, Magigwana of the Ndau origin who
fought the 1895 and 1898 wars against the Portuguese.
 Those who adopted the Nguni culture enjoyed a status next to the Nguni aristocracy.
 These people identified themselves by wearing was head rings and pierced ears.
 These people also wore skin aprons and were fluent in the Nguni language.
 Assimilated people were also allowed to intermarry and they were assisted with cattle used to buy
wives for them as reward for service.
 Their children were considered true Nguni as they increased the Nguni population.
  The people who did not adopted the Nguni culture and language such as
the Tsonga and Chopi formed the lowest class.
 They were not allowed to join the regular army but sometimes served as pathfinders or guides for
the elite regiments in the lower LimpopoValley.
 The Tsonga did not wear head rings and were dressed in loin cloth instead.
 They also filled their teeth and decorated their bodies tattooing themselves.
 These were slaves and were often more oppressed than the assimilated people.

The decline of the Gaza state

 The loyalty and identity of a person were defined in terms of culture.

 As a result Soshangane did not successfully assimilate the subject peoples and cultural tension
persisted within the state.
 As Soshangane became old he believed he had been bewitched by the Tsonga for which he put
many of them to death while others fled and migrated to the south.
 Succession disputes emerged among the ruling Ngoni upon Soshangane’s death.
 Mawewe with the assistance of the Swazi took over power ahead of his competitor Mzila.
 Mawewe was unsuccessful and he later died in exile in Swaziland.
 Mzila took over the empire with the assistance of the Portuguese.
 This allowed the Portuguese to return to the Gaza state thus weakening it further.
 Mzila’s successor Ngungunyana faced both the threat of revolts by his subjects’ peoples and the
threat from European settlers.
 Ngungunyana sought British assistance in a vain effort to ward off the Portuguese.
 He then resolved to organise the movement of his people from the middle Save to Delagoa
Bay on the coast.
 By 1895 the Gaza state was weakened by internal revolts and Ngungunyana’s soldiers were
defeated by the Portuguese.
 The king was taken captive and sent to the Canary islands off the coast of West Africa were he
died in exile.

The legacy

 Part of the Nguni language remains in the region as a reminder of this period in history, for
example piquameaning to trick and panhla meaning clothes.
 A Nguni traditional dance called Muchongoyo still exists in which people wear fur of long haired
goats around the writs and ankles.
 A traditional meal called rubende which is a mixture of cooked blood and intestines is still eaten
and reflects a Nguni heritage.

The main reasons for the decline of the Gaza state

 Their language did not survive as a separate language as the Ndebele had done.
  This was because the Gaza did not successfully assimilate their subjects although they
established their authority over them.
 They did not absorb the subject peoples in their culture and language but left most to join
willingly or pursue their own language and cultures.
 They also did not have a comprehensive succession plan resulting in revolts and succession
disputes upon the deaths of Soshangane and Mzila.
 The main cause for the fall of the state was external interference of the Portuguese who finally
defeated the remaining Gaza people to colonize the area.

Causes of the First World War: Part 1

USS Texas: The last floating Dreadnought: Image by Wiki-commons.

Causes of the First World War 1914-1918

Preamble
Although not necessarily part of the ZIMSEC Ordinary Level History syllabus, it is nevertheless important
to read up on the History of Europe from about 1850 so that you will better appreciate the factors that led
to the outbreak of World War I which is otherwise known as The Great War or the First World War.
Important to note are things like the relationship between certain countries e.g. Germany and Britain,
France and Britain, Germany and France, Industrial Revolution and Competition in World Trade, Arms
race, Alliances, Clashing of interests in the Balkans and colonial rivalry.

From the late nineteenth century newspapers and magazines (the media) became an intergral part of
everyday lives and more and more vocal in analyzing everyday issues. Most notable among the
publications that documentation this period is the Punch Magazine which was established in 1842 went
out of business in 2002. You will see their cartoonish depiction of Historical events in most History
textbooks and they are an invariable part of source questions in the exam. It will be useful for you to take
a glance of their cartoon archive here.

Introduction

 A world war is a war which is fought between many countries of the world and is geographically
spread across the borders of multiple countries. The participation of these countries has to be
overt and involve actually involve the engagement of military troops thus World War I is a world
war while the fight in Afghanistan is not because the war is in one country against a movement
and not a country. It would seem therefore in a world war there has to be multiple countries on
both sides and the battlefield span multiple countries.
 World War I was unlike any other wars recorded in history because advanced machinery and
technology such as tanks, heavy ships and artillery were used.
 A great number of people were killed (estimated at around 20 million civilians and military
personnel) and many were wounded.
 The war was fought between the Allied forces made up of Britain, France, Italy and Japan and the
Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Turkey.
 Because most of these countries had colonies and oversea empires there were a lot of battles
and skirmishes were fought in other countries and even on separate continents for example
Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa (Which were both British colonies) attacked
Germany West Africa (now Namibia) a Germany colony.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The causes of World War I can be divided into two broad categories viz:

1. Long term causes- these are causes that build up over a period of years sometimes decades
before they transform into actual fighting between the parties involved.
2. Short term causes-this is the immediate cause of the conflict in other words the actual trigger.

Long term causes

  The arms race and militarism (brinkmanship).
 The alliance system.
 Imperialism and colonial rivalry.
 The shifting balance of power.
 The Balkan nationalism (crisis).
 Mounting social crisis.
 The Franco-Prussian hostility.

Short term causes

 The Sarajevo assassination or incident.

1. The arms race and militarism (Brinkmanship)

 Various European powers (notably Britain and Germany) competed to build strong armies, navies
and to manufacture weapons.
 The race was mostly between Germany and Britain a race which Britain was keen to win.
 However, Germany did her best to catch up with Britain( Britain had become the undisputed
leading Naval power when they had displaced the Spanish Armada centuries before) by
expanding her own warship production.
 In 1906 Britain designed the Dreadnought, a battleship which was touted as the most powerful in
existence at the time.
 A year later Germany developed a ship with similar capabilities to match Britain.
 The race continued up to 1914 and during this period both Britain and Germany increased their
navies significantly.
 Germany also increased her army to 5 million men during the same period.
 Other countries were also doing the same (increasing their armies) for example Russia had
increased her to 50 000 soldiers by 1913, France lengthened her military service from 2 to 3
years during the same period.
 All major European countries had adopted the conscription (compulsory enlistment) system by
1874.
 There was a significant increase in military budgets during this period as well.
 Such developments in militarism meant that when the conflict reached its height in 1914 the
countries readily declared war on one another especially since the leaders of the various
countries had become more emboldened and practiced brinkmanship as a result of their belief in
their military prowess.

The alliance system

 After 1870 Europe was left divided into two major opposing camps or alliances.
 The European powers recognized the fact that there is strength in numbers and thus began
making treaties with another based on the alignment of interests.
 From 1870 a number of treaties were signed by major powers.
  Eventually Europe was divided up into two major camps/alliances.

Triple Alliance (Formerly the Dual Alliance)

This was made among Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was a follow up to the Dual Alliance
between Germany and Austria in which they had promised to assist each other in case either was
attacked by Russia.It was signed in 1882. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help Italy if she was
attacked by France. Italy also agreed to help Germany if she was attacked by France and Austria-
Hungary and Germany agreed to help each other if either was attacked by Russia. Italy viewed the treaty
as a guarantee that she would not be attacked by Austria-Hungary rather than a military pact. In 1914
Italy later shifted her allegiance when war broke out in 1914 and joined the Allied powers.

Triple Entente ( Formerly Entente Cordiale)

Was made between Britain, France and Russia. In 1894 Russia and France made an agreement to help
each other if Germany attacked either of them. . Russia would also support France if she was attacked by
Austria-Hungary.In 1904 an agreement was singed between France and Britain.This agreement was
known as the Entente Cordiale ( French for “cordial agreement”). This agreement did not specify any
enemies and it was not a military alliance but meant as a means to foster cooperation between France
and Britain. The Cordiale was followed with the signing of the Triple Entente in 1907. It was also not a
military alliance but an agreement to work together. However by 1912 the members of the Entente had
become so close that if any of them were attacked they would help.

