Zimsec Examination, Complete updated curriculum Geography notes

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 Section A • There two types of crust namely oceanic and continental
Describe the main differences between continental and oceanic crust
QUESTION ONE [4]
Physical internal structure of the earth OCEANIC CRUST CONTINENTAL CRUST
Is very dense/heavy Is light/less dense
Is made of basaltic rocks Is made of granite rocks
It is basic Is acidic
It is thin It is thicker than oceanic crust
Mainly made up of silicon and Mainly made up of silicon and
magnesium (SIMA) aluminum (SIAL)
The mantle

• Is the middle layer

• Very thick about 2000KM
• Contains some aluminum, silicon and heavier minerals such as
magnesium
• has molten magma and is where lava comes from during volcano
• Convection currents that drive plate movement occurs in this layer
The core
Typical Exam question and how to answer it. Draw a labeled diagram • Is made up mostly of iron a very heavy mineral
• 1/3 0f the earth’s mass
to show earth’s internal structure
Outer core
[hint: you draw as below. Label parts A to E] • is a liquid layer
Inner core
• Solid and very dense
• Have highest temperature
Why the inner core of the earth is solid yet it has the highest
temperature?

• Of Is made up of an alloy iron and nickel that is heat resistant (NIFE)

• Is under high force of gravity
• Rocks are under great pressure
Layers of the Earth
• Are made of materials with different physical properties.
• One of the most important physical properties that cause the
formation of layers in the Earth is density ie how heavy that
material is.
• Layers that are less dense, such as the crust, float on layers that
are denser, such as the mantle.
• Both oceanic crust and continental crust are less dense than the
mantle, but oceanic crust is denser than continental crust.
The crust • Because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust it
floats higher on the mantle.
• Are made of different kinds of rocks with different densities.
• The continental crust is made mostly of rocks with a composition
similar to granite (a light-colored rock),
• whereas the oceanic crust is made mostly of rocks with a
composition of basalt (a dark- colored rock,
What is meant by the term plate in plate tectonic studies?

➢ Is section / a slab of the earth’s crust and can be either continental

crust only/ can be oceanic crust only/ can be both
Is the hard-outer layer of the earth? ➢ The term does not mean nor is it used to refer to actual continents
and oceans
• Is about 5-100km thick ➢ The terms oceanic plate or continental plate is used to describe type
• Is made up of light minerals such as silicon and aluminum of rock that make up the plate.

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➢ Continental plates are made up of silica (Si) and aluminum (Al), ( Plate Tectonics
SiAl) , are less dense and have a lower speed of movement when •The lithosphere (that is the earth’s crust and the rigid part of the
compared to the oceanic plates. mantle) is divided into seven large and several smaller plates.
➢ Oceanic plates are made up of silica and magnesium (sima) are •The word tectonic means movement.
denser and move faster than continental plates •Plate tectonics therefore means the movement of these plates along
World map showing main plate boundaries of the earth’s crust their boundaries/margins
➢ The earth’s crust is broken into about 19 pieces or plate that float on
top of asthenosphere
➢ Some of the major plates are:
1.The South American plate 2. North American plate 3. Pacific
plate 4. African plate
5.Australian plate 6. Arabian plate 7. Eurasian plate.
Define the term ‘Plate margins’ (1)
•These are the zones where two plate meet, separate or move past
each other.
•There are three major types of margins:

Draw labelled diagram for an oceanic to oceanic divergence plate

boundary ( 5)

•Magma up-wells from the mantle to fill the gap left by the diverging
•In a divergence zone plates move away from one another thus the plates.
name “divergence.”
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 •The magma provides new material to form new oceanic crust (the •For example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge shown below was formed by the
lithosphere) diverging Americas and Eurasian and African plates.
•Forming mid-ocean ridges with volcanoes. formation of the Mid Atlantic ridge

NB never draw 3D diagrams in exam. You will waste time, just do o A very young lithosphere,
simple plan diagrams o a topographic ridge
o And shallow earthquakes
Divergence zone (oceanic-oceanic plate margins) Convergence zone
At these types of plate margins two plates are moving apart
(DIVERGE) from each other in opposite directions. Convection • There are two types of convergence zone namely
currents moving in opposite directions (caused by the intense heat of o destructive plate margin [ which can be oceanic to oceanic plate
the Earth's interior) in the mantle move two plates apart. This is a boundary and continental to oceanic plate boundary]
process known as sea floor spreading developed by Hess. As these o collision plate margin
plates move apart this leaves cracks and fissures, lines of weakness Divergence zone (continental to continental plate margin
that allows magma from the mantle to escapes from the highly
pressurised interior of the planet. This magma fills the gap and
eventually erupts onto the surface and cools as new land. The lava
erupting is Basaltic, so can travel long distances and creates gently
sloping land features. This can create huge ridges of undersea
mountains and volcanoes such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and where
these mountains poke above the level of the Sea Islands are created.
Both earthquakes and volcanoes can result at these margins, the
earthquakes caused by the movement of magma through the crust. A
really good example of this is the mid Atlantic Ridge, where the
Eurasian plate moves away from the North American plate at a rate
of around 4cm per year. Iceland owes its existence to this ridge.
Indeed, the Atlantic Ocean did not exist approximately 150million
years ago. The ridge is not a continuous linear line in the ocean. It
is offset and has Transform faults running off it at right angles.
These transform faults can cause earthquakes as they are prone to
lateral movement. The constructive margin has split the continent of
Laurasia into 2, and evidence of this can be seen in the geology of
the Caledonide mountains in North America and Europe.

•The East Pacific Rise was formed by the Nazca and Pacific plates
moving apart.
•When continental plates diverge volcanic mountains are formed.

Divergent zones are characterized by

Explain how the great East African rift valley might have formed. (4)
o volcanoes,
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 seismic energy. This occurs along the inclined zone of subduction,
and it is here in the Benioff zone that shallow, intermediate and deep
earthquakes can occur.
These earthquakes have different causes;
· Shallow earthquakes in the descending slab occur as a result
of fracturing in the outer part of the downward bending OCEANIC
crust.
· Shallow earthquakes in the CONTINENTAL lithosphere are
caused by block uplift and subsidence caused by the subducting
oceanic crust
· Intermediate and deep earthquakes are caused by
compression and extension of the crust, and because stresses builds
up between the plates as one plate passes another. As the plates
move past one another they don't do so smoothly, rather, they snag
and grind, allowing energy to build up. When the plates eventually
move again this energy is released as shock or seismic waves
through the Earth's crust
Fold mountains also result at these margins, where layers of rock
within the continental crust are folded up (anticlines) and down
(synclines) as the continental crust is crumpled up and above the
oceanic lithosphere. The Andes Mountains are formed this way,
where the South American plate is being crumpled up above the
subducting Nazca plate, and these huge mountains have both an
Occidental and Oriental range or Cordillera. You can look at the
Destructive or Convergent Margins or the zone of subduction. GCSE information on this here. Indeed, the Andes are the world's
longest continental mountain range. It is a continual range of
At these margins 2 plates move or CONVERGE together and the highlands along the western coast of South America. This range is
Destruction of some of the Earth's crust results. These margins are about 7,000 km long, about 200 km to 700 km wide and of an
mainly found around the edges of oceans and the majority are found average height of about 4,000 m. The Andes extend from north to
around the Pacific Ocean in what is known as the Ring of Fire. An south through seven South American countries; Argentina, Bolivia,
oceanic plate (denser) is pushed towards a continental plate (less Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.
dense) by convection currents deep within the Earth's interior. The Destructive or Convergent Margins or the zone of subduction.
oceanic plate is subducted (pushed under) the continental plate at
what is called a subduction zone, creating a deep ocean trench. It is
the Oceanic crust which sinks down into the mantle because it is
denser (heavier). The subducting crust is pushed down at varying
angles, beneath Peru it is 10-15° whilst below Japan the Pacific
Plate subducts at 40 to 45°. As it descends friction, increasing
pressure and heat from the asthenosphere (and mantle) melt the
plate.

Some of this molten material can work its way up through the
continental crust through fissures and cracks in the crust to collect in
magma chambers. This is often some distance from the margin
where magma can eventually re-emerge at the surface to create a
range of volcanic mountains or if the plates colliding are both
Oceanic a volcanic island arc will result (a great example is japan, or
the Aleutian Islands, both curved lines of volcanoes). The volcanoes
tend to be very explosive, because the resulting magma from
subduction is Silica rich Andesitic magma, gas laden and explosive.
The movement of the plates grinding past one another can create
earthquakes, when one plate eventually slips past the other releasing

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 and is approximately 5,900 kilometres long; its mean
width is 64 kilometres. It is the result of subduction,
The Andes range is the world's highest mountain range and the distance of 160km from the coastlines of Peru
outside of the continent of Asia. The highest peak is a and Chile give you an indication of just how far in
volcano, Mt. Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about distance the oceanic plate subducts under the
6,962 m above sea level. This is further proof of the continental lithosphere before mountain building
subduction occurring here. Indeed, the world's highest (orogeny) can occur. The other interesting fact is that from the
volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on bottom of the Trench to the peak of the mountains is a difference of
the Chile-Argentina frontier which rises to 6,893 m, and over 15,000m, a huge difference in elevation!
Tsunamis are located one of the secondary hazards which are
over 50 other volcanoes that rise above 6,000 m
associated with these types of plate margins.
(source). The Andes also have a Trench, the Peru-Chile There are several really good examples of Destructive plate margins,
Trench, which is also known as the Atacama Trench. including along the West coast of the Americas and Japan, where the
This ocean trench is approximately 160 km off the coast Philippines sea plate is pushed under the Eurasian plate.
of Peru and Chile. It reaches a maximum depth of 8,065
metres below sea level in a place called Richards Deep Oceanic to oceanic destructive (convergent) plate boundary

thereby stimulating partial melting of mantle in the plate above the

Explain the formation of island arcs (4) subduction zone (known as the mantle wedge).
•Island arcs – these are curved landforms that result from oceanic to •Melting in the mantle wedge produces magma, which is
oceanic convergence predominantly basaltic in composition.
•When the downward-moving slab reaches a depth of about 100 km, •This magma rises to the surface and gives birth to a line of
it gets sufficiently warm to drive off its most volatile components, volcanoes in the overriding plate, known as a volcanic arc,

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 • eg the Aleutian Islands Near Alaska or Tonga.

Summary of destructive plate magins

•This is when two plates move towards each other.
•An Ocean crust moves towards a continental crust but being
heavier, the oceanic crust sinks (is subdued by the continental crust
hence the name zone of subduction) and is destroyed into the mantle
• Features formed include deep-sea trenches, volcanoes and fold
mountains.
•Since the oceanic plate and sediments are being destroyed the zone
is termed the destructive zone.
•Thus when two plates bumb into each other their edges are
destroyed or pushed such that they buckle/ warp into Fold
Mountains.
•For example the Nazca plate (near Peru South America) an oceanic
plate sinks under the South American plate forming the Andes Fold
Mountains
•The Juan de Fuca sinks under the North American plate forming the
Rockies Fold Mountains

Collision plate boundary

At conservative margins mountains are not made, volcanic eruptions

do not happen and crust is not destroyed. Instead, 2 plates either
slide past each other in opposite directions, or 2 plates slide past
each other at different speeds. As they move past each other friction
• This is when two continental crust collide and as neither builds as the plates snag and grind on one another, and parts of the
can sink fault line “LOCK”. When this stress energy is eventually released it
• They are forced to buckle up into Fold Mountains.
sends shock waves through the earth’s crust. We know these shock
• For example the India Plate collided with Eurasian Plate
forming the Himalayas waves as earthquakes, and a good example of this is the San
• The African Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate forming Andreas Fault in California, where the Pacific plate is moving NW at
the Alps a faster rate than the North American plate. Indeed, the San Andreas
t these margins 2 plates of similar density are forced toward each Fault separates south western California from the rest of North
other. Neither plate descends into the mantle because of the similar America. The relative motion between the plates is around 6.3cm
density of the plates. Instead, the 2 plates crumple into one another per year, with the Pacific plate slipping North West of the North
and fold upwards into fold mountains. At these margins we get fold
American plate. In millions of years’ time (10 million at current rates
mountains and earthquake activity, and a fantastic example of this is
the Himalayan mountains. Here, the Indo Australian plate is colliding of movement) Los Angeles will be abreast of San Francisco! The
with the Eurasian plate and has done so for millions of years. earthquakes along these fault lines are almost always very shallow in
Originally, there used to be a sea called the Tethys Sea between focus because of the lateral movement. There are also a series of
India and Asia, but over time India has collided into Eurasia creating strike slip faults here too. This movement caused the Loma Prieta
huge fold mountains rich in marine (sea) fossils! There are high earthquake in 1989 , which had a deeper than normal hypocentre or
levels of seismicity including events in Gujarat (2001), Kashmir focus of 15-18km. Another example is the Alpine fault in New
(2005), and Sichuan (2008)
Zealand, which caused the Christchurch Earthquake of 2011.
Conservative plate margins
Another example is the North Anatolian fault line in Northern Turkey,
responsible for the Izmit Earthquake which claimed 20,000 lives in
1999

• a transform plate margin occurs where two plates slide laterally past
each other
• the movement encounters lot of friction between the sliding crustal
rocks
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• friction causes pressure to build up which casuses breaking of rocks • friction causes pressure to build up which casuses breaking of rocks
and prssure release through an earthquake and prssure release through an earthquake
• Most transform zones are found on the sea floor where they connect How and why plates move
segments of diverging mid-oceanic ridges.
• Examples include the San Andreas Fault in California. Summary of how plates move
• Other land-forms include rift valleys for example the Great African • crustal plates move in three main ways which are
Rift Valley which extends from Kenya to Tanzania. o towards each other (Convergence)
• Localized lakes can also be found within these rift valleys for o away from each other (divergence)
example Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania. o or sideways adjacent boundaries (conservative plates)
• the movement encounters lot of friction between the sliding crustal • the movement occurs as a result of convection currents
that occur in the mantle
rocks

• A plate in geologic terms means a large slab of solid rock.

"Tectonics" is a part of the Greek root for "to build" and together the
• Tectonic plates 'float' on the molten rock magma in the mantle. terms define how the Earth's surface is built up of moving plates.
• As the molten magma gets heated up by heat in the Earth’s core, the • The theory of plate tectonics itself says that the Earth's lithosphere is
heat causes convection currents, a movement of rising and sinking made up individual plates that are broken down into large and small
caused by heat, inside the molten magma. pieces of solid rock that are moving.
• The magma rises and spreads out across the surface, then cools and
sinks, making the plates to move History of Plate Tectonics
• As the cooled material sinks down, it is warmed and rises again. • Was put forward by ALFRED WEGENER In 1912,
• As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading ridges and forms new • Wegener noticed that the coastlines of the east coast of South
crust, the new crust pushes the rest of a plate out of its way. This is America and the west coast of Africa seemed to fit together like a
called ridge push which also force plates to move jigsaw puzzle.
• Old parts of a plate are likely to sink down into the mantle at • Further examination of the globe revealed that all of the Earth's
SUBDUCTION ZONES because they are colder and thicker than the continents fit together somehow and Wegener proposed an idea that
warm mantle material underneath them. This is called slab pull. all of the continents had at one time been connected in a single
Why plates move supercontinent called PANGAEA .
• Therefore there are three causes of plate movement namely • He believed that the continents gradually began to drift apart around
o Convection currents 300 million years ago - this was his theory that became known as
o Ridge pushing continental drift theory.
o Slab pulling
What is plate tectonics Evidence for continental drift theory

• Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that attempts to explain the

movements of the Earth's lithosphere.
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 An anticline occurs when a tectonic plate is compressed by
movement of other plates.
This causes the center of the compressed plate to bend in an
upwards motion.
Syncline

• Mountain ranges of one continent, end at coastline and begin again • A syncline is similar to an anticline, in that it is formed by the
at another continent suggesting that they were once joined as one compression of a tectonic plate.
range • However, a syncline occurs when the plate bends in a downward
• Similarities between rocks of adjacent continents are evidence for motion.
continental drift. • The lowest part of the syncline is known as the trough, it is the
For example the rocks found in Newfoundland are the same type and bottom of the fold .
age as rocks found in Greenland, Ireland, Scotland, Norway Types of folding.
• The fossils of some ancient species suggest evidence for ‘pangaea’.
• Wegener found fossils of a fresh-water reptile ‘Mesosaurus’ in two
places:- SE South America and SW Africa .Besides the folds, there are quite a number of land forms that result
• Evidence of glaciers formed in ice ages provides support to from folding. Follow the link to view notes on these or click
continental drift theory
During ice ages, glaciers covered large areas of land When the
glaciers retreat/ advance, they leave behind proof
Folding and faulting

Rocks of the crust can change shape due to stress set up by tectonic
movements
Three types of stress
• Compression
• Tension
• Shear Simple fold/Symmetrical fold
•Tectonic movements are those movements that result from the • Symmetrical fold-is when both limbs are equal in steepness on both
earth’s internal forces. sides because the compression forces are equal and opposite
•When forces move horizontally towards one another they are known • The two sides from the anticline are mirror images
as compressional. • The anticline is vertical
•Folding refers to the warping up or bending of the earth’s structure
into folded land-forms as a result of compressional forces acting on
the crust.
•Rocks fold when subjected to compressional forces when they are
flexible.
Parts of a fold

Asymmetrical fold
• Asymmetrical fold-occurs when one side is steeper than the other
because the forces on one side are more than the other force

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 Over fold
Nappe fold- occurs when the recumbent fold is acted upon by
• Over-fold–occurs when one fold is pushed over the adjoining limb
due to increasing compressional forces extremely powerful compressional forces which causes one of the
• An overfold takes place when folding rock becomes bent or warped limbs to fracture and be displaced.
so disfigured that they may even overlap each other.
• one fold is pushed over the adjoining limb due to increasing The upper part of the nappe fold is thrust forward along the fracture
compressional forces.
• They are also known as overturned folds. plane

Both limbs are sloping in the same direction

Recumbent Fold
•Occurs when the limbs are nearly parallel to each other and the axis Landforms that result from folding
of the fold is horizontal.
Anticline fold Mountain

The axis of the fold is horizontal

This type of fold is compressed so much that it is no longer vertical. •An anticline is a fold that is arched upward to form a ridge or
There is a large extent of overlapping and it can take the form of an mountain.
“s”. •It can be defined simply as a highland area/ridge that is formed due
to compressional forces.
overthrust fold-occurs when the limbs are nearly parallel to each •It is convex shaped.
other and the axis of the fold is horizontal. •The topmost point is called a crest/axial line.
•The axial line acts as a line of symmetry between the two limbs.

Formation of Fold Mountains.

•Are formed as a result of folding in the upper layers of the earth’s
crust due to compression forces when tectonic plates move against
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each other from opposite directions i.e. forces acting on rocks that •Fold mountains typically have a short width but have a longer length
are not brittle but are flexible. which may span several thousand kilometers.
•These mountains are formed by orogenic forces. With aid of well labelled diagrams explain the formation of fold
•When the two plates collide they warp and fold into series of mountains
uplands.
•A lot of folded mountains are formed in narrow elongated seas
called geosynclines.

Describe and explain the distribution of Fold Mountains

•When breaks occur in the earth’s crust where no rocks are displaced
the breaks are called joints.
•If the rocks are displaced on both or either side of the crack it is
The western side of continents is characterized by fold mountains called a fault.
such as the Alps of California, the Himalayas, the Atlas, the Rockies •Faulting refers to the fracturing or breaking of the earth’s crust due
faulting to both compression and tension forces as a result of the tectonic
•Lateral earth movements often produce very great stresses due to movements.
compressional forces (when plates move towards one another) and •Faulting normally displaces the crustal block along lines.
tensional forces (pulling apart). •The end result is that rocks are either heaved (pushed) above or
•These forces can cause fractures or breaks in the earth’s crust. dropped below the general level of land.
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 • Reverse faults are the opposite of normal faults. Rocks are
Fault compressed such that one plate moves up while the other descends
•A fault is a fracture or break of the crust due to tension or below it.
compression force • When plates compress and crack, usually the more dense one is
forced under the less dense one.
Features of a simple fault • This is similar to the action of the continental crust colliding with the
oceanic crust.
• Here the more dense crust, being the oceanic crust is forced under
the continental crust
Tear fault

• A tear fault, also known as a transform fault, occurs when two

tectonic plates slide in a lateral motion past each other.
• This type of fault causes the most severe earthquakes because they
grind against each other. These earthquakes can either be shallow
•Heave-the forward horizontal displacement of the fractured crust. or deep and cause tremors over a short or long period of time.
•Throw-the vertical displacement of the crust or strata (layer). • Tear faults can occur frequently, especially along the coast of
California.
terms are used to describe these tilts.
•Dip-refers to the direction the sediment tilts in.
•Bedding plane-refers to the surface or plane that separates one
sediment layer from another. This is normally a line that follows the
weaknesses between sediments (layers) of different compositions.

types of faults
• Normal Fault
• Reverse Fault
• Tear Fault
Normal fault
Major landforms that result from faulting include:
• Caused by tension forces
• Hanging wall moves down • Block Mountains
• Rift valleys/ graben
• Tilted blocks.
• Fault scarps
Rift valley and block mountains
• Rift valley forms when two faults occur parallel to each other and the
land sinks between the faults.
• There are two major examples of this.
• One being the Great Rift Valley in East Africa and the other, the San
Andreas Fault in California
A Horst is the opposite of a rift valley. The land between the parallel
faults is forced upward because the two faults are being pushed
together
• When the rocks move apart, the side with the less stable tectonic
1. Block Mountains
plate drops below the side with the more stable plate.
Reverse faults
• Caused by compression forces
• Hanging wall moves up

The formation of block-mountains (Horst).

• Faults typically occur in series as shown in the diagram above.
• The formation of faults is sometimes accompanied by upward
movement of the crust
• This gives rise to raised fault-bordered block called block mountains.
• These are highlands surrounded by fault lines.

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• Either sides of the mountain will be sinking/lower leaving a central
raised block.
• The existence of fault lines which border the block on either side
results in upward displacement of the central block and/or downward
displacement or sinking of the blocks on either side leaving block
mountains to form.
• Examples of block mountains are Ruwenzori in Uganda • The theory suggests that compression forces result in the
• The steep sides of both block mountains and rift valleys are known development of parallel faults.
as scarps or sometimes fault scarps. • The outside blocks/rock layers “ride up” over the central block/crust
• Block mountains have very steep pronounced sides. which is between them producing a Rift Valley beneath.
• The top of block mountains is usually made up of very flat planes • The East African Rift valley which stretches up to the Red Sea in the
known as plateaus. North and reaches close to Beira in Mozambique to the South is
perhaps the most known and influential Rift Valley.
• It contains several lakes including Lake Malawi, Lake Albert, Lake
Formation of Rift Valleys.
Turkana, Lake Magadi and Lake Tanganyika.
• They occur in association with block mountains.
• Its width varies and its sides are sometimes steep and high.
• Faults occur in series as shown above.
• Some experts say the Rift valley may have been formed by tectonic
• The formation of the series of faults is sometimes accompanied by movement of plates
downward displacement of the central block.
• These plates move away from one another leading to the
• The resulting extensive, deep, wide,”V” shaped rift valley. development of faults and subsidence of the crust in between.
• Two prominent theories have been proposed to explain the formation • This theory might explain why molten rock occasionally wells up
of rift valleys. within the valley.
• One attributes them to tension forces while another attributes it to
compression forces. 3 Tilted Blocks

Tension forces theory.

• The following series of diagrams shows the process of Rift valley

formation as a result of tension forces.
• Tension forces pulling away from each other.
• Fault Lines develop.
• The Central Block subsides to form a Rift Valley.
• The development of fault lines causes the displacement of parts of
the crust.
• Escarpments are formed.
• Uplifted blocks can either be tilted or they may be horizontal.
• When they are horizontal they form block mountains as has already
been explained.
• However when they are tilted they form tilted blocks.
• Tilt blocks usually have one pronounced scarp as is the case in
Somalia and parts of Ethopia’s Ruwenzori mountains.
• A scarp is a steep slope.

• The earth is made up of several layers or strata.

• Tension forces pulling away from each other lead to the development Benefits and problems of folding and faulting to people
of normal faults which are V-shaped in appearance.
Volcanoes and earthquakes
• As further tension occurs, the layers between the faults subside or Vulcanicity
sink to form a V-shaped valley.
• This theory therefore states that there are the processes involved in Vulcanicity refers to all the various way by which molten rock and
gasses are forced into the earths and onto its surface
the formation of Rift Valleys namely faulting, subsidence and up •It includes volcanic eruptions which lead to the formation of
warping and down warping due to the existence of folded strata. volcanoes, lava plateaus and geysers.
•It also includes the formation of other vulcanic features such as
Compression theory. batholiths, sills and dykes in the earth’s crust.
The theory is summarized in the following diagrams. •Volcanic materials include rock fragments, smoke, magma and lava.
•Magma is molten rock in the mantle.
•When magma reaches the earth’s surface it is known as lava.
Distribution of volcanoes

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 Study Figure 1 which shows the earth’s tectonic plates and the •Friction at plate boundaries raises their temperature and the
places where volcanoes occur worldwide. simultaneous fall in pressure caused by faulting and folding causes
the rocks to become molten and semi-fluid.
•Vulcanoes are common at plate boundaries. •It is these rocks that are known as magma which then flows up into
•Convergence and Divergence plate boundaries see most of the cracks in the earth’s surface.
world’s volcanic activity. •When the magma stays in the earth’s crust (intrusive vulcanicity) it
may cool and solidify forming such features as dykes, batholiths, sills
and lapoliths.

2. According activity
Describe the distribution of volcanoes and explain why volcanoes 1. Active volcanoes
occur at destructive plate 2. Dormant volcanoes
boundaries 3. Extinct volcanoes

1. Active volcano
Classification of volcanoes • The volcano erupts either occasionally or periodically
Why do we have different types of Volcanoes • A volcano is considered active if it is currently erupting, is
• The process of magma formation is different at each type of plate likely to erupt or is showing signs of unrest for example if it is making
boundary. gas emissions.
• Therefore, the composition of magma differs in each tectonic setting.
• Tectonic settings determine the types of volcanoes that form and the
types of eruptions that take place

1 by place of occurnce on/ in earth’s crust

• Extrusive vulcanicity and,
• Intrusive vulcanicity

•Intrusive vulcanicity occurs within the earth’s crust while extrusive

volcanoes occur on the surface of the earth’s crust. 2. Dormant volcano
•A volcano is an opening in the earth’s surface through which magma • The volcano is inactive and has not been known to erupt in
is injected into the earth or ejected as lava onto the earth’s surface. recent times.
•Rocks below the earth’s crust have a very high temperature but the • Dormant volcanoes are currently quiet but may erupt again.
great pressure exerted on them by the earth’s crust keeps them in a
a semi-solid state.
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 • An example of a dyke can be found in the Kaap Valley in
South Africa.
• Another example is the Jos Plateau in Nigeria
Sill is an igneous intrusion that are formed when magma squeezes
horizontally between bedding planes of crustal rocks.
Batholith •A deep-seated large, dome like igneous intrusion usually
made up of granite
•Is formed when a very large mass of magma that accumulates in
the earth’s crust.
•They form various land features like dwalas and low lying hills after
they have been exposed by denudation processes.
3. Extinct volcano •They are essentially massive underground hills.
• Are those which are considered by scientists as being Lopolith. A saucer(concave) shaped sheet of magma that solidifies
unlikely to erupt again in the earth’s crust.
• Usually because they have exhausted their magma supply. Laccolith It is a convex shaped massive sheet of magma that
solidifies withing the earth’s crust and usually near the earth’s
surface.
Extrusive volcanic landforms.
•Magma sometimes reaches earth’s surface through a vent/hole or a
fissure/crack in surface rocks.
•When magma reaches and emerges onto the earth’s surface it is
known as lava.
•Extrusive volcanic landforms are those landforms that are formed as
a result of magma reaching the earth’s surface as lava.

Intrusive volcano

Explain how a composite volcano is formed

• It is a result of eruption from a single central vent
Intrusive volcano the intrusion of magma into the earths curst, solidify • Is a result of alternate eruption of ash and lava
and cool in it to form interior volcanic landforms. • It forms when pressure and heat build up underground burning rocks
The magma cools and solidifies whilst still within the earth’s crust to to ash
form these landforms. • The ash is ejected through a violent explosion and is thrown around
The most common features resulting from intrusive volcanic land the vent formin an ash layer around it
forms are: • It is then followed by a quitter eruption of lava covering the ash
1. Dykes (spelled dikes in the diagram) • Some of the lava solidify inside vent blocking (plugging the volcano)
2. Sills it causing further pressure and heat to build up
3. Batholith • This leads to another violent ejection of ash followed by a gentle
4. Lopoliths eruption of lava.
5. Laccoliths • Thus through continuous alternate eruption of lava and ash the
A dyke. When a mass of magma cuts across bedding composite cone is built
planes/sediments • Some lava plugs the top of cone causing some magma from
• It forms a wall like feature which is called a dyke. underground to force its way across the layers forming dyke,
• Dykes can be vertical or inclined. parasitic cone and lava flow.
• Some dykes are easily eroded and form shallow trenches. • Some magma may draw back into magma chamber giving a
• Others resist erosion to form wall like ridges. depression on top which is the crater
• Dykes can sometimes give rise to waterfalls for example Volcanoes can also be classified according to nature/ type of larva
the Howick Falls in South Africa.
being erupted

15
 Acidic volcano Basic/ shield volcano

Subsidence theory of caldera formation

Acidic volcano (volcanic plug/ Basic volcano •A caldera may also be formed as a result of block subsidence
spines) (downward displacement of the central block).
Is steep sided Has gentle sloping sides •After an eruption the supply of magma is depleted causing a huge
chasm to form beneath the volcano.
Flows slowly and solidify Has a wide base ie covers a •The weight of the cone sometimes causes faults to develop and
hence have a narrow base wide area after some time the whole cone collapses into the chasm beneath.
•Longonot in Kenya may have been formed this way.
Forms from magma that erupts Magma erupts gently Meteor theory
violently •This theory suggests that solid objects from the space (meteors) fall
by gravity and on impact with the earth formed calderas.
Lava has high silicon content Lava has less silicon content •While meteors falling on earth have been known to form craters this
hence solidify fast (highly and is rich in iron and theory even if proved true cannot account for all the calderas.
viscous) magnesium hence solidify Mountain collapse
slowly •A mountain may collapse if it has a large mass floating on a wetter
Common at destructive plate Common at constructive plate surface resulting in a caldera.
boundary boundary
Has a lower melting point of Has high melting point of Dangers resulting from volcanoes
7000c 12000c therefore very hot lava • The gas released from volcanoes can surfocate people
flos
• Volcanic bombs can destroy buildings
• Hot ash will burn people and cause forest fires
• Lava can bury and burn crops, vegitation and animals leading to
Caldera
famine
• Villages and towns are destroyed by lava leaving people homeless
• Calderas are very large craters often two or more kilometers in • Roads and bridges can be blocked or washed away by lava
diameter that form at the top of volcanoes. • Rivers can be blocked causing floods
• They are often deep extending downwards for a few hundred meters
and sometimes, in cases of inactive volcanoes, contain lakes e.g.
Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana.
• There are several theories regarding how calderas are formed
although it is more likely that each of these theories is applicable in Why do people continue to stay in areas of active volcano
certain instances.

Volcano Benefits Problems

Formation of a caldera. Impacts

Violent eruption
Economic • Volcano Tourism • Eruptions can cause
• Skiing industry tourists to cancel
• A composite volcano may sometimes explode violently that its top is
• Mineral mining visits
blown off and disintegrates into a mass of rocks and ashes (sulphur) • Lava flows can
• Leaving the crater at the top of volcanoes greatly enlarged thus • Big yields of farm damage ski lifts
crops • Hot ash can destroy
forming a caldera.
fields of crops

16
 • scientific researchers •Epicenter-this is the point where the earthquake hits the surface. It is
come to monitor the usually the point that is directly above the focus. It is here the shock
volcano waves first hit the surface which give rise to the earthquake. It is
where the greatest impact of the earthquake falls and is felt and
where the greatest damage is suffered.

two types of earthquake shock waves:

Body Waves
Social • communities have • Lava flows can stop •They travel through the earth’s crust usually in a vertical direction.
year-round jobs in movement if roads •There are two types of body waves:
tourism with summer are blocked •Primary waves-these cause the crustal rock of the earth to move
volcano hikers and • Air flights are back and forth in the direction of the waves.
winter skiers. delayed & diverted •Secondary waves-these cause the crustal rock of the earth to move
• medical use of hot due to ash clouds from side to side i.e they operate at right angles with the primary
spa water and mud waves and direction of movement.
can improve health.
Surface waves
Environme • Geothermal energy is• air contaminated with
•They travel through the surface rocks.
ntal a renewable energy ash and acidic fumes
•There are two types of of surface waves:
source using steam causes breathing
•Love (L) waves-these cause the surface rocks to move from side to
from hot rocks near difficulties.
side at right angles to the direction of the wave movement.
the surface. • water supplies
•Rayleigh (R) waves-these cause the surface rocks to have a
• Farmland is supplied contaminated with
vertical-circular movement.
with mineral nutrients acidic lava and ash
•Surface waves cause the most damage and lead to infrastructural
as ash is washed into • Global cooling can
damage and loss of life.
the soil follow as ash spreads
More earthquake terms and concepts
through the upper
• earthquake Intensity degree or capability to cause damage it also
atmosphere.
refers to the effects produced by an earthquake and must never be
Precautionary measures against volcanoes confused with the earthquake’s scale or magnitude. Intensity is
measured using the Mercalli intensity scale.
Earthquakes • earthquake magnitude is measured using a seismograph (now
• Earthquake is a violent shaking of the earth that usually occur along know as a seismometer).
plate margins due to friction generated by moving plates o The instruments records the vibrations made by the earthquake.
• This is because when plates move past, towards or away from each o The magnitude of an earthquake is also known as its scale.
other rocks on the margin rub against each other causing much • earthquake’s scale is measured on a Ritchter scale.
friction o The scale ranges from 0 to 13.
• Friction causes the plates to get stuck such that pressure builds up o It is a logarithmic scale set to base 10.
• The built up pressure is released as shock wave that shacks the o •This means that a magnitude of 5 is ten times greater than that of 4
earth NB Most of the damage occurs at the epicenter and the extent of the
• The point where the earthquake starts is called focus damage typically falls the further one travels away from the
• The point at ground level reached by earthquake waves directly epicenter.
above the focus is called the epicentre
Aftershock earthquake
earthquake •Aftershock-is an earthquake that occurs in the aftermath of a
previous earthquake (usually within days or hours of the main-quake)
in the same area of the main shock.
An aftershock is christened a foreshock if it is larger than the original
main shock.
•Aftershocks are caused when the crust around the displaced fault
plane adjust to the effects of the main shock.
•As a matter of fact most earthquakes occur as a series of quakes
that are separated by periods of relative inactivity

Distribution of earthquakes
•Most earthquakes occur along and within the vicinity of major plate
boundaries.
•They typically occur along or near convergence and transformational
zones.
•Focus-this is the point at which the earthquake originates, which •They thus occur along or near ocean ridges, near volcanic islands,
may be several kilometers below the surface. along the Pacific Ring of Fire etc.
17
 •Along conservative zones even if the plates move by only a few (c) Name an area which you have studied where there has been an
centimeters violent earthquakes ensue. earthquake.
•The interactive map below clearly shows that volcanic and Describe the effects of this earthquake. [7]
earthquake activities tend to occur in the same regions and along
major plate boundaries. (The map uses flash so it might not work on Figs 6, 7, 8 and 9 are cross sections through four plate margins
some browsers).
(plate boundaries). Directions
•The only parts of Africa that experience earthquakes are located in
the Great Rift Valley and some part of North West Africa and of these of plate movement are shown by arrows.
few most tend to be rather mild.
•Sometimes serious earthquakes occur in these parts as in Malawi
1989,El Asnam Algeria in 1980 and Orkney South Africa 2014

Dangers from earthquakes

•Shaking causes buildings to collapse
•River banks break due to shaking causing floods
•Gas pipes are broken causing fires
•Electrical cables are broken causing fires
•Shaking triggers landslides which may burry people and property
•Earth movements cause bridges to collapse cutting transport and
communication
•Large trees fall due to shaking causing deforestration
Tsunami

• A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of

a large volume of abody of water, usually an ocean

Causes of tsunami

• Earthquakes
• Volcanic erruption
• Underwater explosion
• Meteorite impacts (a)On Fig. 6 only, use labelled arrows to show the positions of:
(i) a volcano; [1]
Case study of a tsunami, the idian ocean tsunami 2004 (ii) fold mountains; [1]
(iii) the focus of an earthquake. [1]
Vulcanicity (b) Name the type of plate boundary shown in Fig. 9.......................[1]
Revision Exercise 2 fig 1.2 is a map showing the world’s plates, plate margins and plate
movements. Six locations, A – F, are shown
Answer this work by typing answers and send on seesaw

(b) Study Fig. 6, which shows the location of the Himalayas

mountains and Mt. Everest.

For each of Figs 6, 7, 8 and 9 (opposite), identify its correct location,

(i) Describe the location of Mt. Everest.[3]
choosing from locations A – F on Fig. 10. Use each letter once only
(ii) Explain how the Himalayas were formed as a result of plate
Letter:- Fig. 6 , Fig. 7 , Fig. 8 , Fig. 9 …………….
movement.[5]
18
3.Study Fig. 1.1, which shows information about the area around the the cause of the
Red Sea. earthquake.4

Describe the location of the earthquake epicentre.

From Figure 2, give two examples of the primary effects of the
earthquake and two examples of the secondary effects of the
earthquake

(a) What type of plate boundary passes through the Red Sea?
Choose from the following: Conservative
(b) Constructive, Destructive and give reasons for your answer (2)
(c) Explain why plate movement, such as that shown occurs. (2)
(d) Explain why earthquakes occur close to plate boundaries. (3)
(e) Explain why people continue to live in areas where earthquakes
occur. (4)
(f) Suggest reasons why earthquakes caused more financial damage
in MEDCs than LEDCs.

4(i) Explain how the advice given in the poster may reduce the
numbers of deaths and injuries if an earthquake occurs. Using an example, describe the methods used to reduce the
(ii) Explain why earthquakes of the same magnitude (strength) are damaging effects of earthquakes.
likely to cause more deaths and injuries in an LEDC than an MEDC. Give one reason why a tsunami is a secondary effect of plate
Fig. 4 shows plate boundaries (plate margins), plate movements and movement. (1 mark)
earthquake epicentres in 1 (c) (ii) Use a case study to describe and explain the damaging
part of North America and the Pacific Ocean. effects of a tsunami on coastal areas.
Study Figure 1 which shows the earth’s tectonic plates and the
places where volcanoes occur worldwide.

Describe the distribution of volcanoes

Draw a labelled diagram(s) to explain why volcanoes occur at
destructive plate
boundaries
For a named example of a volcanic eruption you have studied,
describe its effects on people and the natural environment. (7)
Study Fig. 4 (Insert), a map of the area around Mount St. Helens, a
What is meant by the following terms: volcano in the USA.
Identify two features which suggest that tourists visit Mount St.
(i) epicentre; .......................[1]
Helens.[2]
(ii) plate? ..............................[1] (iii) Give three pieces of evidence from Fig. 4 that Mount St. Helens
(b) Identify the types of plate boundary shown at X and Y volcano has erupted.[3]
Mount St. Helens is on a destructive plate boundary. Explain why
volcanoes erupt on
destructive plate boundaries.
Explain how a volcanic eruption can damage the economy of a
country
Explain why volcanic eruptions often do not cause a large number of
deaths.
Fig. 6 shows cross-sections of two types of volcano, Volcano A and
Volcano B. Study Fig. 6 and answer the questions on the opposite
page
On Fig. 5, mark the position of the epicentre of the earthquake with
the letter E. [1]
(ii) Using information from Fig. 5 and your own knowledge, explain

19
 Describe the differences between Volcano A and Volcano B
Give reasons for the differences that you have described in part (a)
(a) Study Figs 5A and 5B, which show a volcano before and after an
eruption

20
 Identify a tourist facility shown on Fig. 5A, which was destroyed by (iii) Explain why some volcanoes erupt on constructive (divergent)
the volcanic plate boundaries. [3]
eruption. [1] (iv) Describe the opportunities offered by volcanoes for people who
(ii) Describe two likely problems for people who live in the area live close to them
shown on Figs 5A and
5B as a result of the volcanic eruption. [2]

A. asthenosphere B. Benioff zone C. lithosphere

D. mesosphere
6. Gondwanaland and Laurasia merged to form
A. South America
Study maps I, ii and iii above B. Asia
1(a) Explain “plate boundary and Active volcano (2) C. North America
(b) (i) with the help of sketch diagrams, show what is happening to D. Eurasis
plates at each of the plate boundaries marked A and B on map i. E. none of the above
label you diagram to show features that form at each of the two plate 7. Evidence for the former connection of Gondwana's fragments
boundaries (8) include
(ii) Using only maps ii and iii describe the distribution of earthquake A. identical fossil reptiles and plants B. nearly identical sequences of
belts, active volcanoes and young fold mountains (4) Gondwana succession C. similar history of continental glaciation
(iii) What relationship is shown by comparing the three maps (2) D. all of the above
C) (i) suggest reasons for the presence of volcanoes in Africa South 8. The earth’s outer core is
of the Sahara (2) A. liquid B. solid C weak D strong
(ii) Suggest why there are no young fold mountains in Africa south 9. New ocean floor is created (use two answers)
of Sahara (2) A. at convergent boundaries B. at divergent boundaries
D) with aid of labeled diagrams explain how a caldera is formed (5) C. at transform faults D. . in subduction zones
10. Forces at a convergent boundary are dominantly
Rocks A. tensional B. shear C. compressional D oblique
11. The process in which an oceanic plate slides beneath a
• A rock is a collection of minerals that are chemically bound together. continental plate or another oceanic plate is known as
• The mineral grains in a rock can be different colours, shapes and A. exfoliation B. degradation C. tectonism D. subduction
12. The zone of earthquake foci that develops as one plate is forced
sizes.
beneath another
• There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and A. focal horizon B. Benioff zone C. hot spot D. plume
metamorphic 13. Divergent plate boundaries are characterized by
A. earthquakes B. volcanism C. creation of new ocean floor D. all
of above
Multiple Choice Questions 14. Divergent boundaries are
1. The material that constitutes the earth’s surface plates is the A. constructive B. destructive C. conservative D passive
A. asthenosphere B. mesosphere C. thermosphere D. lithosphere
2. The person to propose the hypothesis of continental drift in 1911 15. At transform boundaries movement between the plates is
was A. towards one another B. away from one another
A. Wegener B. Hess C. Richter D. Dewey C. past one another D like one another
3. The supercontinent composed of all the major continents joined
together in the 16. When two continental plates collide
A. Precambrian B. Cenozoic C. Paleozoic D. Mesozoic A. subduction occurs B. mountain building occurs
4. The breakup of the above supercontinent occurred in the C. oceans are destroyed D.. volcanism is common
A. Precambrian B. Cenozoic C. Paleozoic D. Mesozoic
5. The zone of plastic flow in the mantle is known as the

21
 17. The San Andreas fault zone in California is an example of ____5. 29 All of the following conditions in Earth can cause metamorphic rocks to
________ plate boundary form EXCEPT ____.
A. divergent B. transform C. convergent D. none of above a. pressure c. heat
18. Possible cause for plate movements include b. the presence of hot, watery d. exposure to air
A. plumes B. hot spots C. convection currents in the mantle fluids
D. none of above

18 In which of he following climates will chemical weathering be ____6. 30 Sedimentary rocks are ____.
most rapid? a. formed from magma
A hot and dry B hot and humid C cold and dry D cold and humid b. a type of foliated igneous rock
19 Which of the following statements about weathering is false? c. formed because of changes in temperature and pressure, or
A rocks of different compositions weather at different rates the presence of hot watery fluids
B heat and heavy rainfall increase the rate of chemical weathering d. formed when loose materials become pressed or cemented
C the presence of soil slows down the weathering of the underlying together or when minerals form from solutions
bedrock
D the longer a rock is exposed at the surface, the more weathered it
becomes _______ 31 Rocks are formed when magma or lava ____.
a. erodes c. undergoes radioactive decay
19 The rate of chemical weathering is increased by acids. The most b. crystallizes d. weathers
common natural acid on the Earth's surface is ________ .
A nitric B hydrochloric C carbonic D sulfuric
20 Caves are most lively to form in which of the following rock 32Which type of rock is formed when heat and pressure are
types? applied below the earth's surface?
A granite B limestone C basalt D sandstone
21 Which of the processes is not an example of chemical A metamphic B igneous C sedimentary D granite
weathering? 33 The three types of rocks are
A. dissolution of calcite B breakdown of feldspar to form clay
C splitting of a rock along a fracture D rusting of a nail A metamorphic, sedimentary, deposition
22. Which of the following factors would increase the rate of
weathering? B sedimentary, deposition, igneous
A increasing rainfall B increasing temperature C increasing organic
activity D all of these C weathering, erosion, deposition
hematite
23. Which of the following minerals is most stable at the Earth's D igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
surface? 34 Which type of rock is formed when lava cools and hardens?
A hematite B mica C olivine D feldspar A sedimentary rock B igneous rock C metamorphic rock D coal
24Which of the following conditions promotes slow chemical 35 Which type of rock is formed when bits of rocks are layered and
weathering? cemented together?
A cold temperatures B thick soils C high rainfall D fracturing
he pr25 Processes involved in the rock cycle include all of the following A sedimentary B metamorphic C igneous D granite
EXCEPT ____. 35.Which of these is a metamorphic rock?
a. condensation c. weathering A. sandstone
b. erosion d. compaction B. granite
C. gneiss

_22 26The ____ shows how one rock changes into another. 36.Which of these is a sedimentary rock?
a. rock cycle c. formation of crystals A. granite
b. melting process d. none of the above B. gneiss
C. sandstone

_3. 27 Sedimentary rocks are changed to sediments by ____. 37.In order for a sedimentary rock (made of particles) to form, what
a. weathering and erosion c. cementation must occur? Select all that apply.
b. compaction d. heat and pressure A. crystallization
B. compaction
C. burial
_28 28 Igneous rocks form from ____ when it cools. D. cementation
a. magma c. neither a nor b
b. lava d. both a and b 38.Which type of rock is formed from the cooling and hardening of
molten material?
A. igneous
22
B. sedimentary 53 A volcano that is no longer active is called what
C. metamorphic A. Extinct B. Dead C. Sleeping
39 Once magma reaches the surface, it is called 54An earthquake is only noticeable by instruments up to what on the
a. silica. b. lava. c. rock. D volcano richter scale
40 Hot spots can occur A 5 B. 4 C. 3
a. only at plate boundaries. b. far from plate boundaries. c. only
under the middle of plates. D at geysers 54 Molten rock is called
41 Very hot magma produces lava called A. Sediment B. Magma C. Ash
a. aa. b. pahoehoe. c. silica.
42 . Magma leaves a volcano through a 55 . A eathquake is caused when
a. dike. b. sill. c. vent. A. The earths plates rub together
43 An explosive eruption occurs if magma is B. When mountains collapse
a. low in viscosity. b. high in silica. c. very thin. C. Heavy storms
44 . A volcano that is no longer erupting but is likely to erupt
again in the future is 56 Volcanoes only erupt after a eathquake
a. extinct. b. dormant. c. active. A. True BFalse
45. What forms when magma hardens in the pipe of a volcano? 57 The place where the slipping begins is called the earthquake's
a. sill b. dike c. volcanic neck
46 When a volcano erupts quietly, what kind of mountain A fault B hot spot C focus D lava
forms? 58 The point directly above the focus is called the earthquake's
a. shield volcano b. cinder cone c. composite volcano _________________.
47 . What forms when hot water and steam are trapped A focus B epicentre C hot spot D lava
underground in a narrow crack? 59Once magma reaches Earth's surface, it is called
a. hot spring A lava B earthquakes C volcano D water
b. geyser 60 An ____________________ is currently erupting or has recently
c. batholith erupted.
A extinct B active C dormant C red
The diagram below shows a volcano. Use the diagram to answer
questions QUESTION TWO AND THREE
48, 49 and 50 Rocks

• A rock is a collection of minerals that are chemically bound together.

• The mineral grains in a rock can be different colours, shapes and
sizes.
• There are three main types of rock: sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic
The rock cycle

48. Interpreting Diagrams Which type of volcano is shown in

the diagram?
a. cinder cone b. shield volcano c. composite volcano
49. Applying Concepts Which kind or kinds of eruptions has
this volcano had?
a. quiet eruptions b. explosive eruptions c. both quiet eruptions and
explosive eruptions
50. Inferring Which kinds of materials are likely to erupt next?
a. lava and magma b. ash, cinders, and bombs c. magma and
bombs

51. What is the richter scale Igneous rocks

A A device that measures the number of eathquakes
B A device that measures the intensity of a eathquake • Igneous rocks are formed by solidification and cooling of
C. A device that measures the name of a volcano magma or lava.
• Igneous rocks are further classified into plutonic rocks and
52 The richter scale has never gone above 9 volcanic rocks.
A. True B. False

23
• Plutonic, also known as intrusive rocks are formed when • The deposited rocks build up in layers, called sediments. This
magma cools and crystallizes within the Earth’s crust. Granite process is called sedimentation.
is an example of plutonic rock. • The weight of the sediments on top squashes the sediments at
• Volcanic or extrusive rocks are formed when the magma the bottom. This is called compaction.
reaches the Earth’s surface as lava, forming minerals like • The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of rock and
pumice or basalt. crystals of different salts form.
• igneous rock is most abundant rock type found on Earth, • The crystals form a sort of glue that sticks or cements the
• Igneous rocks are classified into two groups depending on the pieces of rock together. This process is called cementation.
way the magma cools and solidifies. • These are the different processes in order:
Intrusive (plutonic) Igneous Rock and Extrusive ( volcanic)
Igneous Rock
The table below summarises the two types of Igneous Rocks: Examples of sedimentary rock are:
Intrusive (plutonic) Igneous Volcanic or extrusive Igneous • Chalk limestone
Rock Rock • Sandstone shale
Form when the molten rock Form when molten rock is Sedimentary rocks have layers
(magma) cools and solidifies thrown out by the eruptions of
before it reaches the surface. volcanoes
Cool slowly and form very Extrusive igneous rocks cool
large crystals. rapidly and form small crystals.
Less dense and are lighter in Denser and Darker in colour
colour than basic rocks. Basalt and gabbro are
Granite and dolerite are common examples of an
common examples of an extrusive igneous rock.
intrusive igneous rock The oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are
Characteristisc of igneous rocks at the top.
• Igneous rocks are mainly hard rocks and impermeable unless Characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
jointed. • Sedimentary rocks are formed of sediments derived from the
• Igneous rocks are granular or crystalline rocks depending upon older rocks, plant and animal remains
the rate and place of cooling of magmas or lavas. • Sedimentary rocks may be consolidated, poorly consolidated
• Igneous rocks do not have strata like sedi-mentary rocks. or unconsolidated depending on cementing elements
• Igneous rocks do not contain fossils because they form from • Have joints that are perpendicular to bending planes
very hot and molten materials which burns all remains of plants • These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata
or animals (fossils) • These rocks are characterized by marks left behind by water
• The number of joints increases upward in any igneous rock. currents and waves.
The joints are formed due to: • These rocks have fossils of plants and animals.
(i) Cooling and contraction, • These rocks are generally porous and allow water to percolate
(ii) Expansion and contraction during mechanical weathering, through them
(iii) Pressure release Uses of sedimentary rocks
(iv)Earth movement caused by isostatic disturbances •Limestone is used to make cement
•Limestone is also used in blast furnace to separate iron from
Economic Uses of igneous rocks iron ore
• Many types of igneous rocks are used as Limestone is also used for making agricultural lime
o building stone, •Coal is used for heating
o fencing stone building durawalls, •Chalk is used for writing
o decorative material as tiles or tombstone and tabletops, cutting •Sand stone is used as building material
boards Metamorphic rocks
o Pumice is used as an abrasive material in hand soaps, emery • Metamorphic rocks are formed when any other rock types like
boards, etc. sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic are subjected to different
o Gneiss, Schist and Gabbro are very hard and widely used as temperature and pressure conditions other than in which the
crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road surfaces and original rock was formed.
railroad ballast. • This process of transformation is called metamorphism, which
o Igneous rocks may also contain many important ores such tin means changing in form.
or valuable minerals such as diamonds. • Depending on their structure, metamorphic rocks are classified
Formation of sedimentary rocks as foliated and non-foliated. The names of rocks are determined
• A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows by the minerals present in them.
along. • Examples of metamorphic rocks are
• When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported Slates, marble, soapstone serpentine and gneiss
rock fragments settles to the bottom ( are deposited). Examples of metamorphosis

24
 Igneous or Sedimentary Influence Metamorphosed rock frost shattering, pressure
rock release and thermal shattering
Granite Pressure Gneiss
Types of physical weathering
Clay, Shale Pressure Schist
Pressure Release
Sandstone Heat Quartzite It takes place when a rock (batholiths) once buried under the eath is
Clay, Shale Heat Slate ==> Phyllite expose/exhumed by erosion as shown in diagram below
Coal Heat Anthracite ==>
Graphite
Limestone Heat Marble
Charcteristics of metamorphic rocks
• Foliation- grains are in parallel layers eg in slate
• Can also be non-foliated in which grains are arranged randomly
• Banding – bands of light coloured minerals alternate with
bands of dark coloured minerals
• Are usually made of two ormore minerals
• Contains no fossils
• Has no layering • Erosion removes the overburden that was exerting pressure on
• Can be finecrained,coarsegrainedorglassy the rock
• With the release of pressure, the rock expands. causing stress
Rock weathering within the rock.
• Weathering is the breaking down of ROCKS IN SITU , or "with no • Cracks are formed parallel to the rock surface.
movement", • Over a period of time, the outer layers of the rock break away in
sheets (exfoliation).
• It is different from EROSION , which involves the movement of rocks
• Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as
and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and "sheeting".
gravity Salt Crystallization
• Denudation is a term that is used to describe the forces that wear
away the land surface it includes the processes of weathering,
erosion, transportation and mass wasting
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist –
o physical and
• chemical weathering;
• each sometimes involves a component of biological weathering.
• However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand
• Is weathering caused by growth of salt crystals takes place in
Distinguish between physical and chemical weathering (5) rock joints or pores.
• it is common in deserts where evaporation draws salty ground
Chemical weathering Physical weathering water containing dissolved salts upwards into the pores of the
rock by capillary action.
• Is the decomposition of rock by • is the disintegration of a rock • It also occurs on rocks close to oceans where saline water can
chemical reactions that by mechanical processes be splashed into rock cracks by water waves
without any changes in the • When the water evaporates, the salts are left behind as crystals.
produces new compounds
• As more water enter rock crack and evaporate, the salt crystal
• Produces new products ie the chemical composition of the
grows in size and exert pressure on rock crack walls
products are chemical different rock. • The force applied by the growing crystal, creates stress in the
from parent rock and are rock,
chemically stable • Produces products that are • The rock crack widen and deepen, the rock weakens and break
• Produces fine products such as chemically similar to parent down into grains
rock and are unstable Freeze thaw/Frost Shattering
clay and silt
• produces course products
• Chemical weathering takes
such as scree and sand soils.
place deeper into the rocks
Mainly occurs on the surface
of exposed rocks

•Physical weathering
processes include exfoliation,

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• It occurs in cold temperate regions and mountain tops where • roots growing into the cracks and joints in rocks (root wedging)
temperatures fluctuate above and below freezing point. • earthworms and termites making tunnels in the ground
• It occurs in rocks that have crevices and joints and where there is • man building roads and cultivating the land , exposing and breaking
limited vegetation cover and temperatures fluctuate around 0°c rocks
NB. The above are examples of physical biological weathering. It
should be noted that biological weathering can also be chemical e.g.
when animal urine or humic acid from dead animals and plants
cause chemical decay of rocks
Hydration:

• it is the absorption of water molecules by particular substance or

mineral in a rock
• the rock swells leading to a change in structure.
• Water fills the cracks or joints in the rock and freezes at night or • Upon hydration there is swelling and increase in volume of minerals.
during winter. The minerals loose their luster and become soft and break.
• Frozen water expand and increase in volume almost ten times which
causes it to exert pressure on rock cracks hence increasing the Physical weathering is
crack
• When temperatures rise the ice thaws and move deeper into rock Is more effective in areas which have:
crack ~ Little vegetation covers because rocks will be exposed to the sun
• Repeated freeze- thaw will eventually shatter the rock along the ~ Large diurnal range of temperature
cracks or joints into angular pieces. ~ Temperatures fluctuating around 0 degrees Celsius
• The broken materials collect at the foot of the slope to form a scree
slope/talus slope Chemical weathering Processes
• The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block Hydrolysis:
disintegration • It is due to the dissociation of H2O into H+ and OH- ions which
• With each freeze and thaw cycle the joints expand until the rocks chemically combine with minerals and bring about changes, such as
shatter and fall off the main rock as block fields, scree and talus.
exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and formation of
Insolation/ thermal weathering
new compounds.
Solution:

• Occurs when soluble substances in rocks are removed by

dissolving in water .
• the rock no longer remains solid and form holes, rills or rough
surface and ultimately falls into pieces or decomposes.
• The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified by
the dissolution of organic and inorganic acids.
• (e.g) halites, NaCl
NaCl + H2O -> Na+, Cl- , H2O (dissolved ions with water
• It occurs in places like hot deserts where the day temperature is very Carbonation:
high to and night temperature is very low.
• Heated rock expands, however due to different minerals or colors, • Carbon dioxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.
the rock sections expand and contract at different rates. 2H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3
• The dull coloured sections expand faster than the light coloured • This carbonic acid attacks many rocks and minerals and brings them
sections into solution.
• Also the outer layers expand faster than the inner layers
• The carbonated water has an etching effect up on some rocks,
• The repeated heating by day and cooling by night cause the outer
layers of the rock to expand and contract alternately. especially lime stone. The removal of cement that holds sand
• This differential colling and expansions result in stress being created particles together leads to their disintegration.
in the rock, • CaCO3 + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2
• The rock cracks along the lines of stress and gradually, the outer (Calcite) slightly soluble (Ca bi carbonate) readily soluble
layers of rock peels off like layers of an onion Oxidation:
• The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation
• This is the process that was thought to result in the creation of • The process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals. The
exfoliation domes like Domboshava.
absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that
Biological Weathering
present in atmosphere. The oxidation is more active in the presence
of moisture and results in hydrated oxides.(e.g) minerals containing
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 Fe and Mg. heated up faster. Light coloured minerals e.g. quartz, feldspar, can
4FeO (Ferrous oxide) + O2 -> 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide) reflect light and heated up slower.
Reduction: • As a result of alternate expansion and contraction of minerals in rocks
The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of oxidation
and is equally important in changing soil colour to grey, blue or causes the rock to break down into small pieces
green as ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron compounds. Under
the conditions of excess water or water logged condition (less or no Factors affecting the nature and rate of rock weathering.
oxygen), reduction takes place. The rate and prevailing type of weathering at any given place is
affected by:
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 -> 4FeO( Ferrous oxide) - • Climate
• Relief
Chemical weathering • Vegetation
results in the alteration of the chemical composition of the • Rock type( lithological factors)
weathered material due to a reaction which alters: • Animals/ men
• a. the composition of rock minerals
b. the volume of the rock Climate
c. the strength and coherence of the rock
• It tends to be concentrated at the rock surface or along joints
•Temperature and rainfall have the greatest effect on weathering.
and bedding planes. Block weathering and granular
•In cold areas especially regions where temperatures fluctuate
disintegration can also be the result of chemical weathering.
around 0°C physical weathering in the form of frost shatter (freeze-
.
thaw) is dominant.
Block and Granular disintegration
•In hot areas such as deserts where there are large diurnal
temperature ranges exfoliation insolation weathering (heating and
• It tends to be concentrated at the rock surface or along joints
cooling) is dominant.
and bedding planes. •In hot and wet areas like the savannah and rainforest chemical
• Block weathering and granular disintegration can be the result weathering takes place in aided by the easily available moisture and
of chemical weathering or. physical weathering high temperatures which favour chemical reactions.
• Block or Granular disintegration results in blocks of the parent •In rain forests the decomposition of humus creates humic acid
material falling from the cliff and often increases the surface leading to organic weathering.
•Mechanical weathering processes.
area susceptible to attack
•Thus chemical weathering occurs is dominant in hot and humid
climate areas
•Climate also indirectly affect weathering by affecting the amount of
vegetation and presence of organisms that can lead to chemical
weathering
• dictates the type of weathering processes that operate, largely by
determining the amount of water available and the temperature at
which the processes occur.
• Chemical reactions are faster at higher temperatures, while frost
wedging occurs in colder climates.
• Peltian diagrams illustrates this well, explain it briefly

• Block disintegration
• It occurs in well-jointed rock such as granite.
• It is particularly effective in areas with great diurnal range of
temperature (10ºC to 15ºC or more) and barren rocks without a
protective vegetation cover, e.g. in desert regions.
• Rocks are split along the joints into large rectangular-shaped blocks.

Granular disintegration
• It is process of physical or mechanical weathering due to repeated
heating and cooling as a result of temperature changes.
• Rocks usually compose of different types of minerals. The dark The above graph, a Peltier diagram, shows
coloured minerals e.g mica in granite, absorb more heat and so • how weathering is affected by temperature and rainfall
(precipitation).
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• Peltier, predicted the rate and type of weathering that would occur •Plating of trees can lead to increased root wedging and chemical
from mean annual temperatures and mean annual rainfall weathering by decomposing litter
• Chemical weathering is most intense in warm, wet climates. High •Blasting and mining operations can lead to seismic movements that
temperatures promote chemical reactions and heavy rainfall can create fractures that can be exploited by weathering processes
provides the necessary moisture such as freeze and thaw and crystallization thus aiding weathering.
Relief
•Mountain regions have steep slopes which means that in the event Topography:
of rain they drain quickly leaving the dry. • the slope angle determines the energy of the weathering system by
•As a result physical weathering is dominant at mountain topics controlling the rate at which water infiltrates the rock mass.
especially when considering how some peaks tend to have • Generally, flat areas allow water to stagnate and so favour deep
temperatures that fluctuate around the freezing point even if chemical weathering while steep slopes does not allow scree of
temperatures are quite higher at the start of the slopes. water to collect and so favour physical weathering
•Moisture tends to accumulate at the base of mountains aiding The type, rate and extent of weathering depend also on rock
chemical weathering processes. characteristic(lithological factors)
•Granite regions sometimes lead to the development of vleis which
are water logged since granite is impermeable thus favouring
chemical weathering in the moist conditions. Rock Type
•determines the resistance of the rock to the weathering processes
Vegetation that operate in that particular environment
•Tree roots penetrate into rocks, widening cracks, release carbon Rock Structure:
dioxide during respiration resulting in biological weathering. These •highly jointed or faulted rocks present many planes of weakness
processes are naturally dominant in areas where there are more along which weathering agents (e.g. water) can penetrate into the
trees. rock mass
•When tree roots decay humic acids are produced causing biological •Joints and bedding planes: these allow access to the water
weathering a process which more readily occurs in areas with dense Rock strength and hardness.
vegetation cover and moisture such as in rainforests and in the •Some rocks are ‘harder’ than others.
tropics. Chemical composition –
•Lichen and moss grow on rock plateaus and domes aided by minerals that make up a rock determines its susceptibility to different
moisture from rain and at the base of slopes forming acids that eat types of weathering. For example feldspar is easily weathered by
into rocks. hydrolysis while calcium is easily weathered by carbonation
Rock texture –
Rock type whether it is coarse grained or fine grained. In finer grained rocks,
•Limestone is very soft and porous (being porous is not the same the bonding is stronger, but the boundaries between crystals form
thing as being impervious/impermeable) and therefore more easily lines of potential weakness or cleavage. Fine grained rocks often
affected by processes such as carbonation, more so given the weather quicker.
chemical composition of the rock.
•Granite rock is hard and non-porous and thus less susceptible to Benefits and problems of weathering to people.
chemical weathering processes which require a certain amount of Benefits
moisture in order to occur. •Creates tourist attractions for example the balancing granite rocks
•Different rock types are composed or different chemicals that stand in Epworth and the limestone caves in chinhoyi
on different places of the reactivity series. •It produces soil which is essential for agricultural activities,
•Chemicals found in limestone readily react with weak acids while biodiversity and development of vegetation
granite rocks are more resistant. It enables the rock cycle to take place producing different types of
rocks need by men
problems
How humans influence rock weathering • can destroy monuments and rock landforms
• can cause buildings to fall
•Human activities such as industrialization and driving of cars • corrodes and destroy statue
produce emissions such as sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon
Weathering Products
dioxide leading to increased incidences of acid rain which in turn
accelerates chemical weathering processes such as carbonation. • Weathering generally produces finer and less dense rock materials
•These industries sometimes dump acidic chemicals into drains and
(saprolite, regolith/ scree), and weaker, more porous and permeable
rivers leading to chemical weathering.
•Deforestation increases runoff and reduces the moisture retention rock masses.
of certain areas leading to a decrease in biological and chemical • In the tropics and subtropics, intense weathering in the hot and humid
weathering and an increase in mechanical weathering.
•Humans are also indirectly affecting weathering through the conditions produces thick weathered profiles, which may be up to 100
process of global warming. The effects depend on the ensuing metres, or more, thick.( the deep weathered layers)
climatic conditions in each given area.

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• Weathering preferentially attacks the corners and edges of the joint • Tors are residual rock masses that display as isolated piles of
boulders.
blocks, causing them to become rounded (spheroidal weathering). • Are believed to be formed in two step.
Landforms resulting from weathering and erosion of granite • The first involves deep chemical weathering along joints and
rock bedding planes, which produces saprolite, regolith and un-
weathered core stones
Explain fully how weathering and erosion work together to • Erosion removes the saprolite and regolith leaving behind the
produces landforms rounded core stone
• Weathering took place along Joints and bedding plane to produce • The core stones may rest on top of each other when regolith and
deep weather layers as shown below saprolite are eroded thus forming a tor

Bornhart
• Bornharts are distinct steep-sided, dome-shaped hills. Eg Guruguru
• Unlike tors they are composed of relatively unjointed rock, except for
large curved surface joints.
• These large rounded rock landforms are believed to be formed by
• This diagram shows that chemical weathering agents penetrated erosion of overburden (saprolite and regolith) to expose massive
into the rock through joints and bedding planes to produce rock outcrop
weathered rock
• The top layer consists of highly weathered fine rock material called
saprolite
• Followed by a mixture of saprolite and regolith
• Regolith is large partial weather rocks
• The third layer is made up of large core stones just weathered on
edges
• At the lower part of the third layer there is a boundary of weathering
or weathering front or basal surface of weathering, it marks the end
of deep chemical weathering
• This weathering front is deep in areas that has more joints and is
higher on areas that has fewer joints that’s giving rise to embryonic
landforms inside the earth
• When erosion occur, it removes the saprolite, regolith and some
core stones to expose the weathering front Exfoliation domes
• The weathering front is exposed first as a low laying rock exposure
called ruware
• Further erosion continues to expose the weathering front giving tall
rock outcrops such as domes and bornhardts
• Some of the large core stones which could not be moved by erosion
are left resting on the exposed weathering front.
• If the core stones rest on top of each other, a tor is formed
Ruware/ whale back
- Water action and river processes
RIVERS

• A river is a natural channel along which water collects and flow

down gradient towards oceans
Terms river studies
Tor
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 •The term drainage basin/ catchment area refers to an area of land •A river’s long profile can be divided into three sections namely
drained by a river and its tributaries (river system). upper course, the middle course and the lower course
•There is an imaginary line separating drainage basins called a •cross section is the view across a river’s valley from one bank of the
watershed. channel to the other bank.
•Usually, the watershed is a ridge of high land for example
mountains forming a boundary between two adjacent drainage
basins.
•The point where a river begins is called the source. It is usually in
the form of a lake or spring.
•A confluence is the point where two rivers join.
•A tributary is a stream or smaller river that joins a larger river.
•The mouth is the point where a river enters the sea

The base level of a river is the lowest point a river can erode its
channel, this is equal to the sea level of the ocean into which
the river empties

Briefly describe and explain landforms found in river upper

course
V shaped valleys - Steep sided valleys joining at the river. The
channel erodes vertically leaving rock bare to weathering and
erosion. This layer is removed allowing a new layer to be open to
erosion and so the sides become slopes
Gorge (Canyon) - Formed when a waterfall cuts back through a
layer of hard rock creating a vertical sided valley. It can also be
formed by hydraulic action splitting a gorge into the earth through
the rock. They can also be formed when there is an increase
River channel
in subterranean upthrust causing the river to cut down more severely
•A channel is an area that contains flowing water confined by banks.
like at the Grand Canyon.
Flow of rivers in Zimbabwe
Potholes - A smooth round hole on the channel floor. This is caused
• Rivers always flow downstream because of the pull of
by dips in a hard rock floor being eroded away by abrasion. Smaller
gravity.
rocks get into these dips and eventually start acting like a drill,
• This flow is determined by several factors such as
boring a hole into the floor by scratching away rock from the surface.
o Gradient of the river’s bed the steeper the slope the faster the flow.
The drilling power is so powerful that they drill into the floor creating
o River’s volume, low in winter and spring and high in summer. Three
gorges themselves.
types of rivers in Zimbabwe
Interlocking spurs - Valleys jutting out as the river meanders. Due
▪ Intermittent: flow during or soon after a storm in response to runoff
to there being more vertical erosion the river creates v shaped
▪ Ephemeral: flow during and soon after the rainfall season and stops
valleys but the river still meanders; when looking at the cross profile,
flowing in winter
where the river meanders the valley sides jut in and out of each
▪ Permanent: flow throughout the year
other like a zip creating interlocking spurs.
o channel shape also affect a river’s flow velocity
Waterfalls - A sudden step in the long profile of a river where the
river falls vertically. This happens when the river meets harder rock
Long profile: this is the cross section along the river’s entire and due to there being a difference in erosion speed the softer rock
length from its source to its mouth gets eroded down quicker revealing the harder rock. Over time the
waterfall will retreat as the harder rock get eroded away.
Plunge pool - At the foot of the waterfall a deep pool of water is
formed. This is created by the high energy water plunging into the
floor eroding it away
Rapids - Areas of disturbed/turbulent water by harder rock in the
channel or by an increase in gradient. When there is a series of hard
and soft rock creating obstacles for the water making the water
turbulent as it hits a series of rocks in the way.
Knickpoint - The point hard rock finishes and meets soft rock. This
is the point a waterfall is formed. There can be a series of
knickpoints creating steps in the river.
Lower course.

• Is flat and has a very wide channel with less energy.

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• Common features include: bluffs and other flood plain features such •If there are hollows in the river bed, pebbles can get trapped in
as swamps, braiding, deltas, alluvial fans, deferred junctions and these and whirled by turbulent eddies (in circular motion) to form
natural levees. potholes.
• These features are mostly due to deposition which is more dominant •When pebbles are trapped in existing potholes these are deepened
than erosion due to the reduced river energy due to the lower further by the whirling pebbles.
gradient and increased wetted perimeter •Corrasion wears away the channel’s river bed and add more
Briefly describe typical lower course river landforms material to the river’s load thus amplifying the processes as more
Meanders - Bends in the rivers cross profile. Created because the load means more corrasion.
river is moving through the land that will create the least amount of Attrition:Is a process by which the river’s own load is broken down
friction. from larger particles into smaller ones.
Ox-bow lake - This occurs when meanders are straight lined leaving •This happens because the river’s load which is made up of different
a curved lake lying beside the river channel. sized particles which collide and knock into each other causing them
Delta - Areas of sediment at the mouth of the river. This happens to break into smaller fragments.
because the river suddenly slows down as it hits a slower-moving •As the load progresses downstream it gets smaller and smaller.
body of water. It creates four types - Cuspate, Arcuate, Bird's foot •Also angular rocks become increasingly rounded.
(Lobate) and Estuarine. Hydraulic Action
Braiding - When the velocity of the river drops too low the river •refers to the sheer force and turbulence of the moving water which
deposits more material than it transports - this means that the river can be able to remove loose material such as gravel, sand and silt.
bed becomes overloaded with sediment and so the river thins •This force can also weaken solid rocks by surging into cracks in the
out traveling in a random pattern on separate paths. Sometimes rock.
leaving temporary islands called braid bars or chars. •This processes can be aided when there is air in the cracks which is
Floodplains - The flat area that is susceptible to flooding when the compressed causing eventual bank collapse.
discharge exceeds the cross sectional area of the channel •Cavitation is a form of hydraulic action caused by bubbles of air
Levees - A wall or mound that lines the river edge. Naturally occurs collapsing and the resultant shock waves hit and weaken the banks
by deposition by the river when it floods. of the river.
Incised Meanders - Meanders that have steep sides. This occurs •Hydraulic action by itself is very effective if the river does not have
when there is a rise in the land causing the river to cut into the land some load to produce corrosive erosion/abrasive erosion.
more as it gains more kinetic energy as it's being risen further above •Hydraulic action is the weakest and least effective form of erosion.
sea level. Solution or Corrosion
River Terraces - Steps showing where previous flood plains were •The water in the river dissolves some soluble rocks such as rock
Rejuvenation - When the sea level drops in relation to the land the salt and sometimes limestone.
river gains more kinetic energy and so has more vertical erosion. •This is most effective in areas where the stream bed and banks are
This means that the river starts to act like it would in the upper composed of soluble rock for example in limestone regions.
course creating a gorge or valley. The sea level drops ether because •This method of erosion takes place all the time and is independent
of the land rising (isostatic) or the sea level dropping (eusostatic). of a river’s velocity or discharge.
•It is similar to the chemical weathering process of solution.
The main processes of fluvial erosion are: •The river’s corrosive ability is aided, however, if there are
•River erosion involves the wearing away of rock and soil found acids within it.
along the river bed and banks. Forms of Erosion
•It also involves the breaking down of the rock particles being carried •The above four processes make up a river’s erosion processes.
downstream by the river. •River erosion takes place in three ways:
•There are four main processes of erosion. •Headward erosion, lateral erosion and vertical erosion.
These are corrasion, attrition, hydraulic action and solution (also
known as corrosion

•Corrasion occurs when a river picks up material and rubs its bed
and bank wear them away by abrasion like sandpaper.
•Corrasion therefore happens when the river’s sides and bed are
scrapped off by the material being transported by the river.
•This process is most pronounced during flooding.
•This is the major means of erosion by which a river extends both Headward Erosion. Image credit e-xamit.ie
vertically and horizontally. •Is the processes by which a river increases its length upstream.
•This is achieved by a river cutting back at its source.
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•Rain wash and soil creep are other processes by which a river •It increases in amount towards a river’s mouth also giving the
extends its channel up the slope. black/brownish colour to the water that is similar to that of most
Lateral Erosion rivers after a storm.
Solution/Dissolved Load
•Is when material dissolves in the water and is carried away in
solution form for example rock salt.
•Flowing water within river channels almost always contain acids in
the form carbonic and nitrous acids especially after a storm or due to
pollution.
•This dissolves the bedrock especially if it is soluble for example
limestone.
•It dissolves in water and is carried away in solution form.
•This is a very active form of transportation in limestone regions and
in other regions it forms a comparatively small part of the load.
•The processes by which the river’s sides are worn away and the Bedload
channel being extended in width. •Is divided into two processes traction and saltation.
This is more pronounced along the bends (outside banks) of •Saltation is when smaller particles bounce along the bed of the
meanders river.
•Traction is when larger boulders and pebbles roll and are dragged
Vertical Erosion along the river’s bed.
•This is a process by which a river deepens its channel. •Since larger particles cannot be picked up by the current they are
River Transportation Processes. moved along the bed of the river in these two ways.
•Any energy left after a river has overcome friction is used to •Saltation happens when pebbles,sand and gravel are temporarily
transport sediment. lifted up by the river’s current and bounced along the bed of the river
•This energy varies directly with a river’s discharge, velocity in a hopping motion.
and turbulence •Traction occurs when the largest cobbles and boulders roll or slide
•That is if they increase the amount of a river’s energy to erode along the bed of the river.
and transport also increases until a river reaches flooding level The largest loads can only be moved in this way during flood periods
when deposition is likely to occur due to an increase in the for example after a storm
wetted perimeter and thus friction.
There are three main processes by which a river’s load is Fluvial deposition occurs where the river losses energy and
transported: therefore cannot continue to carry the material it is transporting.
• Eg in an estuary when the river meets the sea and slows down,
depositing its load, which may eventually lead to the formation of salt
marshes or a delta.
• For instance the slower moving water on the inside of a meander of
a river will have less energy and therefore drop its load, helping to
create slip off slope/ point bar.
• Drop in gradient in lower course of a river causes deposition forming
the flood plain, due to deposition of sand and silt, ( alluvium)..
Under what conditions does deposition occur in a river

River landforms formed by erosion

Interlocking Spurs
•suspension, solution and bedload (sometimes divided into
saltation and traction making them four methods instead of
three in this case).

Suspension
•This is when light silt and mud floats along with the water.
•Very fine particles of silt and clay are dislodged and carried away in
the turbulence of the flowing water.
• As the river cuts its deep V-shaped valley in its upper course, it
•The greater the turbulence the greater larger the quantity and size
follows the path of the easiest rock to erode.
of particles picked up by and carried away by the river.
• Thus it tends to wind its way along, leaving the more resistant areas
•This partly explains why flooded river often have mud coloured
of rock as interlocking spurs
water, it is due to the heavy amounts of suspended material with the
Meanders
water.
•The suspended material usually forms the largest part of a river’s • Meanders occur in the mid-course and lower course of the river,
total load. where it is beginning to cut laterally as it gets closer to base level.
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• Meanders are basically bends in the river, where the faster water on •A delta is a gently sloping depositional feature that is found at a
the outside of the bend has cut into the bank, eroding it and creating river’s mouth where it empties into a sea or ocean that extends to
a river cliff. the surface .
• At the same time the slow moving water on the inside of the bend A delta.
deposits its load, building up a shallow slip-off slope. •is a low lying swampy plain that gradually become colonised by
• Meanders migrate downstream as they cut through the valley sides. various types of plants.
This creates a line of parallel cliffs along the sides of the valley •depostion interferes with the flow of a river resulting in the river
splitting up into several distributaries
Ox-Bow Lakes •A distributary is a channel that splits and rejoins with other channels
• Is a river landform produced by the combined effect of erosion and of the same river.
deposition Formation of deltas
• In the lower course the rapid lateral erosion cuts into the neck of the •most of the load carried by rivers is deposited into the oceans, seas
meander, narrowing it considerably. and lakes into which the rivers empty.
• Eventually the force of the river breaks through the neck, and as this •Sometimes the load is carried far away into the mouth of the river
is the easiest way for the water to go, the old meander is left without before it sinks to the bottom.
any significant amount of water flowing through it. •Deltas are formed when the load instead sinks at the bottom of the
• Quickly the river deposits material along the side of its new course, mouth of the river.
which completely block off the old meander, creating an ox-bow •When this happens layers of sediment collect and pile up to form a
lake gently sloping platform.
Waterfalls •With time the platform extends to the surface to form a delta.
Conditions necessary for the formation of a delta.
• Is the most spectacular erosional feature of a river.
1.The river must have a large load.
• They primarily occur in the upper course of the river.
2.The velocity of the river must be low enough to allow its load to be
• Often a waterfall will form where a band of harder rock lies over a deposited in the river’s mouth.
softer one. 3.The river’s load must be deposited faster than it can be removed
• As the river flows over the edge of the harder, more resistant rock, by the action of tides and currents.
into its plunge pool, it erodes away the softer rock below, creating an 4.The chances for the formation of a delta are greatly enhanced
overhang. when clay particles are part of a river’s load resulting in them
• Once the overhang is big enough the whole thing collapses due to coagulating and thickening as they mix and react with seawater and
gravity and its own weight. settle at the bed in a process called flocculation.
• The whole process then occurs again. This means that over time •The Congo River has a large velocity at the point at which it meets
waterfalls will move backwards up the valley, leaving a steep sided the sea and thus has no delta as most of its load is carried off into
gorge in front of them the sea.
River landforms formed by deposition •The River Niger has low velocity at its mouth resulting in the
Deltas formation of an extensive delta.
• Deltas occur where a river that carries a large amount of sediment Stages in the formation of a delta.
meets a lake or the sea. Stage 1
• This meeting causes the river to lose energy and drop the sediment •Deposition in the river’s mouth results in the river forming several
it is carrying. distributaries.
Flood Plain •The delta begins to form when the initial sediment collects at the
• The Flood Plain is the area of alluvial deposits found beside the river bottom near the river’s mouth.
in its lower course. •As depositions continues layer upon layer a slow platform results.
• As meanders move slowly down the course of the river they erode •Deposition on the banks of the distributaries forms levees.
away the valley to create a wide valley floor, •The area between the distributaries may result in the formation of
• they deposit layers of alluvial material on the slip off slopes. lagoons.
• Over time this builds up into a large flood plain. Stage 2
•The lagoons begin filling with sediment which causes further
Levee's division into distributaries and to the formation of smaller
• Levees are naturally formed banks along the sides of a river channel distributaries.
in its lower course, as it flows through the flood plain. •The delta starts to take a more solid appearance although it may
• They are formed by the river depositing material when it floods. still be swampy and usually covered with water loving vegetation.
• During a flood the river deposits its heaviest, coarsest material Stage 3
closest to its normal course. Over years the deposition build up the •Further in-filling of the lagoons plus the growth of vegetation results
natural embankments, built of coarse material. in the older parts of the delta coming to stand above water level
• Beyond them the flood plain has been built up of the finer material forming dry land.
that was deposited further away from the normal course of the river •Continued development of a delta can lead to it merging with the
Deltas flood plain and forming deltaic plains
Types of deltas
There are four types of deltas namely Arcuate, Bird’s foot,Estuarine
and Cuspate Deltas.
33
Arcuate •Sometimes a cuspate delta may be formed.
•These develope where there is limited distributary development in
coasts that have moderate current.
An example is the Medjerda River delta in Tunisia

•The following factors affect the river’s energy and ability to erode,
transport and deposit its load.
•Type of flow,
• Gradient of channel,
• volume/discharge,
• cross-sectional channel shape,
• channel roughness.
3 Type of flow
•Is a triangular shaped delta with an arc-shaped shoreline.
•The Niger delta is an example of such a delta.
•They have coarse and fine sediment in the form of a cone.
•It is crossed by many distributaries.
•It is useful for man to settle on as it provides arable and fertile lands
as well as pastures for animals.
•However the waterlogged conditions tend to favour pests and
diseases.
Birds foot

Laminar and Turbulent flow. Image credit Thepaper.cn

•When water flows downhill under gravity it follows the path of least
resistance.
•There are two patterns of flow: laminar and turbulent.
•Is formed where there are weak tidal currents which allow the •Laminar-is a horizontal movement of water in a river with minimal
distributaries to extend further seawards resulting in a form that vertical mixing.
looks much like the shape of a bird’s foot. • The water is in layer, such a form of flow would result in
•An example is the Mississippi River delta. minimal erosion and more deposition
•It consists of very fine material like silt and several distributaries • In reality such a type of flow does not exist although
bordered by levees jutting out from the shore. something close to this can be observed in flat terrain when rivers
Estuarine are relatively calm during their flow.
• Turbulent flow-consists of a series of vertical and
horizontal eddies and a lot of vertical mixing of the water as it flows
downhill.
• Turbulent flow results in more erosion and transportation
and this form of flow increases with an increase in a river’s energy.
Gradient of the channel
• The gradient of the channel determines a river’s ability to
•Is made up of a single channel with braids formed from deposits erode, transport and deposit its load.
made onto the river’s channel as it reaches the ocean. • The upper course of a river is associated with steep
•An example is the Zambezi River delta in Mozambique. gradients therefore a lot of velocity and energy and therefore river
•The delta is formed from material deposited in the submerged erosion and transportation takes place in the upper course.
mouth of a river. • The middle and lower course have a much gentler
•It forms the shape of an Estuary. gradient and therefore the slower moving waters have less erosive
Cuspate delta power and therefore more deposition takes place and less
transportation and erosion.
Discharge/Volume
• As already said, water flows in response to the pull of
gravity which is also determined by the mass and in turn the volume
of the moving water.