 Although the Cordiale was not a military pact de jure it evolved into one and later when war broke
out it became a de facto military alliance.
 On the other hand the triple alliance was a military from the beginning.
 The alliance also agreed that members should remain neutral if a member went to war with only
one power.

Mounting social crisis

 European governments encouraged aggressive nationalism as a way of keeping power for

example the unification of Germany.
 Some people in Europe were not aware of what a war would be like since there had been no
major war since Prussia had fought with France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871.
 This war gave leaders and generals the false impression that war could be swiftly fought and
bring about a glorious end to hostilities.
 This romantic view of war encouraged leaders to adopt a brinkmanship stance and act hastily and
aggressively as happened on the day the war broke out.

Mobilisation plans of various armies.

 Almost all the major European powers thought they had the ideal plan in case of hostilities.
  France had a plan called Plan XVII (Plan 17) (known in French as Plan dix-sept) drafted in 1913
to be put into effect in the event of war between Germany and France.
 The most famous was Germany’s Schlieffen plan drafted by General Alfred Gra Von
Shclieffen who retired in 1906 and died in 1913.
 The plan was later modified by Von Moltke the Younger.
 According to the plan Germany would immediately launch a war against France and knock it out
before turning east to attack Russia all in a space of six weeks.
 These plans clearly show that all the major powers in Europe were itching for a fight and only
waiting for the slightest provocation to justify themselves.

The Franco-Prussian hostility

 The hostility stemmed from the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and remained the most constant
factor in international relations up to the outbreak of the war in 1914.
 After the war France lost Alsace and Lorraine in a humiliating peace treaty which caused her to
view and deal with Germany with both hatred and hostility. France and Germany became
permanent enemies as a result.
 In 1885 and 1886 there was danger of war breaking out between Germany and France as French
nationalism was whipped up for a revenge war by General Georges Ernest Boulanger whose
influence was so profound he started a movement called Boulangerism during his apogee.
 In 1905 and 1911 the continued hostility between France and Germany nearly precipitated into
war over Morrocco.
 Although on these occasions war was avoided the tension between the Triple Alliance and Triple
Entente powers increased.
 The tensions drew the alliances into a habit as Austria-Hungary found itself on the side of
Germany while Britain and Russia supported France.
 When Germany learnt of the friendship between France and Russia in 1895 she concluded that it
was aggressive and meant to create two fronts against her in the event of a war breaking out i.e.
the western front of France and the eastern front of Russia.
 Germany’s Schlieffen plan was based on the presumption that Russia would automatically come
to the aide of France in the event of a war thus necessitating the need to defeat France quickly
before turning to a much bigger Russia.
 The plan was based on the premise that France was smaller and thus could be defeated quickly
while Russia is much bigger such that it would take longer fore her to mobilise her forces in the
event of war.
 When war did eventually broke out Germany acted to this plan and she invaded France via the
Belgium (Belgium was neutral) route which made Britain to enter the war.

The shifting balance of power.

 Germany was a great emerging economic power but was not recognized by the other powers
such as Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary and France who had hitherto dominated the world’s
diplomatic affairs.
  Germany’s desire to gain her rightful status upset the balance of power thus threatening stability
and the pre-established order.
 Germany built her army and navy as she protested that she was surrounded by the Triple Entente
powers who constantly sought to prevent her expansion.
 Such activities exacerbated the hostilities existing amongst Europe’s nations.

Colonial rivalry.

 There were clashes between European powers over colonies for example France and Britain
over Egypt, France and Germany over Morocco and France and Italy over Tunisia.
 However almost all these disputes were solved peacefully.
 A few of these disputes however nearly caused war and increased the tensions between the two
camps.
 Also Russia and Japan were fighting over China.
 In 1902 Japan and Britain had signed The Anglo-Japanese treaty, a military agreement in which
each member assistance in the event of war.
 This could have caused war had Britain who supported Japan or France who supported Russia
had become involved in this war.
 Other European powers with interests in China would likely had joined in this war.

The First Moroccan crisis (1905) [ Crisis of Tangier]

 Britain recognized French claim in Morocco when they signed the Entente Cordiale.
 France had interests in Morocco and desired to make it part of her empire while Germany was
also interested in Morocco resulting in conflict between the two.
 In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm II (William II) of Germany visited Tangier in Morocco.
 He made speeches which undermined and challenged French interests:

1. He proclaimed that he supported Sultan of Morocco’s sovereignty meaning he deemed Morocco

free and Independent.
2. He said that all European powers had equal rights in Morocco but under the Sultan.
3. He asserted that Germany had growing interests in Morocco and she was prepared to protect
them.
4. He declared that he was going to maintain the independence of the Sultan.

 This resulted in a confrontation with France who had Russia and Britain as her allies under the
Triple Entente who came to her aide.
 Germany on the other hand had Austria-Hungary and Italy as its allies under the Triple Alliance
who came to her aide.
 Germany’s aggression was calculated since she knew Russia would not come to the aide of
France as Russia was still recovering from her defeat at the hands of Japan in the Russo-
Japanese war.
 Germany also wanted to test the strength of the Triple Entente.
  The crisis was settled by a conference in Algeciras in Spain in 1906.

Algeciras conference.

 It was agreed that the state bank of Morocco was to be controlled by France, Germany, Spain
and Britain.
 The policing of Morocco was shared between France and Spain.
 The interests of all powers in Morocco were guaranteed.
 France was left to proceed with its peaceful penetration and Germany was given trading rights.

N.B The aggression by Germany that brought about the crisis cemented the Triple Entente resulting in
the members being closer with one another than ever before and even more ready for war.

The crisis also increased tensions amongst the major powers as it completed the diplomatic division of
Europe into two hostile camps.

The second Moroccan crisis (1911) [Agadir crisis]

 In April 1911 a revolt broke out against the Sultan and foreign nationals.
 The French with its policing powers marched to Fez to protect European residents.
 The French capitalized on the incident to annex Morocco.
 Other powers like Britain accepted the move but Germany warned France that the move was
against the agreement reached at the Algeciras conference.
 Germany send a gun boat, the SMS Panther to Agadir.
 The Kaiser demanded compensation for growing French influence in Morocco.
 Britain did not want to annex Morocco because this threatened her shipping interests and she
was supported by Russia.
 In November Germany and France signed the treaty of Paris.

Treaty of Paris

 France was given Morocco and Germany was given Guinea and Cameroon.
 Germany’s aggression frightened other powers who became closer and the crisis further strained
the relations between the Entente and Alliance camps.

Previous Next
Causes of the First World War: Part 2

Gavrilo Princip the Man who caused the First World War: Image by PixShark

Causes of World War I

Balkan nationalism.

 This is by far the largest cause of the First World War as Turkey was being destroyed by
nationalism.
 Serbia was the first to break away from Turkey in 1804 followed by Greece in 1829.
 Serbian and Bulgarian independence was recognized by the great powers great powers in the
1878 at The Congress of Berlin.
 Austria-Hungary was also battling with fragmentation as the Magyars fought for independence
from Austria-Hungary in 1866.
 The Slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina also threatened to destroy Austria-Hungary as they wanted
to unite with Serbia instead.
 Serbia waned to incorporate all the Slave people into one Slave state of Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
 Archduke Ferdinand was murdered by Slav nationalists (The Black Hand) who wanted to break
away from Austria and to join Serbia.
  The conflict between Slav nationalism and German Nationalism ultimately led to war.
 Serbian nationalism was of greater danger to Austria-Hungary because it was backed by Russia
as Russia supported Pan Slavism whilst Germany was defending Pan Germanism of the German
empire and Austria-Hungary.
 Germany and Austria-Hungary had a Pan German alliance thus Germany came into the Sarajevo
conflict because she could not allow Austria-Hungary to be destroyed by Pan Slavism.