34
• Rivers have less water in the upper course because of appear. For example a lot of river features such as floodplains and
most have fewer tributaries at this stage therefore they have less meanders are formed by both erosion and deposition acting in
energy to erode. tandem.
• Middle course and lower course river sections have higher Also minor river features such as bluffs (sometimes known as river
volumes of water since they have more upstream tributaries at this cliffs or bluff lines), point bars, pools and riffles are included in the
stage resulting in more energy to transport and erode and transport descriptions of river landforms that they are often associated with.
in terms of water volume. Meanders
Cross Sectional Channel shape •Meanders are pronounced bends in a river’s course
•They are formed when a river twists and turn in wide bends.
Channel cross-section: A has less energy due to friction •They are common on the floodplain but can develop in any part of
•Channel A has a larger wetted perimeter which means more friction the river’s course.
and leaves less energy to erode its bed and to transport load. •Meandering is a common behaviour of fluids that avoid a straight
•Channel B has a smaller a smaller wetted perimeter resulting in path to flow in a twisting and turning path.
more vertical erosion because it has more energy left over from •It is believed that meandering is a thermodynamics behaviour that
overcoming friction. maximizes velocity and reduces friction.
•In terms of channel cross section upper course streams have more •Other experts have theorized that Meanders start when friction with
energy to erode when compared to lower and middle course the channel bed and banks causes turbulence in the water flow.
streams. •This results helicoidal flow.
Channel Roughness
Channel roughness channel A) is typical in the upper course
streams and B) in the lower course streams
•Upper course streams encounter more friction due to their rough
channels which are a result of protruding boulders and rocky
outlines. This means such channels will have less energy left over to
erode and transport their load.
•Middle and Lower course streams have more energy to transport
and erode since they have smooth channels resulting in less friction.
Conclusion •This is a corkscrew like movement of the water as it spirals
•More erosion takes place in the middle course since the channels downstream from bank to bank as shown in the diagram above.
are smooth, the gradient steeper than in the lower course, the This often occurs during floods and results in the formation of
wetted perimeter smaller than in the lower course and the volume of meanders and their associated features such as pools and riffles
water is high. Meander cross-section
•A lot of vertical erosion takes place in the upper course.
•Most deposition takes place in the lower course of the river since
the gradient is smaller, the wetted perimeter larger, and the gradient
considerably less steep when compared to the other two courses.
NB It is important to remember that this is a generalised approach
since erosion, deposition and transportation can take place in any
part of the course due to various circumstances regardless of the
course of the river. •Water flows fastest on the outer bend (concave bank) of the river
Landforms resulting from river processes where the channel is deeper and there is less friction.
•A river through its processes of erosion, transportation and •It erodes this bank laterally by attrition and hydraulic action.
deposition forms several landforms. •There also vertical erosion which deepens the channel, which
•These can be broadly divided into those landforms resulting from reduces friction and increases in energy results in further erosion.
erosion and deposition. •The lateral erosion results in undercutting of the river bank and the
Landforms resulting mainly from erosion formation of a steep sided river cliff these cliffs are also known as
1. Narrow valleys bluffs.
2. Interlocking spurs •the inner bend water is slow flowing, due to it being a low energy
3. Waterfalls and rapids zone, deposition occurs resulting in a shallower channel.
4. Pot holes •This increased friction further reduces the velocity (thus further
5. Gorges reducing energy), encouraging further deposition.
Those resulting from mainly deposition •Over time a small river beach or runoff slope builds up on the inner
1. Flood Plains bend.
2. Meanders •The greater erosion of the concave bank occurs just downstream of
3. Ox-bow lakes the axis of the meander bend, because the course of the maximum
4. Braids velocity zone in the channel does not reflect the meander shape.
5. Levées • This causes meander to migrate down the valley.
6. Deltas •The lateral erosion of the meanders and their migration widen the
It is important to note that this division into landforms as either flood plain.
resulting from deposition or erosion is not hard and fast as it would
35
•A point bar is a depositional feature made of alluvium that
accumulates on the inside bend of streams and rivers below the slip-
off slope.
•They are crescent-shaped and located on the inside of a stream
bend of meanders.
•They show the former positions of a meander during its
downstream migration.
•The term is sometimes used synonymously with slip-0ff slopes
although the term slip-off slope is used to refer to the cross section
and the term point bar is used to refer to the aerial view.
Pools and riffles
•Pool-this is a deep section in a meander where a lot of erosion
takes place where the river’s energy builds up due to reduced
friction and the water has higher velocity.
•Riffle-this is a shallow section in a river where there is deposition
due to reduced capacity in a river resulting from energy dissipation •The banks are steadily raised by depositions resulting tin the river
(reduction) in a river due to increased friction and a reduction in a lying above the level of the lake.
river’s velocity. •The lakes gradually lose water as vegetation and sediment fill them
•The spacing of the pools and riffles are fairly regular in a river up.
channel about six to five times the width of the channel. Waterfalls and Rapids
•Helicoidal flow is responsible for the erosion on the outside bends •Waterfalls commonly occur in the upper course section of the river
and then depositing it into the inside bends of meanders. although they can occur at any part in a river’s course.
•There are various ways in which a waterfall/rapid can be formed.
•A sharp break in the bed of a river produces a waterfall

Vertical rock.
•A band of resistant rock with a vertical face overlying less resistant
Horizontal resistant rock overlying softer rock rock produces a waterfall when it is exposed at the surface by river
Ox-bow lakes erosion can also result in the development of a waterfall.
•An oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water that forms when a wide •A rapid is formed if the rock lies at a steep angle but is not vertical.
meander from the main stem of a river is cut off, creating a free-
standing body of water.
This landform is so named for its distinctive curved shape,
resembling the bow pin of an oxbow

The formation of an Ox-bow lake. Resistant rock gently dipping upriver resulting in a rapid.
•Ox-bow lakes form when an acute meander leaves a narrow neck •A waterfall can also develop when resistant rock overlies a less
separating the two ends of a meander. resistant is horizontal or dips gently up river.
•Active lateral erosion takes place on the outside bends and break A rapid might be formed first in such instances but continued erosion
through this neck especially during floods. at the base of the pool will resulting into the rapid developing into a
•In flood the cut ends are sealed off by deposition and the meaner waterfall
becomes an ox-bow lake. •A rapid develops when the resistant rock, overlying a less resistant
rock dips gently down river.
•The Victoria Falls are the widest falls in the world.
•They may have developed as a result of the river Zambezi uplift of
an almost horizontal basaltic plateau.
•Where a river flows across a line of weakness it erodes vertically to
form a waterfall.
•The Victoria Falls may also have been formed in this way.
36
•It has retreated upstream along fault lines and might cease to exist •When the gorge is large it is sometimes referred to as a canyon for
one day. example the Fish River Canyon in Namibia and the Grand Canyon in
•A river might descend the scarp in areas of faulting resulting in a the United States.
waterfall at the knickpoint. •The later was formed in part by the process of river rejuvenation.
•A waterfall may also be formed where a river descends from a •Gorges can be formed due to vertical erosion in areas of vertical
highland area(for example a plateau) into a lowland area. uplift.
•A river might erode backwards to undercut and divert the water of a •They can also result from the collapse of underground caves in
neighbouring stream and the point of capture is marked by a limestone regions.
waterfall. •Vertical erosion into resistant rock can also result into the formation
•An example is the Pungwe Falls which marks the point where the of a gorge as the valley walls on both sides of the river remain intact
Pungwe River captured the waters of the Nyakupinga river which is due to minimal weathering. For example the Lupata gorge was
a tributary of the river Odzi in the Eastern Highlands. developed when the river incised into resistant rhyolite rock.
Plunge pools •A gorge can also result from the upward migration of a waterfall for
example the gorges at Victoria Falls.
•Vertical erosion on a once buried hard rock layer by an existing
stream in cases of superimposed drainage.
•Down-cutting of the predator or victor stream in cases of river
capture for example the Pungwe Gorge.

Formation of a gorge due to a retreating waterfal

• The diagram above shows a gorge being formed as a

result of a waterfall migrating upstream
• Note this is just one of many ways in which a waterfall can
be formed.
Features of a waterfall.
•Is deep pool that is formed at the base of waterfalls due the swirling Interlocking spurs and steep-sided valleys
water eroding the base of the waterfall via hydraulic action and •Interlocking spurs are a result of water taking the easiest path down
corrasion aided by bits of the hard rock that falls into the pool and the slope and tending ot go round resistant rock resulting in a
becomes part of the load and the eddying and turbulent motion of winding course.
the water at the base. •The bends become more pronounced with time because water
•As the undercutting continues the waterfalls migrate upstream. flows faster at the bends and erodes the sides leading to the
projections/spurs to interlock.
Gorges •The undercut concave banks stand up as river cliffs while the
•Gorge– is a narrow valley between hills or mountains, typically with opposite convex develop into a slip off slope as there is very little
steep rocky walls and a river/stream running through it. erosion.
•These can occur in virtually any part of a river’s course provided the •Interlocking spurs occur mainly in the upper course section of
conditions are suitable. streams and rivers as rivers have little energy to erode.
•There are several ways in which a gorge can be formed Steep sided valleys
•A gorge may develop if a river’s course follows a line of weakness
such as a fault line.
•For example the Kaduna river in Nigeria forming the Shiroro Gorge.
•An actively flowing river may carve a gorge if it flows through a
plateau which is made up of layers of resistant rock alternating with
lays of less resistant rock.
•If the region in which the plateau is found is arid or semi-arid there
will be little weathering of the valley sides resulting in a narrow and A narrow steep-sided valley.
deep gorge.

37
•Since water flows in small amounts and in predominantly steep Hydrograph
areas in the upper course section vertical erosion is more dominant
than lateral erosion.
•This also facilitated by the load which the river carries because it
cannot reach the upper levels of the valley walls once they have
been formed so much of corrasion processes are limited to the lower
sections of the river and this tends to deepen the channel.
•The result are V-shaped steep sided valleys.
Braiding
•Braiding occurs typically during the dry season when a river’s
discharge is greatly reduced.
•The river may be split into several channels which rejoin and split storm hydrograph
again. •As already said a river’s regime is shown on a storm hydrograph.
•These are known as braided river channels. •During a storm most of the rain falls onto the land rather than
•Rivers with heavy loads becomes overloaded in the dry season directly into the river.
when the amount of water falls in the dry seasons. •The water then will make its way into the river and you can use a
•As the amount of water and thus its capacity to carry the load is hydrograph to see how quickly this occurs.
reduced deposition takes place in the form of sand banks and •By looking at the peak rainfall and comparing it with the peak
alluvium islands causing a channel to braid. discharge you can work out the lag-time (the time between the two
•In order to continue flowing the river splits into smaller channels that peaks).
continuously split and rejoin. •Different catchment areas will have different flood hydrographs.
•Braiding is the process by which a river diverges and converges •A river’s regime is shown on an annual hydrograph with all the
into a series of segments separated by channel bars months listed.
•A braided river can be both wide and shallow. Characteristics of a hydrograph
•Although it mostly occurs in the floodplain braiding is by no means •Peak discharge-shows the maximum amount of flow in the river.
limited there. •Peak rainfall-the maximum amount of rainfall and when it fell.
•Human activities such as streambank cultivation and gold panning •Lag time-the difference between the peak rainfall and the peak
can lead to the choking of the river due to excessive siltation and discharge i.e the time it takes for the rain to reach the river.
thus result in braiding. •A rising limp which shows a rise in discharge.
•Decreased discharge in Winter months leads to river braiding in •A falling limp which shows a fall in discharge.
most of Southern Africa’s rivers including Zimbabwe. Factors affecting a river’s regime.
•Seasons- there will be a rise in discharge during summer/rain
months and a fall in discharge in the dry months when there is little
rainfall. There will be a lag time as water moves through the ground
and from storages into the stream.
•Climate-rivers that pass through Mediterranean climates tend to
have more than one peak period as they have another surge in
discharge during the winter months when these regions receive their
rains. The same is also true of rivers that pass through areas that
experience snow for example the Nile’s famed floods are due to
snow melting in the Kilimanjaro mountains resulting in peak
discharge even in the hot dry months as water moves from snow
storage e.g. glaciers into the streams.
A braided river channel
•Geology for example rivers that flow through porous and pervious
rocks tend to have smaller peaks/small changes in discharge as
•A river regime is the term used to describe the annual variations in
opposed to rivers in granite (non-porous and impervious) rocks.
a specified river’s discharge.
•Human activities for example urbanisation results in more
•A river’s discharge is the volume of water flowing through a river
impervious surfaces and very high peaks, short lag time and higher
channel.
•This is the total volume of water flowing through a channel at any peaks (differences between the lowest and highest discharge.)
given point and is measured in cubic metres per second.
Uses of rivers
•Sometimes these measure/unit is known as cumecs.
Rivers provide a source of fresh drinking water, a source of food
•A river’s regime is shown on a graph called a hydrograph.
(fishing) and a transport route, all of which were very important to
•A hydrograph shows the discharge of a river as well as total rainfall
the location of early settlements
in the river’s basin/catchment area over a period of time, before,
Flood plains provide areas of rich, fertile alluvial soil. Hence areas
during and after the storm.
like the Canterbury plains in New Zealand are intensively farmed.
•It allows for a relationship between the rainfall falling in a river’s
catchment area and the river’s discharge. Rivers can act as a very effective power source. Initially waterwheels
were used to power factories during the Industrial revolution. Latterly
•Such information can be used to, for example, predict the risk of
the development of hydroelectric power has meant a great
flooding in a given area after a storm event.
38
increase in the building of dams to trap the water of a river and its then also be used to plan the most appropriate form of flood
drainage basin. prevention scheme for that particular river.
Rivers have always been seen as a convenient way of waste drainage patterns
removal. This has led to many rivers becoming very polluted and in Centripetal
some cases, dangerous.
Estuaries commonly have been used for industry, which has been
able to build its factories on the flat flood plain land. This location is
ideal for many industries, such as oil refineries, as they then have
easy access to the sea for transporting their goods. The land is flat,
cheap and easy to reclaim. Usually a local labour source is not too
far away. The ship building industry used also to be found in the
estuaries of many of the great rivers around Britain, such as the
Clyde and the Mersey. Now only a few remain
The rivers flow inwards towards a point.
The management of river basins
Occurs due to the underlying rock forming a basin.
As humans have increasingly used and abused river basins so
Examples include the Sea of Galilee
management and planning of them has become increasingly
Dendritic
important.
Flooding is the most common thing to have to plan around. In many
cities the flood plain has not really been built on. Oxford, Exeter and
Salisbury are all good examples of where this is the case
To prevent the impact of flooding schemes have been introduced in
many of these places. These methods can be very successful, or
can cause greater problems further downstream. In Exeter, flood
relief channels and raised riverbanks have been used to diminish the
flood risk. The scheme in place is aimed at countering a "once in The rivers form a tree shape, with the primary river forming the
one hundred years" flood, and has been severely tested a couple of trunk.
times. Occurs in areas where the rock type is uniform (it is all the same)
Building dams across rivers can also cause problems. Obviously Examples can be found commonly throughout the world, and include
there are the advantages of creating a large reservoir, which can be the Mississippi, in the United States.
used for drinking water or as the source of water for a hydroelectric Parallel
power scheme. The reservoir will often also be used for recreational
purposes. However the building of a large dam can also cause
problems by affecting the flow of water further down the river, by
flooding areas of farmland and even towns or villages,and by
affecting entire ecosystems

Flooding occurs due to a sudden increase in the amount of water

travelling down a river, and can occur for a number of reasons:
A rapid snow melt The rivers run parallel to each other downhill.
A prolonged period of heavy rain The underlying rock is uniform and the surface is flat
A sudden and intense fall of rain Radial
Human interventions, such as deforestation, which cause the water
to run-off faster than previously.
The discharge of a river is shown on a graph called a flood or storm
hydrograph. It shows the rainfall amount and then the discharge of
the river. Most of the rain falls onto the land rather than directly into
the river. The water then will make its way into the river and you can
use a hydrograph to see how quickly this occurs. By looking at the
peak rainfall and comparing it with the peak discharge you can work
out the lag-time (the time between the two peaks).
Different catchment areas will have different flood hydrographs.
Some, with steep slopes and little vegetation, will rise very quickly,
and can be described as a "flashy river". These are the most likely to
flood.
The rivers flow outwards from a central point.
Those drainage basins with shallower slopes, and greater vegetation
The underlying rock has been uplifted to become a dome, or may be
cover will infiltrate the water more, and release it at a slower rate into
a cone of a volcano.
the river. This means there is less chance of flooding occurring.
Examples include the uplifted granite dome of Dartmoor, or the
Flood hydrographs are very important in predicting how a certain
perfect volcanic cone of Mt. Taranaki in New Zealand.
river will behave in a time of intense rainfall. The information could
39
 Trellis

The river and its tributaries run parallel to each other, before turning
at right-angles to meet up.
The underlying rock is an alternating structure of resistant and less
resistant rock.
The main river, which flows in the direction that the underlying rock • Subsequent A migrates upstream (headward erosion) until it
dips, is called the Consequent River. The tributaries flowing into it
reaches Stream A’s channel.
are called Subsequent Rivers.
Rectangular • Through a process known as watershed migration Subsequent A
enlarges its own drainage basin at the expense of Stream A.
• In time because Subsequent A and Stream B have a lower base
level the headwaters of Stream A will be captured and diverted into
Subsequent A.
• The point at which the headwaters of the minor river change
direction is known as the elbow of capture.
River capture • Below this point a wind gap marks the former course of the
now beheaded stream or misfit stream.
• This is a process where one River captures the headwaters on a • A misfit stream is a river whose headwaters were captured
nearby stream. resulting in the stream flowing in a valley that is too large to be
• This can occur due to several reasons viz: accounted for by the low discharge.
• Tectonic earth movements, where the slope of the land changes, • A knickpoint and waterfall might form at the elbow of capture
and the stream is tipped out of its former course. especially if the base level of the capturing river is far lower than that
• Natural damming, such as by a landslide or ice sheet. of the beheaded stream
• Erosion, either:
What is a desert?
• Headward erosion of one stream valley upwards into another,
• Desserts are formally defined, as areas of great moisture deficit, high
• Lateral erosion of a meander through the higher ground dividing daily temperature range, high wind speed barren landscape with
the adjacent streams. sparse scrub vegetation.
• In an area of karst topography, where streams may sink, or flow • have less than 250 mm of precipitation per year and evaporation
exceeds precipitation.
underground (a sinking or losing stream) and then reappear in a
nearby stream valley.
Classification/ types of deserts
The process
Two types of deserts based on rainfall amount received which
are namely:-
• The diagram above shows how river capture can occur. o Hot Arid – eg Sahara - less than 250 mm Rainfall / 13°C winter and
• There are two consequent rivers: Stream A and B and Stream B has 37°C summer (dry = 15 mm)
o Semi Arid eg. Kalahari – 250-500mm / 10°C winter ad 23°C summer
a tributary (subsequent A) (norm 363mm). Other semi-arids have distinct periods of aridity
• Stream B has higher discharge and thus higher erosional activity
than stream A.

Stream B might also have a lower base level and thus increasing its
ability to erode

40
 • Rocky or Hamada deserts
• Sandy or erg deserts.
1 Reg deserts

2 Hamada Desert
• Although semiarid deserts have all of the arid desert's landmark, there
are less sand dunes in the semiarid desert compared to the arid
desert. Usually semiarid desert have larger rocks and harder, more
stable ground.

Temperature also gives two types of deserts

• Hot deserts have extremely high day temperatures and very low night
temperatures.
• This gives a wide diurnal range of temperature in which the day time
hours are very hot while the night temperatures are very cold such
that they can go below freezing points.
• High daily temperature range is a common characteristic of desert 3 Erg or Sandy deserts
climate.
• The high temperature and wind speed result in high
evapotranspiration rates such that actual evapotranspiration far
outweigh potential evapotranspiration resulting in drought conditions.
• The high evaporation rates result in exhaustion of surface water and
promotes capillary rise of water from underground to the surface.

• Cold deserts Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic,

• sometimes known as temperate deserts, occur at higher latitudes than
hot deserts
• examples of cold deserts include the Atacama, Gobi, Namibi

Characteristics of hot deserts

Desserts are also classified by their location.
• The majority of the world’s most arid areas lie between 15° and 30° 1) Little precipitation
North or South of the equator •A desert is an area that receives little precipitation and is
• In the rain shadow areas of fold mountains bordering the western characterised by aridity or semi-aridity.
sides of continents. •they rarely r receive more than 250mm of rainfall per annum. Ie hot
arid deserts
• continental interiors desert. Based on location, deserts are thus
classified as: • Some parts of the Sahara are referred to as being hyper-arid i.e.
i. Subtropical: Those associated with the circum-global belts of dry, they receive less than 50 mm of rainfall per annum.
subtropical air 150 -350 south and north of equator (Sahara, Kalahari, •Some hot deserts are referred to as being semi-arid which means
Great Australian) they receive at least 500 mm of rainfall per annum. E.g. Kalahari
ii. Rainshadow: Lee side of mountain ranges in the rain shadow Desert is an example of a semi-arid hot desert.
(Sonoran). •However this rainfall may fall in one big storm followed by extended
iii. Continental interiors: with low rainfall (Gobi, Takla Makan in Asia) dry periods.
iv. Coastal deserts where upwelling cold seawater cools the air, •It is the shortage of moisture or the deficit in the water balance of
lowering its ability to hold moisture (Peru, Chile, SW Africa) desert areas that gives them most of their characteristics.
v. Polar deserts (N. Greenland, ice-free areas in Antarctica)
2) Sandy soils
According to the characteristics of their landscape.
• There are three common types of hot deserts: ▪ Desert soils are usually light colored sandy soils that are shallow
and have B horizons with accumulations of salts.
• Stony or reg deserts.

41
▪ Desert soils havelow organic matter due to sparse vegetative cover • Other deserts on the western coast are the Kalahari desert due to
that varies with temperature and elevation cold Benguela current and the Australian desert
▪ They may be deep, shallow, salty or covered with desert pavement, • In some areas as the Patagonian Desert cool off-shore currents
or have crusts or cement-like horizons near the surface. prevent local on-shore winds from bringing in rain.
▪ Caliche is a reddish-brown to white layer found in many desert soils. .
3) Heavy winds
•They have experience heavy winds for example Harmattans and •Some deserts as the Arizona desert are far from oceans in
dust storms. continental interiors, moisture from oceans is exhausted in the form
4) Scant vegetation of rainfall in other areas before it reaches these deserts since they
•They have scant vegetation cover most of which is adaptive for are further in the interior.
example cacti (plural of cactus) or is confined to or near oases. • The Gobi Desert, in China and Mongolia, lies hundreds of kilometers
•The shortage ofvegitation means there is little cover to protect the from the ocean.
soil from the effects of wind and thus wind erosion tends to be • Winds that reach the Gobi have long since lost their moisture.
prevalent. • The Gobi is also in the rain shadow of the Himalaya mountains to
5) large diurnal temperature ranges the south.
•They have very large diurnal temperature ranges i.e. they are very
hot during the day with some parts of the Sahara just approaching
50°C and very cold at night with temperatures often falling below •Some deserts such as the Gobi Desert, are located in rain shadow
freezing point. areas because they are in depressions or basins.
•Sometimes the temperature range is as high as 20°C or more. •Since they are on the leeward side of mountains where warm dry
6) high evapotranspiration rates air is sinking they tend to receive little to no rainfall.
•Due to lack of shade , high wind speed and minimal cloud cover •In addition to this the relative humidity of the air mass falls resulting
deserts have high evapotranspiration rates. in high evapotranspiration rates thus exacerbating the aridity of
7) infrequent and unreliable rainfall deserts while increasing their temperature.
•As has been already said above: precipitation in the form of rain is •The Kalahari and Sahara deserts are also located on the rain
infrequent and unreliable in deserts. shadow side of major mountains.
•These sporadic rains tend to come result in flash floods and can be
associated with short periods of vegetative growth.
8) steep walled scarps and gulleys
•The flash floods may also create steep walled scarps and gulleys. Causes of aridity in deserts/ account for the location and
•Landforms tend to have angular features because the lack of rain distribution of major world deserts
results in minimal chemical weathering.
•Examples of tropical deserts are the Sahara desert which covers • The location world deserts help us to explain why these areas are arid
about a quarter of Africa’s surface, the Namib Desert in Namibia, the and always under drought.
Kalahari Desert, the Gobi desert in China and the Mojave Desert in • The largest hot deserts are found between latitudes 15 – 30 north and
Nevada, USA. south of the equator.
• This is a high pressure region which is characterized by descending
Global distribution of arid and semiarid areas air which warms up and holds on to moisture (adiabatic warming).
• At ground level the air will be diverting hence no front is formed to give
A) The largest arid and semi-arid deserts occur between latitudes 15° rain. Thus drought at the horse latitude is a natural phenomenon
and 30° North and South of the equator. because these conditions are not caused by men. The diagram below
• This is where warm dry air sinks at high pressure zones around 15- helps to show the conditions that cause drought at the horse latitudes
30 (tropic of cancer).
• The Sahara is the world's largest desert (Figure), it takes up much of
northern Africa.
• Other subtropical deserts include the Kalahari Desert in southern
Africa and the Tanami Desert in northern Australia.

B) Most of these deserts are located on the western sides of the

continental masses on which they lie.
•They occur within the Trade wind belt where the winds are off-
shore.
• Namib Desert is classified as a coastal desert and it occupies 2,000
km of coastline i of Southern Africa,
• The Atacama Desert is located in South America and is largely
inside the country of Chile. It plateau stretches for 966 km along the
Pacific Ocean. The Atacama Desert is the driest desert on Earth
after Antarctica and the Arctic. It receives just 1 mm of water per
year it is so arid and desolate

42
 • Desserts are also common on the western sides of continents such
as the Namibian and Kalahari deserts.

• The descending air causes warming of air at higher levels which

create temperature inversions that suppress condensation and no
rain fall is formed.

• These deserts are caused by the cold oceanic currents experienced

in the Atlantic Ocean.
• Thus the cold Banguela currents cause any warm moist air coming
from western oceans to condense and form advection fog within the
ocean such that by the time the air masses reaches the land , they
will be dry and so cannot give rain.
• In this regard, the drought experienced in Namibia and Botswana is
caused by natural factors and not by men.

Rain shadow effect causes deserts

• The western side of continents is characterised by Fold Mountains
such as the Alps of California, the Himalayas, the Atlas and the
Rockies.
• The Andes is the longest continental mountain range in the world.
• It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South
America and is responsible for the occurrence of the Atacama and
Patagonian deserts.
• These mountains causes’ air masses from the oceans to rise
• temperature inversion, condition in which the temperature of the condense and give orographic rainfall on the windward side.
atmosphere increases with altitude in contrast to the normal decrease • As the air masses descend on the leeward side, adiabatic warming
with altitude. When temperature inversion occurs, cold air underlies occurs, relative humidity becomes low and so no precipitation occurs.
warmer air at higher altitudes. For example, the Gobi desert lies in a rain shadow caused by the
Himalayas
• The above diagrams show that the horse latitude drought is caused
by Case study of the Atacama desert
o Adiabatic warming of air as it descend and • First, this desert is located in the "rain shadow" between two mountain
o ground level divergence of air masses resulting in no front being ranges, the Andes and the Chilean Coast Range.
formed. • Second, winds called the Pacific Anticyclone flow through this area.
o Thus this area houses the falling limbs of the Hardly and Ferrell Those winds blow dry air into the Atacama Desert.
cells. • Thus the Atacama three conditions that causes it to be a desert as
shown in the diagram

43
 • Any on-shore winds are chilled when they cross the current and
• Firstly the Atacama lies on the wrong side of the Andes with regard to don't have enough warmth to pick up moisture from the ocean
the prevailing winds. surface.
• At 20 degrees south the most common winds are the south east trade • So, unlike most winds from the seas and oceans, these ones are
winds which carry in moist air from the Atlantic. dry.
• As the winds are forced to rise to cross the Andes, they are a
condensed and turns to rain, falling on windward side! on-shore wind and off shore winds
• This means that the Atacama lies in a rainshadow because the Andes •Although west coasts have on-shore winds (winds from the ocean
acts as barrier stopping SE trade winds from Argentina and Atlantic towards the land) blowing towards them, they rarely bring rain.
•This is because the onshore winds meet with cold currents that blow
• The Atacama also lies close to an ocean where a cold current flows parallel to coast lines (e.g. the Cold Benguela current in the case of
northwards up the coastline. the Kalahari and the Cold Angola current in the case of the Namib
• The Pacific Ocean is therefore colder than might be expected at this desert)
latitude. • this causes the moisture within the on-shore winds to condense and
form mist, fog and light rain before the winds reach the coast

In many hot arid areas prevailing winds are blowing from land to sea
and carry little moisture (NE trade wind from N.Africa to Atlantic
influence Sahara
Prevailing winds :
44
 The present climate
Continentality rainfall
• Many deserts are in the middle of continents far away from • The desert climate is generally arid with rainfall of less than 250mm
rainbearing winds per annum.
•continentality is a situation where by moist air masses traveling • For example California desert gets about 40mm of rainfall in 3years.
from warm ocean lose their moisture as they migrate on the land. • The desert experiences frequent drought such that it can go for many
•For example warm moist air masses from the Indian ocean give years without rain.
rain in Mozambique and some pats of Zimbabwe but as they get • The rainfall pattern is erratic ( unreliable) such that sometimes sudden
to Botswana there will be very little or no moisture and heavy downpours are experienced giving rise to flash floods.
Other causes of drought • drought is is common for example it occurs every five years in the
EL NINO, which affects the ocean's water temperature, also has an Turkana District of Kenya
impact on precipitation levels because in years when the temperature
cycle is present, it can shift the air masses above the ocean, often pressure
making wet places dry (drought prone) and dry places wet. • The desert climate is also characterised by a permanent high
Human activities that can help trigger droughts include: pressure cell caused by the horse latitude location.
•Widespread cutting down of trees for fuel reduces the soil’s ability to • At these latitudes, there is the falling air.
hold water - drying out the ground, triggering desertification and • The falling air creates upper air temperature inversion resulting in
leading to drought. higher temperatures at condensation level, hence no clouds are
•Constructing a dam on a large river may help provide electricity and formed.
water to irrigate farmland near the reservoir. However, it may also • That’s deserts are characterised by clear skies for greater part of the
cause drought downstream by severely reducing the flow of water year
Temperature rainfall graph for desert

Aridity
The hot deserts are situated in the subtropical high pressure belts • Aridity is a condition of generally lack of moisture/dryness
where. of the earth-atmosphere system due to shortage of precipitation or
• maximum temperatures are high 40 to 45ºC are common, surface water bodies.
• night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the •This leads to reduced vegetation cover resulting in a bare and barren
exceptional radiation loss under the clear skies landscape.
•The lack of vegetation result in high wind speed which carries away
water vapour hence making the environment to be characterised by
Wind water deficit
• Desert climates are also characterised by winds that blow at high •The high wind speed cause soil erosion, sand dune migration which
speeds due to lack of vegetation. leads to siltation of surface water bodies hence a severe lack of water
• The wind cause dust bowls and migration of sand dunes •Aridity is also a result of the high day temperatures experience in
deserts. This is because when temperatures are high, relative
• In short, desert climate is characterised by low rainfall, high day humidity is low
temperatures, low night temperatures, high pressure, clear skies and • aridity is defined by the total amount of rainfall but is more importantly
fast moving wind dependent on the relationship between rainfall and evaporation
(rainfall effectiveness).
45
 The word arid means dry while smi-arid means dry but slightly wetter
than arid
Arid and semi-arid desert climate
Arid climate Semi-arid climate
Most deserts are found along the 300 latitude (north and south of the Semiarid climate is found on the outer edge of Arid climate areas as a
equator). Or on western sides of continents, in the center of continents transition climate between dry and wetter places. The areas sometimes
or in the rain shadow of large mountain ranges. receive enough rain to support some farming, but after a few years the
area can experience a long drought An example is the Sahel in Sub-
Saharan Africa . From 1940-1970 the Sahel had above average
rainfall, but since 1970 rainfall has been below average,.

Seasons Seasons
Most Arid areas do not have regular seasons. For instance the Sahara The seasonal changes depend on the latitude, but it is safe to say most
Desert is always hot and dry. Seasons are only based on changes in places experience a summer and winter. Usually the winter produces
temperature more rain. .

Temperatures Temperatures
Temperatures can reach as high as 130 degrees or as low as negative Summer temperatures average around 27 -38 degrees and as low as
30 degrees. Depending on latitude 10 degrees
The farther from the equator the colder they will be. Has very wide daily
temperature range
Precipitation Precipitation
low rainfall (less than 250 mm) Some deserts around the world don't averages between 250-500mm of rain annually (yearly). Some years
receive 10 inches of rain in 10 years! The Atacama Desert in Chile is these places may get morerain, but sometimes less, this is why they are
known as the driest place on Earth. It averages 0.04 inches of rain each semi-arid and dangerous for human settlement.
year.
Rainfall is infrequent, episodic, unreliable and convectional
Cloud cover Cloud cover
Clear skies give rise to large diurnal ranges which are often greater than More cloud cover in summer thereby lowering diurnal temperature
seasonal temperature ranges range
Wind speed Wind speed
high wind environments and frequent dust storms Sparse vegetation does exist which lowers wind speed and the
occurrence of dust storms
humidity Humidity
low humidity Relatively high humidity compared to arid areas

46
47
 Characteristics of desert soils showing how they have adapted to desert climate

• Desert soils are usually light colored and loosely packed due to lack of humus since little rainfall means little vegetation grows , also the dry conditions
does not promote humification
• Desert soils have B horizons. Often the B horizons have accumulations of calcium carbonate (caliche), gypsum, and/or salts. due to salts brought up
by capillary action since the hot arid conditions promote capillary action
• They may be shallow, with pavements, and have crusts or cement-like horizons near the surface. They are shallow due to limited deep chemical
weathering

Sandy soils but disturbence (e.g., off road vehicles) can cause accelerated
erosion by channeling water runoff over unprotected soil
Coarse textured or sandy soils occur throughout arid regions (Cooke, Warren, and Goudie, 1993, p. 68).
primarily as a result of the weathering processes common in a
dry environment . Rocks and gravels decompose to finer Salty soils
particles. The wind selectively removes the silt and clay size
particles far from its source as dust (Saharan and Sahelian dust The meager rainfall of an arid climate is generally insufficient to
of Africa is a major contributor to Atlantic Ocean sediment). Sand leach away salt from the soil. As a result, salts accumulate at the
remains in the area, forming plains and dunes over old erosional limit of the soil wetting front after each rainfall event. Salts can
surfaces. Soils that form from this wind blown sediment have accumulate, forming a layer of soil concrete called calcrete if
high water infiltration rates. While these high rates assure formed from calcium salts, silcrete from silica, and gypcrete from
capture of rainfall, sandy soils hold less water for plant uptake gypsum. Over time, erosion often exposes the cemented soil
than finer textured soils. Sandy soils pose other difficulties for layers that appear as rock. Many areas of exposed calcrete are
vegetation difficult to distinguish from limestone or marl. Salt also
Thin soils accumulates in basins or playas through rainfall runoff. Salty
soils of arid lands pose severe obstacles to construction and
Rainfall runoff and resulting erosion in sloping areas maintain agricultural production.
shallow soil by stripping away soil as it slowly forms. Shallow,
sloping soils lose much rainfall to runoff while the water retained
in the soil soon evaporates. These thin soils provide a harsh Adaptations of plants to desert climate
environment for the very vegetation that would help protect the
soil from erosion. Existing vegetation on these shallow soils is •a degree of ephemeralism, remaining dormant in the
easily degraded by grazing. soil as fruits or seeds
•unique dispersal systems, i.e. barbs and bristles
Rocky soils
•xerophytic, water-seeking
Stone pavement, also called desert pavement, hammada, or reg, •root adaptations, tap roots or heavy lateral branching
is an armored surface composed of angular or rounded •small leaves, with sunken or restricted openings
fragments, usually only one or two stones thick. These soils •pale, reflective, leaves
generally form in areas lacking vegetation through erosion of •hairs, spines or thick waxy–walled leaves, evolved to
fine particles by wind and water or through upward migration of
stones in the soil. Stone pavement protects the soil from erosion,
replace what might nominally exist

48
 Arid zone vegetation

The vegetation cover in arid zones is scarce. Nevertheless, three

plant forms can be distinguished:

- Ephemeral annuals.

- Succulent perennials.

- Nonsucculent perennials.

Ephemeral annuals, which appear after rains, complete their life

cycle during a short season (± 8 weeks). Their growth is restricted to
a short wet period. Ephemerals do not have the xeromorphic
features of perennials. In general, ephemerals are small in size,
have shallow roots, and their physiological adaptation consists of
their active growth. Ephemerals live through the dry season, which
may last a number of years, in the form of seeds. At times, ephe

Succulent perennials are able to accumulate and store water (that may - Shoots not as large as their roots - shoot-to-root ratios of 1:3.5 to 1:6
be consumed during periods of drought); this is because of the are frequent.
proliferation and enlargement of the parenchymal tissue of the stems and
leaves and their physiological feature of low rates of transpiration. Cacti - Reduction of the transpiring surface - transpiring surfaces reduced by
are typical succulent perennials. shedding of foliage and rolling of leaves.

Nonsucculent perennials comprise the majority of plants in the arid zone. - Seasonal reduction of the transpiring surface of the plant this feature
These are hardy plants, including grasses, woody herbs, shrubs and results in a reduction of the water loss during the dry season.
trees that withstand the stress of the arid zone environment. Many
nonsucculent perennials have "hard" seeds that do not readily germinate; - Special adaptations in "evergreen" species lessen transpiration their
these seeds often must be treated (by soaking in water or acid) before leaves are leathery and often heavily wax-coated; these plants are
they will germinate. Three growth forms of nonsucculent perennials can referred to as sclerophylls.
be distinguished:
Other distinguishing anatomical characteristics associated with
- Evergreen - biologically active throughout the year. xerophytism are:

- Drought-deciduous - biologically dormant during the dry season. - Cuticularization - the formation of a surface plaster-like layer of cutin.

- Cold-deciduous - biologically dormant during the cold season. - Cutinazation - the impregnation of the cell wall with cutin, which forms a
watertight layer with abundant hairs.
Ephemerials are drought-escaping species and, in general, are not
considered true xerophytes; succulent and nonsucculent perennials are - Special arrangements of the stomata in recesses and grooves which
drought-enduring and drought-resisting species and are true xerophytes. provide protection from the arid atmosphere
Xerophytism refers to adaptive attributes of plants which can subsist with
small amounts of moisture. Some of the features of xerophytic plants are:

- Development of an extensive root system - the main growth of the roots Adaptations of desert animals
can be vertical, horizontal, or both, and seems to depend on the site
• Desert animals face many challenges to survival and have developed a
conditions. Roots penetrating 10 to 15 meters in depth are not unusual;
multitude of adaptations to endure the harsh conditions.
horizontally extending roots are common in shallow soils. Some
xerophytic species produce "rain roots" below the soil surface, in • Desert animals have evolved mechanisms to solve the heat and water
response to light rainfall or during periods of dew formation. problems the desert environment creates
49
• They developed means for avoiding heat, dissipating heat, retaining One example of people who live in the desert is the Massai of Kenya.
water, and acquiring water They live in desert areas in Africa south of the Sahara desert. Their
traditional lifestyle has adapted to these extremely arid conditions.
Avoiding Heat
Their nomadic lifestyle : A type of living where people do not settle in one
• Crepuscular activity - active morning and evening - place but continually move with their herds to new pastures. Means they
do not settle in one area for long. Instead, they move on frequently to
• Completely nocturnal (Bats, snakes, rodents foxes and skunks) prevent exhausting an area of its resources. They move following the rain
belt and so avoid areas that would be under drought
• Seasonal migration or soaring to higher elevations`
The Massai have herds of animals which are adapted to living in desert
• Certain species of birds, such as the Phainopepla, breed during the conditions, such as camels and the Zebu cattle. These animals can travel
relatively cool spring, then leave the desert for cooler areas at higher for long distances in search of water, and they are not easily exhausted
elevations or along the Pacific coast. by the desert heat.
• Use of shade and burrows or dens during the heat of the day Their settlement is very simple and made of tents. The tents are built to
allow air to circulate within them, keeping them cool. Animal hair is used
• Aestivation dormancy during periods of heat
to insulate them, to keep the tent cool during the day and warmer at
Dissipating heat night.

• Open-mouthed gaping to exhaust body heat Modern adaptations to arid conditions

• Long appendages and enormous ears that act like the radiator of a car With both money and technology, desert areas can be developed to cater
for modern lifestyles. Las Vegas, in the Mojave Desert, is one of the
• Lighter coloration, which reflects heat and acts as camouflage in desert fastest-growing cities in the USA. The city of Las Vegas is lush and green
surroundings in comparison with the surrounding desert.

• Urohydrosis - excreting feces on the legs, where evaporation cools the This is possible because 90 per cent of the water Las Vegas needs is
rest of the body (birds) imported from the Colorado River. The remaining 10 per cent comes from
ground water. The demand for water is not sustainable and the city has
Retaining water started to plan to reduce the demand for water. One way is that new
homes have restrictions on the amount and type of lawns that they can
• Burrowing into moist soil where water is absorbed through the skin have. The authority also recycles water where it can

• Obtaining their moisture needs from the food they eat River diversion, desert areas can be developed to cater for modern
lifestyles. Las Vegas, in the Mojave Desert, is one of the fastest-growing
• Excreting metabolic wastes in the form of uric acid to conserve water cities in the USA. The city of Las Vegas is lush and green in comparison
with the surrounding desert. This is possible because 90 per cent of the
Human adaptations to hash desert environment water Las Vegas needs is diverted from the Colorado River. The
remaining 10 per cent comes from ground water. The demand for water
An extreme environment has harsh and challenging conditions. is not sustainable and the city has started to plan to reduce the demand
for water. One way is that new homes have restrictions on the amount
Hot Arid Climates
and type of lawns that they can have. The authority also recycles water
• Cold night temperatures because there aren't many clouds to retain heat where it can.

Humans also use irrigation to supply water to plants. For example the
• Hot day temperatures, often above 30oC
Gezira irrigation is well developed to supply water for commercial
• Occasional intense downfalls of rain can cause flash flooding irrigation of crops in the desert. The Nile valley in Egypt is also another
irrigation project that has resulted in successful crop farming in an arid
• There is very little seasonal change in very arid areas region.

• Not many plant, animal and human life can be supported by the hottest Cloud seeding is also another strategy that could be exploited by humans
arid environments to improve water availability in the desert. It is a method that is used to
make clouds precipitate when they are sprayed with silver iodide. Studies
• Dry - some years may receive less than 250 mm of precipitation. have shown that low level clouds such as stratus; do precipitate if
sprayed with silver iodide.

Humans and other species need to adapt in order to survive in it. The
challenging conditions could be from the ecosystem, climate, landscape Growing of drought resistant crops such as sorghum and millet also help
or location. to overcome problem of water shortage in deserts. This is because these
crops do with very little water supply.
Traditional adaptations to arid conditions
50
Desert dwellers have developed improved water harvesting techniques •Flat roofs to catch water
such as distilling salt desert water to make it edible. The massai people •Irrigation used to grow crops
have developed skills for harvesting water from morning dew as well is
reducing the saltiness of desert water by mixing it with ash and then •Nomadic farming so areas aren't overgrazed by herd.s.
decant it. •Dew harvesting
•Drinking animal blood
They mainly use camels as means of transport, this is because the camel •Extracting water from some climbing plants
does not sink into desert sand and is well adapted to the dry conditions of
the desert. The caravan traders travel at night to avoid the heat of the
The water wind debate
day •Despite low rainfall in the desert today, it is generally
believed that past desert climate was wet (pluvial).
In Egypt settlement is linear along the Nile river as a means of staying Evidence for this is derived from desert landforms, pollen
close to source of water. Other form nucleated settlement around oasis. grain analysis, fossil remains, dendrochronology, historical
This enables desert dwellers to have enough water supplies for their daily
needs. records and plate tectonic studies.
•Geomorphological evidence
Adaptations to the heat Many desert landforms can hardly be explained as being
•Buildings painted white to reflect the heat due to the present day wind processes.
•Thick walls and small windows to keep the heat out. Geomorphologists general agree that wind has limited
•Air conditioning in homes energy such that it cannot scoop out/shape deep valleys
•Wearing loose-fitting clothes. like the Qattara Depression and steep sided deep wadis.
•Wearing head coverings steep sided deep wadis
• Adaptations to the lack of water

Qattara Depression .

That’s while it is true that some small wind blow deflation hollows
are forming in the desert today, it is very difficult and practically
51
 impossible to account for such huge depression using wind • Pollen grains of huge water loving oak and Cida trees have been
theories but vey much possible to use water theories because water found in the desert
have a greater erosive power
• Dedrochrology show that desert trees in the past were big
Ventifacts, pedestals yardangs and Zeugens are among the desert indicating that they grew in a wet environment
landforms mostly ascribed to wind formation. However field
evidences suggest that wind alone cannot sculpture these Biblical evidence for a weter desert in the past
landforms, Yardangs ridges or reliefs of about 10m high have been
observed in Africa in Egypt, Chad, Libya and Algeria. These cannot • The climate of Israel may not have always been as warm and dry as
be due to wind erosion alone. Such landforms point to a more it is today. Several references in Scripture would seem to imply that
powerful eroding agent which is believed to be water in Pleistocene the land was wetter in the past and more suitable for agriculture
times without the need for irrigation than that which is prevalent in the
Middle East now. For example,
• Although Sand dunes, make up 20 percent of the total desert • And Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it
landscape, these landforms may cover thousands of square Km and was well watered everywhere, before the LORD destroyed Sodom
reach heights of up to 500 meters. Such huge seas of sand cannot and Gomorrah, even as the garden of the LORD, like the land of
be moved and deposited of wind only, a more powerful agent such Egypt, as thou comest unto Zoar (Genesis 13:10).
as flowing water is most probably responsible for its initial • And the LORD said, I have surely seen the affliction of my people
deposition while wind is just reshaping the sand which are in Egypt, and have heard their cry by reason of their
taskmasters; for I know their sorrows; And I am come down to
• Canyons, flat floored debris filled dry valleys, and other narrow, deliver them out of the hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them up
confined channels can hardly be accounted for using the present out of that land unto a good land and a large, unto a land flowing
flash floods or wind. with milk and honey (Exodus 3:7,8).
• Land-use studies throughout the Mediterranean, North Africa, and
• Rocks that form in a hot desert environment are often coloured red the Mid East show the prevalence of crops and forests which were
with iron deposits suited to cooler, wetter climates in the period before 1000 B.C.
(Crowley and North, 1991). Lake levels in North Africa and
throughout the Mid East were high during the "Ice Age" compared
Plate tectonic studies to today
Global computer climate simulation evidence
• Indicates that continents have change latitudes for example Africa
and south America clearly shows that they have drifted apart. • Global computer climate simulations indicate that during the "Ice
Age" the climate was dramatically different in North Africa and
• During the movement, it is believed that the now desert areas throughout the Mid East. The ice sheets which covered North
moved from a wet position closer to equator to dry positions at America and northern Europe caused the jet stream in the northern
horse latitudes. hemisphere to move further south forcing the storm tracks to move
across North Africa. This more southerly storm track produced a
• Also it is crustal movements that led to fold mountains developing wetter, cooler climate throughout Israel (Kutzbach and Wright, 19
on the western margins hence causing rain shadow effect on the .
leeward side i.e. the desert areas

Historical records
Weathering in hot arid environments. (10)
• History shows that the garamatos people once inhabited the Ahaga
Massif mountains of the sahara desert 3000years ago. • HA and SA environments generally experience slow rates of
chemical weathering largely due to the lack of water,
• These were pastoralists and they left behind cave paintings of
giraffes, rhinos and antelopes.

• Such animals survive in a wet savanna climate showing that the

sahara was wet in the past

Archeological evidence

• Has proved that the Garamatos people used to cultivate crops and
their areas used to have large granaries for ancient Rome showing
that Northern Sahara was wet in the past

• Remains of small crocodiles have been found in the Tibets and are
believed to have been trapped there in the pleistocene period
because crocodiles do not stay in dry areas

52
 common in deserts due to high wind speed that causes deflation
scooping off sand and exposing the bedrock.
• the dilation fractures conform to the surface topography and
increase in spacing with depth
• This happens when overlying rocks are removed by erosion, allowing
underlying rocks to expand and fracture
• Same effect may occur due to the removal of great weight, by flash and
stream floods

• The Peltier diagram shows the ranges of different weathering types

as plotted against temperature and rainfall
• It gives a broad picture of the climatic range of mechanical
(physical) and chemical weathering
• It is expressed as strong, moderate or weak chemical or
mechanical weathering Thermal expansion and contraction (insolation weathering
• Strong chemical weathering will exist in areas with abundant rainfall
and high temperatures • the surface temperature of dark colored rock can vary from 0-50o C
• Strong mechanical weathering will exist where there are diurnal between day and night, since rocks have low thermal conductivity
fluctuations across zero degrees and sufficient moisture to allow • Insolation weathering occurs in desert environments because of the
freeze thaw large diurnal temperature range. During the day temperature is high
• Where there is little moisture and very low temperatures little to about 50°C or more on dark rock surfaces hence the rocks
weathering will take place expand,
• Chemical weathering in arid climates is limited by: • at night, during temperatures are low to 0°C or less due to fast
o the lack of water lows of terrestrial radiation as the skies are clear hence the rocks
o low rates of penetration into the rocks contract.
o the alkaline nature of the chemicals taken into rocks creating no • This continuous expansion and contraction causes great
aggressive acids stress/pressure within the rock and causes the outer layers of the
rock to flake off as they warm up and cool down at a faster rate than
• Although the diagram gives an indication of the chemical or in the inner layers of the rock
mechanical nature of the weathering, it does not indicate the
particular processes taking place, as no account is taken of the
factors other than temperature and precipitation • the differential stresses of expansion and contraction of the outer 1-
• In desert climate, rock breakdown is therefore mainly due to 5 cm of rock causes separation of concentric shallow layers
physical weathering, which can be quite rapid due to the absence of (another form of exfoliation) called spalling or spheroidal
soil and plant cover exposing bedrock over large areas. weathering when it effects boulders
• Main types of Physical weathering, which occurs in deserts
include; insolation, pressure release , granular disintegration, block • controversy about effectiveness
separation frost shattering and salt crystalisatin.
• physical weathering is the disintegration of rock and soil ▪ the ability of solar radiation to generate sufficient heating and
aggregates, by physical (mechanical) processes acting primarily on cooling
pre-existing fractures (e.g. joints, cracks between mineral grains);
reduces size of fragments according to rock and soil structure ▪ rocks disintegrate after fires, especially rocks composed of
(producing grains, crystals, blocks, slabs, etc.), with no change in minerals with varying coefficients of volumetric expansion (e.g.
composition and granite: volume of quarts increases 3X more than that of feldspar)
pressure release/ unloading:
▪ dry granite heated and cooled from 30 to 14o C for 89,400 cycles
(equivalent of 244 years of diurnal cycles) produced no perceptible
• disintegration of rock in parallel sheets as it expands in response to change, even with microscopic examination (Griggs, D.T. 1936. The
the removal of confining stress factor of fatigue in rock exfoliation. but, 244 years is small amount
• Most common mechanism of stress release is removal of overlying of geologic time
rock by erosion; thus this process is controlled by erosion and is
Salt crystallization
53
• Another major form of physical weathering in hot, arid chemical weathering caused by salt Crystallization occur as
environments is salt crystallization. there are very high rates of evapo-transpiration, due to the
• There is a lot of salt in desert environments because capillary rise high temperatures found in hot deserts. Finally, weathering
brings saline water toward surface
in deserts also depends on what type of desert it is. For
• limited liquid water is incapable of washing salts away hence it
accumulate in rock cracks example, In Reg and Hamada deserts, which are stony and
• hot arid regions: large diurnal changes in temperature and low rocky, most of the weathering tends to be physical. For
relative humidity promote repeated wetting and drying causing salts example, disintegration due to granular disintegration or
to crystallize and expand when water evaporates leaving salt crystal exfoliation. This is as there are lots of rocks, which means
behind, that may expand 300% by volume and cause exert pressure that insolation weathering take place. However, despite
on rock crack walls causing weathering low levels of precipitation, chemical weathering is noted to
• mainly hydrated salts which are water soluble at normal ranges of
be significant too, for example, hydrolysis, which is caused
atmospheric temperature and humidity; they hydrate and dehydrate
repeatedly generating considerable stresses in fractures and by high levels of moisture at night.
between grain boundaries in permeable rock Chemical weathering is limited by:
the lack of water low rates of penetration into the rocks
hydration (slaking) the amount of capillary action
the alkaline nature of the chemicals taken into rocks
o . biotite expands 40% by volume contributing to the weathering of
creating no aggressive acids –
granite

Abrasion by geologic agents: Aeolian processes

Wind Action
• Abrasion is both weathering and erosion at the same time. That •Wind action in deserts are also known as aeolian processes.
which is abraded is removed in the process. •These processes include erosion, transportation and deposition.
• Abrasion, occurs sporatically depending on the agent, exposes Erosion
fresh material for abrasion and chemical weathering. Abrasion is •Wind erosion involves three main processes: deflation, abrasion
accomplished by debris carried by wind and attrition.
Frost Shattering Deflation
•This is the progressive removal of fine material by wind leaving reg
due to small amounts of precipitation in deserts, Frost Shattering landscapes behind. By blowing away sand and other rock waste,
is not such an important process in deserts the wind lowers the desert surface producing depressions known
as closed depressions or deflation hollows.
Disintegration •Because the finer material is composed of smaller particles, it is
lifted off and carried away by the force of the wind.
(Block Disintegration, Granular Disintegration, Exfoliation) •The deflation process provides the supply of sand used to build up
sand dunes in other parts of the desert.
Abrasion
• Block disintegration: well-jointed blocks break down into large •is the sandblasting action produced by materials during saltation
rectangular shaped blocks under the action of alternate heating and
as they are transported by wind.
cooling (may be aided by frost action)
• Granular disintegration: is caused by thermal tension aided by •This process smooths,pits, polishes and wears away rocks that are
absorption of water, which causes various rock-forming mineral to close to the ground.
expand and contract at different rates and to break off in fragments.
• A large mass of coarsely grained igneous rock can break up into •Since sand particles cannot be lifted up very high off the ground
granular particles by this process the zone of maximum erosion tends to be within about 1 meter from
There are also three main types of Chemical weathering that occur the desert surface.
in desert environments even though at limited rate. These include;
Hydrolysis and oxidation as evidenced by •This sometimes results in undercutting of effects on rocks.
•Large rocks are polished on their windward sides and rocks that
Conclusion are not uniform like granite are turned into spongy, pitted, rough
surfaces due to some minerals being softer than others.
This is because most forms of chemical weathering require •Pebbles and small rocks are shaped into ventifacts with polished
moisture and water and as deserts have very small windward sides. see diagram above.
amounts of precipitation, there is no water to create
chemical reactions. However, More recently geologists 3 Attrition
•Is the process by which large rock particles roll and rub against
have come to accept that chemical weathering is becoming each other and wear away.
increasingly recognized in deserts. This is because that it •This happens during the wind transportation processes.
has been found that deserts have high relative humidity This process produces sand particles that are rounded into
levels at night-time and in the form of due, water is present particles about the size of millet seeds
for chemical processes, such as hydrolysis. Also, forms of Wind Transport
54
•Wind is able to transport (move) sand and dust particles •Suspension creates dust storms that often reduce visibility
depending on its speed and flow. in deserts to less than a kilometer.
•The effectiveness of wind erosion and transport depend
on a number of factors:
Saltation
•Aeolian movement is greatest where the winds are strong
(20km/hr or more), turbulent, come from a constant •When wind speeds exceed the threshhold velocity (that is the speed
direction and blows steadily for a length of time. required to move grain particles),
•The effectiveness and nature of wind transport also
•fine and coarse-grained sand particles are lifted and rise almost
depends on the nature of the regolith ( weathered
vertically for several centimeters before falling again to the ground.
material).
•It is also more effective in areas where there is less •When they return to the ground they follow a flat trajectory that sees
vegetation cover which tend to act as wind breaks by them fall a short distance from where they were picked up but not in the
absorbing some of the wind’s energy. same place.
•It also depends on the material being transported for
example if the material is dry and unconsolidated it can
better be transported.
•ptimum wind erosion and transportation occurs in semi-
arid parts of deserts.
Wind transport
•Wind moves material by three processes: Suspension,
saltation and surface creep.
•It is important to note that each of these methods of transportation do
not happen in isolation but, often all three take place simultaneous at any
given time.
•The particles are moved by the wind in a leap-frogging and bouncing
manner. Saltation moves small particles in the direction of the wind in a
series of short hops and skips

•Even in the most severe storms the particles are rarely lifted to more
than 2 meters in height thus differentiating this method of wind
transportation from suspension.

Surface creep

•As particles are transported by saltation and suspension they may

dislodge and push forward larger particles (i.e. those that are more than
0.25 mm in diameter).

•These are too heavy to be lifted from the ground by the wind’s energy.

•However due to continued bombardment by the smaller particles being

transport by the other modes of transport they roll and gradually move
over the surface of the desert.

Suspension Factors Influencing Wind Erosion

•Happens when materials are very fine i.e. less than 0.15 Wind erosion is influenced by many factors:
mm in diameter. Vegetation. Vegetation slows the wind at the soil level, retarding erosion.
•This means that they can be easily picked up by the wind, Roots bind the soil, further retarding erosion. Lack of vegetation (ground
•They are then raised to considerable height and carried, in cover) enhances wind erosion. Windbreaks of trees and shrubs reduce
the air, for great distances. wind speed near the ground. Small changes in vegetation lead to large
•Sand particles have been on occasion carried from the changes in erosion by the wind. If the vegetation covers more than 20%
of
Sahara desert and deposited in Britain a great distance
away.

55
Soil moisture. Surface tension by water in moist soil exceeds the wind landscape of zeugens. Unlike zeugens, the hard and soft rocks of
force on surface particle. Wind cannot erode moist soil. Soil with a yardangs are vertical or slightly titled bands and are aligned in the
moisture content of only 1% is very difficult to erode. direction of the prevailing winds. Yardangs are common found in the
Atacama, Chile and Salah in Central Algeria.
Structure of the surface. Organic material, iron, and free aluminum at the
surface reduces erosion. Sodium or salt at the surface leads to dust at
the surface, enhancing erosion.

State of the soil surface. Desert pavement, a layer of pebbles covering

the surface, plus desert varnish on the pebbles, a thin layer of clay with
iron and manganese oxides produced by bacteria at the surface, strongly
inhibits erosion. Driving on the surface destroys the protection leading to
rapid erosion

Features believed to have formed due to Wind Erosion

3. Zeugens: Zeugens

are flat-topped rock masses that have formed into a ridge and furrow
landscape in the desert. Each ridge has a tabular mass of resistant rock
underlain by a layer of soft rock. The overhanging ridges are steep-sided
and separated by long narrow corridors. Each ridge varies in height,
between 3m and 30m above the sunken furrow. The ridge and furrow are
parallel to the prevailing wind. Zeugens may remain standing until the The softer rocks are excavated by wind abrasion and
soft underlying rock is completely undercut. Examples of zeugen are thereafter form long furrows between deeply undercut,
found in the Atacama desert in Chile. overhanging ridges of hard rocks.
These yardang ridges vary in height from 5 to 15 meters
and can be as long as a kilometer.
• These landforms are usually undercut on their
windward sides.
• Yardangs can be found in Algeria and Egypt.
ROCK PEDESTALS
are rocky pillars with conical peaks which look like
mushrooms.
They are formed of alternate rock layers of hard and soft
rock.
The hard rock is left standing on the narrow stem of the
weak rock
The abrasion is greatest at ground level.
Wind sculpts stratified rock into pedestals by wind abrasion
Zeugens are found in deserts when a resistant horizontal layer capping
and weathering, e.g. Gava Mountains, Saudi Arabia –
soft rock is eroded along the joints by wind abrasion. The joints are They may rise from 10m to 15m in height.
usually initiated by mechanical weathering. The hard rocks which stand
above the furrows as ridges are called zeugens.

The wind usually takes advantage of joints and cracks created by dew
and frost as part of weathering processes.

Zeugens may be as high as 30 meters in height which makes many

geomophologists to doubt that the landform is produced by wind alone
since wind does not have the capacity to move away such huge maerials,

With time the furrows are widened and the zeugens lowered and
consequently they are undercut and worn away as the wind erosion and
other denudation processes continue to act on them.

Yardangs:

Yardangs are series of sharp, irregular rock crests separated from one
another by deep grooves. They are similar to the 'ridge and furrow'
56
Wherever layers of hard and soft rocks alternate horizontally in the An example is the Qattara Depression
desert, the soft rocks are eaten into faster than the hard rocks. This is, as 7. Ventifacts:
a result of wind abrasion. When undercutting of the rocks occurs, an These are stones or pebbles which have been scoured, smoothened
irregular-shaped feature called a rock pedestal is formed and faceted by wind-blown sand. Usually, rock fragments which are
weathered mechanically from mountains or upstanding rocks are moved
• These are mushroom/tower-like shaped features by wind and smoothed on the windward side. Anytime the direction of the
formed as a result of wind abrasion. wind changes, another facet is developed. The wind-faceted pebbles
• Since the sand blasting of wind in deserts is mostly may cover the desert pavement, a smooth, mosaic-like region, closely
confined to a meter and below from the ground, covered by the numerous rock fragments and pebbles
• Rocks are undercut.
• These rocks are usually made up layers with
differing hardness resulting in the softer parts being worn
away at a more rapid rate resulting in the formation of
pedestals.
• Continued erosion leads to the eventual collapse of
the pedestal.
An example is Mukarob (“The finger of God.”) which was located in the
Namib Desert before its eventual collapse in 1988

Deflation hollows These are caused by the removal of fine particles by

the wind, lowering the surface and creating a hollow, the best known
example is the Qattara Depression –

Deposition
•Due to the occurrence of obstacles and impediments
suchs as vegetation, rocks, dead animal carcases and
settlements
•Materials transported by wind are eventually deposited.
•Deposition can also occur due to a reduction in wind
energy.
•Wind deposition forms dune landforms .
•As soon as wind velocity drops wind deposition occurs.
•The heaviest material is deposited first while the finer
material and dust is carried further before being dropped.
•As a result loess (which consists of fine particles) is
Are also known as closed hollows or blowouts. sometimes deposited thousands of kilometers from
•These are enclosed depressions caused by wind erosion. deserts.
•In deserts the wind erodes loose material from flat areas •Large mounds of sand result from sand depositions within
which have, uncemented sediments such as those the desert.
occurring in tropical deserts. •These result in the formation of erg landscapes such as
those found in the Sahara.
•As already mentioned deposition occurs when the wind
•Three major types of features result from wind deposition and form part
meets with an impediment. of the erg landscape:
•Deflation hollows are usually formed on surfaces patches
where the protective vegetative cover has been lost for •sand ripples, barchan dunes and seif dunes.
example due to human activities or periods of extended
Sand ripples
droughts.
•Since that portion becomes unprotected the the wind
deflates and scours continuously at relatively
unconsolidated material,
•The material is deposited on the edges of the hollow that
are still protected by vegetation such as marram grass.
•The removal of the fine particles the lowering of the
landform leads to the formation of a depression.
57
 •They usually form around an obstacle such as a rock,
piece of vegetation or even a dead animal.
•As the mound, which is wind ward grows due to
continued sand depositions,
•Its leading edges are slowly carried forward in a
downwind direction.
•The windward slope of the dune is gentle.
•The downwind side is steep and slightly curved.
•This is caused by eddies that are set up by the prevailing
wind.
•A barchan dune moves as grains of sand are moved up the
•These are small wave-like features which develop on sand windward slope to fall onto the leeward side.
They can occur both singly or in groups
which move easily.
•They range from a few centimeters to about a meter in
height
They are often temporary and suffer destruction when the
wind changes direction
Sand Dunes
•These are hills of sand which are found in a variety of
shape,size and direction.
•Dunes develop when sand grains moved by saltation and
surface creep are deposited (remember suspension
material forms loess which is deposited outside deserts).
•Some dunes, but not all, form around obstacles such as
trees, bushes, rocks, a small hill or even a dead animal.
•Most dunes form on areas that are flat and sandy rather Sief Dunes
than those areas that are rocky and uneven. •Are also known as transverse dunes, linear dunes or draa.
•Dunes vary in size from a few meters to over a 100 meters •They are ridge-shaped with steep sides and lie parallel to
in height. the prevailing wind.
•Although they take many shapes, there are two common •They are also formed and appear parallel to each other.
types of dunes: •A seif dune has a sharp crest which may be a 100 meters
•Barchan and Seif dunes. in height and they can stretch for up to 150 kilometers in
Barchan Dunes length.
•They are separated by flat corridors which are between
25 and 400 meters wide.
•These corridors are swept clear of sand by the prevailing
wind.
•Eddies blow up against the sides of dunes and drop
deposit sand that is added to the dunes.
•They usually develop from small sand ridges.
•They slowly move forward in the direction of the
prevailing wind as they move forward.
•They feature in parts of the Namib Desert and the Sahara
Deserts as well as other deserts.
Bachan

•A barchan dune is a small crescent shaped dune.

•It has a height can range from a few meters to about 30 meters in height
and it can be 400 meters wide..

•They lie at right angles to the prevailing wind.

•It has its “horns” pointing downwind.

58
Crescent-shaped dune whose long axis is transverse to the dominant
wind direction. The points of the dune, called the wings of the barchan,
are curved downwind and partially enclosing the slip-face. Barchans
usually form where there is a limited supply of sand, reasonably flat
ground, and a fairly even flow of wind from one direction.

Transverse

Sinuous dune that can be more than 100 kilometers long and 100 meters
high. Created when there are strong winds from at least two directions.
The dune ridge is symetrical, aligned parallel to the net direction of the
wind, and has slipfaces on either side. See Figure 4r-5 below

Seif dune

. Sub-type of longitudinal dune that is shorter and has a more sinuous

ridge.
Long asymmetrical dunes that form at right angles to the wind direction.
Form when there is an abundant supply of sand and relatively weak Star Dune
winds. These dunes have a single long slip-face.

Parabolic

Large pyramidal or star-shaped dune with three or more sinuous

Crescent-shaped dune whose long axis is transverse to the dominant radiating ridges from a central peak of sand. This dune has 3 or more
wind direction. The points of this dune curve upwind. Multiple slip-faces. slipfaces. Produced by variable winds. This dune does not migrate along
These dunes form when scattered vegetation stabilizes sediments and a the ground, but does grow vertically.
U-shaped blowout forms between clumps of plants.
Fluvial processes
Barchanoid Ridge
Forms of water in the desert today

• Water in rivers found in desert areas include:

o exogenous rivers – sources outside the desert
o endoreic rivers – these form near the desert and never show beyond it
o ephemeral rivers – these flow for only part of the year.
• Desert lakes
o Are generally ephemeral and are called playas. They vary in size from a
few metres to several thousand km2. They are very salty
• Sheet and stream floods
o These result from infrequent but intense rainfall
o Dissected upland areas
Is a long, asymmetrical dune that runs at right angles to the prevailing o Deeply cut flat floored and steep sided wadis
wind direction. A barchanoid ridge consists of several joined barchan o Rock pediments
dunes and looks like a row of connected crescents. Each of the barchan
dunes produces a wave in the barchanoid ridge. Occurs when sand
Water accomplishes most erosion, even in a desert
supply is greater than in the conditions that create a barchan dune.
• Streams and Fluvial Landforms
Longitudinal

59
Surface waters are rare in deserts. Streams that do flow in deserts Water can also form alluvial fans due to the deposition of landforms.
usually originate at higher elevations and supply enough water for the They can be found near wadis and are usually between 10 metres to
stream to pass through the desert region. Streams in deserts tend to be many kilometres in radius.
intermittent, that is they flow only during rains. For this reason, flash
floods and braided streams are common.

How does present day water action in arid and semi arid conditions Water can influence one last landform by deposition, know to most as
influence their land forms? salt lakes. However most locals will call them a mixture of names such
as; playa, pan, chott, salar, takir, salina , tsaka and mier. They usually
Around 19% of the Earth’s land surface is classified as arid, whilst 14.6% occur in areas of andoreic drainage. The most famous of examples would
of the Earths land is semi-arid. This can be worked out as climates with be either the Great salt lake (USA) or Uyuni Salar (Bolivia).
an index of between -20 and -40 are described as semi-arid and those
with an index below -40 as arid. Examples of arid lands are the Sahara
Desert, the deserts of the Middle East and Central Asia. They all have
one core principal which tie all of the previous examples together; low Evaporation vastly outweighs water inputs, hence why the so called
rainfall. By definition, areas of low rainfall (less than 250 mm) are ‘lakes’ are dry and have the remaining salt left stranded on the plains.
described as deserts. The salt lakes unsurprisingly are highly saline, with high concentrations of
soluble sodium salts. There are only very specialised halophylic
However, there is one main exception to this which is the Arctic and Sub vegetation, which usually means that vegetation is non-existant.
arctic. There is understandably a more satisfactory explanation on what
the definition of a desert is, which is the relationship between
precipitation received and moisture lost by evaporation and transpiration
by plants. To conclude, no desert is completely dry as they all experience some sort
of rain event. These rain events lead to surface run-off which is a major
There has been great debate on how certain landforms have been process in deserts. Water is the key to the formation of deserts and
created. Today, there is a common belief that both wind and water heavily influences its infrastructure.
influence landforms greatly. The question is which one is more
influential? During the late 19th Century it was commonly believed that Inselberg
wind erosion and deposition formed features such as yardangs, zeugen,
An inselberg in the Namib Desert
pedestal rocks, ventifacts and deflation hollows. Later, wind erosion was
regarded as a very minor cause and almost irrelevant as there were very • These are round topped mounds of rock found in deserts as a
occasional but powerful rainstorms which some thought could be far result of persistant wind erosion over long periods of time.
more influential in forming certain features than wind. It is proven that
water plays a huge part in exfoliation. It was proven by D.T Griggs when • In some deserts such as the Namib desert, wind erosion has
he subjected a block of granite to alternate dry heating and cooling removed all the original surface leaving isolated pieces of rock that stand
equivalent. This alternation occurred for 244 years in which diurnal up as round-topped masses.
temperature change occurred. However, at the end of the experiment
there was no real difference to the rock. Although, when it was cooled • Some of these inselbergs may be a result combined wind and
down at the end by a spray of water, it cracked after the equivalent of 2.5 water erosion for example remains of plateau edges may be cut back by
years of diurnal temperature changes. This therefore shows the effect of weathering after they are exposed by sheet wash.
water in desert conditions.
• Talus (scree/loose rocks resulting from weathering and mass-
There are three important reasons why flowing water is important; wasting) accumulated at the base of the slope as shown on the right
erodibility, erositity and paleoclimates. Whilst there are three water hand of the photograph)
erosion processes; rainsplash, sheetwash and gullying. Wadis are an
example of a landform which has suffered from erosion. They vary from The diagrams below show the formation of an inselberg and kopje in
scale and form but there are certain common characteristics such as the desert conditions
fact that they are all sediment filled, relatively wide, braided, stratified,
relatively well vegetated and unstable. Water can very easily create
canyons or gorges such as the Grand Canyon, or the dry canyons of
Petra in Jordan. Such organised dissection can lead after many years to
mesas and buttes

Badlands can easily form, it is where the rain is quite frequent/ regular
and sediments are loosely consolidated. They occur especially in semi-
arid zones and are characterised by hoodoos, piping, numerous slope
failures, deeply incised wadis and relatively high dissected slopes. This
can be shown by places like South Dakota and central plateau of China.
Kopje

60
 below dew point, is also found in deserts where it plays an
important role in chemical weathering.
•The infrequent but violent thunderstorms result in
rushing torrents in steep slopes and to sheet floods on
gentle slopes.
•The run-off is more pronounced due to the relative lack of
vegetation in desert landscapes.
•The run-off on steep slopes is usually in the form of
Water in Hot Deserts
rills/shallow grooves which link up to form gullies.
•These lead in turn to wadis/chebkas
•During these storms water may flow in these wadis as
flash floods and as they progress and carry more and more
materials they may turn into mud flows.
•The mud is later deposited and forms features known as
alluvial fans.
Past pluvial periods
•Even though some places in deserts do not receive rain at
all for years on end,
•There is evidence for example, paleolithic marks on some
desert rocks,
•This evidence proves that deserts had more pluvial
(humid) conditions that current arid conditions in the past.
Some wadis, dry river channels and gullies may have been
formed during these pluvial periods
Flash floods in a desert Alluvial fan/Bajada/Bahada

•Water action in deserts can be divided into three:

•freak storms or rain that falls sometimes in semi-arid regions,

•dew which plays formed as a result of temperatures falling below dew

point at night in deserts and

play an important role in chemical weathering,

•water action in deserts as a result of past pluvial periods.

•Various landforms result from water erosion and deposition in deserts

viz:

•Wadis

•Mesas and Buttes Wadis/Canyons

•Bahadas •As already pointed out freak storms occur in deserts
•Playas characterised by excessive precipitation over short periods
Rain falling in a desert of time.
•In most deserts no rain does not fall for several years. •Due to infiltration excess flow and even saturation excess
•When it does it comes in the form of unexpected and flow there is significant run off in the form of sheet floods,
infrequent heavy downpours. •This flow occurs in the form of rills which later join to
•Therefore despite the low rainfall totals (about 250mm form gullies which in turn form into wadis,
per annum), water is still a dominant agent of erosion and •These are deep canyons resulting from sustained erosion,
deposition. the have steep banks and flat floors.
•This is especially true in semi-arid deserts like the Kalahari •At times the floor may have material deposited by stream
where rain falls more frequently. floods.
•Dew also forms in deserts where temperatures, due to •Wadis may also be formed by stream floods which erode
relatively little cover resulting in temperatures falling valley sides although some wadis can be dry and only have
61
water during and in the immediate aftermath of these •It is made up of deposited material washed across the
storms. pediment.
•An example is the Grand Canyon in the United States. •The peri pediment is a depositional feature that is formed
Alluvial fans/Bahadas/Bajadas in the same way as bajadas but it is larger.
•During the sudden rain storms Playa
•Flash floods rush down the wadis, •Salt lakes
•They carry large amounts of materials including a lot of Mesa and Butte
silt (all this material is referred alluvium) forming a mud
flow
•As the water dissipates after the end of the storm and
when its looses its energy upon reaching less steep slopes
the alluvium is deposited to form fan shaped features at
the base of the piedmont zone.
Desert piedmont zone
•Is made up of water landforms formed by erosion,
transportation and deposition.
The landforms found on the piedmont zone include:
mountain front, bahada, peri pediment, playa and rock
pediment

Mesa and Butte

•Mesas and buttes are flat topped uplands with steep sides
and often capped by hard resistant rocks.
•Mesas and buttes are desert features created primarily by
river erosion in deserts but carved away further by desert
weathering processes as well as wind (aeolian) processes.
•They are formed from what are originally plateaus that
are cut into two by rivers.
•These features can be quickly formed because desert
rivers have a lot of erosive power owing to the lack of
vegetation, the sudden and heavy storms that result in
The desert peidmont zone. violent downpours and ferocious runoff and the abrasive
Features of a piedmont zone. material that is readily available in deserts.
Mountain Front •Messas have a broader top compared to buttes.
•It is formed as a result of erosion along a steep slope and •They are usually dissected by wadis.
sometimes as a result of headward erosion. •Weathering processes pile up scree/talus at their bases.
•It may also be a made up of large rock boulders resulting Buttes can be formed by mesas that have been carved by
from weathering. erosion
Bahada
•A depositional feature
Knickpoint
•A sharp change in profile that marks the transition from
the mountain front into a pediment.
Rock pediment

•It is the gentle slope that starts at the knickpoint at the

foot of the mountain.
•This may be made out of bare rock or it can be covered in
alluvium deposited during floods.
Peripediment

62
 • Wind polished features such as sand dunes, deflation hollows, regs,
ergs, zugens, yardangs, rock pedastals and ventifacts. These were
Playas believed to have formed due to wind erosion and deposition alone, but
that is now doubted
• Extensive wadis, alluvial fans, pediments, pediplains, messas, buttes and
other inselbergs believed to be due to water erosion. However their
extent is to extensive which makes geomorphologists to strongly doubt
that these landforms could be due to present day climate characterized
by sheet and flash floods

o Thus the various landforms associated with the desert landscape does
not reflect a simple relationship with the present day climate but to a wet
past climate
o Present day climate of low rainfall, high evaporation rates does not
enable much erosion by running water. Also surface run-off is limited,
short lived and confined to mountains yet many landforms such as wadi
systems, deep and wide hollows, pediments and alluvial fans are formed
Playas all over the desert
o Wadis are too wide and deep to have been produced by the frick
•These are sometimes known as inland drainage basins. rainstorms occurring in the desert today. Most wadis have floors
concealed in debris and sedimenents that are layered showing that lower
•Due to the fact that there are no permanent drainage patterns in deserts layers are thicker than top layers giving the conclusion that present day
any rain that falls either evaporates or infiltrates into the soil or runs off climatic conditions are only rewoking what was laid in the past. The wadis
and drains into basins. also have stepped cross profiles indicate of past makings by past more
erosive agent.
•Basins are depressions. o Alluvial fans are also regarded as to extensive in occurance and size to
have been deposited by present sporadic rainfall in the desert today.
•When rain falls temporary rivers that flow in canyons/bahadas are They also have some fossil sediments in them indicative of long history of
formed and these may eventually drain in a basin/depression. deposition that points to a past existence
• The above observations are strengthened by several evidence for a past
•These rives form lakes in these depressions.
humid climate in the desert in the Pleistocene
•When these lakes dry up due to evaporation they are turned into salt o Historical records
flats. o Archeological evidence eg of rock paitings of people and animals
o Fossil evidence eg large crocodiles, pollen grins of giant ork trees
•These temporary lakes and salt flats are known as playas or sebkhas. o Paleo lake markings eg lake chard was 300 000km2 compared to the
present 10 000km2
•Examples of these can be found in the Sahara desert. o Ancient water courses in dry areas, suggest that landforms such as
alluvial fans, inselbergs and pedimentscould have been formed in the
•When alluvium is deposited at the edge and overlies the edge of the past when climate conditions were weter such that more powerful sheet
pediment around the playa it is known as a peri-pediment. and stream floods occurred with greater erosive power
• Aeolian landscape charaterised by wind deposition landforms such as
•Most deserts are characterised by inland drainage basins as few rivers sand dunes and erosional ones like the reg and egg are likely to have
e.g. the Nile have enough water supply to flow and persist through the formed under present day conditions of aridity. Evidence for this is
deserts. provided by the changing shapes and positions of sand dunes in the
desert today. However others argue that the wind is simply reshaping
Most form inland drainage basins/lakes/playas and polishing what was formed long back.,
Understanding desert landforms
• Present climate is also essential to study, because even though water is
desert landforms have puzzled morphologists for many years who have limited in the desert today it does exist in the form of heavy short lived
attempted to classify them into wind formed land forms and water formed storms capable of causing massive erosion and deposition especially on
land forms. This classification was arrived at after studying the present bare steep mountain slopes in the desert today
day desert climate that is arid, hot and windy. However despite the low From the above observations, it can be concluded that it is essential to
rainfall in the desert today, field evidence shows that past desert climate study past as well as present day climate conditions and
was wet (pluvial). The field evidence exist in the form of geomorphological processes in order to understand the origin of
geomorphological evidence, plate tectonic evidence, historical, landforms in the desert today.
archeological, biblical , dendrochrological evidence as well as computer
simulation models.
Human Activities in Deserts
Desert landforms include
•In spite of their hostile enviroments brought about by aridity leading to
shortage of water, pasture, wood fuel and other wood resources,
remoteness, infertile and salty soils, disruptive dust storms and
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temperature extremes most people still choose to settle there and •Deserts also offer clear skies that can be ideal for filming, military
engage in various economic and agricultural activities. exercises and weapons testing, solar power generation and wind power
generation.
•These activities include nomadic pastoralism and other forms of
agriculture, oil drilling and other forms of mineral exploitation. •Motor sporting activities are also held in deserts.

Human activities •Places like the Valley of Kings are popular tourist sports.

•Human settlements at aquifers and oasis. •Archeological sites also abound in deserts.

•An aquifer is a place where the water table is higher and intersects with •Using money from Oil recreational facilities, modern roads, railway lines,
the surface thus allowing people to utilise the water in the form of cities and other infrastructure has been built in the midst of deserts for
irrigation, domestic and industrial use. example Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.

•Most desert settlement are usually near water sources. •The Bedouin nomads also engage in cross desert trading activities with
various tribal groups.
•Activities usually involve the growing of palm trees or pastoralism for
example the people of Sahel and the Beja people of the Sahara desert. •Desalination plants have also been set up to purify water from the sea
and make fit for industrial and domestic use.
•There are also some perennial rivers that transverse deserts and people
tend to settle along their banks as the rivers acts as a lifeline.

•An example is the Nile River around which civilisations have existed for Desertification
millennia with activities such as irrigation using the shaduf and
archimedes screw have been practiced for centuries and continue even The meaning of desertification
today.
•Desertification literary means the making of deserts and several
•Cotton is grown in the semi-arid and inhospitable Awash valley in definitions have been offered for the term all expressing this idea.
Ethiopia something made possible by irrigation schemes.
•Desertification refers to the spread of desert conditions for example
•Dams can also be constructed to ease water shortages, provide Hydro- resulting in aridity or semi-arid conditions and scant vegetation cover in
electic power and control flooding an example is the Aswan Dam in the encroached area.
Egypt.
•Desertification is therefore the spread of deserts as well as a reduction
•Various roads and railway lines have been constructed across deserts in the biological productivity of a given piece of land.
allowing for the fast transportation of goods across deserts without
relying on camels. A highway links Ethiopian regions with Egypt and is •It is also attributed to a process by which previously productive land
used to transport cotton from the Ethiopian fields to Egyptian markets. turns into a desert like land and its agricultural productiveness drops by
ten percent or more due to natural and human factors.
•The development of satellite technologies such allows people in remote
parts of the deserts e.g. Oil fieds to use these devices to communicate •A more comprehensive definition might define desertification as an
with other parts of the world thus reducing the remoteness of the region enviromental degradation process brought about by both natural causes
and improving the flow of information. (e.g. chronic droughts) and excessive human activities (such as climate
change and deforestation) resulting in the fall in productivity of a given
•A good portion of the world’s oil fields are also found in desert regions piece of land and the spread of desert like conditions to the affected
and countries like Saudi Arabia, Libya and the United Arab Emirates can piece of land.
make a living and have even thrived as a result of the Oil boom leading
some to refer to Oil as the black gold. Natural factors that lead to desertification

•Large amounts of income derived from minerals are used to develop •Climate change for example a reduction in the amount of rainfall
these nations’ infrastructure. received at a given area or increases in evapotranspiration rates can lead
to desertification.
•Settlements have also formed around large oil fields with some even
evolving into permanent towns and cities. •The El Nino effect resulting in droughts.

•Other minerals such as opals can also be found in deserts and can lead •Acid rain leads to the reduction of land productivity.
to settlements for example Coober Pedy in Australia.
•A land’s distance from the sea.
•Towns and cities that originate from the influx of people as a result of
mineral discovery are known as Boom towns. •Continental drift for example most of the Sahara desert enjoyed pluvial
periods during the so called Quaternary era when the African plate was
•Settlements often include specialised houses such as those made from further south that it currently is and the Sahara region occupied the
mud which makes cooler and more hospitable than the traditional latitudes currently occupied by the present day Savannah regions.
designs found in other parts of the world.
Human factors
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•Tree logging as people cut down trees for use as firewood, thatching, •The drought was partly caused by natural causes in the form of climate
making furniture and other industrial and domestic uses. change.

•The clearing of land for agricultural use. •The harmattan winds that affect the area are dry because they come
from the Atlas mountains.
•Overgrazing for example in the Sahel region.
•Human activities have also contributed to the desertification in the area.
•Overpopulation as more population increases are not matched with
increases in resources. •The people of the region practice Nomadic pastoralism, moving from
place to place looking for fresh pastures.
•Expansion of human settlements such as towns and land is cleared for
industrial and residential use. •This movement has caused deforestation and overgrazing as more and
more animals grazed repeadley on the same piece of land.
•Mining activities for example open cast mining and oil mining which
leads to oil spills and destruction of vegetation. •This resulted in the degradation of the land whose productivity
decreased.
•Salinisation which makes soils less fertile and makes vegetation growth
impossible. •This meant that less productive land would be available while the
number of animals keept and keeps increasing worsening the situation.
NB Human factors and Natural (Physical factors) often combine to
produce desserts during the desertification process. Effects of desertification in the Sahel

Effects of desertification •Drying up of wells and springs

•A reduction in vegetative cover due to deforestation and drought. •Destruction of pastures.

•Barren sandy soils and sometimes soil hardening. •Loss of life due to droughts and famine. A quarter of the people in the
region died in the droughts of the 1970s.
•Increased surface runoff due to reduced vegetative cover resulting in the
formation of gullies and dongas. •A massive influx of refugees into the adjacent countries of Mali and
Niger resulting in semi-permanent camps which usually have unsanitary
•Reduced soil fertility. living conditions.

•Reduced productive capacity of agricultural land. •Loss of livelihood as animals died.

•Reduced land carrying capacity. What caused desertification in the Sahael region

•Death of livestock as a result of water and pasture shortage. The Sahel region along the southern border of the Sahara desert was
once the home of vast trading empires. Although drought and famine
•Water and pasture shortages. were unavoidable components of life in this harsh region, the people
were relatively prosperous and developed agricultural and livestock
•Famine and starvation. practices that allowed local populations to endure and recover from the
extremes of nature
•Reduction in annual rainfall and persistent droughts.
During the twentieth century, the fragile ecological zone was able to
Example of desertification (Sahel Region)
sustain its growing population. Increased pressure on the land made the
•The Sahel is the semi-arid transition region between the Sahara desert inevitable droughts more ruinous, and the dramatic famine of the 1970s
to the north and wetter regions of equatorial Africa to the south. prompted urgent calls to reverse the devastating toll of "desertification

•It extends from the Atlantic in the west to the Indian ocean in the east. The studies show that climate change strongly influences the Sahel in
recent decades, Rainfall variability is a major driver of vulnerability in the
•Its annual rainfall varies widely from year to year, and the land consists Sahel. However, blaming the ‘environmental crisis’ on low and irregular
of stabilized ancient sand seas is one of the poorest and most annual rainfall alone would amount to a sheer oversimplification and
environmentally degraded areas of the world. misunderstanding of the Sahelian dynamics Climate is nothing but one
element in a complex combination of processes that has made
•It forms a boundary between the Sahara and the more wetter parts of agriculture and livestock farming highly unproductive. Over the last half
Africa. century, the combined effects of population growth, land degradation
(deforestation, continuous cropping and overgrazing), reduced and
•The Sahara desert is slowly encroaching on Sahel land due to erratic rainfall, lack of coherent environmental policies and misplaced
overpopulation and overgrazing, persistent droughts, erratic rainfall and development priorities, have contributed to transform a large proportion
climate change. of the Sahel into barren land, resulting in the deterioration of the soil and
water resources
•The area has been plagued by persistent droughts.

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The failure to cope with drought in the Sahel originated in the French The ground cover was overused and no individuals had an incentive to
colonial disruption of the indigenous system of property rights and market plant anything more. On gaining independence, the African states
interactions, followed by independent governments' policies and aid from maintained this system of nationalized ground cover, with enforcement by
other nations that intensified pressure on the land forestry officials at the national level. These officials issued permits to cut
wood, but enforcement was minimal, and they were open to bribes. The
Traditionally, two distinct populations have inhabited the region: regulated common property, in effect, reverted to an unregulated
pastoralists (or nomads) and sedentary farmers, each with their own common property
cultures but inextricably bound together by trade. Nomads raised cattle
and migrated across the Sahara down to the savanna. An intricate The nomads were forced to move farther south in search of better lands,
structure of markets and division of labor allowed them to use existing and the slash-and-burn methods they used damaged more land as they
resources without destroying the environment advanced. The farmers in the south were forced to search for new farm
lands to replace the eroded fields they were using. This led them to
The Massai/Fulani, for example, were a nomadic tribe that derived cultivate marginal lands, which in the past had been allowed to lie fallow,
income from cattle and trans-Saharan trade. Water wells were owned by sometimes for as long as 20 years (Wade 1974). Increased pressure on
the clan that dug them, and the use of water was strictly regulated. A the land in turn affected the farmers' ability to grow food. Droughts began
clan's leader determined the length of time spent at the well and to take a greater economic and human toll
contracted with other clans, granting them rights to use its wells in
exchange for rights to use theirs. This provided the Tuareg with a Western aid to the region became more prominent after the drought of
network of wells to support their cattle as they moved along their trade 1968 to 1973. Again, medical aid programs intensified the pressure on
routes the land without providing any monitoring system. Wells continued to be
a popular aid project. Thousands of wells were dug at $200,000 apiece,
Although the wells and pasture lands were controlled by the clans, cattle increasing the size of herds and the problem of overgrazing. Hundreds of
were privately owned. Communal ownership of the pasture led to square miles of land were lost from overgrazing and trampling by cattle in
overgrazing, but limits on the length of time spent at each well search of water and food.
constrained the number of cattle that individual households could own.
While a system of fully defined property rights was lacking, the system Area devoted to crops in the Sahel since 1960. The need to grow more
was relatively efficient and insulated its people from natural catastrophes crops, both for export and for local use, has led to expansion of
agriculture into areas poorly suited for crops, leading to land degradation
The arrival of the French in West Africa in the late nineteenth century in dry years
altered the agricultural patterns of the Sahel. French policies that
emphasized export crops and east-west trade from the interior to Atlantic Reaction
port cities led more merchants and farmers to abandon trans-Saharan
trade. •UNESCO held a meeting in Nairobi Kenya to alert the
world about the disaster.
By the 1920s, the region was showing signs of stagnation. The French •They also provided food and water to the affected people.
implemented a three-pronged development scheme to revitalize the area:
digging more wells, conducting veterinary and medical campaigns, and •Other international relief agencies such as UNICEF and the
opening new markets in the south (Swift 1977) As the French dug new Red Cross were involved.
wells, they established no clear ownership rights, which led to Concerted efforts have also been made to educate the
overgrazing (Sterling 1974). The veterinary and medical campaigns people of Sahel on the effects overpopulation, overgrazing
increased the populations of both humans and animals, putting further and conservation methods
pressure on the land. With no one to regulate the use of new wells, the
larger populations intensified the level of overgrazing. The French hoped
that nomads would slaughter more cattle for the market. But to hold on to The following methods can be used to prevent and slow
what wealth they had, the nomads tended to maintain the largest herds down the rate of desertification:
possible •Afforestation that is planting trees where none previously
existed.
Colonial Influence. The Sahel was divided into countries by European
•Fallowing-allowing fields to fallow instead of growing
nations. The boarders were set by political processes that mostly ignored
the local people and their use of the land. The new countries began to crops on them continuously.
enforce boundaries limiting the ability of nomads to move their herds in •Legislation-passing laws that favour conservative farming
response to changing rain, from dry to wet areas. As a result, nomads methods and practices and penalises those who do not
were forced into villages, and in dry years their herds overgrazed the follow the practices.
area around villages and cities. •Educating people about the impact of poor farming
Collectively owned land led to deforestation as well as overgrazing. methods and schooling them on the best farming methods
Forests were depleted as individuals collected wood for burning. Trees available to them.
and ground cover are necessary to help maintain the soil in the farm •Planting trees lines for example gum trees to act as wind
lands. Without them, the soil breaks down, gradually turning the area into breaks and lessen the impact of wind erosion.
barren wastelands •Dam construction-for use in irrigation schemes and to
In the 1930s, in an effort to regulate the use of wood, the French
provide alternative hydro-electric energy instead of relying
nationalized ground cover. The result was the tragedy of the commons. on firewood.
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 •Practice irrigation for example using oases and rivers such Combating desertification in drylands needs a holistic approach to
as the Nile river. agriculture, livestock, pastures, woodlands, land settlement and energy
policies, taking into account the rehabilitation of the entire affected area,
•Limit settlements near water sources such as oases.
where integration of soil, water, pastures, woodland and wildlife has to be
•Construct contours to conserve land and lessen the considered, and preferably at a watershed scale, in giving priority to
effects of erosion. socio-economic and cultural aspects of the inhabitants of the drylands.
•Terracing to lessen the impact of erosion.
•Paddocking to implement controlled grazing and prevent More specific to the strategic objective of combating desertification, the
overgrazing. sustainable development of arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid zones must
confront three challenges:
•Practice crop rotation.
•Create sand embankments. (i) to check or prevent desertification on land slightly or not degraded by
•Fencing to protect forests. preventive measures;
•Grow drought resistant crops such as sorghum or practice
(ii) to regenerate the productivity of moderately degraded land by
activities such as extensive cattle ranching that put less corrective measures;
pressure on pastures.
•Use alternative sources of fuel instead of firewood for (iii) to restore the productivity of seriously degraded land by rehabilitation
example LP Gas. and repair measures.