The Bosnian crisis of 1908

 Austria-Hungary had been given Bosnia and Herzegovina to administer at The Berlin Conference
of 1878.
 Serbia which had an interest in these two territories was disappointed and encouraged the Young
Turk revolution that sought to overthrow the Sultan Hamid II and bring about liberal reforms.
 Austria-Hungary took advantage of the ensuing chaos.
 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina whilst Russia annexed the Straits.
 Serbia mobilized her troops against Austria-Hungary.
 Russia threatened to join Serbia against Austria-Hungary.
 Germany threatened war against Russia if Russia supported Serbia and this nearly brought about
the outbreak of a general war.
 Russia backed out because she had not yet recovered from the Russo-Japanese war.
 Serbia backed out because she could not fight Austria alone.
 This increased the strain between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente camp.

The First Balkan war

 Italy went to war with Turkey over Tripoli which she had annexed and the Albanians took
advantage of the situation to revolt against Turkey.
 The Turkish Army mutinied in sympathy of the revolt.
 The Balkan nationals made up of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria took advantage to
eject Turkey from the Balkans and formed the First Balkan League to fight Turkey.
 They agreed that Serbia would annex Albania so as to have access to the sea.
 Greece would occupy Thrace and Salonika.
 Bulgaria would take a larger part of Macedonia and the rest of Macedonia would be shared
equally amongst the members.
 To the surprise of Europe the league won the war against Turkey.
 A conference was called in London in May 1913.

The treaty of London (1913)

 Germany and Austria-Hungary blamed Russia for causing the Balkan war.
 Austria-Hungary did not like Serbian expansion because both had large Slav populations
especially Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  Germany feared that the Balkan league would continue to fight Austria-Hungary to take back
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 At the conference Austria-Hungary blocked Serbia’s annexation of Albania and a new state of
Albania was created.
 Greece was also prevented from annexing Valona.
 Serbia and Greece gained small portions of Macedonia.
 Greece won Thrace and Salonika.
 Bulgaria acquired the largest part of Macedonia.
 At the conference Russia supported Serbia and it in turn got support from France.
 Germany and Italy supported Austria-Hungary.
 Britain pretended to be neutral.

The second Balkan war

 The other states were jealous of Bulgaria’s acquisition of a large part of Macedonia.
 Serbia and Greece asked Bulgaria to share Macedonia with them but Bulgaria refused.
 Greece and Serbia formed the Second Balkan League and declared war on Bulgaria in June
1913.
 They were joined by Romania.
 Turkey rejoined the war on the side of Bulgaria to regain lost territory and managed to
regain Adrianople.
 The war was ended by the treaty of Bucharest 1913.

The treaty of Bucharest (1913)

 Bulgaria lost her former gains of the Aegean coast and Adrianople to Turkey.
 The war pushed Europe closer to the Great War.
 Russia supported Serbia and the success of the Balkan war was interpreted as Russian success
against Austria-Hungary and Germany.
 Bulgaria supported the Triple Alliance and joined them immediately when the war broke out in
1914.
 Serbia had gained the most territory and had used French artillery in the war which was a clear
assistance by the Triple Entente powers.
 Austria-Hungary was troubled by this and made up her mind to destroy Serbia as soon as
possible.
 This explains why the events of the Sarajevo assassination led to an all out war.
 The events of of the contributed greatly towards the outbreak of the war but the Sarajevo
assassination was the proverbial match that sparked the outbreak of war.

Sarajevo assassination

 In June 1914 Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne toured Bosnia.
 On June 28 he and his wife were murdered by a Bosnian nationalist called Gavrilo Principe
  Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum to her.
 The demands in set in the ultimatum were:

-Serbia was to ban all nationalist movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

-Serbia was to investigate and hand over the culprits of the assassination.

-Serbia was to sack all government officials which Austria-Hungary opposed.

-Serbia was to allow Austrian officials into Serbian to oversee and ensure that the ultimatum was
complied with.

 Serbia accepted all the terms except the fourth which effectively meant her losing her
independence.
 On July 28 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
 On July 30 Russia mobilized her forces in support of Serbia.
 On July 31 Germany demanded that Russia demobilize within 24 hours.
 Russia failed to demobilize and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.
 On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium on 4 August.
 Germany followed the Schlieffen plan as it invaded Belgium in order to attack France.
 Britain then declared war on Germany.

Aims of the Schlieffen Plan

1. To avoid fighting war on two fronts i.e the western front of France and the eastern Front with
Russia.
2. To defeat France in 6 weeks.
3. To capture French channels so that the British army would not land on the greater continent of
Europe.
4. To concentrate German troops in the attack and defeat Russia after the defeat of France.
5. To pass through Belgium on the way to France.

The Schlieffen Plan.

 Germany believed that in the event of war with Russia, France would assist as it was a member
of the Dual Entente.
 It also believed that any war with France would bring Russia to her aid.
 In the plan Germany would have to defeat France first in a within a period of 6 weeks as it was
smaller and concentrated then divert its forces to the East to deal with Russia.
 Germany believed that Russia would take time to mobilize.
 Germany would invade France through Belgium which was a neutral country at the time.
 The violation of Belgian neutrality brought Britain into the war.
 France came into the war immediately because she had been attacked.
  From this it is clear that the Schlieffen plan contributed to the war also as it brought in more
countries into the conflict.

The role of individual countries in the outbreak of the war.

Serbia

 Her extreme nationalism could be blamed for the outbreak of the war. It backed terrorist
movement in Bosnia leading to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.
 She did not fear her neighbor Austria-Hungary since she had had victory in the Balkan wars with
the support of Russia and France thus emboldening her.

France

 She wanted to avenge the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Germany in the Franco-
Prussian war so as to recover Alsace and Lorraine.
 France gave unconditional support to Russia and it also took part in the arms race.

Austria-Hungary

 It caused a lot of tension with its involvement in the Balkan wars especially the annexation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 Austria was also the first to declare war and attack Serbia.

Britain

 She competed fiercely with Germany for naval supremacy and the arms race which worsened
international relations.
 Britain declared war on Germany when Germany invaded Belgium thus bringing herself in a
multidimensional war.
 Britain gave Russian unlimited support.

Germany

 Some blame her for solely causing the First World for because of her many acts of aggression for
example the naval race and the Agadir crisis.
 She gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary.
 She declared war on Russia and France.
 She invaded Belgium which was a neutral country.
 She had planned for the was as early as 1905 as evidenced by the Schlieffen plan.
 German desired a raise in her status in the world which led to tensions and competition.

Why Britain joined the war?

  Because Germany violated Belgian neutrality.
 This may have been a pretext and the real reason could have been fear of Germany.
 Britain feared Germany’s growing ambitions.
 These were shown by Germany’s participation in the naval race with Britain.
 Germany’s move in Turkey shown by the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad were viewed
suspiciously by Britain.
 Germany was giving the impression that it was on a course to conquer the world.
 Britain did not allow Germany to conquer the channel as it was doing via the invasion of Belgium.
 If the France had been defeated the Channel would fall into the hands of Germany and Britain
would be in danger.
 Britain therefore entered the war for her own security.
 However, this security was tied with the rest of Europe thus she joined the rest of the Entente
powers.
 Britain wanted to maintain her status as the leading global power and economic powerhouse.

Why Russia joined the war?

 It had to secure its economic interests in the Balkans.

 It wanted to build and maintain its status as a powerful nation.
 It felt it had the obligation to assist the Triple Entente so as to maintain its status as a great power
and so it would not be isolated.

Why Germany joined the war?

 She wanted to achieve permanent security on the western and eastern fronts.
 She also wanted to fulfill her expansion program of annexation and expansion.

Why Austria-Hungary joined the war?

 It wanted to maintain its status as a great power in the world.

 It wanted to end Slav nationalism that was being led by Serbia.

War on the western front.

 The war began according to the Schlieffen plan on the western front however it was to change
following unexpected challenges.
 Germany invaded France through Belgium and hope to force France to surrender within six
weeks.
 Germany also according to plan invaded through the north east and veered around to the south
towards France.
 Belgian resistance to the Germans proved stiffer than expected thus delaying their progress in
the process.
 The French also mobilized their troops faster than the Germans had anticipated.
  The British also came to the assistance of the French earlier than had been anticipated by
Germans further hindering Germany’s progress.
 The Russians mobilized faster than expected forcing the Germans to abandon the plan and send
a lot of troops to the western from earlier.
 Bulgaria joined the war on the side of the central powers in 1915.
 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary by the secret treaty of the Entente allies in August in 1916.
 Romania joined war on the Entente side but was quickly defeated by Germany and Austria-
Hungary.

The Course of the First World War

Bloody Trench Warfare was characteristic of of the World War I. Image by History.com

The course of the First World War

The Battle of Marne River

 For close to a month the German forces moved across Belgium down into France.
 It was a difficult march in hot wealth travelling distances of about 64 km/day.
 The Germans were stopped by the French at the battle of Marne River by General Geoffrey and
General Gallieni.
 At the battle of Marne the French called everyone to the front including ordinary women and men
to try and force the Germans back to the River Aisne.
 Soldiers and other fighters were rushed to the battle front by all means of transport available.
  The French used the famous battle cry “Ils ne passeront pas!“ ( They shall not pass!) as they
impeded German progress.

New weapons

 Two battles were fought in Belgium i.e. the First and Second battle of Ypres.
 In 1915 the second battle of Ypres the Germans used poisonous gas.
 At the battle of Somme the British used the Tank successfully for the first time.
 Both Britain and Germany used airplanes in the war for the first time.
 Flame throwers were also used extensively in the First World War.

Trench Warfare.

 When the Germans were defeated at the battle of Marne River they retreated to the River Aisne
about 48 km from Paris and dug trenches as a defensive mechanism against further advances by
the French.
 The French and the British also dug their own trenches to protect themselves from machine gun
fire and explosions from artillery shells.
 Battles were fought from trenches resulting in what has been known ever since as trench warfare.
 Trench warfare prolonged the war: it was fought on the western front from December 1914 to
November of 1918.
 The trenches were surrounded by barbed wire and snipers shot at the enemy if they ventured out.
 Soldiers died in the trenches and it was difficult to bury them.
 It was also difficult to supply food and medicines to the soldiers.
 Disease and hunger afflicted soldiers on both sides.
 No side made any gains as any attack was quickly followed by a counter attack.
 As a result the war on the western front became a stalemate and took longer than expected.

The battle of Verdun and Somme

 This was planned battle in which the Germans led by Von Moltke tried to break through Verdun, a
French pivot since the beginning of the war.
 A bout 4 million men faced each other in the trenches.
 19 divisions of heavily armed Germans bombed Verdun with artillery.
 The French forces led by General Petain resisted.
 The British rushed to assist the French.
 In that battle the French lost 350 000 men while the Germans lost 330 000 men but the Germans
failed to capture Verdun.
 In July 1916 the British attacked Somme a German fortress in order to reduce pressure on
Verdun.
 The British had invented the tank and used it for the first time against the Germans.
 At this battle the Germans had heavier casualties losing 500 000 men while the British had lesser
casualties losing about 200 000.
  The British however failed to make a breakthrough and the war remained a stalemate while
trench warfare continued.

The Gallipoli campaign

 In November 1914 Turkey joined the war on the side of the Central Powers.
 Turkey subsequently closed the straits to the Russian ships such that the supplies from western
allies could not reach Russia.
 Russia as a result faced a shortage of weapons and food thus edging closer to defeat.
 The western allies therefore decided to capture the Straits to open up supply lines and ease
pressure on Russia.
 In March 1915 Britain and France sent a powerful naval expedition to the Dardanelles but it was
heavily defeated.
 In April the allies tried to land on the Gallipoli peninsula to capture the Straits through the Black
Sea but Turkey already knew of the plans and destroyed the allied forces as they landed.
 The allies lost 250 000 men but the Straits remained closed.
 Russian remained without food supplies and weapons.

The war at sea ( The battle of Jutland)

 The greatest tension before the war had been caused by Germany’s ambition to build a navy that
was stronger than that of Britain.
 As such when war broke out there was great expectations of great seas battles between
Germany and Britain.
 This did not happen as the two navies just watched and threatened each other without much
warfare between them.
 Germany feared to move into the high seas.
 The first major sea battle was fought at Jutland in May 1917.
 The British fleet stationed at Scupa Flow and Rosyth was to be tested by the German high sea
fleet stationed in the north seas of Germany.
 The British and French navies had up to now maintained their supremacy on the high seas and
kept their routes open.
 At the same time they had successfully blockaded the Central powers and stopped their trade
with the outside world.
 To break this cycle Admiral Sheer of Germany tried to destroy the Grand fleet in May 1916.
 A small force under Admiral Hipper went out to sea and made contact with Admiral Beatty’s force
of the same size and went into battle.
 The main forces under Jellico (British) and Sheer (Germany) rushed to the battle field.
 The British suffered heavier losses than the Germans.
 The Germans withdrew back to their bases under cover of the darkness on the night of May 31
and remained inactive until 1918.
 The main contribution of the navies was the blockade of the Central Powes by the British and
French navies.
  The French protected their interest in the Mediterranean Sea whilst the British protected theirs
and French interests in the English Channel and North sea.
 The British also blockaded the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans to protect their trade routes.
 The Central powers lost their markets, trade and important sources of raw materials as they were
prevented form reaching German ports.
 This caused serious shortages, high food prices and unrest among citizens.

Submarine warfare.

 In response to the Anglo-French supremacy Germany embarked on submarine warfare against

her enemies.
 Since Britain depended on foreign trade Germany decided to destroy this on the high seas to
collapse her economy and force her to surrender.
 The submarines operated in the Red Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea and especially
in the Atlantic to cut off British and French trade with America.
 In April 1915 the submarines sank a British ship Lusitania with 200 people.
 118 of them were American citizens.
 America protested and this strained relations with Germany.
 In 1916 and 1917 the goods sank by the German submarines increasingly threatened the British
economy and security.
 Britain developed minesweepers and the convoy system to combat the submarine menace.
 In response Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare to destroy both combatant and
neutral shipping indiscriminately.
 For this reason America entered the war on the side of Britain.

Collapse of the Central Powers.

 Russia had collapsed and left the war in 1917.

 The Germans therefore diverted their attention to the western front to deliver a knock out blow on
France and Britain.
 Germany calculated that with the use of U-boats and the bringing of all the soldiers to the western
front Britain and France would be knocked out before Americans arrived.
 The Americans were also brought into the war by the Zimmerman telegraph intercepted and
decoded by the British.
 The Telegraph had been sent to Mexico by the German foreign minister intending to assist
Mexico to recover Texas, Arizona and New Mexico conquered by the USA in 1848.
 Germany stepped up its submarine warfare destroying 870 000 tonnes of shipping in April alone.
 Britain was left with food that would last only for six months.
 Britain used the new anti-submarine devices such as hydrophones, depth charges and airplanes
to spot submarines as well as armed escorts to protect merchant ships to reduce the U-boat
menace.
 America was assisted by the British and French navies to carry American troops to Europe.
The effect of American entrance into the war.

 The start of 1918 provided a turning point in the war as American power was being felt in Europe.
 Her industries manufactured weapons, ammunition and food for the allies.
 Fresh American troops assisted the exhausted French and British troops.
 The allies reorganized their forces under one high command.
 The Americans in Europe were placed under General Pershing.
 The British forces were under General Haig but all the forces were under General Foch (of
France).
 By September 1918 the Germans were retreating and they were never given a chance to
reorganize.
 The Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed in October and Germany was left to fight the war alone
as Italy had been revived and defeated Austria-Hungary in the south.
 The Germans fought hard but lacked manpower as compared to the allies with increasing
American forces.
 The Germans had no reply to the effective tanks that were operating against them.
 The attacks on Germany went according to plan and on November 9 the Kaiser abdicated and
went to Holland, a neutral country.
 Germany surrendered on November 11 1918 and the First World War came to an end.

Reasons for Germany’s defeat.