Although the situation and degree of gravity vary substantially by country,

Sustainable management its seems that land in the seriously degraded category is fortunately
limited in surface area. As a result, the first two categories, where the
In order for extreme environments to survive, there needs to be some majority of people affected by desertification live should be the subject of
sustainable management. special care and priority. However, the severely degraded lands should
not be neglected.
Sustainable management...
b. If, in the future, human requirements in drylands are to be met in a
• makes sure an environment can recover quickly from any use sustainable manner, it is now essential to move towards more efficient
use of land and its natural resources.
• prevents damage to the environment Integrated land use planning and management is a compulsory way to
achieve this.
• helps local people get benefit from their environment
c. As human activity is the reason for degradation of drylands in most
• helps local people understand the benefits. cases, it is absolutely essential to question the general policies that allow
and sometimes cause these actions and operate needed reorientations
incorporating sustainability concerns.
Using an example or examples, explain the extent to which it is In this context, approach to sustainable agriculture and rural
possible to sustainably develop and manage either hot arid or semi- development should be inspired by considerations of human needs,
arid areas. poverty alleviation and the creation of production incentives.
development should ensure the attainment of three essential goals:
An opportunity to develop a case study to review either a case or cases
of development or of anticipated development in one of these - food security, by ensuring an appropriate and sustainable balance
environments. Some will have prepared case studies of attempts to between self sufficiency and self-reliance;
resuscitate degraded areas in semi-arid conditions, such as the Dust
Bowl, Sahel or even Syria or South Eastern Spain or Australia. Arid areas - employment and income generation in rural areas, particularly to
will probably reflect more developments such as the Negev although eradicate poverty; and
some may anticipate the development of deserts as sources of solar
energy that are now being proposed. Some attention should be given to - natural resources conservation (soil, water, natural vegetation) and
the sustainability of any such development. [15] environmental protection.

Sustainable management of arid and semi-arid regions d. At the national level different pathways can be chosen for the
attainment of SARD, depending on the resource endowments of a
According to the definition of Sustainable Agricultural and Rural country, the existing environmental constraints, the demographic
Development approved by the FAO Council in 1988, sustainable situation and trends, the needs, traditions, the available technologies and
development is the management and conservation of the resource base. human skills. But the first prerequisite is to create a policy framework at
and the orientation of technological and industrial change in such a national and international levels which is favourable to SARD.
manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human
needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development Three major objectives should guide the choice of options for appropriate
conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is sector policy development plans and programmes:
environmentally non degrading, technically appropriate, economically
viable and socially acceptable. (i) Improving efficiency in agriculture and rural development.

67
(ii) Increasing resilience and minimizing risks in order to reduce the institutional capacities needed in the rural sector should take account of
vulnerability of the agriculture sector and the producer to adverse this integration rather than supporting the setting-up of new institutions
external factors (environmental and socio-economic); and in particular, and structures.
provide a steady income to the producer and regular supply to the
consumer. * Food security is one of the basic strategies of sustainable rural and
agricultural development policy, especially in arid, semi-arid and dry
(iii) Promoting diversity which generally increase the resilience of subhumid zones.
production systems minimize risks and provide opportunities for the more
efficient diversity of the environment, local resources and cultures. * The main guiding principle in sustainable development and combating
desertification is the promotion of voluntary and responsible popular
The attainment of the above-mentioned objectives requires a number of participation through legislative, economic and institutional measures.
parallel actions at government, rural community, and production unit
levels. The main elements which may compose the national strategies
are the following:
How to achieve sustainable agriculture
(i) People's participation and development of human resources;
(ii) Integrated production system management and diversification of rural According to world population statistics, approximately one billion people
incomes; live in semiarid regions worldwide and yet the number of people living
(iii) Improving efficiency and reducing the risks in the use of natural and deriving their livelihoods from the productivity of these marginal lands
resources: is growing by the day.

- land-use planning and soil conservation; This ever-increasing population is creating a strain on the existing food
- improved water management; sources and thus putting food security of these areas in jeopardy.
- conservation and use of genetic resources (plant and animal). Moreover, these less favored lands are characterized by erratic weather
conditions, limited rainfall, and low soil fertility.
(iv) Ensuring a balanced development and conservation through the use
of key inputs for SARD by: Semiarid areas have at least one entirely rainless month/year and the
amount of rainfall ranges from 500 to1000 mm per annum in most areas.
- integrated plant nutrition systems; This means that conditions of water deficit, water stress, or drought are
- integrated pest management; common.
- integrated rural energy development and utilization.
In cases of extreme drought stress, crops yield poorly or not at all if
(v) Focusing on critical areas such as: drylands and other areas obtain drought stress during reproductive growth is severe and persistent.
rainfall, irrigated lands; mountain and hilly areas.
Changes in severity of drought contribute to dry land degradation and
e. Political will for sustainable rural development in drylands is a desertification. This process has been evident In the Sahel region (West
prerequisite. Africa) where rainfall levels have declined by 20 to 40% in recent
decades accompanied by severe land degradation.
f. The challenge of overcoming poverty and translating the SARD
concept into an operational reality is a common responsibility that should
The amount of rainfall that can be effectively utilized for crop growth in
be met at local, national, regional and international levels.
these lands is also low. However, this effective rainfall can be increased
Consequently: through water harvesting.

* Improvement of information and monitoring should concern data On the other hand, high temperatures also pose serious limitations in
acquisition systems as well as analysis of communication methods of the crop productivity especially when water supply is inadequate. This can be
final product and the information needs are greatest and more urgent at manifested through poor development of crop yield structures (poor floral
national and local level. initiation) and ultimately poor yields. Cultivation in semiarid areas is also
associated with long periods of high winds, which can remove fertile
* The village-based approach (living area of a rural community) is best topsoils causing soil erosion.
suited to the necessity of undertaking global actions on the lands (instead
of sectorial activities often doomed to failure) with the full participation of Challenges related to soils are either due to low nutrients, presence of
the local people. alkaline, saline, or acidic soils. The majority of semiarid soils are prone to
salinity and this poses a major constraint to crop production.
* Desertification control can only be successful if the social, economic,
cultural and political development adopted, aims principally at solving In acidic soils, aluminium toxicity has been implicated in reducing crop
problems brought about by insufficient food, accommodation, growth. All these constraints present a huge challenge to increasing
employment, income, health, education and population pressure. agricultural productivity in semiarid areas.

* Within the framework of an integrated and rural development policy Agricultural researchers, policy makers and other key stakeholders that
desertification could be combated. This requires a review of the are actively involved in promoting or increasing agricultural productivity in
agricultural development policies and planning in order to integrate anti- semiarid areas all seem to agree that the solution to this challenge lies in
desertification programme at national level in the framework of policy sustainable agricultural production.
formulation and strategic planning. The required strengthening of
68
 while ensuring sustainable agricultural production.
This concept of sustainable agricultural production entails improved
management of the available and limited resources and use of improved For example use of genetically enhanced early maturing genotypes or
crop production technologies that can enhance sustainable production in genotypes tolerant to salinity are likely to be more productive in semiarid
semiarid areas. areas where water deficits and salinity, respectively, are more severe

Improved use of the limited resources can be achieved by managing the

QUESTION 4 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
natural resources sustainably; for example, use soil and water
conservation measures to prevent land degradation (mainly through soil
erosion and run off), and conserve soil fertility and improved use of the O level Cambridge notes
water resources through rainfall harvesting.
Weather climate and ecosystems
Rainfall harvesting, defined as capture, diversion, and storage of
rainwater for plant growth, can increase water availability, soil fertility and What is weather?
crop production. It can also provide even broader environmental benefits • Weather is the current condition of the atmosphere of a place at a given
especially in arid and semiarid regions. time.
• It is temporal state and last for a short time
However, greater involvement of the farmers from planning through • It is described as hot, cold, warm, wet, dry, humid, overcast etc.
sensitization/education and implementation stages is needed to expand Climate
the contributions of water harvesting in sustainable agricultural
production and development in semiarid areas. • Refers to the average weather conditions recorded over a long time
period of 30-35years
Development of appropriate genotypes suitable for the semiarid • For example the climate of Zimbabwe is describe as cool dry winter with
environment through appropriate genetic enhancement or biotechnology hot wet summer
programs will go a long way towards increasing agricultural productivity
The difference between the terms weather and climate

Differences in climate weather

definition Is the average atmospheric weather conditions Is the current atmospheric conditions at
expected at a specific place at a given time a specific place at a specific point in
time
Time measure Measured over long periods of time, say over 30 years Measured over short durations, say
hourly, daily or weekly
Study of it is called Climatology Meteorology

forecast By aggregates of weather statistics over periods of 30 By collecting meteorological data, like
years air temperature, pressure, humidity,
solar radiation, wind speeds and
direction etc

Importance of measuring and recording Weather • Helps sailors at sea to timetable their journeys.
• Helps farmers to plan when to plant and when to harvest their crops.
• Helps in describing the climate of a place; wether it is equatorial climate • Helps people to plan what to put on or dress for the day for example they
or tropical climate among other climatic types. will know whether or not to put on a sweater or jacket and weather or no
• Helps farmers to plan when to plant their crops and when to harvest to carry an umbrella.
them. Helps the government to prepare for disasters like floods, drought, and
• Important in the aviation industry, in that it helps pilots to know when to very strong winds among others
take off and when to land.
Weather forecasting • On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to to wear on a given day
predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location Methods of weather forecasting

Importance of weather forecasting The following are methods used in weather forecasting
• Forecasting help to give weather warnings against weather hazards such RADIOSONDE, are instrument used to register pressure and
as cyclones, floods and drought and so help to protect life and property. temperature from the ground to roughly 12 km above the ground.
• Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation is important to • The instruments are fixed to balloons and released into the atmosphere
agriculture as they help the farmer to plan farming activities. every day at a particular time from different weather stations.
• Temperature and rainfall forecast also help traders within commodity • The radiosonde transmits radio signals to computers on the ground
markets to know which goods would be on demand e.g. rains increases station where they are analysed.
demand for umbrellas while cold weather increases demand for jackets.
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• The signals transmitted give pressure, temperature and humidity • Flowering / budding of acacia species = Onset of the rains
readings at different altitudes. • Germination of new leaves on baobab and fig tree= Indication of good
• These balloons are made in such a way that they burst when they reach rain
a certain altitude resulting in radiosondes falling and can be tracked and • Dropping off of young avocado fruits= Challenging farming season
collected . Indigenous indicators for weather and climate in Southern Africa-animal
SATELLITES, behaviour
• The satellites used for predicting weather are human-made. • Appearance of red ants, rapidly increasing size of anthills,= Good rains
• Satellites are large electronic devices which are sent into space. are coming
• They move around the earth so that they can provide various types of • First appearance of sparrows; flock of swallow= Rain is at hand and
information. farmers should prepare for above normal rains
• Satellites transit photographs on weather conditions on daily basis. • Abundance of butterflie= Indicate imminent mid-season drought and
• The movement of clouds can be predicted from an analysis of the possible famine
movement of winds for a period of 24 hours. Weather station
PERSISTENCE METHOD, A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea with instruments and
• This is the simplest way of making a weather forecast. equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide for weather
• It assumes that the atmospheric conditions of a place at the time of forecast and to study weather and climate.
forecast will not change. For example, if it is 28 degree Centigrade in
Gokwe today, the persistence method predicts that it will still be 28 Important points about weather station
degree centigrade in Gokwe tomorrow same time.
STATISTICAL FORECASTING • Most instruments used in measuring weather elements are found in a
weather station
• In this method, meteorologists ask themselves: How is the weather
usually like at this time of the year? • A weather station is a place where weather events are recorded
• They then collect records of average temperatures and rainfall over the • It is situated in an open space away from buildings and trees
last few years. • Trees can affect weather phenomena for example by acting as wind-
• This gives forecasters an idea of what the weather is ‘’supposed to be breaks thus affecting the wind speed and direction
like’’ at a certain time of year. • Buildings and concrete pavements act as thermal sinks, which means
that they store heat energy and thus distorting temperature readings
Forecasting weather using indigenous knowledge systems (IKS)
Indigenous indicators for weather and climate in Southern Africa basing
on trees
Study the diagram below and suggest the best position for a weather
station
Locating a school weather station Points D and C is located on hard surface, the tarmac, which may lead to
false readings due to ground heat and splashes of water into the rain
(a) Suggest where a weather station should be located in order to obtain gauge.
accurate data – Point A (1) Points E and H are located on corners of a building which act as an
(b) For each rejected site, give reason(s) for its rejection: obstruction to elements of weather, and also next to hard concrete
Point B is located on small plants but next to buildings as well as tarmac surfaces which may affect temperature and rainfall readings due to
surfaces. The building acts as an obstruction to weather elements (wind ground heating and splashes of water into the rain gauge.
speed, wind direction and rainfall) whereas the hard surfaces may lead to Point F is located next to tall trees which obstruct elements of weather
modifications on measured temperature and rainfall. such as wind direction, speed, cloud cover, sunshine and rainfall.
Point G is located very close to a building, concrete surface and a pool of
water which may affect temperature and humidity readings.

70
 (
Important factors to consider when selecting a site for the school weather station

• Should be in an open area, away from buildings that may block wind movement
• Should be away from tall trees that may cover the instruments with their shade and may also intercept rainfall
• Should be on short grass that allow water to soak or flow without splashing into instruments
• Should not be on hard ground/ concrete surfaces because the hard surfaces will cause water to splash into rain gauge and may also radiate heat to
instruments
• The station should be in a fenced and gated place so as to protect the instruments from theft, vandalism and destruction by people and animal
Study Fig. 2 below which shows a school weather station and some instruments used

What is measured by the instruments shown

(b) Describe and explain where such a weather station should be located order to obtain accurate data

Basic elements of weather and climate, instruments used to measure and their units of measurement

71
 Weather element Instrument used Units of measurement
temperature Six’s Thermometer Degrees Celsius
humidity Hygrometer Water vapor
pressure barometer mm Hg (millimeters of mercury)
Wind direction Wind Vane Cardinal Points
Wind speed Cup Anemometer Knots or km/hr
sunshine Sunshine Recorder Hours/day
Cloud cover Cloud Cover Oktas

• It is made up of wood: i.e. to prevent absorption and conduction of

Important Features of a Stevenson Screen (Describe the heat.
characteristics of the Stevenson screen) • Panted white or silver grey;- In order to reflect sunshine.
• Stands are 1,2m high:- to avoid the influence of ground conditions.

72
 • The sides and floor are made of louvers or slats to allow free • It stands on grass covered ground.
circulation of air and to keep off direct sun rays. • It is fixed or placed far from buildings or obstacles to avoid any
• It has an insulated roof to create a bad conductor of heat. This is interference.
done by creating an air space between the layers of the roof. • The ideal location is one where it is away from trees and buildings.
• The roof is slanting to avoid the accumulation and stagnation of rain This means that the trees or buildings will not act as a shield, making
water. the measurements unrepresentative
• The stand of the Stevenson screen should be set in the ground so that •Six's thermometer is a registering thermometer records the maximum
the bulbs of the thermometers are at approximately 1, 2.m above the and minimum temperatures reached over a period of 24 hours.
ground. The ground on which the Stevenson screen is placed should not •A Six's thermometer consists of a u-shaped glass tube with two
be concrete or bare rock because these surfaces may absorb heat and separate temperature scales set along each arm of the U.
reflect it onto instruments. •The arm on the right records maximum temperature encountered and
• In the southern hemisphere, the door of the screen should face north so the one on the left records minimum temperature.
that when it opens, the sun does not shine directly on instruments •The arms of the U-shaped tube terminate in sealed glass bulbs. The
bulb at the top of the minimum reading scale arm is full of alcohol while
How to draw the Stevenson Screen in an exam or test the bulb on the maximum contains a vacuum
•A Six's thermometer functions by using alcohol which expand or
contract to push the mercury inside which in turn pushes the metal index
to mark the maximum or minimum temperature reached.
• Alcohol is more sensitive to heat than mercury so it expands fast and
pushes mercury when temperature rises. The mercury I turn pushes the
metal index to mark the temperature reading reached. This is unlike a
normal mercury thermometer, in which the expansion and contraction of
mercury itself indicates temperature
•When temperatures fall, the alcohol contracts back into the buld
resulting in mercury flowing back up the left arm of the U-tube and so
pushes the metal index to the lowest temperature reached
•All readings must be taken from the bottom part of the metal index
Measuring and recording temperature •After each reading, the thermometer must be reset so that iron indexes
can be moved back into position at each end of mercury meniscus with
The six’s thermometer the aid of a magnet
•The vacuum in other bulb allows free movement of alcohol and mercury
• Measures daily maximum and minimum temperature
• Was inverted by James Six a British scientist hence the name six’s
thermometer
• It is also known as the maximum and minimum thermometer
• It is housed in a Stevenson screen
• Diurnal range is the difference between the maximum and minimum
temperatures

Exercise

(1)(i) Name the instrument below (2)

How it works

73
 (ii) Suggest reasons why mercury and alcohol are both used in Six’s
thermometer (8)
(2) Using the readings on the six’s thermometer above
(a)Write down the (3)
• Present temperature……………, Digital thermometers
• Mean temperature ……….. A number of relatively inexpensive digital thermometers are now
• The maximum temperature……………………… becoming easily available. Some, such as that in Fig 5, are read in situ.
(b) Calculate (show all working) (4) Some have the temperature probe on a lead a few metres long (Fig 6),
• Mean daily temperature – ………………………………………………… enabling the display to be indoors. Some varieties store the maximum
• Diurnal temperature range....................................................................... and minimum temperature since last reset. Some digital thermometers
(iii)Explain how you would take an accurate reading from it. [3] are wireless; that is, the temperature sensing element is put in a suitable
(iv) What should be done to the instrument after taking readings? (1) location outdoors and it transmits temperature to the indoor receiver and
(v) Why is the instrument kept in wooden box: display. When using digital thermometers (or indeed digital instruments of
(vi) The maximum temperature reading shown on the instrument A is … any type) it is important not to confuse precision with accuracy. Although
(1) the display (such as that in Figure 6) may have a precision of 0.1°C (in
(vii)The minimum temperature reading shown on the instrument A is (1) that it can read differences of this amount) its accuracy (that is, how
different its reading is from the true temperature) is likely to be much
poorer than its precision – maybe a degree or more
• Mean daily temperature= Maximum temperature + minimum
temperature / 2
• Daily temperature range= Maximum temperature – Minimum
temperature
• Mean weekly temperature= Mean daily temperatures added together / 7
• Mean monthly temperature= Mean daily temperatures added together /
number of days in month
• Mean annual temperature= Mean monthly temperatures added together
/ 12
• Mean annual temperature range= Highest mean monthly temperature – Measuring and recording humidity
lowest mean monthly temperature Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
Try to complete the table below, before scrolling down to look at the Label the parts A-B for the hygrometer below
answers
table.

• It is measured using a hygrometer/ psychrometer

• Weather satellite can also be used to measure humidity
• A hygrometer measures the humidity using two sets of thermometers: the
dry and wet bulb thermometers
• The wet bulb is wrapped in a thin muslin cloth dipped in container with
Now check your answers! pure/distilled water to keep it wet
74
 • If the air is dry, water evaporates from the muslin clot and cools the wet
bulb such that mercury contracts to give lower temperature
• The dry bulb is not affected and so mercury in it expand to give
atmospheric temperature readings
• Thus the wet bulb gives a lower reading while the dry bulb gives higher
reading
• Depression of wet bulb/ Difference between the dry and wet bulb is
calculated by subtracting wet bulb reading from dry bulb reading
• The humidity is then found by reading humidity tables
• If there is no difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb it means the
air is saturated
• Relative humidity is given in percentage

Types of humidity
Absolute humidity- the total mass of water vapour in a given volume of air
Relative humidity- the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at
a given temperature
Specific humidity- the ratio of the mass of water vapour compared to the
mass vapour of the parcel of air

Using table for relative humidity below, calculate the relative humidity for
the following figures
Dry-bulb 20 18 20
reading
Wet bulb 10 18 18
reading
Relative ………………. …………. …………
humidity Calculate relative humidity for the two instruments (4)

From your calculations, comment on observations made when the Electronic humidity sensors with digital readout of relative humidity can
difference between dry bulb and wet bulb is:- often be found in a package accompanying a temperature sensor, with
Large ……………………………………………………….. data from both transmitted wirelessly to an indoor readout. They are
) Small……………………………… obviously more convenient to read, but will not be as accurate as, the
i) There is no difference ………………………..
wet-and dry-bulb hygrometer.

Table 1,1 gives the relative humidity of the air for certain hygrometer
readings. Figure 12: Outside measurements of temperature and RH, from sensors
at the end of a wire, are sent by the transmitter (white, right) to the indoor
receiver and display unit (silver, left).

Pressure
• Is the force/weight exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere on the
earth.
• It is measured in millibars using an instrument called barometer
• There are two different types of barometers namely the mecury
barometer and the aneroid barometer

75
• When air is warm it normally rises and creates an area of low pressure,
when it is cool it sinks and creates an area high pressure
• The standard units of pressure are millibars.
• Areas of the same pressure are joined together on a map using isobar.

Simple Mercury barometer

Aneroid barometer
• Aneroid barometer is a small portable air-tight partial vacuum box fitted
with a system of levers and a pointer that gives readings on a scale
• If pressure increases the box is squashed inwards
• If pressure decrease, the box expands outwards
• During these inward and outward movements, the levers attached to the
box are also moved.
• The lever movement cause the pointer to move and indicate amount of
pressure exerted on the scale
• The lever amplifies the expansion and contraction of the box in
accordance to atmospheric pressure

• The mercury barometer is made of a glass tube of about 1m high Advantages of aneroid barometer
• Its open end is dipped in a bowel filled with mercury • It is small and portable
• When atmospheric pressure rises, it exerts force on mercury in the bowel • It can be safely used in the home or at school since it does not rely on
compressing it poisonus mercury
• This forces mercury to push up the glass tube, at sea level the mercury • It is easier to read since it comes with a calibrated scale
would rise to about 760mm • Can make continuous readings
• When pressure decreases, the mercury contracts and moves down the • Can be attached to a computer to make automated continuous readings
bowel Disadvatages
• It is less accurate
Advantages of a mercury barometer • It requires great skill and expertise to make
It give accurate readings
It is simple to construct and maintain
Disadvantages
It is too large and cumbersome
Glass tube must be at least a meter long
It breaks easily hence it is too delicate
Cannot produce continuous readings so have to be taken regulary
Mercury is poisonous hence dangerous to work with
Aneroid barometer
Barometers are used to measure air pressure. Air pressure is normally
measured in millibars. Barometers are normally kept inside Stevenson
screens to keep them safe. A barometer has a movable needle (pointer).
The pointer can be moved to the current reading so that you can then
make a comparison with the reading from the following day. Study the instruments below are used to measure atmospheric pressure
at a weather station

Name the instruments.

Briefly explain how each of the two instrument measures atmospheric
pressure:
Aneroid barometers,
76
➢ have a sealed, air-tight metal box inside. • The air moves towards the sea as land breeze.
➢ As the air pressure rises or falls, the box either squashes inward a tiny bit Sea breeze (during the day)
or flexes outward.
➢ A spring is attached to the box and, as the box moves in and out in
response to the changes in air pressure, the spring expands or contracts
and moves the pointer on the dial.
➢ The dial is calibrated (marked with numbers) so you can read the air
pressure instantly.

iii) Describe the main features of a simple mercury barometer and explain
how it is used, use labelled diagram in your answer.
➢ A mercury barometer has a glass tube closed at one end with an open
mercury-filled reservoir at the base.
➢ The tube is filled with mercury and deeped into a bowel filled with
mercury
➢ The weight of the mercury creates a vacuum in the top of the tube known
as Torricellian vacuum.
➢ Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury column • Sea breezes usually blow at about mid-afternoon when the temperature
balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. difference between the land and the sea is the greatest.
➢ High atmospheric pressure places more force on the reservoir, forcing • This lowers the relatively warmer temperature of the land
mercury higher in the column. Wind speed and wind direction
Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by • Wind is the movement of air across the earth’s surface due to difference
lowering the force placed on the reservoir. in pressure between two areas.
Wind is created by air moving from areas of high pressure to areas of low • Air moves from high pressure region to low pressure region
pressure • The difference in pressure can be cause by differential heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun.
• Two aspects of wind are measured at a weather station, namely wind
speed and wind direction
Wind vane and wind sock to measure wind direction

• Wind vanes are used to check wind direction

• It is made up of fixed compas showing cardinal points which gives
direction on top of which theres a rotating pointer
• An arm consisting of a broad flat tail and a narrow pointer
• The broad flat tail creates a large surface area that is pushed by the wind
to were the wind is going
• The narrow arrow of the pointer pionts the direction to which the wind is
Land and sea breezes. coming from
Using the diagram above explain land and sea breeze ( 6): • Wind vanes are often placed on top of buildings or on open spaces so
that they can be freely moved by wind
Land breeze (at night)

• In coastal regions, the land is heated up faster than the sea during the
day and the hot air rises resulting in lower pressure over the land than
the sea. • Wind direction refers to the direction that the wind is blowing from
• The air pressure over the sea is higher and thus the air moves towards the • Wind direction shown by the wind vane above is south
land as sea breeze. • A windsock is a kite made from a tube of nylon cloth
• At night, the land cools faster and thus the air pressure over the land is • One end of the tube is held open by a ring
higher than the sea. • Windsocks point in the direction opposite of wind
77
• For example, if a windsock is pointing west, the wind is coming from the
east ie it goes were the wind is going Cup Anemometer
• The faster the wind blows the straighter and more horizontally the • Anemometers measure wind speed and its units are knots or km/hr
windsock extends. • Anemometers are normally placed on top of buildings so that they can
The compass freely measure wind speed

• Anemometer is an apparatus for measuring the speed of wind.

• The commonest kind of anemometer is a kind of horizontal three-armed
• The four points N,S,E and W are referred to as the cardinal points windmill, with a hollow hemispherical cup on the end of each arm
• The additional four points SW,SE,NE, and NW are called the inter- • The pressure on the inside of a cup when it blocks wind forces it to
cardinal or rdinal points revolve
• The SSW,SSE, NNE and NNW are called secondary inter-cardinal • . The mill moves a pointer round a graduated dial that indicate the speed
points of the wind.
• Wind direction is given using the cardinal points or the ordinal points Speed
Draw a wind direction data for January 2016
north North south east South No
east west wind/
calm
days
Number 10 5 4 5 0 7
of days
wind
blowing
from

Home work
1.Draw a wind rose for the above wind records (6)
2 Name the prevailing wind (1)
3 Study wind rose below for January 2017 and answer questions based
on it

(a) (i)Name the instrument which is used to measure the following:

• Wind direction
• Wind speed [2]

4 Prevailing wind mainly blows from which directions shown on the wind
rose (2)
5. How many calm days were observed? (1)
6 In which direction would you site a cement manufacturing company
and why (2)
78
 e) Study Fig. 6, wind roses for Gokwe town in Zimbabwe, in March and
October 2013

Digital cup anemometer

The bars on both wind roses show the number of days when the wind
was blowing from that direction. Calm days were not recorded.

(ii) Identify instruments A and B: (2)

(iii) Label the parts O, P, Q and X on instrument A:. (4)
B) (i) Using instrument A state the direction from which the wind is
blowing. (1)
(ii) Briefly explain how instrument A and B work to record wind direction
and wind speed (6):
(c)(i) Describe and explain the location of the wind vane and the cup
anemometer at a weather station (4): (i)Describe the differences between the wind directions in Gokwe in
(ii) Explain why instrument B will give more accurate readings if it is sited March and October. In March, the prevailing wind was from West while in
on the roof of the school, rather than in the playground (2): (iii) What are October, it was from North Western direction.
the advantages and disadvantages of using instrument B to measure (3)
wind speed? (2): (ii)Explain how wind speed and direction measurements are obtained at a
(ii)Table shows wind direction data for January 2016 weather station. You may include diagrams of the instruments used. (5)
north North south east South No
east west wind/
calm Clouds
days • Clouds are a collection of water droplets or ice crystals.
Number 10 5 4 5 0 7 • Classification of clouds
of days • Clouds are classified according to height and form of appearance
wind
blowing
from
Draw a wind rose for the above wind records and name the prevailing
wind. . (4)
d) Study wind rose below for January 2017 and answer questions based
on it

(i) Prevailing wind shown on the wind rose is (2)

(ii) How many calm days were observed? (1)
(iii) In which direction would you site a cement manufacturing company
and why if houses are at D: (2)
79
 ➢ Common throughout the world
➢ Thin and wispy white in appearance
➢ They hardly block sunlight
➢ They give the sun a red or yellow colour during sunset and sunrise
➢ Move fairly quickly

Stratus
• Low level – below 2000m and sometimes reaching ground.
• Usually grey and colour and move fast.
• Can produce light rain and snow.

Nimbostratus
• Dark grey cloud with a silver lining
• Dense and shapeless
High level clouds • Associated with continuous rain
• Cirro is latin for high/crest Cumulus
• The adjectives are used to describe high level
• It is used for clouds between 6000m to 12000m • Fairly low clouds with bottom between 600m and 1200m
• Examples include cirrus, cirrostratus and cirrocumulus • Look like lumps of cotton wool
Middle level clouds • Can produce light rain
• Alto means middle • Individual clouds have a short life cycle
• These range between 2100 and 6000m
• Examples include alto-cumulus, altostratus and cirrocumulus altocumulus
Low level clouds
• Alto means middle • White or grey and patched
• These range between 2100m and 6000m • Are made up of laminae (plates)
• Examples include alto-cumulus, altostratus and stratocumulus
Clouds of great vertical extent Cumulonimbus Large clouds up to 10km high and across.
• Some clouds transverse all heights and so are classified as clouds of
great vertical extent. An example is cumulonimbus clouds.
• Have an avil shaped top
1) Altitude • They resemble giant cauliflower.
• They are black or white and heaped
• Produce rain, thunder and lightening
• Is associated with heavy rainfall and thunderstoms

Whether they bring precipitation or not

• Clouds are also classified according to their shape/ form. For example
cumulus clouds are heaped while stratus clouds are layered yet cirrus
clouds are curly and feathery.

cirrus
➢ Found high in the atmosphere – usually over 5,500 metres
80
 Pressure Reading: 1018 mill bars

(iii) Explain how and why the index pointer on the barometer is used.
- after each daily reading the index pointer is moved to the pressure
indicator;
- It indicates the change in the pressure from the previous reading;
Identify and name the clouds as A-J below Use arrows to show wind movement between area A and B below.
Indicate which area has high pressure and which one has low pressure
(2)

Area A has low Pressure while Area B has High pressure.

Measuring and recording cloud cover and rainfall

(i) Explain how information about cloud cover is obtained. Is obtained by

observation in terms of oktas. [2]
(iii) Name the instrument which is used to measure the following:
• Amount of precipitation: Rain Gauge (1)
• Cloud cover. (1)

For eight days in January, students measured atmospheric pressure and What is meant by westerly wind?
wind speed at their school (school X) which is located in the northern Wind blowing from the West direction
hemisphere at 25°N. The climate at school X is described as a desert (ii) Suggest what the cloud type was at 09.00 hrs and 14.00 hrs.
climate. Further data was collected from school Y in a different climatic (iii) Identify three differences in the weather between the morning and the
area. The hypothesis used in the investigation was afternoon of 29th July.
‘as atmospheric pressure increases the wind speed decreases’. Cloud cover initially almost clear and later on dome-shaped clouds with
dark bases had formed,
(a) Write the descriptions from Table 3 (characterstics)into Table 4 (high Strong Westerly winds, later on calming down and blowing from the north
and low pressure) to show the characteristics of high and low westerly direction,
atmospheric pressure. [3 Initially warm temperatures, which later on dropped by several degrees,
Initially clear visibility, which later on changed to poor visibility [3]

Cloud cover
How to measure cloud cover?

Measuring Rainfall

81
Precautions that must be taken when using Rain gauges are:-
Should be placed on
•Short grass areas, because if they are placed on concrete …splashes of water may enter into the rain gauge
•It should be placed in an open area away from trees and buildings to avoid obstruction of water droplets from being
trapped.
•Rain gauges should also be checked regularly to avoid leakages
•Rain gauges should be placed on slabs that are …………0.4…………m high to avoid wind effects on the rain as it enters
the gauge if placed too high, and to avoid splashes of water if placed too low onto the ground.
•Rain gauges should be made of non-corrosive metal, fibreglass, or plastic to prevent corrosion of the collecting container
•The rainwater that is collected must be emptied after every 24 hours into a measuring cylinder to find out the amount
received

As with thermometers, digital remote-reading

wireless rain gauges, such as that shown in
Figure 14, are now reasonably priced, around
£20. These use the tipping bucket principle,
where rainfall collected by a funnel drips onto
a simple collector, which tips every time (say)
a millimetre of rain has fallen. Each tip is
detected and transmitted wirelessly to an
indoors display.

There are many advantages to an automatic weather

station.

•Weather observations can be made more quickly and

conveniently, which might mean they can be taken four
times a day in schools instead of just once.
•The sensors can be placed well out of the way and
reduce the chances of vandalism - and in a better
exposed location than would be possible with hand
instruments.
• If the weather station is accompanied by a link to a PC,
A digital weather station usually though the USB port, the data can be stored

82
 every hour or more frequently. This opens the door to
using the data for all sorts of projects, from simple
averaging ones to looking at correlations between
different measurements such as wind direction and
temperature - although of course manual observations
could be entered into a PC and the same sort of projects
undertaken.
The main disadvantage of an automatic weather station
is that
•it removes the observer from the real elements being
measured, and thus the experience of what -5ºC
temperatures or 30 knot winds feel like, is lost.

Weather symbols and Synoptic charts

Symbols on some synoptic weather charts
Synoptic charts are diagrams that make use of special Sometimes you get symbols put onto a synoptic weather
symbols as an international agreed short hand used to chart. The following symbols are used by the MET office
show weather conditions at a given place at a particular in the UK
time

• That’s a synoptic chart can be defined as any map that

summaries weather conditions

Synoptic Weather Charts

Use and interpret graphs and other diagrams showing
weather and climate data

• Symbols next to the circle represent precipitation

• Shading in the circle represents cloud cover ( 1 Okta = 1
eighth of the sky is covered)
• Temperature is written above the circle
• Arrows from the circle represent wind speed
Weather hazards- Drought and desertification in the
Sahel
A drought is a longer than usual period of dry weather.
Droughts occur when rain doesn’t fall when it is
expected.

A synoptic weather chart is the name for a map or

chart which shows more than one piece of weather data
on it at the same time.
It can include symbols, lines and numbers to help people
interpret the weather in a particular location for a
particular day or week.

Lines on some synoptic weather chart

The Sahel Region of Africa has suffered with drought for
several years, and this is leading to another problem
called desertification.
Desertfication is the process of land turning to de

HUMAN CAUSES OF DROUGHT

•Although droughts are a natural phenomenon human

actions may worsen their effects:

83
 •Rapid population growth resulting in increased pressure
on natural resources including water.
•Deforestation.
•Soil erosion.
•Overgrazing.
•Mono-culture.
•Falling water tables due to ground water being used for
domestic and agricultural activities.
•Build-up of salts also known as salinisation has
destroyed a lot of land making it toxic to plants.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
• Results when near saturated, warm maritime air is forced
•Crops wilt and there may be a significant reduction in to rise by a coastal mountain barrier.
yields. • Mountains reduce the water holding capacity of the rising
•Sometimes crops fail altogether. air by enforced cooling.
•Animals die from dehydration and shortage of pastures.
• In Zimbabwe it mostly occurs in the Eastern Highlands in
•Shortage of drinking water
•Dust storms. areas like Chimanimani, Honde Valley and Nyanga.
•Death of people due to dehydration and starvation. • Warm South East Trades pick up moist from the Indian
•Malnutrition and associated conditions like Kwashiorkor
Ocean.
these are more pronounced in children.
•Poverty due to loss of livelihood. • They encounter a barrier mountain that is parallel to the
•Famine coastline for example Mt Inyangani and the Chimanimani
•Crops can become toxic due to an increase in aflatoxins mountains.
especially to animals.
•Can lead to nitrate poisoning in animals which are fed • The SE Trades are forced to rise by the mountain, cool
drought affected crops such as maize. and condense and rain occurs on the South Eastern
•Wild fires become more frequent. slopes or the windward slopes of the mountain.
MITIGATION EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
• On the leeward side of the mountain it is dry.
•Farmers can make use of insurance schemes. • The descending SE trades are dry and warm resulting in
•Stockpiling essential food crops in years of high yields little to no rainfall.
using for example GMB silo storage.
• The leeward side is sometimes known as a rain shadow
•Practice irrigation using river and ground water.
•Cloud seeding area. Examples include Save valley and Marange area.
•Grow drought resistant crops and keeping drought • Relief rainfall occurs in all altitudes
resistant animals like donkeys.
•Grow early maturing crops. World climatic regions
•Appeal for aid from International organisations such as Describe and explain the characteristics of two
the UN, USAID, OxFam, Save the Child etc. climates:
•Find alternative uses for drought damaged crops for • equatorial
example drought affected soya beans can be used to • hot desert
feed cattle. Classification is mainly based on the annual and monthly
Relief Rainfall occurs when: averages of temperature and precipitation
• The prevailing winds pick up moisture from the sea/dam
as they travel across it, making the air moist.
• The moist air reaches the coast and is forced to rise over
mountains and hills.
• This forces the air to cool and condense, forming clouds.
• The air continues to be forced over the mountains and so
it drops its moisture as relief rain.
• Once over the top of the mountain the air will drop down
the other side, warming as it does so.
• Warm air has a greater ability to carry water moisture
and so there is little rain on the far side of the mountain.
• This area is called the rain shadow area/ the leeward
side

84
 Climate of Zimbabwe

1) Latitude
Why does climate vary from place to place 2) Altitude
3) Prevailing winds and air pressure
The difference in climate between locations is due to the
following factors 4) Ocean currents
5) Distance from the sea

85
86
 graphs have the average maximum temperature and the
average minimum, others just have the overall average
. temperature. The line graph is normally coloured in red.
Rainfall is always shown in the form a bar graph and
Climate Graphs normally coloured in blue.
Climate graphs show the average temperature and
rainfall for a city or region over the year. Temperature is Climate graphs are very good for showing averages, but
always shown in the form of a line graph. Some climate they don't show anomalous years, because it is based on

87
 averages and it doesn't show things like the number of From this climate graph, you can take the
days of rain. A month may have 50mm of rain, but we following information about tropical
don't know if that comes in small rain showers or one big
thunderstorm rainforest climates

When reading climate graphs you should look for trends

• There is a high temperature all year round
and anomalies
• The temperature range is small only varying
Interpreting climate graphs between 25-28 degrees celcius
• Rainfall is high every month, with highest
In the exam you may be asked to look at the information
monthly rainfall reaching 300mm
in a graph and describe the area's climate.
• There are no seasons in a tropical rain forest,
1. Look for patterns in the temperature data it is hot and wet all year round.
o Is the temperature the same all year round? If it is Why do tropical rain forests have these
different, how many seasons does the location climatic conditions?
experience?
Think about the global factors affecting
o Which season is the warmest? Is it warm (10 to 20°C),
hot (20 to 30°C) or very hot (above 30°C)? climate
o Which season is the coolest? Is it mild (0 to 10°C), cold
(-10 to 0°C) or very cold (below -10°C)?
LATITUDE: They lie close to the equator
o What is the range of temperature? (Subtract the
minimum temperature from the maximum temperature). where the suns rays are shining directly
2. Look for patterns in the rainfall data overhead and the suns heat is therefore
o Does the rainfall occur all year round? concentrated there
o What is the pattern of the rainfall? Check which
season(s) is/are drier or wetter than others.
o What is the total annual rainfall? Add each month's total AIR CIRCULATION: The suns direct heat
together to get the annual total. overhead causes large amounts of
o Then put the rainfall and temperature information evaporation which then forms
together - what does it tell you about this area?
3. Describe the patterns in temperature and rainfall,
thunderstorms and rain often in the
including how they relate to each other. You now have a afternoon.
description of the climate.
o Now look again at the climate graph above. What can Characteristics and climate of deserts
you deduce about the climate?
Cambridge students are required to study Climatic
climate graphs showing the main characteristics of temperature
A tropical rainforest biome is found in hot, humid and rainfall of two climates (equatorial and desert)
environments in equatorial climates. They contain the
most diverse range and highest volume of plant and See where deserts are found on this biomes map.
animal life found anywhere on earth. Deserts have extreme temperatures. During the day the
temperature may reach 50°C, when at night it may fall to
below 0°C. Deserts have less than 250 mm of rainfall
per year. The rain can be unreliable. Most deserts are
found between 20° and 35° north and south of the
equator.

Climate graph for the Sahara Desert

88
 The Sahara is the largest desert, covering 9 million km2.
Mean annual temperature – sum of mean monthly
There are three factors which form desert areas:
temperatures in the year divided by 12
1. the presence of high pressure, creating cloud-free
conditions Annual temperature range – maximum temperature
2. cold ocean currents minus minimum temperature recorded in a year
3. mountain ranges to create rain shadows
Daily rainfall - the amount of rain that falls over 24
Calculate the following: hours
Mean daily temperature – sum of hourly temperatures
divided by 24 hours Monthly rainfall - total amount of rainwater collected
Diurnal temperature range –maximum temperature throughout the month
minus minimum temperature Annual rainfall - total amount of rainwater collected
throughout the year.
Mean monthly temperature – sum of mean daily Shows weather data for station X and Y
temperatures in the month divided by number of days in
the month
month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Station T oC 13 16 29 25 26 35 37 35 32 27 19 14
X R(mm) 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 5 3
Station T oC 26 26 26 26 26 25 24 24 24 25 25 25
Y R(mm 53 84 178 158 137 114 132 165 183 218 194 84

4. (i)Calculate the annual temperature range and rainfall

total for each station (4)
5. (ii)Calculate the mean annual temperature for each
station (2)
6. (iii)Calculate the mean annual rainfall for each station (2)
7. (iv) Using weather table for station X and Y draw two
temperature-rainfall graphs (8)
8. (v) Compare and contrast the two climatic regions using
graphs drawn in (iv) (4)

• Symbols next to the circle represent precipitation

• Shading in the circle represents cloud cover ( 1 Okta = 1
eighth of the sky is covered)
• Temperature is written above the circle
•temperature - although of course manual observations • Arrows from the circle represent wind speed
could be entered into a PC and the same sort of projects
undertaken.
The main disadvantage of an automatic weather station
is that
•it removes the observer from the real elements being
measured, and thus the experience of what -5ºC
temperatures or 30 knot winds feel like, is lost.
Weather symbols and Synoptic charts

Synoptic charts are diagrams that make use of special

symbols as an international agreed short hand used to
show weather conditions at a given place at a particular
time

• That’s a synoptic chart can be defined as any map that

summaries weather conditions

89
 • The earth’s climate and weather conditions have been
changing constantly throughout geological time
• This has then impacted strongly on people’s culture,
history, economic and social activities
• For example people who lived during ice age had
completely different life style compare to today’s people
• Coal developed in Hwange because there once thrived a
large forest in the pluvial period
How people have changed weather

• People have been changing weather deliberately and

unintentional since time immemorial
• Deliberate changes can be seen as attempts to aid
agriculture through dam construction, cloud seeding,
green house construction etc
• Many of these changes have become detrimental
causing greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain and
urban heat island effect
Intentional changes to weather

1. Greenhouses

• These are used to grow plants that are susceptible to

frost conditions
• They create a microclimate within the enclosed area
• Are made up of glass or thin layer of polythene
• They cause a localized greenhouse effect in that they
Draw symbols to show the following weathther conditions
allow short wave radiation from the sun to enter through
(10)
but do not allow terrestrial long wave radiation from the
Weather symbol Weather symbol earth to pass through
condition condition • As a result heat is trapped inside causing them to be
(wind warmer than the surrounding areas.
speed) ➢ Other methods of protecting crops from frost
Calm Mist • Burning old tyres, manure or modern gas or electrically
10 knots Rain
powered frost prevention heaters
25 knots Fog
50 knots thunderstorm • Covering crops with a thin layer of polythene sheets ie
hurricane Cumulus on the sides and top to make tunnels
clouds • Spraying the crops with water which act as an insulator.
Draw symbols to show the following cloud cover However this method is not very effective especially
conditions (10) against extreme cold
Rainfall distribution in Zimbabwe
symbol Cloud type symbol
Clear sky Cumulus clouds
1/8 covered Cumulonimbus
2/8 covered cirrus
4/8 covered stratus
7/8 covered

Human impact on weather and climate

90
 identify types of precipitation
•describe the rainfall formation process
•draw annotated diagrams of types of rainfall

Convectional rainfall occurs when:

• Convectional rain- When the earth’s surface is heated by
the sun, moisture-laden vapour rises
• because heated air always expands and becomes
lighter.
• Air rises in a convection current after a long time of
intense heating.
• AS it ascend, its water vapour condenses into clouds.
• As the air rises, it cools condense and and form clouds
• Clouds melt to give rain, thunder and lightning.
(a) Describe the rainfall distribution pattern for Zimbabwe
shown on the map
…………………………………………………………………
…………
(b) Suggest two reasons why the eastern districts of
Zimbabwe general receive higher rainfall than the rest of
the country
…………………………………………………………………
……………… (c)the map drawn with lines joining places
with equal amount of rainfall is called
…………………………………………………

8 Annual rainfall distribution in Harare

Frontal rainfall occurs when:
• Two air masses meet, one cold air mass and another warm
• The lighter, less dense, warm air is forced to rise over the
denser cold air mass.
• This causes the warm air to rise, cool and condense
• As the warm air is forced to rise further condensation occurs
and a cloud is formed.
• Clouds melt and give rain

(a) Which month/s had the

(i) Highest rainfall …………………………
(ii) Lowest rainfall
Briefly describe the annual rainfall distribution in Harare
shown on the graph.
…………………………………………………
rainfall Relief Rainfall occurs when:
• The prevailing winds pick up moisture from the sea/dam as
rainfall is one form of precipitation, it is water droplets they travel across it, making the air moist.
that falls from sky towards the earth when clouds melt. • The moist air reaches the coast and is forced to rise over
Rain is made up of very small droplets that are slightly mountains and hills.
larger than 0.05mm in diameter. The droplets fall • This forces the air to cool and condense, forming clouds.
towards the sky due to their own weight. • The air continues to be forced over the mountains and so it
drops its moisture as relief rain.
Types of rain

91
 • Once over the top of the mountain the air will drop down • Lake shore breeze occur around the lake to produce more
the other side, warming as it does so. precipitation
• Warm air has a greater ability to carry water moisture • The breeze cools the vicinity
and so there is little rain on the far side of the mountain.
Unintentional changes to weather caused by human activities
• This area is called the rain shadow area/ the leeward
side 1. Acid rain

• smoke from burning fuels and chemical industries rises into

the air and mixes with water vapour to form acid which then
falls as acidic rain
• the acidic rain cause corrosion of rocks, buildings and metal
structures
• it also cause widespread deforestation like what
happened to the Black Forest of German which was
completely wiped out by acidic rain
• the acidic rain collects in rivers and other water bodies
posing a serious health hazard to people and animals
• is formed and the lower air temperature will be around 2 to 40c 2. Greenhouse effect and global warming
which allows partial melting hence producing the raindrops.
• increased industrialization, automobiles and other burning
Human influences on climate
processes, have led to an increase in accumulation of
2. Cloud seeding greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrogen dioxide in the air
• Not all clouds will give rain due to lack of condensation nuclei
• these gases form a layer in the atmosphere which blocks
in the atmosphere
heat from the earth from being released into outer space
• Cloud seeding is a way of making the clouds that will not give
• thus amount of heat on the earth atmosphere system
rain to do so by spraying the cloud with silver iodide or dry ice
increase because heat from the sun comes in form of
which increase condensation nuclei
powerful shortwave radiation which is able to penetrate
• This makes the cloud droplet to grow bigger due to more
through the layer of gases to reach the earth
condensation surfaces so that it becomes heavy, move
• to avoid overheating, the earth gives out heat inform of less
downwards and melt to give rain
powerful long wave terrestrial radiation
• However there is no guaranty that the cloud will give rain in
• this weak radiation is blocked by the layer of greenhouse
the area it is seeded, it may migrate to neighboring areas
gasses and is reflected back to earth hence it is trapped
3. Dam construction
between the earth atmosphere system
• Big dams such as Kariba dam can change weather conditions • thus the insulating effect caused by the blanket of gases is
within their surrounding areas due to increasing amount of thus called the greenhouse effect which is illustrated on
humidity fig1.1 below

92
• the resultant temperature rise near earth’s surface caused by ▪ It is composed of special bonds of oxygen (O3) and about 30
the trapped heat is called global warming km from the earth surface.
• Global warming is defined as the increase in temperature of ▪ It acts as a shield by blocking out the suns dangerous UV
Earth, that causes change in climate radiation from reaching the earth.
• . It is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of ▪ It is being depleted by chemicals from factories and some
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. antiquated forms of aerosol sprays.
• Global warming is causing climate patterns to change. ▪ These make emissions containing nitrous oxide compounds
However, global warming itself represents only one aspect of bromine and chlorine compounds.
climate change. ▪ These chemicals are often referred to as organ halogen,
Effects of Global Warming chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Bromoflurocarbons.
Following are the effects of global warming: ▪ They are depleting/reducing the ozone layer by chemically
1. More heat waves breaking it down
2. Expansion of desert area ▪ This has resulted in ozone holes in some places
3. More evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies ▪ This results in higher cases of non-melanoma skin cancer,
4. Melting of Ice caps in Arctic and Antarctic regions
eye cataractus and blindness and weakening of human
5. Shorter and warmer winters coupled with longer and hotter
summers immune systems (immuno-suppression) to people living
6. Changes in rainfall pattern underneath these ozone holes
7. Rise in sea level ▪ Other effects include: redeuced plant growth harming
8. Flooding and submergence of low lying coastal areas agricutural activities as well as natural vegetation , reduction
9. More drought in plankton populations(these is the major source of food for
Control and remedial measures FOR GLOBAL WARMING: most fish and feastures prominentluy in marine ecosytem),
Some of the remedial and control measures of global warming
loss of marine biodiversity ,
are listed below:
1. Reduction in consumption of fossil fuels such as coal and ▪ higher incidentsof cancer in domestic animals, adverse
petroleum effects on flowering and pollination of plants and damage to
2. Increasing forest cover through afforestation and important synthetic materials like plasctic and rubber.
reforestation URBAN HEAT ISLAND
3. Use of unleaded petrol in automobiles
4. Installation of pollution controlling devices in automobiles Is a condition in which the climate and weather of urban
(catalytic converter) and industries (Electro Static areas is different from the adjacent rural areas by having
Precipitators, Bag filters, Wet scrubbers etc)
higher temperature, rainfall and higher cloud cover. There is
Ozone layer destruction
lower relative humidity due to higher temperature and there
▪ In the upper layers of the earth atmosphere ( between the is less sunlight due to too many particles in atmosphere.
stratosphere and the troposphere) there is a layer known as
the ozone layer

93
 TEMPERATURE

The components of an ecosystem are classified as either biotic or

abiotic
• Although due to the presence of tall buildings light does not reach
some areas especially alleyways and narrow streets, Biotic
• Normal buildings absorb heat during the day. • Biotic means the living environment, such as:
• Dark-coloured roofs, concrete blocks and bricks all have a high • Vegetation and animals
thermal capacity which means they are capable of absorbing heat Biotic components can be further sub-divided into
energy during the day and releasing it slowly at night. • Producers these are green plants that make their own food from
• Additional heat is yielded by car fumes, factories, power stations photosynthesis
and the high population concert rations of people. • Consumers these are organisms that survive by eating plants or
• All things being equal urban build up areas experience higher other organism
temperatures which are highest in the CBD and decreases • Examples of consumers are herbivores, carnivores, and
gradually as one goes towards the edges. omnivores, decomposers
• Daylight temperatures are on average higher than surrounding Abiotic components
areas generally by about 0.6°C. • Abiotic means the non-living, chemical and physical components
• Night temperatures are higher than surrounding areas due to the of the ecosystem
smoke and dust clouds over the city/town creating a • Abiotic components include:
blanket/insular effect. •Climate •Soil •air. Water, rocks, sunlight
• The mean winter temperature is also significantly higher as well Functions of water in the ecosystem
as the summer temperature which might be as much as 5°C • Is the medium in which nutrients are dissolved
higher. • Enables plants to grow
• For drinking by animals
Section B Functions of air in the ecosystem
• For breathing
QUESTION 5 ECOSYSTEMS • Respiration
• Seed germination
Functions of soil in an ecosystem
• For anchoring plants
Ecosystems Notes • Source of nutrients for plants
• Home for burrowing animals
Define an ecosystem and examples. • Provide ground for people to build houses, grow plants and walk
• An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with each Functions of sunlight in the ecosystem
other and with their physical environment • For photosynthesis to take place
• Savanna, Desert ecosystem, Equatorial • Enables animals to see their enemies
• Crop field, kraal What is a system?
Components of an ecosystem • A system is an arrangement which allows energy and matter to be
exchanged from one part to another

94
• A system is made up of inputs, processes, stores, flows and
outputs Food webs
• Ecosystems are open systems because energy and living matter • Is a feeding relationship in which an animal may feed on more
can both enter and leave the system: than one other organisms
Inputs Stores Flows Outputs • It shows interconnections of food chains
Sunlight Nutrients e.g. evapotranspiration, • It shows that herbivores eat many different plants and carnivores
precipitation are store capillary out migration also eat many different animals
in: uptake run-off
vegetation, nutrients
plant litter
and soils

Food chain
• food chain is made up of a series of organisms each eating the
preceding one
• A food chain is thus a linked feeding series

Energy Flows
Energy flows are the flow of energy through a food chain
•Energy flows flow through an ecosystem from one stage to
another.
•Through photosynthesis plants are able to capture light energy
from the sun to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
water to grow and increase their biomass Tips on how to draw a good food web
Since food web is two or more food chains joined together, start
by identifying producer and write them at base followed by
primary consumers, then secondary and lastly tertiary consumers
You write these as parallel food chains side by side.
Then draw in extra arrows to join the food chains to give you food
wed
That’s food webs show how food chains in an ecosystem connect
to each other

Food pyramids

• The flow of energy decreases at each successive trophic level

• Producers are organisms that make their own food by
photosynthesis
• Consumers organisms that get their food by eating plant or other
consumers
• Decomposers are organisms that get their food by breaking down
dead plants and animals
• Primary consumers feed directly on plants, are called herbivores
• Omnivores eat both plants and animals
• Carnivores eat other animals only

95
 Crop Field
Test yourself (Mark your work using answers at the back)
trees
1. An ecosystems is defined as ……………………(2)
2 two main components of the ecosystem are ………..and ….. (2)
3 Draw a food chain using the organisms listed animals
[man, rice, lion, vulture, bacteria] (2)
4 Construct a food web using the following organisms Soil micro-
[rat, lion, grass, kudu, cheater, man, tree, and elephant] (4) organisms
5(i) the arrow on a food chain/ food wed points to ………………
Total
(ii) The arrows also show the flow …………………………………..
Along the food chain
(iii) A trophic level is ……………………………………………. (3)
6 draw a labeled diagram showing trophic levels and examples of
the organisms at each trophic level (4) The species richness is the same and the total
7 abundance is the same, but field B is dominated by
just one species – the buttercup. A community
dominated by one or two species is considered to be
less diverse than one in which several different
species have a similar abundance

➢ Define terms Species diversity, Habitat diversity, Genetic

diversity
➢ identify habitats in a local ecosystem
(b) Give one example an organism found at each of level one to ➢ Adopting a micro environment for biodiversity
four (4) conservation
(c) Study the organisms listed below and answer question (i) to ➢ identify reasons, strategies, challenges and solutions
(iii) below
in biodiversity conservation projects at local level
Goat, Lion, Maize, Cabbages, Dog, Caterpillar,
Man,theVulture,
Using Cheater, chicken, Zebra, Goat, tree
above organisms
Tropical Rainforest Climate
• Have very similar climates all year around.
(i) draw a food chain with five organism (2) • Temperature is high year round 27 to 300c i.e. has a
(ii) Draw a food web using all the organisms given (4)
small annual temperature range.
• Receive rainfall all year around, with two maxima
3.4 Biodiversity
• Normally experience late afternoon convectional
Biodiversity refers to all living organisms in an rainfall. This is because they are close to the equator
area (on land, water and other places) where temperatures are hot year round.
Also includes differences within species, between
species and of ecosystems.
Tropical rainforest Zones
Field work
A better measure of diversity should take into
account the abundance of each species. To illustrate
this, compare the data for wildflowers sampled in
two different fields. Which field has greater
diversity?

Number of individuals

Natural Artificial
ecosystem (list ecosystem
species) Structure of equatorial rainforest vegetation

96
 2. Canopy layer- trees grow close together that their
crown interlock to form a continuous canopy. Blocks
most sunlight from the forest floor.
Lianas and epiphytes are also found here.
3. Under canopy layer – short trees are found in this
layer. Some epiphytes and lianas are also found here.
4. Shrub layer – shrubs , young trees and ferns are
found here.
5. Ground layer- ferns, mosses, fungi and other small
plants are found here because they do not need
much sunlight to grow. The vegetation is sparse, little
The tropical rainforest has 5 layers. or no leaf litter on the forest floor because the fallen
1. Emergent layer- tallest trees between 40 and 48 m. leaves decompose very rapid.

The forest is dense

ly, evergreen do not shed all their leaves over same • Some leaves have narrow drip tip points to allow
period of time. rainwater to flow quickly off the leaves
Most trees are hardwood. They are very durable and 1) Drip tip leaves
heavy.
eg Mahogany, Ironwood and Ebony

Describe and explain the adaptations of tropical

rainforest vegetation (7)
• Tropical forest have broad leaves with a waxy
leathery or hairy texture to allow the rain water to
run off easily.

97
 • Control of soil erosion: The root systems of trees and
shrubs hold the very thin soil of rainforest in place.
When it rains in the rainforest it really rains! The • Source of nutrients. The topsoil in rainforests is very
canopy is like a big umbrella and reduces the force
thin and relies on the nutrients provided by rotting
plants and animals.
of the rain. Drip tip leaves help to get rid of water
• Medical remedies: Rainforests have been the source
quickly.
of many of today's drugs,
• Ecotourism: This not only helps protect rainforests,
• Shallow root due to water and nutrients are found in but creates income for locals..
the top layer of the soil
• Large, fan-shaped leaves that are good for catching Animals in tropical rainforest ecosystem
sunshine. • Tree climbing animals dominate in the canopy layer
• Have buttress roots that stretch from the ground to • High population of insects and birds on top layer
two metres or more up the trunk and help to anchor • There are very few herbivores due to limited grass
the tree to the ground cover
• Lianas are climbers that grow up to the canopy to Human impact in tropical rainforest
get sun light • Tropical rainforests are at the risk of deforestation
due to:-
• Farming- traditional slash and burn and commercial
ranching
• Logging for hard wood mainly for export
• Road construction
• Mining eg gold and aluminium in DRC and Nigeria
• Cut down as a source for tropical timber- often used
for furniture production
• Growth of oil palm plantations in response to global
demand for palm oil, the most important tropical
• Straight and tall trunks due to high competition for vegetable oil in the global oils industry. . About half
sunlight of all presently oil palm plantations (over 6 million
• Dark evergreen leaves to increase transpiration and ha) were established in areas in Malaysia and
so reduce moisture stress Indonesia.
• There is little or no undergrowth due to absence of • Agriculture- although this is often small scale,
sunlight on the ground primary forest areas are cleared for agriculture and
then later left to rejuvenate, although this will only
Describe and explain how the plants in photographs regrow as secondary rain forest.
below are adapted to equatorial climate (5) • Road construction to open up areas of the forest for
communication or timber and palm oil industries.
• Population pressure and settlement growth
• Hunting have resulted in species extinction
Human impact in tropical rainforest
• deforestation have led to gully erosion
• Floods are now common due to lack of trees to hold
water and to encourage infiltration
• Extinction of some plants and animals
• High rate of river siltation
Importance of Tropical Rainforests • Great loss of animal habitant
• Biodiversity: contain up to 50% of the world's • Loss of genetic diversity
biodiversity. • Low rainfall due to reduced evapotranspiration
• Convert large amounts of the greenhouse gas carbon • Infertile soils due to high erosion and absence of leaf
dioxide back into oxygen. litter
• Flood control (interception, • Landslides: removing trees and vegetation, makes
transpiration): Rainforests are an excellent natural the soil less stable.
measure to reducing flooding.

98
• Reduced photosynthesis: releasing more carbon • Establishing quota harvesting
dioxide into the atmosphere and contributing to the • Practising afforestation and reforestation
greenhouse effect. • Encouraging ecotourism so that communities can
• Desertification: Because rainforest soil loses its benefit from tree conservation
fertility very quickly after deforestation it quickly • Reducing demands for hard wood in MEDCs by
becomes hard to grow any vegetation on it, leading designing alternative synthetic furniture
to desertification. • Reduce use of trees through using alternative
Sustainable management of tropical rainforest sources of energy such as solar, electricity and biogas
• Sustainable management means using resources in a • Reusing and recycling materials made from the trees
way that enables both the present and future to encourage conservation
generations to benefit from the same resources
without causing degradation
Sustainable management can be achieved by
• Selective felling of valuable trees
Savanna ecosystem ii.Describe and explain how the vegetation is adapted (4)
Study questions iii.Draw up a business proposal that you can undertake using
i.Describe the scene in the photograph (4) the ecosystem in the photograph (4)

• is between 5-15 degrees either side of the equator • Vegetation of the savanna is few trees and lots of
giving southern hemisphere Savanna and northern grass.
hemisphere Savanna
• Zimbabwe lies within the Savanna ecosystem Adaptations of Savanna vegetation
Climatic conditions in the Savanna
• Plants of the savannahs are highly specialized to
• Short wet summer and cool dry winter
grow in this environment of long periods of drought.
• Rainfall ranges between 800-1000mm per year
• They have long tap roots that can reach the deep
• Rainfall is linked to the ITCZ and is unreliable water table,
• Drought is very common • Thick and rough bark to resist annual fires
• Temperature average 210c • Thick trunks that can store water eg baobab
Characteristics of Savanna vegetation
• Leaves that drop of during the winter to conserve
• Savanna is mainly grassland with scattered trees.
water. (deciduous)
• The tall elephant grass grows up to 2m • Umbrella shaped crown to shade roots
• In the woodland Savanna close to equator, there are • Trees are pyrophytic ie fire resistant since fire is very
more trees with a mixture of grass common in the savanna eg
• The acacia/ scrub Savanna close to desert, in the Sahel • Seed cases are fire resistant
consists of scattered thorn bushes and patchy grass
• Grasses have tufts underground that enables it to
• Grass dries and die in winter reshoot after burning
• Trees survive winter by being deciduous Animals in the Savanna
• Has great variety of herbivores and carnivores
99
 • There is a wide variety of birds and reptiles
• Some animals are grazers and some are browsers
and some animals are both.
• Browsers nibble at the different levels of the trees for
food.
• Over time some animals have also developed speed
for hunting, such as the cheetahs.
• Other animals, like the giraffes have developed long
legs to become too high for a cheetah or other
predators to get to.
• Many animals migrate when it becomes too hot or
too cold for them, and some even burrow in the
ground (much like hibernation).
Human modification of the Savanna ecosystem
• Creation of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries eg
Hwange National Park
• Deforestation through logging for fire wood and
farming
• Overstocking leading to overgrazing
• Urban expansion into forest areas
• Veld fires leading to the destruction micro-organisms
and animals
• Poaching
Sustainable use of Savanna • Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places.
Sustainable management can be achieved by • True deserts normally have less than 250mm a year,
• Coming up with legislation to control veld fires although some deserts like the Atacama can go 7
• Educating people on importance of conservation years without any rain.
measures • Deserts are very dry because the air descends over
• Use of alternative sources of fuel instead of wood them warming up and holding on to moisture.
• Frequent monitoring of land use system Why do hot deserts have the climate they do?
• Reforestation programmes 1. Air is heated at the equator by the sun
• Resettlement to reduce population pressure on directly ahead.
resources 2. The heated air rises up and is warm and
Tropical desert moist
Hot Tropical Desert Climates 3. The air cools and condenses and releases lots
A desert is an area that is very dry with less than of rain for these wet tropical areas
250mm of precipitation in one year . 4. The dry now moves away from the equator,
descends and warms up
5. Because the air is dry and descending no
Where do you find hot tropical deserts?
clouds or rain are created. These areas are called
deserts.
Hot Tropical Deserts are found in a different area of the globe to 6. Some deserts sit behind mountains , where
tropical rainforests. They are found surrounding the Tropic of relief rainfall has emptied the air of any water before
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, in an area of the globe
known as the Sub-Tropics
it reaches them
Desert climate • The air is also very dry because the air travelling from
1. Hot deserts have less than 250mm of rainfall a year the equator to the tropics travels over land and not
2. Rainfall falls in quick , short bursts irregularly the sea. This means that no additional moisture is
3. They have very hot days due to the lack of clouds picked up.
which would give shade • Lack of clouds means desert areas are exposed to
4. They have very cold nights due to the lack of clouds high levels of solar radiation causing excessive
to keep heat in evaporation.
5. Warm, dry wind can causes sandstorms • Lack of cloud cover also means that a lot of outgoing
6. There is very low humidity as there is no moisture in
radiation is able to escape, making desert
the air
temperatures very cold at night.
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• So even though the annual temperature range in • The rainfall pattern is erratic ( unreliable) such that
deserts is very low, the daily temperature range is sometimes sudden and heavy downpours are
very high. experienced giving rise to flash floods.
Desert plants

Adaptations of plants to desert climate • Desert animals face many challenges to survival and
• ephemeralism, remaining dormant in the soil as fruits have developed a multitude of adaptations to endure
or seeds the harsh conditions.
• unique dispersal systems, i.e. barbs and bristles • Desert animals have evolved mechanisms to solve
• xerophytic, water-saving the heat and water problems the desert environment
• root adaptations, tap roots or heavy lateral branching creates
• small leaves, with sunken or restricted stomata • They developed means for avoiding heat, dissipating
• pale, reflective, leaves heat, retaining water, and acquiring water
• hairs, spines or thick waxy–walled leaves,
Avoiding Heat
Adaptations of desert animals • Crepuscular activity - active morning and evening
•

• Completely nocturnal (Bats, snakes, rodents foxes • breed during the relatively cool spring, then leave the
and skunks) desert for cooler areas at higher elevations.
• Seasonal migration or soaring to higher elevations`

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• Use of shade and burrows or dens during the heat of Defining land degradation
the day • Land degradation is any change in the condition of
• Aestivation dormancy during periods of heat the land which reduces its productive potential.
Dissipating heat • It is the deterioration in the quality of land, its
• Open-mouthed gaping to exhaust body heat topsoil, vegetation, and/or water resources, caused
• Long appendages and enormous ears that act like the usually by excessive or inappropriate use
radiator of a car
• Lighter coloration, which reflects heat and acts as Major causes of land degradation
camouflage in desert surroundings • soil erosion
• Urohydrosis - excreting faeces on the legs, where • loss of soil fertility
evaporation cools the rest of the body (birds • soil structure change
Retaining water • salinisation
• Burrowing into moist soil where water is absorbed • soil pollution
through the skin • desertification
• Obtaining their moisture needs from the food they • deforestation
eat • Invasive alien species
• Excreting metabolic wastes in the form of uric acid to • overuse of irrigation water
conserve water • Inappropriate use of marginal land
Environmental degradation and restoration • Veld fires

biogeochemical cycles Through restoring the system to equilibrium state

Biogeochemical cycles are pathways that show the should there be any disturbing.
movement of elements or nutrients in an ecosystem • Link living organisms This is because all organisms
importance of biogeochemical cycles. depend on one another and most especially, the biotic
• 1. Enable the transformation of matter from one form (living component) and a biotic component of the
to another for example nitrogen in atmosphere to ecosystem are linked by flow of nutrients engineered
protein/ tissue in organism by the biogeochemical cycles.
• 2. Enable the transfer of nutrients from one locality to • Regulate the flow of substances because elements in
another. eg nitrogen is moved from atmosphere to soil the biogeochemical cycles flow at differing rates within
to enable plant to absorb it. the cycle and this regulates the flow of the elements in
• 3 Facilitate the storage of elements in bodies of those cycles.
rganisms eg carbon stored as part of starch molecule. Biogeochemical cycles (Nutrient cycle, Nitrogen cycle
• 4 Assists in functioning of ecosystems. and Carbon cycle

Nutrient cycle

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103
• The model of the nutrient cycle shows movement of
nutrients in an ecosystem, Litter: This is the surface layer of vegetation, which
• Nutrients are transferred and stored among three over time breaks down to become humus.
areas namely organisms, soil and litter Biomass: The total mass of living organisms per unit
• Plants take in nutrients where they are built into new area.
organic matter. Nitrogen Cycle
• Nutrients are taken up when animals eat plants
• they returned to the soil when animals and plant die • Nitrogen makes 79 per cent of the atmosphere,
and the body is broken down by decomposers. • It is required by organisms in the synthesis of proteins,
• In all nutrient cycles there are interactions between the nucleic acids, and other nitrogenous compounds.
atmosphere and soil and many food chains are • But aerial nitrogen, the most abundant component of
involved. air, is rather inert chemically and actually cannot be
• Nutrient cycles vary greatly between ecosystems, as used as such by the majority of organisms.
the rate of nutrient transfer is dependent on the • It must first be “fixed” by specialized organisms or by
amount of moisture, heat, vegetation and the length of industrial processes.
the growing season. The nitrogen cycle consists of five stages: (FANDA)
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 (i) Fixation (iv) Denitrification and decomposition
(ii) Amonification (v) Assimilation
(iii) Nitrification)

(i)Ammonification: • Nitrates are also added to the soil through rock

• Ammonification is a process in which the organic dissolution and combination of atmospheric nitrogen
nitrogen of plants and animals after their death is with oxygen by lightning (nitrates so formed reach the
converted to ammonium ions (NH4) by the action of soil by rain). However, many plants also absorb
saprotrophic fungi and bacteria. ammonium from the soil.
(ii) Nitrification: (v)Fixation of Nitrogen:
Oxidation of ammonium ions. It takes place in two • The reduction of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to the
stages. In the first stage, ammonium (NH4+) is ammonium ion (NH+4) is called nitrogen fixation. This
converted to nitrite (NO2-). This reaction involves the process can only be carried out by certain species of
addition of oxygen to ammonia, which is further bacteria
oxidized to nitrate. This reaction is completed by the • Some of these bacteria are free-living, occurring in soil
bacteria such as Nitrosomonas, or water e.g., nodule bacteria Rhizobium
• The second stage of nitrification involves the oxidation leguminosarum).
of nitrite (NO2) to nitrate (NO3) by Nitrobacter. Carbon cycle
(iv) Nitrogen uptake by Plants: The element carbon is the present in all living
organisms. It's recycled through various processes,
• Nitrate (NO3–) formed by nitrification is used by most which are described in the carbon cycle.
plants as a mineral metabolite to make amino acids When organisms die the carbon is recycled so that it
and other nitrogen- containing compounds. can be used by future generations

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• Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from • Provides fresh water for us all ie wetlands help to
respiration and combustion. purify and replenish aquifers that people use
• Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers to make • filter waste ie plants in wetlands can help to lessen
carbohydrates in photosynthesis. water pollutants
• Animals feed on the plant passing the carbon • Feed humanity ie 70% of groundwater is used for crop
compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon irrigation
they consume is exhaled as carbon dioxide formed • Are main sources of biodiversity ie wetlands are
during respiration. The animals and plants eventually essential for many amphibians and reptiles as well as
die. breeding and migration of birds
• The dead organisms are eaten by decomposers and • Help to fight climate change as wetland vegetation
the carbon in their bodies is returned to the acts as a carbon reservoir thus reducing amount of
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In some conditions carbon dioxide in atmosphere and the green house
decomposition is blocked. The plant and animal effect
material may then be available as fossil fuel in the Conservation of ecosystems
future for combustion •Conservation methods such as:
Importance of wetlands - terracing eg on tea estates in eastern highlands
- use of alternative sources of energy such as solar,
• biogas and HEP so as to conserve forests
• Benefits of wetland areas

Environmental degradation and restoration Defining land degradation

Land degradation is any change in the condition of • deforestation
the land which reduces its productive potential. • Invasive alien species
• overuse of irrigation water
• It is the deterioration in the quality of land, its topsoil, • Inappropriate use of marginal land
vegetation, and/or water resources, caused usually by • Veld fires
excessive or inappropriate use
Impact of land degradation
Major causes of land degradation • Increased risks of floods and erosion
• soil erosion • Loss of soil fertility
• loss of soil fertility • Siltation of water bodies leading to shortage of local
• soil structure change surface water resources
• salinisation • loss of biodiversity
• soil pollution • Increased
• desertification
• soil salinity Restoration of ecosystems
• propagation of invasive species —genetic changes Restoration methods such as:
• decreasing yields in agriculture - gully reclamation
• dust-related human health problems due to wind - Grass planting
erosion, e.g. throat, nostril and lung infections - Tree planting (afforestation and
reforestation

106
 Soil Erosion in Tropical Savanna

Describe the scene in the photograph and suggest the

likely causes of this environmental degradation (7)
What is soil erosion? • Loss of topsoil
• when topsoil is detached and moved from one place to • Soil compaction
another by wind, water or ice • Reduced organic and fertile matter
• • Soil acidity levels may increase due to loss of organic
Forms of soil erosion are matter:
• splash erosion • Water pollution river siltation: with sediments and
• sheet erosion contamination from fertilizer or pesticide.
• rill erosion • Gully development leading to land degradation
• gully erosion
Strategies for reducing Soil Erosion (environmental
causes of soil erosion are either naturally-occurring restoration)
events or due to human activity. Some of the principal • Careful tilling: eg, doing zero tillage combine with contour
causes are : ploughing
Physical cause • Crop rotation: allows organic matter to build up, making
• heavy rain, the soil more fertile.
• steep hill slope will cause fast runoff which carries soil • land terracing:
away. • Water control: through construction of gabion blocks,
• Lack of vegetation results in area being hit by rain bobs storm drains and stone checks.
loosening the soil. • educating the public on importance of soil conservation
• Strong wind causes sandy and silt soil to be blown away and the effects of soil erosion
Human causes • Establishing an environmental policy to enforce soil
• Overgrazing conservation (Environmental Management Act,(EMA)
• Over cultivation without crop rotation: 2003)
• Deforestation removes soil cover. • increased use of Indigenous knowledge system (IKS)
• heavy use of fertiliser and pesticide that may cause soil
to be acidic hence death of flora and fauna identify components of soil
• Over irrigation five basic components of soil are minerals, water, gases,
• Use of heavy machinery eg combine harvesters and mine organic matter, and microorganisms
dumps that compact the soil generating a lot of runoff
• Use of biological and chemical weapons during war 1. Mineral
which kill plants and soil microorganisms is the largest component which makes upto
45% to 49% of the volume. Soil minerals are
Effects of soil erosion include
derived from weathered parent rock.

107
The texture of a soil is based on the therefore, generally some of the most productive for plant
percentage of sand, silt, and clay found in that growth.
soil. The identification of sand, silt, and clay
4. Gases
are made based on size.
Gases or air is the next basic component of soil. Because
Sand 0.05 – 2.00 mm in diameter air can occupy the same spaces as water, it can make up
Silt 0.002 - 0.05 mm in diameter approximately 2% to 50% of the soil volume. Oxygen is
Clay < 0.002 mm in diameter essential for root and microbe respiration, which helps
support plant growth. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen also
are important for belowground plant functions such as for
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
5. Microorganisms
Microorganisms are the final basic element of soils, and
they are found in the soil in very high numbers but make
up much less than 1% of the soil volume. A common
estimate is that one thimble full of topsoil may hold more
than 20,000 microbial organisms. The largest of the these
organisms are earthworms and nematodes and the
smallest are bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, and fungi.
Microorganisms are the primary decomposers of raw
organic matter.

• collecting soil samples

• measure soil components air − organic matter − water
and − mineral
• analyse soil components
• describe the processes of gleyzation and cheluviation
• name type of soils formed through soil forming
processes in the tropics
2. Water
Differentiating soil types− sand – clay − loam
Water is the second basic component of soil. Water can
• Draw and explain soil profiles
make up approximately 2% to 50% of the soil volume.
• identify soil properties
Water is important for transporting nutrients to growing
• describe horizons in the soil profile
plants and soil organisms and for facilitating
Litmus paper test for soil pH
both biological and chemical decomposition. Soil water
availability is the capacity of a particular soil to hold water
What is EMA doing?
that is available for plant use.
EMA means=
The capacity of a soil to hold water is largely dependent
on soil texture. The more small particles in soils, the more •EMA is undertaking several land rehabilitation
water the soil can retain. Thus, clay soils having the programmes. Such as Fire management projects:
greatest water-holding capacity and sands the least. • Communities are taught how to construct standard
Additionally, organic matter also influences the water- fireguards
holding capacity of soils because of organic matter's high •Environmental rehabilitation: such as gully rehabilitation
affinity for water. The higher the percentage of organic namely Dzimbahwe gully in Mashonaland Central
material in soil, the higher the soil's water-holding Province and Chireya gully in Gokwe South.
capacity. •eradication of invasive alien species, such as Latana
Camara
3. Organic matter
•Baseline surveys: are currently been done in all
Organic matter is the next basic component that is found provinces to gather information on the status natural
in soils at levels of approximately 1% to 5%. Organic resources
matter is derived from dead plants and animals and as
such has a high capacity to hold onto and/or provide the Explain the importance of good ecosystems
essential elements and water for plant growth. Soils that
are high in organic matter also have a high CEC and are, management
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 •Benefits such as • The exploitation of natural resources is the use of
- timber natural resources for economic growth.
-forests help as carbon sinks there by reducing • It started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th
greenhouse effect and climate change century as the extraction and processing of raw
- clean source of oxygen
materials such as in mining, steam power, and
- fruits/honey
machinery developed much further than it had in pre-
- reduce soil erosion
- humus to give soil fertility industrial eras.
- medicines • During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly
- increase in Precipitation increased
NATURAL RESOURCES
Types of Natural Resources Factors influencing the exploitation of resources
Several factors that influence resources exploitation
• Natural resources are defined as materials or are:-
substances occurring in nature which can be • Technology availability.
exploited for economic gain. • Labour supply.
• Examples are soil, water, mineral, forests and wild • Physical accessibility.
life which can be used to improve the wealth of the • Geological occurrence of minerals.
country. • Climatic conditions that are prevalent at the location.
• Natural resources can be put into two broad • The size of the deposit and the quality of the
categories: renewable and non-renewable resources. resources.
• A renewable resource is one that can replenish itself • Favourable world prices and demand.
by natural processes or good management so that it • Infrastructure development for example transport
is never used up. eg water, forests and fisheries. and power.
• A non-renewable resource is that cannot be • The cost of and on which developments will be made.
replenish itself natural such that it get used up or • The cost of extraction.
exhausted , for example minerals. • Usefulness of the resources.
• Trees are a renewable resources in that they can be • Government policy.
replanted whereas minerals are non-renewable • Political necessity that is, the need to be self-
because once mined the quantities underground sufficient and the need to ensure guaranteed
cannot be replaced. suppliers in a politically divided and unstable world.
• The opinions of environmentalists.
What is a resource? • Alternative supplies of the same resource.

• A resource is anything which is of value to people. Note: The significance of these factors varies from
• Resources range from tangible objects like minerals place to place and from time to time for example the
or timber to things with creative values for example environmental pressure groups are more powerful in
space. developed countries than in developing countries.
• Resources are dynamic that is, their usefulness Lack of advanced technology retards resource
varies from time to time and from place to place exploitation in developing countries as compared to
depending on changes in human wants. developed countries
• Reserve is the unused part of the total resources
which can be exploited economically in relation to identify four othe ways of conserving natural resources
the available technology. • joining international conventions on wildlife conservation
such as the CITES
• Improvement in technology increases the size of the
• establishing game reserves and sanctuaries
reserve. •creating Wildlife parks
• Increased demand and use may reduce the size of •enabling and empowering Local environment
the reserve. management commitees like CAMPFIRE

Describe ways of conserving:

Resource Exploitation (a). fish (b) water (c) trees(d) soil
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 Fish conservation Sustainable Management of forest resources in rural

• Sustainable use of fish resources is necessary in areas

order to meet present and future needs.
Sustainable economic development involves the
What is sustainable use careful management of resources, conservation and
the monitoring of the effects of resource exploitation
on the environment to ensures that present and
future generations can meet their needs with little
damage to the environment.

Strategies to achieve sustainable resource

management in Zimbabwe

1.Establishing Organizations to monitor and manage

resources eg Environmental Management Agency
(EMA)
2. Establishment of Communal Areas Management
Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE).
• The following have been adapted by SADC countries 3. Joining international conventions and protocols
related to environmental issues such as the Rio Earth
to ensure sustainability of the fishing industry.
Summit Convention of 1992, and the Convention in
International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).
1. Quota system. The amount of fish to be exploited
4. Reforestation and afforestation.
by each boat is limited.
5. holding tree planting campaigns have helped to
2. Aquaculture. Fish farming has been introduced in
bring awareness of the importance of trees to rural
many countries to conserve fish species.
communities.
3. Licensing. Number of fishing vessels are
5. Introducing new technologies. Eg use of tsotso
controlled in all the Southern Africa countries
stove to conserve firewood
through the issue of licenses by government
6. Substitution of wood fuel for other sources of
departments in charge of fisheries.
energy eg Solar energy, electricity, paraffin, coal,
4. Controlling the fishing season. the spawning
charcoal and gas.
period from September to December is a restricted
7. Empowering rural communities in the management
period for fishing. This allows fish to replenish
of and conservation of their resources. The
themselves.
CAMPFIRE programme
5. Setting up restricted fishing areas. Important
8. Resettlement of people from overcrowded and
spawning grounds are restricted from fishing for
overgrazed communal areas may also help to relieve
example areas off the coast at Cape Town in South
pressure on indigenous forest resources in these
Africa.
areas.
6. Legislation has been enacted in most countries to
9. Recycling of products that use forest resources.
conserve fisheries for example the size of gill nets
10. Population control. This can be achieved in rural
has been limited to 76 mm in Zambia to allow small
communities by improving the education of women
fish to escape with only mature fish being caught.
and improving the health care facilities and family
7. The involvement of locals in the management of
planning presence in these areas.
fish resources for example CAMPFIRE programme in
11. Laws and fines have been passed making it illegal
Zimbabwe has helped to conserve the resource.
to cut and transport indegenous trees without a
permit from the EMA
− water
Wildlife
Wildlife includes all undomesticated living plant and
identify ways of conserving forest
animal species
Wildlife management

110
 Wildlife management means sustainable use all forms of Conservation of energy sources
aquatic or terrestrial flora indigenous to Zimbabwe • explain how energy sources can be conserved
answer
Discussing advantages and disadvantages of wildlife Energy conservation methods:
management - Increased use of public transport
- Use of renewable energy sources (wind, biogas, Hydro-
Advantages of wildlife management electric power, solar power)
• Promote tourism which earns the country forex -tree planting
• Provide source of food eg fruits and meat -recycling
• Promote trade through trophies and live sales - Policies and strategies eg Renewable energy policy and
• Provide gene bank from which other cross breeds can be Bio- fuels policy
produced − reforestation
• Help in seed dispersal − use of energy efficient technologies such as:biogas
• Forests are essential for soil and water conservation digester and tsotso stove
• Forests are carbon sinks
Disadvantages of wildlife management QUESTION SIX MAPWORK AND GIS

Mapwork for Zimsec

1. It puts the rights of animals over the rights of men.
MAP WORK AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
E.g. not allowing people to build structures in places
considered to be the habitats of these species. Ie wildlife What is a map?
conservation law favours animals and plants more than A map is a representation, usually on a flat surface, of the features
the human beings. of an area of the earth
2. It is costly. Types of maps
•outline the characteristics of the major types of maps.
Large sums of money are spent making payments for •classify map into the major types
land surveys, rehabilitations, employees and researches POLITICAL MAPS
which used the money of taxpayers. • It focuses solely on the state and national boundaries of a
3. Punishments for violations of wildlife are too much. place.
. People who are caught can be asked to pay hefty sums • Eg one showing Zimbabwe’s provincial boundaries and their
constituencies.
of money as fines.
• It also shows the location of cities, with respect to each other.
PHYSICAL MAPS
Types of wildlife management • shows landscape features of a place. Eg mountains, rivers, and
− Game parks: a large area of land set aside as a lakes.
protected area for wild animals • The physical features are usually shown in different colours.
− Conservancies: • Rivers and lakes are shown in blue,
A conservancy is Land set aside by an individual • Mountains are shown in brown.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
landowner, body corporate, group of owners or a • Shows physical landscape features, contour lines instead of
community for purposes of wildlife conservation (Wildlife colors to show changes in the landscape.
Act 2013). CLIMATE MAPS
Benefits from Conservancies ranging from • A climate map shows information about the climate of an area.
• improved security, • They can show things like the specific climatic zones of an area
based on the temperature, the amount of snow an area receives
• better land management, or the average number of cloudy days.
• income, • These maps normally use colors to show different climatic
• employment and areas.
• support to community projects ECONOMIC MAP
• shows the location economic activity or natural resources
− Safari areas present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors
− Sanctuaries depending on what is being shown on the map.
− National parks • For example the Natural farming regions of Zimbabwe
Human wildlife conflict ROAD MAPS
•distinguish problem animals from dangerous animals
•identify the causes of human- wildlife conflict • These maps show major and minor highways and roads
•Causes of human wildlife conflict (depending on detail), as well as things like airports, city
•Solutions to human locations and points of interest such as parks, campgrounds,
and monuments.

111
• Major highways on a road map are generally shown in red and
larger than other roads, while minor roads are a lighter color
and a narrower line.
THEMATIC MAPS
• A thematic map is a map that focuses on a particular theme or
special topic. Eg population distribution map
• Changes in population are represented by a range of colours
ranging from green (growth) to red (loss) and based on
percentage.

•list the components of a good map.