 Germany fought the war on two main fronts. With the Russians on the Eastern Front and the
French and British on the western front which meant dividing her army into two. She also had to
assist Austria-Hungary to defeat Serbia and fight Italy on the southern front which drastically
increased the number of fronts. Had Germany’s army been concentrated in one place, she might
have won the war well before the Americans joined it.
 The two Sick Man of Europe: Turkey and Austria-Hungary became liabilities rather than allies to
Germany. The people in Austria showed little enthusiasm to fight for their masters being more
concerned with their own independence rather than the war against the allies with whom they had
no problem. Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia caused the disintegration of
Austria-Hungary leading to Germany’s defeat. By 1914 Turkey had lost most of its European
territory. The Arabian countries of The Persian Gulf, Arabia, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria were
assisted to gain their independence by the British. Instead of fighting the allies Turkey spend
most of its time fighting with its own people.
 The control of the High Seas by the allies led to Germany’s eventual defeat. The allies blocked
Germany trade and deprived her of essential raw materials while they retained their own access.
The allies managed to get reinforcements from the colonies while they blocked Germany from
doing the same. Shortages of food began in Germany, prices increased, and the Germans
starved. On the other hand arms and ammunition flowed from America giving the allies an
advantage.
 Allied High command allowed the allies to place their troops under unified control in order to
provide them with a concentrated strategy under General Foch. Coordination increased
 effectiveness and offense and defense were synchronized to ensure the Germans never got time
to recover.
 The major reason for Germany’s defeat was the entry of America into the war on the side of the
allies. Russia’s defeat and subsequent withdrawal had weakened the allies but the US more than
filled in the gap with her vast industrial power, an increasingly powerful navy and fresh soldiers.
By the time the war ended the U.S. had over 2 million men deployed in Europe. America also
lend her allies money to buy essential materials for the war time needs. Weapons and money
were sent on credit. The merchant navies delivered essential supplies and grains were also sent
to her European allies. Her warships helped to escort merchant fleets across the Atlantic.

Previous Next

Results of World War I

A woman working in a World War I factory: Image by The Guardian.

Results of the First World War

Results of the war.

Political effects
  The collapse of four dynasties in Europe and their replacement by new governments. Turkey (
The Ottoman Empire) collapsed and it was turned into several states. Austria-Hungary became
two states and the Hapsburg Empire collapsed and in the process Greece, Serbia, Poland and
Romania gained full independence. Germany’s Empire collapsed into the Weimer Republic and
the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia.
 Change from dictatorships took place in countries like Germany, Italy and Yugoslavia. These
were later replaced with other dictatorships for example Fascim in Germany and Italy.
 Change in balance of power as Russia, Japan and the USA became new world powers.
 Spread of nationalism outside Europe as it spread into India and Africa.

Social effects

 Loss of lives as nearly 17 million people died in the war.

 Breaking down of families as fathers and sons left their homes to go to war.
 War inflicted injuries with an estimated casualty of 30 million.
 Women gained the right to vote in elections after the war.
 Homelessness as a lot of homes were destroyed during the war.
 he use of family planning techniques emerged after this period.
 Women became emancipated as they started to work in factories due to labour shortages.
 Orphans were left by parents who died in the war.
 There was hunger due to food shortages as agricultural and manufacturing production had been
destroyed by the war.

Economic effects

 War debts accumulated as European powers borrowed heavily to finance the war effort.
 High unemployment rates as agriculture and manufacturing were disrupted while many people
returning from the war needed employment.
 Infrastructure such as buildings, roads, ports and industries were destroyed.
 There was a decline n European economic dominance as the U.S, Japan and Asia took over
African markets.
 High taxation and inflation as taxes were increased to finance the war and also to pay back the
war debts.
 Food shortages resulted as industries and the agriculture sector had been re-purposed to cater
for war needs.
 Trade unions resulted with workers trying to fight the bad working conditions in the industry.
 Scientific developments to develop equipment for the war and also mass production of goods.

Previous Next
The Peace Treaties

A stamp showing the signature page of The Treaty of Versailles. Image by Topical Stamps

The Peace Treaties

The treaties of World War I

The following major treaties were signed at the end of the First World War.

1. The treaty of Versailles. (Germany 1919)

2. The treaty of Saint Germaine (Austria 1919) otherwise known as the treaty of Saint-Germain-en-
Laye.
3. The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)
4. The Treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920) replaced the treaty f Luasanne.
5. The treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria)

The treaty of Bret-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Germany in 1918 to end Russia’s participation
in World War I.

Important figures/countries at the peace treaties.

 Woodrow Wilson (U.SA)

 Lloyd George (Britain)
 George Clemenceau (France)
 Victor Orlando (Italy)
  Von Stressman (Germany)

Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points.

1. There should be no more secret treaties.

2. There should be freedom of navigation of the high seas.
3. Countries should encourage free trade.
4. Armaments were to be reduced.
5. The interests of the people living in colonies shall be taken into account whenever determining
the fate and countries’ claims on colonies.
6. German troops should leave Russia.
7. German troops should leave Belgium.
8. Alsace and Lorraine should be returned to France.
9. A readjustment of the borders of Italy should be made along clearly recognizable lines of
nationality.
10. The people of Austria-Hungary should be given the opportunity to be independent and sovereign.
11. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania should be evacuated and their territories restored and Serbia
should be granted access to the sea.
12. People of the Turkish empire who were not Turks should be given independence.
13. An independent Poland should be created and given access to sea.
14. An international organisation should be set up to protect the independence of all states.

The main interests of the major representatives at the peace treaties

Georges Clemenceau

 He wanted to see Germany crippled economically, politically and militarily so that Germany would
no longer be a threat to France again.
 He saw this as an opportunity to revenge the humiliation France had suffered as a result of the
Franco-Prussian law.

Woodrow Wilson

 He wanted a more peaceful world.

 He suggested his 14 points be used as guiding principles by the peace makers at the Paris
Peace conference to achieve lasting peace.
 He did not want Germany to be treated harshly because he foresaw the problems of such
actions.

David Lloyd Geroge

 Please note that his surname was Lloyd-George and his first name David. Most history textbooks
make the mistake of mentioning his name as Lloyd.
  He wanted Germany to recover so she could trade with Britain.
 He agreed with Clemenceau that Germany should be punished but not the extreme extent that
Clemenceau wanted.

Victor Orlando (Italian name: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando)

 Often known by his anglicized name Victor in history textbooks. You can use this name or his
actual Italian name.
 He wanted land promised to Italy by the Allied Powers before he joined the war on the side of
the allied powers.

Problems encountered by the statesmen during the peace conference.

1. Lack of unity of purpose.

-The statesmen lacked unity as Wilson and Clemenceau were on extreme opposites and Lloyd George
acted as a voice of reason between the two.

2. Pressure from the people back home.

-The statesmen had to make decisions which met with the expectations of the people at home for
example Lloyd George had promised to deal harshly with Germany during the 1918 elections so he was
compelled to fulfill the promise.

-The French wanted revenge against Germany and the venue in Paris exerted more pressure on the
conference since it was on their homeland resulting in an environment not conducive to the peace talks.

3. The attitude of the United States of America.

-The Americans were not interested in European affairs so Woodrow Wilson was there against the wishes
of his people.

4. Chaotic Environment

-The general situation in Europe was tumultuous at the time the conference was being conducted.

5. Fear of Communism

-The statesmen feared that communism which had started in Russia, would spread to other nations in
Europe so they wanted to quickly make pace before communism spread in Europe.

The peace treaties.

The Treaty of Versailles (Germany 1919)

 It was singed by Germany in 1919 after six months of negotiation at the Paris Peace Conference.
 The terms of the treaty of Versailles are divided into the territorial and non territorial terms.

Territorial terms

 Alsace and Lorraine were to be handed back to France.

 The Rhineland was to be demilitarized and to be occupied by allied troops.
 The Saar basin was to be administered by the League of nations commission for 15 years.
 Poland was to receive Upper Silesia and Possen.
 Poland was to become independent.
 Poland was to get Polish Corridor giving her access to the sea.
 Part of Danzig was placed under the League of Nations as a free city.
 Eupen, Morenset and Malmedy were to be taken by Belgium.
 North Schleswig was to be given back to Denmark.
 Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland were to be independent.
 Memel was given to Lithuania.
 The union between Austria and Germany was forbidden
 The Carolyn Islands (sometimes spelt Caroline Islands), were to be transferred to Japan while
Cameroon and Togoland were to be given to France.
 Samoa went to New Zealand.
 Germany lost most her territories in Europe and all her overseas colonies.