Components of a good map

− Title
− Grid/ gratitude
− Direction information
− Legend/ Key

− Scale Project: Draw a map of Anderson school showing components

− Cartographer of a good map on it
− Co- ordinate reference system
Explain the concept of scale
Title- tells you what the map is and is usually found on the top or
bottom of the map. • The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the
• It defines the purpose of the map and what type of map it corresponding distance on the ground.
is. • it indicates the proportion which, a distance between two points
on a map bears to the distance between the corresponding
Scale- the relationship between distance on a map and actual points on the actual ground.
distance on the earth. • For instance, if an actual distance of 5 KM is represented on the
• Scale may be represented by words (e.g., “one inch equals map by a distance of 1cm, the scale is 1cm:5 km
one mile”),
• a ratio 1:5 000 • Choice of a scale primarily depends on
• fraction 1/5000. o (1) the size of area to be mapped
o (2) the extent of details to be shown,
Compass Rose- An object that appears on maps to identify four main o (3) the size of the paper
directions: North, South, East and West. describe the importance of scale

Key- is found on the bottom of the map. The scale of a map allows a reader to:-
• The map key tells you what the symbols on the map stand
for. • calculate the size, height and dimensions of the features
• Symbols are small pictures on the map used for shown on the map, as well as distances between different
representing real things on our Earth like mountains, hills,
points.
and valleys etc.
• Remember, symbols don't always look like what they • The scale on a map is the ratio between real life sizes and
represent in the real world. how many times it has been shrunk to fit it on the map.
An example of a good map Outline types of scale
Title : Zimbabwe Malaria by Districts Map There are three ways in which the scale is depicted on the map
(a) simple statement scale
• By such a statement
• 1cm represent 10kilometers
• 1 centimeter on the map equals 10 kilometers on the
Earth's surface" or "
(b) representative fraction
• This expresses the proportion of the scale by a fraction in
which the numerator is one and the denominator also in
the same unit of length.
• For example, if the Repre¬sentative Fraction is stated to
be
1/100,000 or 1: 100,000,
this means that one unit on the map represents 100,000
of the same unit on ground

112
 Longitude

• Lines of longitude are vertical lines which run from north to

(c)linear scale south on the Earth.
• By graphic scale in which a straight line is divided into a • Each line extends from its starting point at the North Pole, to its
number of equal parts and is marked to show what these finishing point at the South Pole.
divisions represent on actual ground. • These lines form large semi-circles of equal size.
• These lines are also called meridians of longitude.
• Lines of longitude are measured in degrees and minutes, in the
same way that lines of latitude are.
• Lines of longitude extend to 180o east or west.
• The most important line of longitude is the Greenwich Meridian
(also known as the Prime Meridian
• • Was adopted as the universal zero point of longitude.
• The Greenwich Meridian divides the world into an Eastern and
Maps can also be classified on the basis of their scales: Western Hemispheres.
• The lines of longitude in the east (E) are sometimes written as
Large scale map Small scale map
plus (+) degrees and those in the west (W) are sometimes
i) Large scale maps show a (i) Small scale maps show a
referred to as minus (-) degrees.
small area in greater detail. larger area in less detail.
(ii) They are guide maps such (ii) They are wall maps, or atlas
as town plans and cadastral maps. Determine the longitude and latitude of a point in degrees
maps showing boundaries of (iii) They show important
landed properties . features like mountains,
(iii) Details of cities, towns, plateaus, con-tinents and
villages are shown. countries.
(iv) The scale may be 1: 500 or (iv) Scale may be 1 : 50 000
1:10 000. or 1:1 000 000

Longitude and latitude

Latitude

• Latitude is the angular distance measured north and south of

the Equator.
• The equator is at an angle of 0 degrees latitude. Often, the
northern hemisphere has positive measures of latitude and the
southern hemisphere has negative measures of latitude
• If you go south of the equator, the latitude increases all the way
up to 90 degrees at the south pole.
• Values range from +90° at the North Pole to -90° at the South
Pole.
• In the northern hemisphere the latitude is always given in
degrees north and in the southern hemisphere it is given in
degrees south
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 (iii) A scale for a
Large scale map
Small scale map
Imaginery lines that increase from 00 to900 north and south are
called…………..
The equator divides the world into two halves called
…………………… and …………………….
The lines of longitude are also called the ……………………….
The Greenwich meridian divides the world into two halves called the
…………………… and …………….
Using longitudes to calculate time
• Because one day is 24 hours long one can easily use time to
calculate longitude.
• One hour of time difference corresponds to 15° of longitude
Establish the longitude and latitude of a point using metres (360°/24 hours = 15°/hour).
Converting NASA's measurement of the Earth's radius into meters and • Suppose an observer sets his accurate watch to 12:00 at noon
substituting it in the formula for arc length, we find that each degree the in Greenwich, England and then travels a great distance.
radius line of the Earth sweeps out corresponds to 111,139 meters. If the If time at 00 is 3 pm
line sweeps out an angle of 360 degrees, it covers a distance of 40,010, • Every 150 when moving eastwards time will increase by 1hour
040 meters. This is a little less than the actual equatorial circumference of • And decrease by 1hour every 150 when moving westwards.
the planet, which is 40,030,200 meters. The discrepancy is due to the fact • Eg.1. There are 2 hours between 00 and 300 W, therefore the
that the Earth bulges at the equator. time at 300 W is 1pm.
• Eg.2. There are 3 hours between 00 and 450 E, therefore the
Global positioning systems time at 450 E is 6pm
Today, it's all done electronically through GPS, a world-wide radio 1. Since the Earth rotates at a steady rate of 360° per day, or
navigation system made up of a constellation of 24 satellites and their 15° per hour, there is a direct relationship between time
ground stations. These 'artificial stars' are used as reference points to and longitude. Since, there are 360 degrees of longitude
calculate a terrestrial position to within an accuracy of a few metres. In and there are 24 hours in a day, one hour is 15 degrees
fact, with advanced forms of GPS you can make measurements to within longitude.
a centimetre! What would Harrison have made of it? • If you are in London at 12:00, and want to know what time it is
in Japan, you would need to first figure out that London is 0
longitude and latitude are used to divide the world into degrees or right on the prime meridian, and Japan is 135
hemispheres degrees East.
• So the difference is 135 degrees, 1350, divided by 15 which
equals 9. Which means there is a 9-hour difference between
London and Japan.
• Since Japan is further east than London is, you would add 9
hours to 12:00. The answer is at 12:00 noon London time, it is
9:00pm in Japan.
• If it is 12 noon at Greenwich, calculate the local time of the
places located on the following longitudes:
• 69°E,
• 30°W and
• 12°E?

Exercise 1
Answer all questions and submit work for marking
Typical exam Questions
1. The earth rotates on its axis from: A. north to south B west to east
Test C south to north D east to west
1a) A map showing landscape features on which rivers are shown in 2. A complete rotation of the earth takes: A 356days B 24hrs C 23
blue and mountains in brown is called a ……………………… seconds D12hrs
b) A map of zimbabwe showing provincial boundaries and 3 which imaginary lines run parallel on earth: A. longitude B. latitude
constituencies is called a ………………… C. meridians D. date line
c) A map drawn showing temperature, rainfall and snow distribution 4. Accra is at 00 longitude and Cairo is at 300 longitude. What time is
in a country is called a ……………….. it in Cairo when it is noon in Accra: A 1pm B 2pm C 3pm D4pm
d) A map showing malaria zones of Zimbabwe is called a 5 if time is 1200 noon on Monday at Green which, what time would it
………………………………… be at 600 East?
2. State any four componentsof a good map A 8.00am Sunday B10.00am Monday C4.00pm Monday D8.00am
3. Give 3 factors that would influence you choice of a map scale if Tuesday
you areto draw one 6 Given that local time at a place X (longitude 00 ) is 10.00am, what
5, Give an example of is the local time at placeY located along longitude 600 East?
(i) A simple statement scale A 12.00noon B 6.00am C 4.00pm D2.00pm
(ii) A linear scale

114
7 A soccer match kicks off in Mauritius at 450 East at 1800hours 15 Moscow and Nairobi are on the same line of longitude 37E, it can
GTM. the local time in Zimbabwe would be be deduced that
A 0900hrs B1200hrs C 1500hrs D 2100hrs A they are the same distance from the equator B They have similar
8 what is time in New York longitude 750 west, when it is noon in hours of day and light on 21 june
Harare longitude 300 east? A 0500hrs B 0700hrs C 17oohrs D C they have noon at the same time D dawn is of the same
1900hrs duration in both places
9 when it is 0600hrs on Thursday at 600 East, what day and time is it
at 450 west? Grid references
A Wednesday 2300hrs B Thursday 13oohrs C Wednesday 13oohrs • Survey maps are divided into numbered squares.
D Thursday 23oohrs • These squares can be used to give a place a four, six-figure
10 A television viewer in Alaska (1650 W) is watching a live match grid or 13figure grid reference.
being played in Bamako, Mali 00 at 11.00 hrs GMT on Sunday 10 Eastings
february.at what time and day is another viewer in Siberia (1650 E) • Eastings are vertical lines that run up and down the map.
watching the same game • They increase in number the further you move east (or right).
A 1100hrs Saturday 9 February B 2300hrs Sunday 10 February You can use them to measure how far to travel east.
C0900hrs Monday 11 February D 2300hrs Tuesday 12 February Northings
11 A men travelling from Siberia at 9pm on Friday crossed the pacific • Northings are lines that run across the map horizontally.
into Alaska some 150 E arriving at 10pm. what day was it in Alaska • They increase in number the further you move north (or up the
A Friday B Saturday C Sunday D Thursday map). You can use them to measure how far to travel north.
12 if local time of a place is 1600hrs and GMT is 1400hrs the Locating places using grid references
longitude of the place is: A 300E B 300W C 450w D 450E Numbers along the bottom or top (eastings) of the map come first
13 Town A is 15 to the west of town B and local time at A is the same and the numbers up the side (northings) of the map come second
as the GMT. what is the longitude of town B Four reference
A o0 B 300E C150E D 450E
14 the captain of an ocean liner observed that the longitude was
75W when the time in London was11.00hrs. the time in the liner was Exercise 2 answer all questions
A 0500hrs B 1500hrs C0600hrs D1600hrs

Calculate gradient from Y to X

State four figure State 6 figure State 13 figure grid
grid reference grid reference reference Find the bearing of (a) A from C
A 3682 365824 7365007782400 (b) B from F
eg State the direction of X from G
B
C
D
E
F

115
 iv………………………
1. Write down the four-figure grid reference v………………………
of each feature of[6] vi………………………
i……………………….. ii……………………… vii……………………..
iii…………………….. viii……………………
2. Write down the six-figure grid reference ix………………………
for each of the features numbered (i) to 3. write down 13 figure grid reference for
(x). [6 marks] (4)

4. find the bearing of (2) Que)

R from PS ………………………………………………………. (1)
………………………………………………………… 7. State the direction of flow of (2)
PO from BH Rue river
………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………
5. Find the gradient from (3) Que rive
(i) BH and R ………………………………………..……………………
……………………………………………………… 8 Describe the two landforms shown on the map
(ii) BH and X (2)
……………………………………………………… 9 Estimate the area of the aerodrome (2)
(iii) R and x
……………………………………………………… Calculate gradient
6. Find the distance along the river form
where it crosses northing 99 to the
confluence of its two tributaries (Rue and

116
Ensure you get maps indicated below and answer these questions to get ready for the exams

Kashambi map 2. in which direction is the Ngezi River flowing? A. SW B. NE C

1.The area of mabwematema dam between eastings 05 and 07 is: A South D. North
4,2km2 B 4,4km2 C 4,6km2 D 4,8km2 3what name is given to the relief feature created by the river at grid
square 7946007770500
117
A Sadle B gap C pass D gorge 4 The confluence of Gwamatoro and Shavi rivers
Makwarimba Map …………………………………………………………………
1. The physical feature found at grid point 3813007927400 is a 9. Give 13 figure grid references for spot height 1034
A. marsh B rapid C water fall ………………………………………………………..
D waterhole 10 the main function of kezi settlement is
2. which of the following grid squares has the largest area of ……………………………………………………….
natural vegetation 11 A tourist on the summit of Kezi in grid square 5091 sees a
A. 3800007930000 B. 3800007931000 C 3800007932000
dam wall 6,2km away. In which direction is he/she facing
D3800007933000
3 The trigonometrical station 656/s 1615.8 0n Chipango hill is ………………………………………………………………..
at grid point
Makwarimba map 2
A. 7939800372900 B7940200373100 C 3729007939800 D
3731007940200
1. In which grid reference is there a spot height (tick the
4. the distance travelled by road from morris bridge
correct answer) 3729007939800……
(3768007927700) to Nerwande school (3794007730500) is A.
3813007927400………… 3826007941000 …………
3,9km B. 4,2km C. 4,5 Km D. 4,7km
2. What is the direction of St peters school in grid square 7033
5 What is the average gradient along the gravel road from the
from Rowe hill in grid square 7128
Ngowe river bridge (852311 to spot height 1173 (866317)? A
…………………………………………
1:16 B 1:19 C 1: 22 D 1: 24
3. From Morris bridge in grid square 7627, a traveller walking
6 The general direction of flow of the Ruzawi river is
in a straight line a distance of 5km in north westerly direction
A. west to East B. North to South C. Northwest to south east
will end up at a
D. north east to south west
…………………………………………………………
7 What is the bearing of the homestead TO74 at St Annes
4 The dominant landuse in grid square 8227 is
Mission (7328) from the trigonometrical station 654/S 1338.4
…………………………………………………..
on Rowe hill (7127)? A 820 B 980 C 2620 D
5 The main drainage pattern formed by the Ngowe river and its
278 0
tributaries is …………………….
8. Which of the following rivers follows a steeper valley for
6 Draw a sketch section to represent the nature of land surface
much of its fairly straight course?
between grid reference points 700280 and 730280
A Mutombwa (9229) B Ngowe (8532) C Chikunzwi (7635) D
Mare (7027)
7Calculate the average gradient between spot height 1184 in
9. considering accessibility and population density, which of
grid square 7931 and 1476 in grid square 8234
the fpllowing schools has the greatest potential for expansion?
……………………………………………………………
A. Nerwande (7930) B Mapfuwe (8227) C matsika (8932) D
8 Measure and record bearing of Zvidende dip tank in grid
Chiwetu (9136)
square 7230 from spot height 1186 in 7427
10 at which point is the gravel road between eastings 75 to 77
……………………………………………………………….
and northings 37 to 40 passing through a gap? A
3765007938400 B 3757007938300 C 3764007937600 D.
9 identify, locate and suggest reasons for the existence of any
3766007937400
two settlement patterns on the map
11 The main feature attracting settlement on the Devedzo
Hills (8038) is
10. What is the 13 figure grid reference of 1173 spot height on
A flatland B. sparse bush C river water D rock outcrops
the north of Ruzawi river close to Wedza communal land
12 the main drainage pattern formed by the Ngowe river and
……………………………………………………
its tributaries in the section boxed by verticals 84 to 86 and
11. Which depositional feature is evident in Ruzawi river
horizontals 34 to 40 is
12 A tourist walks from northing 38 in 7038 to the summit of
A dendritic B radial C rectangular D trellis
the ridge at 7040 following which types of slope
……………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………
Kezi map
……
1. what is the 13 figure grid reference for ruins to the west of
13 The highest contour in grid 8331 is ………………….
Mwewe river and to the NNW of manyane dam
14.The width of Ruzawi river in grid square 7137 when it
…………………………………………..
crosses northing 37 is ……………………..
2 The main land use north east of Mwewe river is
15 The area covered by cultivation in grid 6931 is about
………………………………………………………………
…………………………km2
3 the altitude of the bridge in grid square 5287
16 The vertical interval used on the map is……………….
is………………………………….. m
Birchenough Bridge, Zimbabwe
4. what is the bearing of the spot height 1017 in grid square
1. Which of the following grid square has the heighest number
5384 from spot height 1014 in grid square 4880?
of huts and buildings?
…………………………….
A3189 B 3289 C 3389 D 3489
5 Name the highland feature named Kezi (4991) is
2. the feture found at grid point 4375007903100 is a
…………………………………………
A levelling benchmark B borehole C narrow tarred road D hut
6 the length in Km of the aerodrome shown on the map is
3 in which of the following grid square would one find a bore
……………………………….
hole, huts and bridge?
7. The direction of flow of Shashani river is
A 3196 B 3092 C 3492 D 3494
………………………………..
4. the length of the Birchenough bridge aerodrome (3092) is A
8. List all drainage features shown in area boxed by eastings
550M B 600m C 650m D 700M
40-41 and northings 90-93
118
5. what is the general direction of flow of the Changadzi river A 450 B. 950 C. 1350 D 3150
from the edge of the map extract to its confluence with the 12 what is the six figure grid reference point of Mwenji summit
Bangawe river (4396007792700) 46/P1570,6?
A E to W B. NW to SE C. NE to SW D. S to N A 054335 B. 335054 C 335066 D 345066
6 what is the bearing of the trigonometrical station 1310/s 13 The Track boxed by Eastings 31 to 34 and Northings 14
(288963) from the borehole at Kudziwa village (290986)? A to15 on the map follows
40 B 1760 C 1840 D 2600 A ridge B valley C pass D waterfall
7. The river feature at 354003 is a 14 what is the average gradient of the land between spot
A braided stream B deferred junction C gorge D meander height 1108 in grid square 2916 and the dip tank at grid
9 at which point does the track between verticals 38 and 40 reference point 312166?
and horizontals 92-94 follow a pass A 1:50 B 1:48 C 1: 36 D 1:30
A 439200 7793400 B 4395007793000 C. 4395007792600 15 What is the drainage pattern shown in grid square 3311 A
D4390007792200 antecedent B centripetal C dendritic D trellis
10 which of the following indicates the presence of tourism 16 The rural settlement pattern in grid square 4307 is
around Birchenough Bridge? A clustered B dispersed C linear D radial
A bridge B. clinic C hostel D petrol 17. Considering relief and availability of water which of the
11 which of the following schools would be most affected by following areas is most suitable for irrigation? A 4011 B
flooding in the event of a tropical cyclone reaching 4213 C 4305 D 4707
Birchenough bridge area 18 what is the altitude of the summit of the hill in grid square
A Changati (4396) B Goko (3189) C Maunganidze (3791) D 3014? A 1200m B. 1220m C. 4305m D 1260m
Tonhorayi (4395) 19. Considering accessibility and size of population, which of
12 The settlement pattern in the area between the Changadzi the following settlement areas has the greatest potential to be
and Bangwe rivers can best be described as A. haphazard B. developed to a growth point? A. 2803 B. 2912 C .3409 D 3603
linear C. nucleated D radial 20 What is the length in metres of the dam at grid square
……………………………………………………………………… 3312? A 250m B. 350m C. 450m D.150m
…… 21 The area between Eastings 31 and 34 and Northings 07
and 10 is mainly used for
A. cultivation B. administration C. forestry D. Recreation
22 What is the length in kilometres of the section of kaodzi
Odzi map 1 Zimbabwe river from 314035 to its confluence with odzi river in 3603
A 5,7km B 7,5km C17,5km D. 5,17Km
1 which of the following grid squares has the highest number 23 what is the main drainage characteristics of Odzi river A.
of huts, buildings and bridge meandering B. ox-bow lakes C. steep sided gorges D.
A. 3604. B 3009 C. 3709 D. 4511 distributaries
2. The feature found at grid point 369093 is 24 Which of the following grid square has the steepest slopes?
A benchmark B. bore hole C dip tank D. hut A. 3803 B. 2905 C. 3414 D. 2911
3. In which of the following grid squares would one find wide 25 The physical feature in the south west corner of the map
tarred road, bridge , huts and dip tank. A. 3410 B. 0933 C. between Eastings 00 and 02 is
4206 D. 3309 A. gorge C. plain D. plateau
4. The length of the Grand reef aerodrome (4201) is A. 900m 26 what does the letter ‘R’ in grid square stand for 3310?
B.1100m C .1300 D. 1500m A rapid B railway C reservoir D road
5 what is the general direction of flow of the odzi river from the 27 the altitude of the dip tank in grid square3811 is
edge of the map extract to its confluence with the A. 1020m B. 1000m C.980m D. 900m
Chingwandow (3911) 28 the gentle slopes of Dewann mountan between verticals 34
A. N to S B. NW to SE C. NE to SW D. S to N and 36 and horizontals 13 to 15 is observed by contour lines
6,Drainage pattern in the area boxed by Nothings 03 to 05 that are
Eastings 44 to 46 is A close together B far apart C straight D
A. radial B. Trellis C. Dendritic D. Centripetal bending
7. Which of the following areas would be most affected by 29 the presence of many streams on this map means the
flooding in the event of a tropical cyclone reaching Odzi? presence of a rock that is
A. rock lands high (3806) B. Chikonga south (4508) C. Odzi A impermeable B permeable C porous
(3503) D. Chikonga west (4510) D water logged
8 the settlement pattern in the area between vertical grids 36- 30 the dominant drainage pattern to the north of northing 07 on
39 and horizontal grids 02-04 can best be described as the map is
A Haphazard B. Linear C. Nucleated D. Radial A trellised B radial C dendritic D
9 What is the altitude of the bridge in grid square 3709 A. parallel
1000m B.800m C. 900m D.980m
10 The physical feature called Gwindingwi in 4107 is A. Odzi Zimbabwe map 2
mountain with gentle slopes B mountain with steep slopes C 1. What is the 13 figure grid reference of the bridge about
ridge D plateau 1,5km south of Odzi falls?.............................
11 the bearing of the spot height 10007 at grid reference point 2. Which depositional feature is evident in grid 4012?
436066 from the spot heigt 987 at grid reference point 403099 ………………………………………………………………………
is ……
119
3. The confluence of Chingwandow and odzi river is at The width of Odzi river in grid square 3912 when it crosses
……………………………………………….. (6 figure grid ref) northing 12 is
4 A tourist walks from northing 03 in 3903 to the summit of the A 200m B 300m C250m D350m
ridge at 397035 following which type of slope 6 the bearing of Nyamatsini dip tank in grid 3816 from dam
………………………………………………. wall in grid 3313 is
5 The highest contour in grid 3197 is…………………………… A 3450 B 450 C 275o D
6. The width of Odzi river in grid square 3912 when it crosses 75 0

northing 12 is …………………………………………… 7 the area covered by cultivation in grid 4215 is about A

7 the bearing of Nyamatsini dip tank in grid 3816 from dam 0,75km2 B 7,5km2 C 2km2 D 3km2
wall in grid 3313 is ……………………………………… 8 The average gradient along the major road from the spot
8. The area covered by cultivation in grid 4215 is about height in grid 4609 to the thick contour line crossing the major
……………………………………………………………..km2 road at 371088 is A 1:73 B 1:733 C1:7,3
9 The average gradient along the major road from the spot D 1:0,73
height in grid 4609 to the thick contour line crossing the major 9 the feature found at 412077 is a A major rod B church C
road at 371088 is…………………….. hospital D service station
10. The feature found at 412077 is a………………………… 10 what grid bearing does the road towards Mutare follow from
11 What grid bearing does the road towards Mutare follow 447064
from 447064 ………………………………………………. A 3600 B600 C 2400 D
12 In which square is there the lowest drainage density 400
3200………….2811…………3215 ……3606 11 In which square is there the lowest drainage density
………….. A3200 B2811 C3215 D 3606
13 what is the difference in height between the confluence of 12 what is the difference in height between the confluence of
Odzi river and Chingwandow river and the confluence of Odziriver and Chingwandow river and the confluence of kaodzi
kaodzi and odzi river ……………………………. and odzi river A 980m B 960m C20m
14 The direction of the course of Chingwandow river shown on D40m
the map can best be described as…………. 13 the course of Chingwandow river shown on the map can
15 The vertical interval used on the map is………………….. best be described as
16 A north East to south west B north west to south east C north
to south D south to north
14 the vertical interval used on the map is
……………………………………………………………………… A 40 B 60 C20 D
…………… 80
15
17 The section of Odzi river between easting 40 and 42 is not
navigable because of ………………………………
A pastoralism B plantation C planting D mining
18 The course of Chingwandow river between vertical grids 38
16 The section of Odzi river between easting 40 and 42 is not
and 39 is characterised by ………………………
navigable because of A meanders B braids C rapids D dam
19 The specific point from which numbering of grid lines start wall
is called ……………………………………………………
17 the course of Chingwandow river between vertical grids 38
20 The grid lines that increase in number from left to right are and 39 is characterised by
called …………………………………………………
A rapids B angular bends C meanders D straight channel
21 The landform found in grid 2806 is a ………………………
18 the specific point from which numbering of grid lines start is
Odzi Zimbabwe map 3 called A the earth’s axis B the grid origin C the earth’s core D
1. What is the four figure grid reference of the bridge about the grid square
1,5km south of Odzi falls?
A 1237 B 1238 C 3712 D 3812 19 the grid lines that increase in number from left to right are
2. Which depositional feature is evident in grid 4012? A levees called A. longitudes B latitudes C eastings D northings
B potholes C islands D rapids
3. The confluence of Chingwandow and odzi river is at A 20 the landform found in grid 2806 is a A plateau B conical hill
113395 B 393115 C395113 D115393 C valley D mountain range
4 A tourist walks from northing 03 in 3903 to the summit of the
ridge at 397035 following which type of slope A concave B Masvingo map
convex C gentle D stepped
5 the highest contour in grid 3197 is 1. What is found grid reference point 2788007770600?
A 1100 B 1140 C 1180 D A diptank B foot bridge C hut D school
1200 2 The grid reference of a bridge where the railway line from
Mvuma to Masvingo croses Shangani River is
120
A. 2737007781500 B. 2738007782100 C. 2739007782400 D.
2745007784800
3 The land in grid square 2830007775000 is mostly used for A.
building B cultivation C fish farming D forestry
4 The distance of the road between the junction near the motel
(732774) and the junction near the quarry (744720) is A
4,4km B 5,4km C 6,1km D.6,3km
5 The average gradient of the land between the dam in grid
square 7173 and the trigonometrical station in grid square
6971 is A 1:97.88 B 1:97.84 C1:96.80 D. 1:96.45
6. The bearing of the mine dump in grid square 8079 from the
quarry in grid square 8283 is
A 0210 B 1010 C2010 D
221 0

7 In which grid square does a road from Masvingo to Great The settlement pattern of the area shown is
Zimbabwe go through a pass A dispersed B. nucleated C. rectangular D.
A 7468 B 7567 C 7566 D scattered.
7765 11 The greatest environmental problem likely to be
8 The diagram below represent part of the map experienced by people living in grid square 7675 is
A erosion B. water pollution C. siltation D.
industrial noise
12 Which of the following activities is most likely tobe
promoted by the lake to the south of east corner of the map?
A. tourism B HEP generation C transport D. mineral
processing

Further practice

The dominant drainage pattern is Question seven mining and natural resources
A dendritic B rsdial C subparallel D trellis Mining and processing of minerals in Zimbabwe and
9 Study part of the map extract shown below. Africa

Mining in Zimbabwe

• Zimbabwe has a wide mineral resource base which is

exploited commercially.
• Large scale mining is dominated by foreign transnational
companies such as Anglo-American, Rio Tinto and
Which of the following recreational facilities covers the largest
Ashanti Gold Fields.
area
A Caravan park B. rifle range C. Golf course • The majority of the local mines are involved in gold,
D. Swimming asbestos and chrome mining.
10. The diagram below shows a settlement in one area of the
map
Distribution of minerals in Zimbabwe

121
 •Physical accessibility – transport networks needed i.e.
railway and road
•Geological occurrence of minerals – means how rocks
Describe the distribution of minerals shown on the above map containing mineral are arranged on the earth structure
➢ geological occurrence determines mining methods as well as
the cost of operations.
• Most of the minerals are concentrated along the metamorphic
➢ Shallow horizontal seams can be mined using cheaper open
rocks zone along the Great Dyke. cast method.
• Coal and limestone are found in sedmentary rock basins such ➢ Horizontal seams that appear on the sides of hills can be
mined using the adit or drift method and the shaft method is
as the Zambezi Valley and the Save-Limpopo valleys (S.E
used for deeper seams.
Lowveld). •Climatic conditions – exploitation of minerals in hot humid
• Below is a table showing major minerals and their locations. climates with a high incidence of environmental diseases is
difficult.
•The size of the deposits and the quality/grade of the ore –
this determines the life span of the mining operations.
➢ High grade ores are exploited first because ores with a low
concentration value are expensive to exploit as they have a
Mineral Mine areas high proportion of waste materials.
Asbetsos Mashava, Zvishavane, Mutorashanga •Demand and prices on the world market – prices of minerals
Copper Mhangura, Chinhoyi fluctuate on the world market.
Chrome Shurugwi, Mutorashnga ➢ low level, this reduces the viability of the mining operations.
Coal Hwange •Availability of capital – initial capita l is required to buy land
Gold Mazowe valley, Bindura, Shamva, Bulawayo, on which development is to be made as well as set up
Kadoma, Chegutu, Mvuma Kwekwe infrastructure.
Iron ore Buchwa, Redcliff ➢ In Zimbabwe, small scale companies cannot undertake
Limestone Redcliff, Collen Bawn meaningful operations due to lack capital.
Manganese near Redcliff ➢ Mining in Zimbabwe is dominated by large TNCs with huge
Nickel Bindura capital reserves for example Anglo-American Corporation and
Platinum near Chegutu, Shurugwi, Zvishavane Union Carbide.
Tin Kamativi •Government policy and political necessity –
Phosphate Dorowa ➢ eg to create employment.
➢ to ensure self-sufficiency
Factors influencing mining •Opinions of environmentalists – environmentalists can
•Technology –determines the scale of operations and mining oppose resource exploitation if it can cause pollution, loss of
efficiency . biodiversity or land degradation.
➢ High technology enables exploitation of deep ores. •Alternative supplies of the same resources
•Labour supply – mining requires both skilled and unskilled.
122
 • Development of infrastructure such as water supply and
Importance of mining transport networks has benefited other sectors of economy
Growth of industries for example, agriculture and industries.

Growth of towns and cities

• Mining helps industries to grow by providing raw materials to for example Kwekwe, Kadoma, Hwange and Mashava have
industries also developed as a result of mining
• Many industries obtain their raw materials from the mining
Problems being faced by the Mining Industry in Zimbabwe
sector.
•Mine closures and creation of ghost towns. eg Kamative and
• For example, building and construction industries get some of Mhangura.
their raw materials from processed asbestos and iron ore. •creation of destitute former workers when mine close
•Physical decay of infrastructure and abandoned buildings.
• Heavy engineering firms obtain iron and steel from the
•Frequent accidents occur killing workers eg the Hwange
Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company. mine disaster which killed 400 miners on the 6th of June 1972.
•shortage of foreign currency to import modern machinery.
Employment creation •high electricity bills lowering profit.
• shortage of skilled manpower.
•Theft of gold and other precious stone.
• Mining creates employment directly and indirectly. Mining •Fluctuating mineral prices on the world market •eg of
operations with limited technology tend to be labour asbestos in and copper.
•Displacement of human of human settlements in areas where
intensive.
minerals are found for example Chiadzwa
• beneficiation is any process that improves the economic •Political strife in these areas as people fight for minerals
value of the ore by removing the impurities minerals, which •There is possibility of increased violence and crime as
people form gangs and fight over territories in informal mines
results in a higher grade product
•Corruption and backroom deals that undermine the
international integrity of the industry
Development of multi-ethnic communities
small scale mining in Zimbabwe
• Mining has always depended on foreign workers from Malawi,
What is a small scale miner?
Zambia and Mozambique.
❖ This is a subsistence miner who is not employed by any
Improvement in the standards of living of the miners and their company but they sale to established companies
❖ Small scale gold miners are mainly illegally gold miners who
dependents. are not registered and operate informally.
❖ They are involved mainly in gold panning, chrome mining and
• Mining companies also provide basic social services for the diamond mining
❖ They use simple hand tools eg picks, shovels and panning
miners such as education, health and recreation. These
dishes
services also benefit people from the surrounding ❖ They work seasonally ie mainly in winter
communities. Gold panning

Benefits of small scale mining / gold panning

Human resources development • It is a source of income and wealth for the panners.
• Increased supplies of gold to Fidelity Printers (main
• Apart from the direct investments in education through government buyer of gold) leads to increased foreign
currency earnings for the country.
setting up of schools, mining companies support tertiary
• Gold panners are a market for informal traders.
education through the provision of scholarships and setting • Employment creation.
up of specialist schools such as the School of Mines in
Bulawayo. Problems of gold panning
Gold panning has resulted in numerous physical, economic
and social problems.
Foreign currency earnings
Negative Effects Of Illegal Mining On The Environment And
Human Health
• The main foreign currency earners for Zimbabwe are gold,
Most mining activities are extremely high-risk for not only the
asbestos, chrome and platinum. Mines are markets for other environment, but also those who do the actual physical labor.
sectors of the economy for example engineering firms and
agriculture. The environmental risks of mining include:

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•the formation of sinkholes •chemical leakages
•the contamination of soil and groundwater •river siltation
•loss of biodiversity

• Destruction of farm lands.

Physical environmental problems resulting from informal • Reductions in the tourism potential of some areas, for
miners/small scale miners example, Mzingwane and Inyankuni dam areas in
• Destruction of vegetation. Matabeleland South.
• Environmental degradation due to random digging of pits Social problems
and trenches. • Exploitation of labour. Most panners work for long periods
• Soil erosion and siltation of rivers and dams. of time. There are no regular working hours and the
• Siltation also increases the frequency of flash floods. workers lack protective clothing.
• Damage to marine ecosystem as aquatic plants and • Much of the work is manual and the risk of accidents is
animals are destroyed by siltation or poisoned by very high.
mercury. The How Mine disaster is an example. • Loss of life due to collapsing of tunnels.
• Pollution of water sources due to use of mercy and lack of • A general increase in crime rates.
sanitation. • An increase in prostitution and the spread of diseases
• Growth of informal settlements made of plastics and such as HIV/AIDS.
grass, shacks destroys the natural beauty of the land. • Drunkenness and other forms of disorderly behavior.
• Open pits and trenches are danger to people and Measures to control the problems of gold panning/ to
livestock. make it sustainable
Economic problems • Licensing of panners.
• Leakage of gold. Not all the gold is sold to the government • Close monitoring of activities and increased police
buyer. Much of the gold is exported illegally resulting in patrols.
the loss of potential foreign currency. • Enforcing of environment laws.
• Damage of infrastructure for example, digging of tunnels • High penalties for those who do not observe the laws.
along the main Bulawayo to Harare railway line disrupts • Education and training of panners in environmentally
train services and damage to buildings and infrastructure friendly methods of extracting gold.
for example at Effel Flats primary school in Kadoma.
• Recently gold panners invaded a forest planation in the Describe the Surface and Underground mining methods
Eastern Highlands and have destroyed valuable timber used in Zimbabwe and give the advantages and
worth millions of dollars.
disadvantages of each
• Reduced water supplies for agriculture and urban
settlements due to pollution and siltation.

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 • 2. State and explain factors that lead to each choice of
• 1. Name the three types of mining shown as A,B and C (3) mining methods A, B and C (6)

Coal mining in Zimbabwe

Name and describe the types of mining taking place at A, Location of Hwange and factors that lead to development
B and C of Hwange coal mine
State the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
mining method show

Most Coal is mining in Zimbabwe is done at Hwange

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 Hwange is 336km from Bulawayo and 106km from Victoria • Coal mined at Hwange is a sedimentary rock in the Karoo
Falls system of Southern Africa
Coal mines are on the southern side of Hwange town • It formed from fossilisation of buried tropical vegetation
that was put under pressure by overburden
Factors that promoted the development/ large scale • Coal seam occurs underground and it extends as deep as
exploitation of coal in Hwange 900m below the surface
• The geological occurance of coal is as shown in diagram
1. Geological occurrence of coal below

2. market demand for coal-At Zambia copper belt, at ZISCO,

The southern seams are closer to surface ie 45 to 105m below for powering rail wagons and for curing tobacco on farms, at
the ground thermal power plant
The seams are relatively flat and thick ie 1,5 to 12,5m thick 3. Physical accessibility ie Hwange is well linked by rail and
Flat and shallow coal seams of Hwange are cheap to extract road
through open cast 4. labour supply
The northen seams are in deep faulted layers 5. Plenty capital
Hwange coal is called bituminous coal ie 80% 6. Government policy
It has 74% carbon giving it a good heating value ie it makes
coke Coal mining methods at Hwange
However it has a high ash content 13.5% which lowers its • Both open cast and vertical shaft mining methods are used
value • Coal mining is done by Hwange colliery company limited
Other types of coal are anthracite and lignite

• Coal is either loaded by hand into trollies and them lifted to

surface by cage. But at some sites the process is mechanized
• Underground vertical and inclined shaft mining methods are Open cast mines
used at Hwange to exploit deep seated seams over 100m deep Opened as from 1970s
• Vertical shafts are suck down to level of seam 80% of Hwange coal is from open cast mines
• When seam is reached underground tunnels called galleries
are formed from shaft along the seam

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 Processing of coal

How it is done Mining and processing of other minerals in Zimbabwe

Heavy machines such as dragline or some mechanical explain the processing of selected minerals in Zimbabwe
shovels removes the overburden
The seam is blasted and scooped by mechanical shovels
that load the coal into haulage trucks or onto conveyor
belt Copper mining in Zambia
The loaded coal is then carried to processing plants or
areas of need The Copper belt

•Internal civil wars in the DRC and Angola have rendered

•The following are factors which have influenced the the shortest and therefore most viable rail route to the sea
development of copper mining on the copper belt in (Benguela railway line) unstable.
Zambia: •The alternative eastern route which was constructed due
to these problems of political instability is too long.
Geological occurrence of copper •Use of the TanZam railway line is affected by high fuel
•The copper deposits occur in a large axial belt stretching costs, shortages of spares and insufficiently port capacity
from Zambia into DRC. at Dar-es-Salaam.
•The copper ore occurs in seams of varying depths
making both open cast and shaft mining possible Government policy
seams are gently folded hence easier to extract. •Nationalization of some mines after the attainment of
political independence resulted in reduced output and
Labour supply loss of skilled manpower.
•There is a large amount of migrant labour of all classes
from areas within Zambia as well as other neighbouring Power supplies
countries such as Zimbabwe, Malawi and Rwanda. •Hydroelectric power (HEP) comes from the DRC, Kariba
and Kafue HEP schemes.
Technology and capital •Initially, coal was railed from the Hwange field but it is
•Mining is heavily dependent on foreign investment now mined from the Mamba deposits in Zambia (Zambezi
(TNCs) and mining technology. valley).

Political stability The processing of copper in Zambia

•Political stability within the whole Southern Africa region
is essential for profitable exploitable of copper deposits.
•Internal civil wars in the DRC, Angola and Mozambique
have had negative effects on mining in Zambia. Copper products
The following is a list of properties of copper:
Market/demand • Copper is ductile. Meaning it can be made into wire.
•Exploitation of copper resources is influenced by trends • It can be polished, thus it is used for making ornaments
on the world market. The price of copper has been for example, copper plates, cups and trays.
fluctuating at a lower level during the past twenty years • It is malleable and it can be molded into various shapes to
and this has reduced profitability of the mining sector. make fire screens.
• It can be mixed with other metals to form alloys such as
Transport and distance from the market bronze used to make bronze medals.
•Zambia is a landlocked country. • It is rust resistant thus it can be used in the manufacture
•Huge amounts of money are spent on transportation of of water pipes.
copper through neighbouring countries. Some of the products that are made using copper are:
• Electrical wires
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• Transformers • Neglect of agriculture and underdevelopment in other
• Coins areas. All development efforts are concentrated on the
• Jewelry Copper belt region.
• Water pipes • Rural to urban migration which has resulted in
• Connectors depopulation of the areas surrounding the Copper belt.
• Car radiators • Over-dependency on copper has resulted in dwindling of
• Thermostats foreign currency earning due to fluctuation in the price of
• Alloys copper on the world market.
Benefits of copper mining • Migrant labour disrupts the traditional way of life. The
• Export earnings. family structure is weakened and subsistence farming
• Employment creation. suffers due to shortage of labour.
• Development of power and infrastructure (roads, railway • Pollution of the environment which is caused by dust from
lines). This has benefited other sectors of the economy quarry sites, mines dumps and processing plants.
such as the agriculture and heavy industries. • Frequently landslides occurs on the mine dumps.
• Development of human resources through direct • Environment is degraded and
investment in education and on the job training. • devegetation and
• Development of social services for example education, • animal habitats destroyed.
health and recreation.
• Higher salaries and wages for the workers. Mine workers Oil in Nigeria
also benefit from subsidized housing and health care. • Nigeria is the largest producer of oil in Africa.
• Raw materials for industries. • There are six petroleum exportation terminals in the
Disadvantages of copper country. Shell owns two, while Mobil, Chevron, Texaco,
• Copper mining has its own disadvantage as far the and Agip own one each.
Zambia economy is concerned. These include: • As of 2014, Nigeria’s petroleum industry contributes about
14% to its economy.
Geological occurrence of oil

• Before the oil can be extracted, a detailed survey of the

Using the above diagram, describe the occurrence of oil geological structure of the area is carried out.
underground • This is followed by the drilling of oil wells and
construction of derricks.
• Oil occurs in the pores of sedimentary rocks. • When the drill reaches the oil underground it comes out
• It normally occurs in dome-shaped anticlines between through the well.
layers of non-porous rocks. • When the oil ceases to flow naturally it is pumped to the
• The oil is usually trapped in the crest of the anticline with surface.
gas above and water below. • This is usually done by pumping water into the well which
• Oil bearing rocks may be affected by faulting and forces the oil up as it is less dense.
occurrence of volcanoes.
Problems of oil extractio n
Oil mining/ extraction method • The following are problem associated with oil
extractions:
• Hot humid equatorial climate is associated with high
incidence of environmental diseases.
• High temperatures reduce the capability of to work.
Steps in the mining of oil
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 • Slippery and unstable ground/high level of ground •Soils are usually sterile or they contain toxic substances
water makes construction of roads, railway lines and which retard the growth of plants.
pipelines difficult. •A lot of time and money is spent each year on research
• Numerous distributaries increase the cost of designed to find suitable tree species which can be
construction of bridges. grown.
• Limited refining capacity. Refining capacity at Warri •Materials on old dumps are loose/unconsolidated.
and Port Harcout cannot meet the local demand. Excessive drainage makes it difficult for plants to grow.
• Heavy dependency on foreign investment. •Extreme acidification of surface materials retards plant
• Environmental pollution such as oil spills damage growth.
coastal ecosystems.
Benefits of oil extraction Describe environmental impact assessment (EIA)
• Foreign currency earnings through exporting of oil. •(EIA) is the process of evaluating the likely environmental
• Employment creation. impacts of a proposal and identifying options to minimise
• Growth of industry including oil refining and petro environmental damage
chemicals. •It is a planning tool used to identify, predict, and assess
• Government revenue through company taxation. potential impacts (either negative or positive) that may arise
from planned projects, and come up with ways with which to
• Oil is more efficient than coal and wood when it comes to
minimise negative impacts and enhance positive ones.
burning.
Disadvantages •EIA aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage
in project planning and design, find ways and means to
• The price of oil fluctuates greatly on the world market
reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local
according to the amount being produced.
environment and present the predictions and options to
• Environmental pollution.
decision-makers.
• General decline in agriculture due to shortage of labour
which will be diverted to mining. Describe the importance of environmental impact
• Foreign companies mainly TNCs export crude oil to their assessment in mining
countries of origin and this reduces the rate of 1.EIA informs decision makers of the likely impacts of a
industrialization. proposal before a decision is made.
• Explosion of pipelines has resulted in loss of life on 2. EIA provides an opportunity to identify key issues and
several occasions. stakeholders early in the life of a proposal so that
• Political activism resulting from environmental pollution potentially adverse impacts can be addressed before final
and foreign ownership for example the Ken Sarowira approval decisions are made.
saga. 3) to design/implement appropriate monitoring, mitigation,
Sustainable use/Conservation of mineral resources and management measures,
•Conservation of resources is the ethical use and (4) propose acceptable alternatives, and
protection of valuable resources, such as trees, minerals, (5) to prepare an environmental impact report (EIR). The
wildlife, water and others. adequacy of an EIA is based on the extent to which the
•It focuses on maintaining the natural world in order to environmental impacts can be identified, evaluated, and
protect the sources of resources. mitigated.
5. To promote sustainable development by ensuring that
Ways used in conservation of mineral resources are development proposals do not undermine critical
•Recycling and re-use for example recycling of tin and use resource and ecological functions or the well-being,
of scrap metal in the manufacture of iron and steel. lifestyle and livelihood of the communities and peoples
• recycling of mine dumps eg Conemara. who depend on them.
•More efficient recovery methods that is use of modern 6. It enables monitoring and evaluation of developmental
technology in processing of ores to reduce wastage. projects by regulatory authorities.
•Use of alternative resources. 7. The process gives communities an opportunity to
•Research and exploration. contribute and influence the development process in a
• Planned and strategic marketing of minerals for example way favourable to them.
exploitation and marketing when the price on the world
market is favourable For a mining project of your choice explain how you
would carryout an EIA
Rehabilitation of mine areas Important Steps In The EIA Process
•Mine areas can be rehabilitated by planting trees to 1. Screening
stabilize dumps. The first step in the EIA process is the screening of
•Where dragline is used, overburden is dumped into the projects. This is an evaluation of proposals to find out
previous quarry site and thus the land is reclaimed as the which ones should be subjected to EIA and which ones
mining progresses. should not. Mining is prescribed project under first
• revegetation and filling of pits of land. schedule and should undergo the EIA process before
implementation.
Problems of rehabilitating mine dumps. 2. Scoping
•In Hwange, spontaneous combustion of dumps during l A Scoping process identifies issues that are likely to be
the hot season make re-vegetation difficult. important during the detailed EIA phase and eliminates
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those that are not. In this stage I will consult all interested
and affected parties such as government departments, Explain how you would carryout a cost benefit analysis
community and others to identify issues with respect to a for mining project
proposed mining project. I will write down all the issues to HOW TO UNDERTAKE A COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS
produce a document called Terms of Reference (TOR) The steps in undertaking a CBA are outlined
documentin which details the main environmental issues as follows:
which must be addressed in an EIA study. Generic steps in undertaking a cost benefit analysis
3. Impact Identification and Analysis 1. Identify the Base Case
l Impact identification involves taking account of all the The ‘base case’ is typically a projection of the current land
important environmental impacts, making sure that both use case including current and committed policy settings.
negative and positive impacts are critically assessed. The base case effectively describes a business as usual
While analysis is a technical exercise which uses scenario.
physical, biological, socio-economic and cultural data to 2. Define Project and Develop Options. Any proposal
estimate the likely characteristics and parameters of should be compared to the base case. The CBA estimates
impacts. all substantive benefits and costs of the project
l Tools that can be used include checklists, matrices, including, for example, long-term environmental costs
networks, overlays and GIS systems. after the project ceases operation. All impacts need to be
l Participatory tools should be employed to enable identified in the report, whether or not they have been
communities to outline impacts from proposed quantified or valued in dollars. The project definition can
development projects as they perceive them. also include options or scenarios for mitigation programs
4, Environmental Management Plan (EMP) or Impact that can beassessed.
Management Plan 3. Estimate the Impacts of the Project Identify and forecast
l This is developed and presented as part of the EIA all significant impacts of the project, i.e. due to both
report. An EMP translates recommended mitigation and outputs and inputs. The net impact should be determined
monitoring measures into specific actions that will be relative to the base case. This means the costs and
carried out by the proponent concurrently as project benefits of the base case which will
implementation progresses.
l It contains summary of the potential impacts, their
recommended mitigation measures, statement of their
compliance with relevant standards, allocation of
resources and responsibilities for plan implementation,
schedule of the actions to be taken, programme for
monitoring and auditing; as well as the contingency plan
when impacts are greater than anticipated.
5. EIA Review Process
•lThe EIA Review Team drawn from EMA assesses the
adequacy and quality of an EIA report, taking into account
project impacts and mitigation measures as well as public
comments.
•Review also checks whether all relevant and sufficient
stakeholders have been consulted during the compilation
of the report.
•The response for an EIA review is 60 days and for the
prospectus is 20 days
l These EIAs are done by consultants registered with
EMA.
Approval of the EIA Report
Monitoring and Auditing
These are the final stages which are as equally important
as others. Monitoring is carried out to provide information
that will aid impact management, thus help the developer
achieve a better understanding of cause-effect
relationships and to improve EIA prediction and mitigation
methods.
l EIA audits are used to identify the impacts of project
implementation; test accuracy of impact predictions and
effectiveness of mitigation measures and to improve
compliance and performance of EIA practice.