Non teritorial provisions

 The disarmament clause-Germany was to reduce her army to 100 000 men, with no
conscription, no heavy artillery and no poison gas.and to reduce her battleships to 6 light cruisers,
12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines. The navy was limited to 15 000 men.
Germany was also to disband its air force.
 The war guilt clause-Germany was made to accept that she was responsible for causing the
outbreak of the First World War and the resulting destruction of European infrastructural
destruction and loss of life.
 Germany was supposed to pay £6 600 million to the allies for the losses and damages incurred
during the course of the war.

Fairness of this treaty

 Germany had done the same thing to the Russians after the Russians had conceded defeat at
the treaty of Bret-Litosvk and which might be taken as proof that had Germany won the war she
would have extracted the same concessions from the allied powers.
 Germany gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary which encouraged the later to act
aggressively to other countries contributing to the outbreak of the war.
  Germany was partly responsible for bringing about the outbreak of the war: she had a war plan
(the Schlieffen Plan), participated aggressively in an arms race and naval race with Britain
signifying that she wanted war.
 Germany’s aggressive actions such as the First and Second Moroccan crisis spurred other
powers to form alliances against her.
 Germany can be blamed for declaring war on Russia and attacking Belgium on her way to attack
France.
 Germany’s harsh treatment of France in The Treaty of Frankfurt were turned around on her in this
treaty.

Unfairness of the treaty.

 Germany was not represented at the peace conference yet she was asked to accept and sign the
treaty so the terms were dictated to her.
 Nationality was not considered when Germany lost her territories which had German nationals.
 The amount of reparations imposed on Germany was impractical and un-affordable and resulted
in the complete collapse of the Germany economy a fact Hitler seized upon to rise into power.
 Germany was not the only country that caused the war: Britain, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary,
Serbia among other countries all played their part.
 The unification of Germany and Italy created large states which led to competition and aggression
between European states thus leading to war.
 The Berlin conference of 1878 which divided European territory also contributed to the outbreak
of the war.
 Germany was unfairly forbidden from joining with Austria.
 Germany was forced to reduce her army to about 1/3 of its original size leaving her feeling
vulnerable.
 The seizure of her colonies was a clear act of sharing the spoils of war rather than an act of
justice.

The treaty of Saint Germain (Austria 1919)

Territorial terms

 Hungary became independent of Austria.

 A new state of Czechoslovakia was created from the Austro-Hungary empire.
 Galicia was given to Poland.
 Bukovina was given to Romania
 Istria and Tyrol were given to Italy.
 Austria lost about 4 million Germans to her neighbors.
 Dalmatia and Carniola were ceded to Yugoslavia
 Her total area was reduced from about 300 000 square kilometers to about 78 000 square
kilometers.
Non territorial provisions

 Autocracy was banned and Austria became a republic.

 The Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 volunteer men with no navy.
 She was to pay reparations of a “large some of money” but the amount was never set because
the country went bankrupt before the amount could be determined.
 Austria was also forced to accept causing World War I
 An alliance with Germany was forbidden.

Fairness of the treaty

 As with Germany Austria had played a big role in bringing about the outbreak of World War I for
example the invasion of Serbia over the death of just one man!
 However she was not the only party responsible as Germany, Britain, Russia, France and Serbia
played their own parts.
 She was not represented at the conference but she was just forced to sign.

The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)

Territorial provisions

 Slovakia and part of Lithuania were given to Czechoslovakia.

 Bosnia and Croatia were also given to Czechoslovakia.
 3 million Magyars were placed under foreign rule.
 Transylvania was given to Romania.
 Burgenland was given to Austria.

Non territorial provisions

 She lost about two thirds of her territory and populations from about 20 million to 8 million.
 Her army was reduced to 35 000 volunteer men and 3 patrol boats.
 She was to pay reparations of 200 million gold crowns to the allies as she was found guilty of
causing the war.
 She was forbidden to unite with Austria.

Fairness and unfairness of the treaty

 Hungary’s aggressive behavior was partly responsible for the outbreak of the war.
 As with the other treaties Hungary was not solely responsible for causing the war.
 Nationality was not considered when giving out her territories to other countries.
 She lost access to the sea.
  “Tolls” made railway transport for Hungary expensive.
 She lost her most important financial institutions with the loss in territory.

The treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920)

Territorial provisions

 Syrian and Lebanon were given to France.

 Iran and Transjordan were taken by Britain.
 Arabia gained Independence.
 Eastern Thrace went to Greece.
 Cyprus went to Britain.In

Non territorial provisions

 The army was limited to 50 000 soldiers, seven sail boats and six torpedo boats.
 They were forbidden to have an air force
 There were no reparations to be paid.
 The allies had the right to reform the electoral system of the Ottoman empire.

The treaty of Laussane later replaced the treaty of Sevres

 Turkey regained some of her territory at the expense of Greece.

 River Mamsta was declared to be a frontier between Greece and Turkey.
 Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey.
 Italy kept Docleconese Islands and Britain’s ownership of Cyprus was affirmed.
 A customs union for former Turkish people was created and taxes were abolished.
 Arrangements were made to send all Greeks in Turkey and all Turks in Greece to their
respective countries.

Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria 1919)

Territorial terms

 Bulgaria lost her territories along east-western boundary to Yugoslavia.

 She lost access to the Auegean sea to Greece.

Non-territorial provisions

 Her army was reduced to 20 000 volunteers, four torpedo boats and no air force.
 She was to pay reparations of 2.25 billion francs.
N.B All the terms of these treaties were harsh, vindictive and dictated to the defeated central powers and
their allies.

The League of Nations meeting about the Turkish Border: Image from Skepticism

Origins and Formation of the League

 The League of Nations (LON) was set up in Geneva the capital of Switzerland.
 It was the brainchild of Woodrow Wilson’s 14th point.
 It was an association of countries which were brought together by their common ideas to maintain
peace in the world.
 However, some important nations did not join the league when it was formed although it was an
international organisation for example Germany was not allowed to join the league until 1926
because she had been deemed to be guilty of causing the First World War.
 Germany later left the league in 1933 when the armament exercise was initiated.
 The USA never joined the league in line with their aversion and fear of being entangled in
European affairs.

Aims of the League

 To maintain peace and security through out the world

 To reduce armaments to the lowest level.
  To prevent secret diplomacy in treaties or alliances a thing that had caused The First World War.
 To control drug trafficking.
 To give financial support to countries in need.
 To promote general labor interest.
 To supervise the administration of mandated territories like Danzig.
 To safeguard the welfare of minorities and refugees.

Organisation of the League

1. The General Assembly

 Was the main body made up of representatives from member states.

Functions

 Was the debating chamber of the league and each member had one vote.
 It met annually and discussed issues affecting world peace.
 It handled the finances of the league and drafted the budget.
 It elected the non-permanent members of the council (see below).
 It decided on general policies of the league.
 It admitted new members of the league.
 It was supposed to raise an army for the league when needed.

2. The council

 It was a much smaller body which met more often, at least 3 times a year.
 It had 5 permanent members i.e. Britain, Fance, USA, Italy and Japan. ( Do not confuse this with
the members of the Security Council. The USA never joined the League)
 There were 3 non-permanent members which were elected by the General Assembly and had a 3
year tenure.

Functions of The Council

 It passed decisions on matters referred to it by the General Assembly

 It decided on punishments for members found guilty of threatening peace for example imposing
sanctions, take military action.
 It submitted recommendations to the General Assembly.

3. The Secretariat

 It was headed by the Secretary General.

 Worked at the headquarters of the League.
Functions of the Secretariat

 It looked after the paper work of the league.

 kept minutes of meetings of the proceedings of the league’s various sectors.
 It implemented decisions of the League.
 It carried out day to day chores of the League, for example the preparations of agenda.

4. The Court of International Justice

 It was based in The Hague in the Netherlands.

 It was made up of 15 judges from different countries.

Functions of the ICJ

 Dealt with legal disputes amongst nations.

 It interpreted treaties.
 It advised the Council and the General Assembly on any matters brought to it.

5. International Labour Organisation

 Dealt with matters involving employment relations on a global scale.

 Met once a year.
 Members states sent 4 representatives ( 2 government officials, 1 worker representative and 1
employer representative)

Functions of the ILO

 To improve working conditions by doing things such as fixing working hours, setting minimum
wages, leave days, employment and unemployment benefits, compensation and old age
pensions.

6. Special Committees.

 Refugee commision-which was responsible for monitoring the welfare of refugees.

 Minorities commission- which was responsible for taking care of interests of small ethnic
groups.
 Health committee-carried out Research and Development in health and monitored diseases.
 Mandates commission-oversaw the administration of the mandates.
A photography showing some of the representatives from member states of the League of Nations

Successes and Failures of the League

Successes

 The ILO improved worker’s working conditions for example working hours, leave days etc
 The health commission performed invaluable work during pandemics that beset the world after
the First World War most famously the influenza pandemic.
 The League provided much needed help to needy states (the League rescued Austria from a
financial crisis in 1924) and carried out essential famine relief work
 It carried out resettlement and helped refugees for example Jews fleeing from Hitler, Greek
refugees and some Russians fleeing from the often bloody Bolshevik revolution.
 Major powers managed to sign treaties guaranteeing the right for minorities to practice their own
cultures and religions and use their own language.
 Established international control over dangerous drugs for example opium.
 It succeeded in abolishing all forms of slavery
 From 1920 up to 1929 the League was largely successful in solving disputes among states for
example the dispute between Finland and Sweden.
 In 1920 it solved the border conflict between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia.
 In 1921 it solved the conflict between Albania and Yugoslavia.
 In 1925 it solved the dispute between Bulgaria and Greece.
 In 1926 it solved the Mosul conflict between Turkey and Iraq and Mosul was given to Iraq.
Failures

 In 1920 the League failed to stop the Russo-Polish war.

 in 1920 it failed to stop the Polish-Lithuanian war.
 In 1923 it failed to solve the border dispute between Albania and Greece over Corfu Island
 In 1931 it failed to stop Lithuania over the annexing of Memel.
 In 1931 it failed to stop Japan from seizing the Chinese province of Manchuria (called Manchukuo
in Japanese)
 It failed to stop Italy from invading Abbyssinia.
 It failed to stop Germany from invading Austria in 1938
 It failed Germany from invading part of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and the remainder in 1939
 It failed to stop Germany from invading Poland in 1939
 It failed to stop the outbreak of World War 22

Weakenesses of the League and reasons for some of its failures

 It had no standing army so it was powerless to intervene in cases where powerful nations were
aggressors (which was often the case) for example Germany’s invasions of Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Poland.
 The absense of major powers such as the USA meant that it lacked the proper political clout to
carry out global policing duties.
 It could not force nations to disarm as it had no means to do so.
 The League was linked with the treaty of Versailles which led some of the nations (especially the
defeated powers like Germany who had been forced to accept harsh terms) to view it as a club of
conquerors bent on imposing their will on everyone else.
 The desire to establish unanimous decisions limited the League’s operations.
 The General Assembly’s timetable of meeting once a year gave it little time to discuss all the
complex issues affecting the world.
 Britain and France lacked the will and power to make the League an effective organisation.
 Britain and France often disagreed on how to run the League
 Member states pursued their own selfish ends to the detriment of greater good.

Share this:
Dictatorship in Italy: Benito Mussolini

Il Duce. Benito Mussolini. Image by History.com

Benito Mussolini
Post war Italy was chaotic and plagued by a lot of problems creating a fertile hotbed for the rise of
Fascism and dictatorship under Benito Mussolini and his Black Shirts.

Post War problems

Economic Problems

 High unemployment rate, inflation ( hyperinflation), high prices of goods, low wages, high cost of
living, food shortages, low industrial output, war debts and land seizures by ex-soldiers.

Social Problems
  Poverty, hunger, diseases and death, industrial actions like strikes, lawlessness including robbery
and banditry, looting and property seizure, overpopulation, prostitution, homelessness and poor
health facilities.

Political problems

 Political instability as a result of too many political parties, political violence. weak governments,
inefficient and corrupt civil servants, disappointment by the peace treaties, conflict between
church and state and fear of communism and socialism especially by the capitalists.

The rise of Mussolini and the Fascists party.

 Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 at Dovia and his mother was a school teacher.
 He was once a socialist journalist, teacher and a soldier.
 When Italy joined the First World War in 1925 Mussolini became a soldier.
 After the war in June 1919 Mussolini formed the Fascist party at a meeting held in Milan.
 The word Fascist was derived from the word fasces (a bundle of wooden sticks or an axe) carried
by magistrates in the old Roman (Italian) Empire.
 This was a symbol of authority and power.
 The party’s name had links to the idea of force
 Soon after the First World War, Mussolini supported factory seizures by workers so he was hated
by capitalists and property owners.
 Later on he opposed the seizure of property and land by workers and peasants thus gaining the
support of property owners.
 The Fascists militia (The Voluntary Militia for National Security) put on black shirts and were thus
referred to as the “Black shirts.”
 In May 1921 the Fascists won 34 seats on parliament.
 The Fascists used violent campaigns and in August 1922 they won more support when they
crashed the general strike which had been organised by the Socialists.

The methods used by the Fascists to gain support.

 The use of force-They used violence to kill off prominent opposition members.
 Intimidation-those with debts were threatened with harsher and exotic punishments and some
where forced to drink castor oil or eat live frogs.
 Political rhetoric was used in speeches were Benito promised solutions to Italy’s problems.
The march to Rome.

 In October of 1922 Mussolini demanded that power should be given to him or he will seize it.
 The Fascists began to plan a march on Rome after the government failed to respond to their
demands.
 On October 27 about 5 000 well armed Black Shirts prepared their march on Rome.
 The Prime Minister resigned after Victor Emmanuel refused to declare a state of emergency.

How Mussolini established total control in Italy between 1922 and 1930

Benito Mussolini took several steps to establish and consolidate his power in Italy.

 In 1923 he passed the Acerbo law which stipulated that a party which had the majority votes in
national elections should be given 2/3 of the seats in parliament.
 In 1924 the Fascists party used violence and intimidation such as beating up and killing
opponents to win elections.
 In 1925 he introduced press censorship and anti-Fascists newspapers and magazines were
banned and the party controlled the media. Editors were replaced by Fascist supporters.
 Education in schools and universities was closely monitored.
 Teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify the Fascists system.
 In 1926 local government elections in towns and cities were banned and members were elected
by National Party representatives.
 Persistant opponents of the regime were either exiled or murdered for example Glacemo Mathias
and Giovanni Amendola were put to death by Fascist thugs. Another socialist leader Matteoti was
killed.
 Although parliament still met by 1926 all important decisions were taken up by the Fascist Grand
Council which always did as Mussolini told them.
 Mussolini adopted the title Il Duce and the slogan “Mussolini is always right.”
 Children were encouraged to criticize teachers who did not show enthusiasm for the party.
 Children and young people were forced to join the government Youth organization which
indoctrinated them with fascist ideas and glories of war.
 Trade unions were controlled through the corporate state.
 Strikes and lockouts were banned.
 Mussolini also had a state police called OVRA.
 To compensate for their loss of freedom workers were assured of may benefits like free Sundays,
annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theater facilities, cheap tours and holidays.
 A new electoral law was passed in which the Fascist Grand Council chose and provided the
electorate with a list of names to vote for.

Main features of Fascist Dictatorship

1. Anti-democratic tendencies.
2. Propaganda
 3. Self sufficiency.
4. Totalitarianism.
5. Extreme nationalism.
6. Emphasis rather than an individual.
7. Anti-communism.
8. Supremacy of state.
9. National unity.
10. One party state.
11. Racism and autocratic tendencies.

One of Mussolini’s major aim was economic self-sufficiency with policies like the battle for grain, the battle
for babies and the battle of the LIRA.

Battle of Grain

 Mussolini encourage wheat production.

 Some vine yards and olive yards were turned into wheat fields.
 Useless land was reclaimed and the Pontine Marshes were drained and land put to wheat
production.

Battle of Babies/Births

 Mussolini encourage large families and babies were valued as the nation’s future manpower.
 Bachelors were heavily taxed and parents of large families rewarded.
 Contraceptives were also banned and couples with 6 or more children were exempt from
taxation.

Battle of the LIRA

 Mussolini revalued the Lira and attempted to strengthen it by controlling wages and inflation but
the revaluation had adverse effects especially on exports as Italian goods became expensive on
the world markets.
 As a result orders of Italian goods decreased, many industries operated for only 3 days a week,
the number of tourists declined and wages were reduced by 10%-20%.

Public works

 Mussolini reduced unemployement by embarking on public works such as roads, railways,

canals, draining marshes, constructing buildings such as flats, schools and hospitals.
 In 1926 trade unions were banned and replaced by organized worker’s and employer’s
cooperations.
 In 1929 Mussolini signed the Lateran treaty (Lateran Accords) with the Pope which ended hostility
between the Church and the Sate.
Details of the Treaty

 The Church was to be exempt from tax.

 Catholicism was recognized as the official religion of the state.
 Religious education was placed under the Church.
 In return the Church recognized Mussolini’s rule of Italy.

Other policies brought about under Mussolini’s dictatorship

 New industries were built under the government’s Industrial Reconstruction Program.
 The government also funded big industries for example car manufacturing, iron and steel and
production, ship building and fertilizer production.
 Education in schools and universities was controlled by the state.
 Textbooks were rewritten and teachers were to wear uniforms to work.
 Children could report teachers to the party.
 In August 1926 all children were conscripted into the Youth brigades which involved quasi-military
training and taught Il Duce was always right. (indoctrination)
 The Fascist party also controlled sports like tennis and soccer.
 The party controlled the Olympic Games committee.
 When the depression hit Italy in 1933 Mussolini enlarged the army in a bid to reduce
unemployment.

Benefits of Mussolini’s domestic Policy

 Employment creation through the public works and other employment schemes in the army and
in industries.
 Transport and communications were improved through the construction of roads and railway
lines.
 Mussolini was able to restore order in Italy preventing things like the seizure of property and the
destructive strikes.
 Hydro-power was developed.
 Pensions schemes, social security and compensation for workers were introduced.
 Schools were constructed and education was made compulsory.
 There was peace and unity between the Church and State following the Lateran Accords.
 Inflation declined.
 Promotion of health, for example malaria cases declined significantly.
 The battle of grain increased grain production cutting the wheat imports on which Italy had
hitherto depended.
 Mussolini provided security to the industries, middle class and land owners by banning socialist
and communist parties.

Negative effects of Mussolini’s domestic policies.

  People lost their freedom of expression because of censorship.
 There was lack of individual freedom.
 Not all Italians were employed.
 Loss of lives as those who opposed Fascim got killed or exiled.
 Early marriages took place as bachelors feared the high taxes exacted on them.
 It made children disrespect their parents and teachers by placing high priority on the Fascist
government.
 Overpopulation resulted from the Battle of Babies.

Mussolini’s Foreign policy.

Foreign expansion

 As things got difficult at home Mussolini started embarking on foreign adventures.

 He praised glories of war and promised the recreation of the Roman Empire in the
Mediterranean.
 He undermined the League of Nations by attacking Abyssinia a fellow member of the League.
 The attack was in fulfillment of Mussolini’s declaration of an overseas campaign by Italy.
 The policy was aimed at reducing poverty, unemployment and encouraging emigration.
 The invasion of Abyssinia was also aimed at avenging a humiliating defeat suffered by Italy
at Adowa( Adwa) in 1896.
 Mussolini was emboldened by the fact that France and Britain were anxious for his support thus
would not take any action against her.

Alliances and Friendship

 He signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Adolf Hitler, an alliance that enabled them to work together
in the future.
 The alliance was in contravention of the Versailles treaty and undermined the League of Nations.
 The Rome Berlin Axis expanded to included Japan in 1939 thus resulting in the Rome-Berlin-
Tokyo axis.
 The alliance was termed as an Anti-Comintern pact against communism.
 The alliance was stronger than Britain and France’s alliance under the auspices of the League of
Nations.
 In addition Mussolini joined Hitler in the support of General Franco to fight the Spanish
government.
 During the Spanish Civil war Italian submarines sank vessels trading with the Spanish Republic.
The USA Boom

Workers on an assembly line in the 1920s. Image by socialstudiesliteracytechnology

The Boom and Depression in the USA

Presidents of the USA during the Boom and Depression Period
 1. Woodrow Wilson
2. Warren G Harding
3. Calvin Coolidge
4. Hebert Hoover
5. Franklin Delano Roosevelt

A boom is a period where the majority of a country’s population enjoys a period of marked prosperity and
there is a general rise in the general population’s economic well-being.

Detailed Characteristics of the USA’s Boom

 Started in the 1920s and ended in 1929.

 Advanced technological progress such as the rise in the use of motor cars for example there
were 26 million registered cars in the US by 1929.
 Increased consumer demand.
 An increase in the entertainment industry.
 A lot of people now owned radios, the number rose from just 60 000 to almost 10 million radio
sets and there were 500 licensed radio stations by 1922.
 There was an increase in the popularity of Jazz music during the period.
 Exciting comedies were made as the film industry grew giving rise to celebrities like Charlie
Chaplin.
 Sporting activities like tennis (the U.S Open and Davis Cup), golf and American Football became
popular past times.
 There was a profound change in people’s lives as they now used technologies like cars,fridges
and Strite’s toasters.
 The rate of unemployment was very low.
 Worker’s wages rose by 12% and most people could now afford to buy luxurious goods.
 The country’s GDP increased significantly.
 There was an increase in the number of people who used air travel.
 Emancipation of women and rise of feminist movements as more and more middle class women
started wearing mini-skirts, make up and shorts and smoked in public.
 Rise of support industries for example rubber for car tires, steel, coal and agriculture meant more
prosperity via the multiplier effect.
 Firms learnt and developed ways to raise money on stock exchanges the most famous of which
was the New York Stock exchange on Wall Street.
 The country followed a policy of isolationism under Coolidge and Harding.
 The rise in mass production under companies like the Ford Motor company.
 People were now allowed to make purchases under Hire Purchase.
 Billions of dollars spent to build National parks and National Highways.
 Not all people benefited from the Boom for example black people still suffered from political and
social oppression.
 Agriculture produce suffered from low market prices.
Causes of the Boom

Isolationism-The US joined the First World War much later and did not suffer directly from the impact of
the war from say shelling and bombings which destroyed much of Europe’s infrastructure.

-While most countries channeled their resources towards war and reconstruction the US was developing
and expanding itself.

-The US also made loan payments to European countries to put towards their war efforts which they had
to pay back and the profits from these were used to expand America further resulting in the development
of the American Banking system the results of which include the fact that the US Dollar is the de facto
world medium of exchange world wide.

-US governments increased taxes and tariffs on foreign goods thus allowing the expansion of local
companies.

Mass production-Cars and other household goods like radios, fridges and toasters were produced on
assembly lines allowing for their mass production leading to prosperous industries and consumers’
demands being easily met.

Technological improvements-this was an era of great innovation when a lot of household goods were
invented, patented and commercially sold across America. For example the automatic toaster was
invented and successfully sold by General Electric during this period.

-Some of these machines and ideas led to mass production thus fueling the circle of prosperity.

Hire Purchase and Credit Schemes-people were able to afford more goods further increasing demand
and fueling the production circle.

Shares- businesses were able to raise a lot of needed capital using shares and other igneous means on
the Stock exchanges thus contributing towards the increase in GDP.

The building of Communication infrastructure like roads and railways-America constructed

intercontinental railway lines in interior of the mainland.

-This means goods could now easily reach the markets both inside and outside America quickly and
cheaply.