•explain the cost-benefit analysis concept

•describe the importance of the cost- benefit analysis in

mining
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 The net public benefit or cost of a project or policy can be
calculated through the net benefit of mining or coal seam
gas (CSG) compared with the other land uses, less any
associated public expenditure (not paid for by the mining
company) and any negative social, health or
environmental impacts. There may also be other
•Calculating cost benefit for a hypothetical mining project economic impacts on local business that may be positive
or
negative

1. Identify the Base Case

. The base case value the forecast impacts as they would be valued in
effectively describes a business as usual money terms by the individuals who experience them.
scenario. These issues are discussed in further detail below.
2. Define Project and Develop Options 5. Estimate the Overall Net Value of the Project
Any proposal should be compared to the In order to include all effects of a project, all estimated
base case. The CBA estimates all individual benefits and costs that
substantive benefits and costs of the project have been valued are summed into an overall
including, for example, long-term measure of net public benefit, i.e. the Net
environmental costs after the project ceases Present Value.
operation. All impacts need to be identified in To allow for costs and benefits occurring at
the report, different times, all costs and benefits are
3. Estimate the Impacts of the Project converted into present value equivalents via
Identify and forecast all significant impacts of a discounting process.
the project, i.e. due to both outputs and 6. Test for Uncertainty and Risk
inputs. The net impact should be determined Most forecasts of costs and benefits are to
relative to the base case. This means the some extent uncertain. Sometimes, some
costs and benefits of the base case which will impacts cannot be reliably forecast or valued.
be foregone if the project proceeds should be The CBA should include sensitivity tests to
netted off against the costs and benefits of show how the outcome of a project may vary
the project case. with plausible alternative estimates of the
4. Estimate the Monetary Value of these quantified costs and benefits. Results of the
Impacts analysis would report any significant
Where market prices exist, these are a variations in potential outcomes from
starting point for valuations of both output sensitivity tests, so that these may be
produced and the inputs used for production. considered by the PAC in its deliberations
In exceptional cases, where market prices do (see section on risk and uncertainty below).
not reflect real values or costs, adjustments The report should also be explicit about any
may be made to reflect the real value of limitations. This should include a discussion
output and of input resources. Where market prices do of the uncertainties and, where applicable, a
not exist, as for many environmental impacts, the aim is to

•It regulates environmental pollution from mine hazardous

waste, effluent, sewage and noise
•describe the environmental impacts of mining 3. the National social security act (1989)
Protects the social needs of both employer and employee
Outline the legislative framework on mining and mining rights It seeks to reduce work place hazards and risk
1. The mines and minerals act (1961)
• was put in place in 1961 and have been revised over the years Health and safety issues in mining
• it governs the governs the registration of miners, issuing of The mining industry is a risky business, with health risks that
mining licences are varied and often quite serious, and it is important for
• it states the rules and regulations on ho2w to do mining and miners to protect themselves accordingly.
payment of fees to local authorities
2. The environmental management act (2002) Nevertheless, mining doesn’t have to be unsafe. With the
•This act stipulates rules and regulations to protect introduction of strict safety legislation and protocol, as well as
environment from negative effects of mining activities advances in safety equipment, the industry has seen its fatality
rate drop over time.
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 necessary health and safety training and maintaining up-to-
Although the goal of zero harm has not yet been achieved, it date health surveillance records.
remains the standard that mining companies continue to strive
towards. 3. Whole body vibration
Whole body vibration (WBV) is a slow forming physical hazard
“Understanding and being aware of your environment is the that occurs in mining workers and other occupations that work
first step to preventing illness or injury in the workplace,” with heavy machinery.
reveals mining medicine researcher Megan Clark, who outlines
the following 7 common health risks to watch out for in the “In the mining environment, WBV can be caused either by
mining industry. spending a lot of time sitting on machinery, which is most of
the time in mining extraction, or by standing, such as working
1. Coal dust on jumbo operators.
Dust inhalation or coal dust is one of the most common
concerns for miners. “Some forms of vibration are ok, but they become dangerous
when they involve uneven surfaces, vehicle activity such as
“The ongoing inhalation of coal dust can cause what is ripping versus pushing material in a bulldozer, and engine
colloquially known as ‘miner’s lung’ or ‘black lung’. Miner’s vibrations.
lung is a form of the occupational lung disease group
pneumoconiosis. It varies in severity, but symptoms include “Symptoms of WBV include musculoskeletal disorders,
shortness of breath and scarring of lung tissue, which can reproductive damage in females, vision impairment, digestive
cause ongoing respiratory issues,” says Clark. problems and cardiovascular changes,” Clark outlines.

Even though measures to prevent black lung have been legally Again, reducing exposure also reduces the health risks and
enforced for many years now, new cases still occur among should be the first step that mining companies take. This might
coal miners. include filling in potholes on unmade roads, minimising the
transport of goods or materials, or replacing manned with
Mining companies need to develop a dust control plan, and unmanned machines such as remotely controlled conveyors.
supervisors should ensure that dust control systems are
working properly for every production shift. Where risks cannot be avoided, supervisors should reduce the
time for which the employee uses the machine each day.
Mine workers should be trained on the hazards of over- Instruction and training are critical, and symptoms of back
exposure to coal mine dust. pain in employees should be closely monitored.

Respiratory protection should be used when dust control 4. UV Exposure

protection is being installed, maintained or repaired. Medical For open-pit miners, understanding the risk of over-exposure
screening and surveillance is also essential. to UV (ultraviolet) radiation in sunlight is essential.

2. Noise “Over exposure of ultraviolet rays can put you at risk of skin
Mines are noisy places, with the constant of drilling and heavy cancer, of which Australia has the highest rate in the world.
machinery, and the potential for hearing damage is quite Not only can UV rays cause melanomas to form, but they can
serious. cause serious damage to your eyes if you are not wearing
protective eye wear.
“It can be easy for you to mentally get used to loud noises, but
that doesn’t mean that damage isn’t still being done. Many “In the short-term, overexposure to the sun can cause
people don’t notice the damage to their hearing until long after dehydration, headaches and nausea. Mine workers often spend
they were first exposed to the noisy environment, as most whole days out in the baking hot sun, so are naturally at a very
damage occurs very slowly. high risk of developing cancer and eye problems if they are not
adequately protected,” Clark explains.
“Over-exposure to excessive noise can result in tinnitus
(ringing in the ears), sleep disturbances, concentration Employers should conduct a risk assessment on outdoor work
problems and even permanent hearing loss,” Clark explains. scheduled to assist in developing appropriate sun protection
measures.
To protect workers against noise, mining companies should
evaluate working conditions and noise exposure through risk The most effective way of reducing UV exposure is to use a
assessments. combination of protection methods, including re-organising
work to avoid the UV peak of the day, providing natural or
Avoiding and reducing exposure can be achieved by appling artificial shade, providing appropriate protective clothing, and
engineering controls at the noise source or along the noise applying sunscreen.
path to reduce exposures, such as vibration dampeners or
absorptive panels. It is also important that employers train employees to raise
awareness of the risks associated with exposure to UV and the
Regular maintenance of machines is also essential to reducing sun protection measures required.
noise. Employer must ensure proper use of personal hearing
protection amongst noise-exposed employees, while providing

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Employers can provide skin cancer checks as part of regular
workplace medical examinations and in pre-employment Regardless of the chemicals you work in close proximity to,
medical checks. appropriate safety wear and precautions need to be taken to
minimise your body’s exposure to them. Risks include
5. Musculoskeletal disorders chemical burns, respiratory problems and poisoning,” Clark
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) refer to any problems outlines.
affecting your bones, muscles, blood vessels and nerves.
Each chemical has a unique set of hazards and needs to be
“Mine workers are exposed to a variety of potential health risks handled properly to ensure worker safety, so employers need
that fall under this broad category. While musculoskeletal to conduct risk assessments to establish best practices.
damage can occur due to a trip, fall or heavy lift, the more
serious ones occur slowly over time. This could be due to A standard operating procedure (SOP) that addresses the use
ongoing heavy lifting or repetitive strains,” says Clark. of correct personal protective equipment, safe handling, safe
use, and proper disposal should be established.
Preventing MSDs needs to be a key part of every workplace
health and safety program. In safe and healthy workplaces, Ventilation is also an important factor in minimizing exposure,
employers should identify and assess job-related MSD hazards as well as general housekeeping and cleanliness. Thorough
and put in place controls to reduce workers’ exposure to MSD training and drills should be conducted regarding the
hazards. company’s spill response plans and chemical hygiene plans.

Furthermore, workers should be advised and trained about SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
MSD hazards in their job and workplace and should be Aims to ensure that mining operations cause no harm or injury
encouraged to participate in health and safety programs to those working in mines.
through early reporting of MSD symptoms or concerns to their Ways to achieve health and safety in mining sector
supervisors. •encouraging mines to develop and implement safety,
occupational health and environmental systems at their
Employers should follow up to ensure preventative measures operations.
are working. •Inspecting occupational health and safety in mines
•establishin a SHE Committee, whose mandate is to make
6. Thermal stress recommendation to the Executive Committee on SHE issues in
A common health risk that miners face is thermal – or heat – the mining industry.
stress. •establishing the frequency Severity Competition: This is an
initiative to encourage safety performance among members of
“Mining environments are often very hot and humid, the Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe. The objective is to
particularly those in outback Australia, which over time can encourage zero harm to employees in the industry.
cause thermal stress in workers. •Holding Safety Seminars targeting front line supervisors. By
sharing the information accidents that are common in the
“Overexposure to heat and humidity can cause the body to industry and the basic information of prevention of such
become fatigued and distressed. This can result in heat stroke accident and sharing experience,
or more serious ongoing health problems,” Clark reveals. •Fatal Accidents Report. Every accident that occurs in the
industry is shared with the members of the mining industry.
Where there is a possibility of heat stress occurring, This report provides no mine specific information; how the
companies need to carry out a risk assessment that considers accident happened, basic causes, remedial action
the work rate, working climate and worker clothing and recommended by the investigating team if available.
respiratory protective equipment. •First Aid Competitions: The Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe
encourages its members to ensure that all employees are
Where possible, control the temperature using engineering trained in first aid and have a valid first aid certificate.
solutions, provide mechanical aids where possible to reduce
•Environmental Audits: The SHE Committee runs annual
the work rate, and regulate the length of exposure to hot
environmental audits of mines in an effort to encourage the
environments.
development and implementation of environmental
management best practice .
Furthermore, personal protective equipment should be
provided, such as specialised protective clothing that
NATURAL RESOURCES
incorporates personal cooling systems or breathable fabrics.

Furthermore, companies should provide training for workers, • Natural resources are defined as materials or substances
especially new and young employees, and monitor the health occurring in nature which can be exploited for economic gain.
of workers at risk. • Examples are soil, water, mineral, forests and wild life
7. Chemical hazards which can be used to improve the wealth of the country.
Mine workers are often exposed to harmful chemicals. • Natural resources can be put into two broad categories:
renewable and non-renewable resources.
“As an example, the most common group of chemicals that
cause concern in a coal mining environment are polymeric
chemicals.
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• A renewable resource is one that can replenish itself by • It started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th
natural processes or good management so that it is never used up. century as the extraction and processing of raw materials such as in
eg water, forests and fisheries. mining, steam power, and machinery developed much further than
• A non-renewable resource is one that cannot replenish it had in pre-industrial eras.
itself natural such that it get used up or exhausted , for example • During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly
minerals. increased
• Trees are a renewable resources in that they can regrow
whereas minerals are non-renewable because once mined the Describe the factors influencing exploitation of natural resources
quantities underground cannot form easily
Factors influencing the exploitation of resources
Several factors that influence resources exploitation are:-
What is a resource? • Technology availability.
• Labour supply.
• A resource is anything which is of value to people.
• Physical accessibility.
• Resources range from tangible objects like minerals or
• Geological occurrence of minerals.
timber to things with creative values for example space.
• Climatic conditions that are prevalent at the location.
• Resources are dynamic that is, their usefulness varies
• The size of the deposit and the quality of the resources.
from time to time and from place to place depending on changes in
• Favourable world prices and demand.
human wants.
• Infrastructure development for example transport and
• Reserve is the unused part of the total resources which
power.
can be exploited economically in relation to the available
• The cost of and on which developments will be made.
technology.
• The cost of extraction.
• Improvement in technology increases the size of the
• Usefulness of the resources.
reserve.
• Government policy.
• Increased demand and use may reduce the size of the
• Political necessity that is, the need to be self-sufficient
reserve.
and the need to ensure guaranteed suppliers in a politically divided
and unstable world.
• The opinions of environmentalists.
Resource Exploitation
• Alternative supplies of the same resource.
• The exploitation of natural resources is the
extraction and use of natural resources for Note: The significance of these factors varies from place to place
economic growth. and from time to time for example the environmental pressure
groups are more powerful in developed countries than in developing
countries. Lack of advanced technology retards resource
exploitation in developing countries as compared to developed
countries
• Uncontrolled exploitation and use of natural
resources’ can have negative impact causing
environmental degradation. Problems of Resources Exploitation
• Increased extraction of natural resources
started in the 19th century as the extraction and •Resources exploitation is not easy and there are many difficulties
processing of raw materials developed much further that are faced which can be grouped into physical factors and
due to industrial revolution. human factors.
• During the 20th century, energy consumption •The following are physical and human factors that may cause
rapidly increased due to growth of industry problems of resources exploitation.

Physical environmental factors

•Rugged terrain with steep slopes makes setting up of transport

• The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural networks expensive and difficult.
resources for economic growth. •Hot wet areas have a high incidence of diseases.

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 •Swampy areas make resources exploitation difficult because the • Shortage of capital and fluctuating demand.
• Outdated technology.
swamps have to be drained. The ground in such areas can also be
• Political instability/internal civil strife.
unstable. • Shortage of skilled labour.
•Geological occurrence of mineral resources can be a problem. • Pressure from environmental groups
Minerals occurring in folded and faulted structure are expensive and • The perception of what constitutes a resources.
difficult to extract.
•Where mineral ores occurs below the water table, a lot of money is
spent on pumping the water.

Human factors include:

Human factors include:

Mining without capital. A Korokoza descends into a
mine

Describe the growth of population and its effects on resources

Definition of terms used in population resource relationship
•Resources - Any part of the environment that can be used to meet
human needs.
•Overpopulation - When too many people in an area relative to the
amount of resources available and the level of technology available
to maintain a high standard of living.
•Underpopulation - When there are too few people in an area to
use the resources available efficiently for a given level of
technology.
•Optimum Population - The theoretical population which, working
with all the available resources, will produce the highest standard of
living for the people of that area.
•Carrying Capacity - The number of individuals who can be
supported in a given area with in natural resource limits and without
• The perception of what constitutes a resource degrading the natural, social, cultural and economic environment for
present and future generations.
•

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 for example overgrazing, deforestation, over ploughing, poor
farming methods as well as climate changes.
•Much of the communal areas in Zimbabwe are slowly turning
into deserts and their resources may not be sustained for future
generations.
•Low levels of technology in rural communities have resulted in
over-consumption of wood and other resources and higher levels
of wastage leading to resource over-exploitation and the pending
exhaustion for example open fires, at times in the open air
consume more fuel wood and produce less energy than more
confined fires.
•Lack of alternatives have also led to over-exploitation of
woodlands.
•Alternative sources of power could break this cycle but their
Carrying capacity widespread use is precluded by their expense in relation to the
widespread poverty in the communal area.

Effects of deforestation in rural areas

Effects of population growth

•95% of people living in the rural area depend on wood as their

source of fuel.
•The urban population has access to electricity but due to the
power shortages issues and load shedding wood fuel is still in
great demand in Zimbabwe.
•60% of Zimbabwean households depend on firewood as a
•Deforestation is not limited to communal areas in Zimbabwe but
source of fuel
also extends to commercial farming areas and even government
•As Zimbabwe’s population has increased over the years, the
protected woodlands.
demand for wood as a fuel as also increased.
•People poach timber for sale in towns as firewood or to furniture
•Demand for agricultural and settlement land became high
manufacturers in the case of hard woods.
resulting in continuous clearing of the land and the shrinking of
•Areas around urban areas have also been highly deforested by
forests and woodlands.
the urban poor people who cannot afford to use electricity as a
•The areas most affected are mainly found in the communal
power source.
areas of the country, where greater pressure is being exerted by
•This has been caused by the shortage of illumination paraffin.
both human and livestock.
•The town council is also clearing lands in an attempt to expand
•The communal areas are over dependent on wood for survival.
the town by providing residential stands to build houses.
•These also experience the greatest wood fuel shortages in the
country.
Effects of deforestation are more pronounced in sensitive
•The absence of electricity in most of these areas, the rapid
ecosystems with a high degree of aridity, sandy soils, steep
population growth, increase in livestock numbers and increasing
slopes and poverty-stricken communities.
poverty have accelerated the rate of desertification in these areas.
•Desertification is the process of turning productive land into •Among these effects of deforestation are:
barren land as a result of human activities and physical changes
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•Increased poverty due to over-exploitation of resources to meet •Introducing new technologies. Eg use of tsotso stove to
immediate needs. conserve firewood
•Accelerated soil erosion and gully formation. Top fertile soil is •Substitution of wood fuel for other sources of energy. Solar
loosened and washed away by agents of soil erosion. Small rills energy is now being introduced in the form of solar panels used
have been deepened into deep gulley and dongas, turning fertile for both lighting and cooking. Other substitutes for wood fuel
land into bad land. include electricity, paraffin, coal, charcoal and gas.
•Tree roots are exposed and eventually die off. •Empowering rural communities in the management of and
•Animals migrate as land slowly turns into a desert. conservation of their resources. The CAMPFIRE programme is
•Low agricultural yields as the rich agricultural lands are encouraging local communities to evolve their own resource
degraded. management and conversation system in their areas deriving the
•Increase run-off resulting in flooding. benefits of selling these resources.
•Siltation of water channels and reservoirs, resulting in water •Resettlement of people from overcrowded and overgrazed
shortages. communal areas may also help to relieve pressure on indigenous
•Drying up of wells and rivers due to decreased infiltration and forest resources in these areas.
sinking water tables. •Recycling of products that use forest resources.
•Migration of animals as their habitats are destroyed. •Population control. This can be achieved in rural communities by
•Longer journeys to collect wood fuel and water particularly by improving the education of women and improving the health care
women leaving little time for productive functions. facilities and family planning presence in these areas.
•Frequent droughts due to absence of localized •Laws and fines Various fines and laws have been passed
evapotranspiration. making it illegal to cut and transport indegenous trees without a
permit from the EMA
Describe resources conservation measures
Selective cutting versus clear cutting of forests
Sustainable Management of forest resources in rural areas

Sustainable economic development involves the careful

management of resources, conservation and the monitoring of the
effects of resource exploitation on the environment to ensures
that present and future generations can meet their needs with
little damage to the environment.

Strategies to achieve sustainable resource management in

Zimbabwe
Selective Cutting is a Tool of Sustainable Forestry management
•Organizations have been set up to monitor and manage involving the cutting out of trees that are mature or defective, or of
resources in Zimbabwe. eg Zimbabwe National Water Authority inferior kinds to encourage the growth of the remaining trees in a
forest or wood
(ZINWA) and Environmental Management Agency (EMA) Benefits.
•Establishment of Communal Areas Management Programme for •Removes trees that are low quality while they are young.
Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE). •Removes some of the profitable mature growth.
•Government has also been a signatory to conventions and •Allows more light to penetrate the upper story of growth. The
remaining tree growth will increase dramatically.
protocols related to environmental issues such as the Rio Earth •Allows trees that are shade intolerant to receive more light.
Summit Convention of 1992, and the Convention in International •Encourages remaining trees to naturally seed open areas.
Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) and many others. •Saves some of the healthy mature trees for a future cutting.
•Reforestation and afforestation. The Forestry Commission is •Gives increased light to the forest floor preventing molds and
fungus from thriving to the point where they harm healthy trees.
planting trees in areas that have been deforested (reforestation) •causes minimal disruption to the environment. It promotes new
as well as in areas that had no forests before (afforestation). growth and allows the ground cover to thrive.
•holding tree planting campaigns have helped to bring awareness
Disadvantages of selective cutting
of the importance of trees to rural communities.
•removes all the healthy large trees leaving behind only
undesirable timber ( high-grading).
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• disrupts the ground cover leaving soil prone to soilerosion.
•disrupts the water cycle by reducing filtration and increasing It then follows that between two properties, the fireguard becomes
runof
at least 18metres wide. Internal fireguards of at least 4, 5 metres
should be constructed in addition to the existing pathways and
Deforestation roads to ensure extra- protection of properties and other valuables.
The width of the fireguards should be increased if the area is
•Deforestation is the cutting down of trees without replacing them.
surrounded by tall grass.

Causes
When are they constructed?
1.Increased demand for wood fuel as population growth rates
accelerate. Fireguards should be constructed before the end of
2.Increased demand of wood-related raw materials in industries, June every year.
Where are they constructed?
both at home and abroad.
Fireguards should be constructed around homes,
3.Increased demand for urban expansion as more people in
farms, paddocks, woodlots, orchards, nurseries
developing countries leave the poverty-stricken rural areas for the croplands and boundary fences.
cities. Methods of constructing fireguards
4.In developing countries urban population increased.
5.Increased demand for farmland, industrial activities and large- There are various methods which can be used to
scale agriculture as population growth increases construct fireguards. The choice of any one
technique over the other is dependent upon such
Describe the value of trees/ forests variables like labour costs, availability of farm machinery, skills
and knowledge. They include:

• Forests help communities by providing:

Use of a tractor or ox-drawn plough
1. Food in the form of fruits, honey and wild
animals.
2. Building materials for houses and fences. The tractor and ox-drawn plough is used to clear off vegetation in
3. Medicines to cure disease. the 9m wide strip if resources permit. In the event that resources
4. Genes for developing new plants and animal are limited, the tractor/plough can clear vegetation within 2m wide
species. on each side of the 9m wide strip then the remaining vegetation can
5. Fuel for domestic and industrial purposes. be burnt. However, the use of fire during fireguard construction is
6. Raw materials for industry and local crafts. greatly discouraged as it can spread and destroy veldts.
7. The earth’s atmospheric oxygen.
8. Controls the atmospheric carbon dioxide The hoeing and mowing methods can also be used to clear the
through photosynthesis and thus reducing
vegetation on the 9m strip. Mowing can be done in areas of sparse
global warming.
vegetation and low rates of wind whereby slashers or sickles can be
9. Pasture for both domestic animals and
used to cut off grass and no burning is done.
wildlife.
10. Recreation and leisure for local and foreign
Controlled burning is considered costless and time effective but it
tourists.
11. Plant cover to increase rain water infiltration, is the least encouraged the fire can get out of hand.

raise the water table and reduce run-off

erosion. Controlled burning may be done early in the morning before dew
12. Increased rainfall through increased evapo- evaporates from the grass. If this method is used, weather
transpiration conditions should be conducive as advised by the Meteorological
Services Department (MSD), avoid windy days. Firefighting
What is a standard fireguard?
equipment such as fire beaters, water filled knapsack sprayers and
A standard fireguard is one which measures at least 9metres wide
bowsers should always be ready.
on either side of a boundary line/fence.

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NB. Prior notifications should be done 24 hours before the exercise •Wildlife management attempts to balance the needs of wildlife
commences and it is a legal requirement that the ZRP, EMA and the with the needs of people using
Importance of wildlife management
Forestry Commission should be notified 6weeks prior to the •maintain populations of wild animals carrying capacity
exercise. Likewise, fire traces should be constructed first before the •help to reduce wildlife mortality by controlling disease,
controlled burning is undertaken. These are narrow strips cleared •preserves wildlife habitat,
• reduce improper hunting,
on either side of fireguard to facilitate burning. • ensures wildlife does not die from drought and invasive species
•
What does the law say?
Types of wildlife management
− Game parks
− Conservancies
The Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) as read with − Safari areas
− Sanctuaries
Section 15 (4) of Statutory Instrument No. 7 of 2007 (EIA and
− National parks
Ecosystems Protection Regulations) makes it mandatory to put in •identify advantages and disadvantages of wildlife management
place standard fireguards as anti-veld fire pre-suppression
Human wildlife conflict
measures. •Is a situation which occurs when animals pose a direct and
Identify ways of conserving wildlife, fish, water, soil and recurring threat to the livelihood or safety of people, leading to the
forest resources persecution of that species.
•educate people on wise use of the resources •any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in
•use permits to control harvesting of the resource negative impact on both humans and willife
•come up with legislation to control access to and use of the Common human-wildlife conflict at Anderson school
resources •Monkeys stealing from homes or chasing children and girls.
•discourage or ban harvesting during breeding season •monkeys stealing from the garden
•encourage quota hunting or harvesting •Wild cats preying on chickens
•for fish discourage use of small nets or poison to catch fish •Snakes biting people.
•practice selective harvesting •Wildlife living in or around residences.
•for soil ensure soil erosion is controlled eg by afforestation, •Vehicle-wildlife collisions
contour ploughing, terracing and avoiding stream bank cultivation
soil conservation Causes of human wildlife conflict
•Shortage of resources
•destruction of forests (habitants)
•careless storage or food or disposal of residues

Animals that become conditioned to human-sourced food can

become dangerous.

What you can do

Proper food disposal or storage
Block livestock pens/ fowl runs.
Erect electric fencing around fields and homes.

What the government is doing to reduce human wildlife conflict

• improve security of tourist attraction centres to ensure

harmonious coexistence of people and wildlife
educating residents and visitors about best practices for
avoiding human-wildlife conflict.
• ensure new developments have minimum impacts on
wildlife before issuing permit.
• work with businesses and individuals to ensure their
activities are aimed at reducing conflicts with wildlife,
especially for those who work or play in the wild.
describe wildlife management
•Is a science-based approach of controlling wildlife numbers, Effects of human wildlife conflicts
preventing the spread of diseases, improving their habitats, • Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife.
controlled hunting seasons to keep wildlife populations in balance
• Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of
with their habitat, and restoration efforts to help wildlife species in
managed wildlife stock.
decline.
• Damage to human property.

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 • Trophic falls.
• Destruction of habitat. EMA has no known viable community programmes in Kariba
schools or workplaces. They are one of the missing link in solving
• Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of the Human-Wildlife Conflict. ZimParks cannot go it alone as this is
geographic ranges. a multi-sectoral issue. The amount of illegal dump sites in Kariba
frequented by wildlife point to an ineffective EMA.
•Solutions to human
Educating people on value of wildlife and how to mange them The Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA) should also be involved
•distinguish problem animals from dangerous animals in a programme that highlights the importance of wildlife as it is
•identify the causes of human- wildlife conflict championing a drive to revive Kariba tourism. It is unfeasible that
•suggest solutions to human-life conflict one can revive Kariba tourism without wildlife as it is at the core of
Kariba tourism.
Case study of human wildlife conflict
As Kariba mourns for the umpteenth time the death of a victim of Whilst the ZimParks are expected to spearhead the drive for
Human-Wildlife Conflict, voices have been raised against inaction harmonious co-existence between humans and wildlife, other
by wildlife authorities which borders on criminal negligence. departments are central to the solutions and implementation
Matoundi Butawu, the son of Chief Sahi of Gokwe, will be buried thereof. The presence of wildlife in human settlements is a
today (Thursday) in Gokwe, his rural home. He was employed by symptom of a bigger issue elsewhere. This needs to be sorted to
Royal Security as a Security Guard at Nyaminyami FM's Kariba abet Human-Wildlife Conflict in Kariba.
Heights studios.
The next victim of Human-Wildlife Conflict could be anyone of us.
Residents feel they are being exposed to danger by an inefficient There is serious need to work at solving it now and never wait for
team at the Zimbabwe National Parks and Wildlife Management an unknown tomorrow.
Authority (ZNPWMA, otherwise known as ZimParks). This
reporter dug deeper and visited the ZimParks Senior Area Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous
Manager for Kariba in his offices in the company of wildlife Resources (CAMPFIRE)
enthusiast and experienced tour operator, Justin Mabhena. From •human wildlife conflict
the meeting it emerged that the problem is multi-sectoral and •give reasons for the establishment of the CAMPFIRE
some crucial areas abetting the problem do not fall under • discuss the benefits of the CAMPFIRE
ZimParks. •discuss the sustainability of CAMFIRE
Inconsiderate and unimaginative town planning by the Describe how resources can be extracted sustainably in your
Municipality of Kariba has led to the decimation of game corridors locality
and build up of concrete jungles. Wildlife no longer has easy
access to water for sustenance. This challenge is pronounced Sustainable use means using resources in such a way that they
from about July when small water pools in the bush have dried up do not get finished and use does not harm the environment for the
and animals need to access Lake Kariba for water. This period benefit of both the present and future generations
offers improved game viewing for tourists but also increases
Human-Wildlife Conflict as game corridors have been decimated
for human settlement. In-fill stands are the biggest culprit here.
Frustrated and needy, animals become agitated, leading to Strategies for Sustainable Management of resources
conflicts with humans. in Zimbabwe
At the same time indiscriminate wild fires are lit. Fire lighting can
be managed but this has become random, endangering wildlife • Organizations have been set up to monitor and
which has to move to safety. Indiscriminate tree cutting has also manage resources.
increased as electricity shortages worsen. Eg Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA)
Environmental Management Agency (EMA) Forestry
Litter disposal and collection in Kariba is erratic. The Municipality Commission, Natural Resources Board, the
of Kariba does not have enough refuse collection trucks and
Department of Wildlife Management, and
many at times have their notices announcing truck breakdowns
and inability to collect litter. With this, undesignated dumping sites Communal Areas Management Programme for
are created. These attract wild animals which come foraging for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE).
food. Baboons, monkeys, elephants and zebras are regular • Government has also been a signatory to
guests of these illegal dump sites in the suburbs. The conventions and protocols related to
government's environment management agency, EMA, has not environmental issues such as the Rio Earth
paid attention to these illegal dump sites, preferring to prioritize
the once-a-month cleaning ritual ordered by the state president.
Summit Convention of 1992, the Convention in
What's worse, after receiving photos of the clean up day, EMA International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES)
never visits the "cleaned" sites to check. In most instances the and many others.
cleaned up sites remain dirty and attract baboons. Baboons have • Reforestation and afforestation. The tree planting
since learnt human ways and ZimParks might be compelled to season is marked by widespread tree planting
wipe out an entire generation of baboons to re-establish harmony
ceremonies starting on the first Saturday of
with humans.
December.
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•Introducing new technologies. New technology 3. Licensing. Number of fishing vessels are
give rise to economic and efficient use of wood controlled in all the Southern Africa countries
resources to give maximum benefits while reducing through the issue of licenses by government
departments in charge of fisheries.
wastage. for example the tsotso stove.
3. Controlling the fishing season. In Namibia and
•Substitution of wood fuel for other sources of
South Africa the spawning period from September
energy. Solar energy is now being introduced in the to December is a restricted period for fishing. This
form of solar panels used for both lighting and allows fish to replenish themselves.
cooking. 4. Setting up restricted fishing areas. Important
•Empowering rural communities in the spawning grounds are restricted from fishing for
management of and conservation of their resources. example areas off the coast at Cape Town in South
The approach of the District Environment Action Africa.
Plan (DEAP) to empower locals is very useful. 5. Legislation has been enacted in most countries to
conserve fisheries for example the size of gill nets
•ResResettlement of people from overcrowded and
has been limited to 76 mm in Zambia to allow small
overgrazed communal areas may also help to fish to escape with only mature fish being caught.
relieve pressure on indigenous forest resources in 6. The involvement of locals in the management of
these areas. fish resources for example CAMPFIRE programme in
•Recycling of products that use forest resources. Zimbabwe has helped to conserve the resource.
This can help to reduce the over exploitation of such Advantages of fish farming (aquaculture)
resources for example recycling of paper products.
•Population control. This can be achieved in rural • The development of the tourist industry such as
communities by improving the education of women trout fishing in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe.
and improving the health care facilities and family • Reduction of diseases like malaria and bilharzia as
planning presence in these areas. some fish species feed on mosquito larvae or
•Laws and fines Various fines and laws have been bilharzia carrying snails.
passed making it illegal to cut and transport trees • Provision of cheap protein for local population.
without a permit from the Enviromental • Provision of a source of income when producers sell
Mangement Agency, an offence to start veld fires the fish to local markets.
and to encourage the sustainable use of trees and • Allows for the recycling of waste for example
other resources chicken droppings used as fish food.
•Seting up Indigenous commercial forests these • Can create jobs in community.
have teak, mahogany and mukwa. Eg Chirinda • Can increase revenue on city, state and national
forests near Chimanimani in the Eastern Highlands level
•Aquaculture or mariculture is another recent • Can reduce seafood trade deficit.
solution to the sustainable use of fish resources • Can encourage local investment.
• Can increase scientific knowledge and technology.
Fish conservation • Can place more emphasis on protecting coastal
waters from pollution, especially in the case of
• Sustainable use of fish resources is mollusk and seaweed culture.
necessary in order to meet present and • May reduce fishing pressure on certain wild stocks if
future needs. that species can be produced through aquaculture
• Ways to conserve fish inclued rather than fished.

1.Quota system. Countries like South Africa and

Disadvantages
Namibia have introduced a quota system for
different fish species. The amount of fish to be
exploited by each boat is limited. This is particularly • Can conflict with other users of water bodies such
so for pelagic species. as lobstermen, fishermen or
2. Aquaculture. Fish farming has been introduced in migrating fish.
many countries to conserve fish species. .

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• Can put excess pressure on wild stocks that are used • Poor infrastructure such as roads, refrigerated vans,
to create high protein feed marketing facilities, canning facilities. Most fisheries
pellets. are inaccessible.
• Can amplify and transfer disease and parasites to • Inappropriate fishing technology for example fish
wild fish populations. poisoning, fish traps and canoes.
• Can pollute water systems with excess nutrients
(fish feed & wastes), chemicals Water as a renewable resource
and antibiotics.
• Can compromise native gene pools if farmed fish • The world’s expanding population is putting
and native species interbreed. pressure on the 1% available fresh water to meet
• Can threaten livelihood of fishermen. their consumption demands.
• Can be an unpredictable enterprise for small local • As the world’s population expands, demand for
communities due to its susceptibility to severe more goods and service also expands.
weather, predators, disease, and global competition • Industrial and agricultural wastes are further
reducing the amount of the 1% fresh water
Problems faced by fish industry available for consumption.
• There is therefore a need to re-examine the world’s
1. Sedimentation of rivers, lakes and dams. water supply, consumption and management in the
light of an expanding world population and
• Most of the region’s water bodies are being heavily increasing demands on the resources.
silted by soil and silt deposits from surrounding • Although water is a renewable resource it can only
farm land. replenish itself through the circulation of the
• Sedimentation reduces water levels and also affects hydrological cycle
fish spawning. Sources of fresh water
• This threatens the future viability of the fishing
industry. • include local piped water schemes using boreholes
or small dams or rivers; boreholes fitted with hand
2. The water weed/water hyacinth has colonized pumps, and protected wells.
most inland fisheries • Unsafe sources include dams, rivers and protected
wells.
• This can be seen in Lake Chivero of Zimbabwe. • Safe water is defined as water free from chemicals
• The weed flourishes due to the sewage rich and micro-organisms that might cause illness.
pollution flowing into water courses. • A water source is deemed unsafe when it is
• The weed reduces oxygen levels in water, blocks contaminated due to inadequate sanitation
sunlight and alters water temperatures. facilities.
• The change in environment reduces fish quantities • The absence of inadequate sanitation facilities
in inland fisheries. cause excreta to come into contact with any part of
the food chain and water.
3. Poor management of the fisheries
multi-purpose schemes.
• Poor management of fisheries has resulted in over-
fishing, which in turn has threatened the • These involve the building of large dams forming
sustainability of most inland fisheries. large reservoirs and lakes, covering large areas of
• This is mainly a result of lack of trained human land.
resources in the management and conservation of • The large schemes usually provide water for urban
fish resources. domestic and industrial use or hydro-electric power.
• Lack of capital to purchase appropriate fishing • Other benefits from such schemes are water for
equipment such as fibre glass motor boats, nets and rural domestic use and animals, irrigation, fishing,
refrigeration. transport, tourism and flood control.

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• Disadvantages, however include displacement of 4.(b) with the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe the
geological occurrence of oil in Nigeria (4)
large local populations, water-borne diseases like (b) briefly outline factors that have influenced oil production in
malaria, destruction of flora and fauna, barriers to Nigeria (6)
communication by dams, disturbances of natural (C) outline the benefits and problems of oil extraction in Nigeria
NATURAL RESOURCES
drainage cycle and heavy capital expenditure in
construction. (4) State four advantages of using renewable resources
• Examples of large scale multi-purpose schemes in compared to non renewable resources
Africa are:
…………………………………………………
1. The Kariba project in Zimbabwe
2. Cabora Bassa in Mozambique (a) table … shows a list of natural resources a country can exploit
3. The Orange River project in South Africa
Land, Animals, Water, Fossil fuels, Solar power
4. The Kafue River project in Zambia (i) What is meant by resources being renewable and non-
5. Le Marinel in the Democratic Republic of Congo renewable (2)
6. Kainji in Nigeria
7. The Volta River project in Ghana. Renewable resources
are………………………………………………………………

Nonrenewable resources
Zimbabwe’s main water sources
are……………………………………………………………………
Some of the problems of water supply for Harare
In the table below, classify the listed resources as renewable and
include: non-renewable

• The pollution from industries and farming areas. Renewable Non-renewable

……………………………… …………………………………
• Water weed which has invaded and is choking ……………………………… …………………………………
Harare’s main water sources like Lake Chivero. ……………………………… …………………………………
• The current shortage of foreign currency to import ……………………………… …………………………………
……………………………… …………………………………
modern technology or spare parts for the pump
……………………………… …………………………………
stations. ……

Bulawayo on the other hand, obtains water from

the Zambezi River to carter for the acute shortages
of water for the city. Fill in the blank spaces below to show the different types of
natural resources shown below.

Revision questions
1(a) Define the term “sustainable use of resource” (2)
(b) Using examples show how the use of permits and recycling of
used materials leads to the sustainable use of resources (5)
(c) For a mineral you have studied,
(i) Describe the factors that have influenced its large scale
exploitation (4)
(ii) What are the environmental impacts of the exploitation of the
mineral? (3)
(e) State and explain precautions that can be put in place to
ensure safety of mining in area show on photograph
2(a) Draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the methods of adit
and shaft mining (6) (ii) Explain why deforestation has taken place in many areas of
(b)What measures would you recommend to minimise Zimbabwe. (5)
environmental problems of gold panning (7)
(c) Outline problems being faced by mining industry in Zimbabwe .......................................................................................Explain
and suggest how you would solve each problem (8) your understanding of the term “Sustainable exploitation of
3(a) For one named mineral in Africa, draw a sketch map to show resources”
the location of the mining area (3)
(b) Show on the sketch map factors which have encouraged the ………………………………………………………………………
development of mining in the area (6)
(c) Describe four ways in which mining affects lives of people (4)
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 Describe how resources can be extracted sustainably in your Traditional Modern
locality (5)
Water
………………………… Biogas
(ii) Describe the impacts of large scale deforestation on people
and local natural environment. (6) • Some sources and types belong to both groups.
• For example canoeing down a river uses the force of the moving
(iv.) Describe four different ways in which water supplies can be
increased in a country. water, a very ancient exercise indeed while a hydro-electric power
station utilizes water to generate electricity.
.................................................................................4]
• Energy sources like wood, though renewable, may be exhausted
(ii) Suggest the likely impacts of the construction of a large dam through over-exploitation and overuse
on local people......................................... What is energy conservation?
• Energy conservation refers to reducing use of energy to help save
Energy 2017zx energy
•Energy is power. Ways of conserving energy
•It may exist in the form of potential or kinetic energy or in the • Buying modern efficient products such as energy sever bulbs
form of fossil fuels and hydrocarbons. • Using public transport instead of private car so as to drive less
•It is also found in the form of light or heat energy. • Insulating homes to reduce need for home heaters of air
•Energy is required daily in households for cooking, lighting, conditioners
heating and in the functioning of all domestic electrical
• Having an environmental policy that regulate the use of energy
appliances.
source or promote conservation eg having tree planting days
•It is needed in driving machinery in our processing and
• Switching off bulbs or machinery when not in use
manufacturing industries.
•Each energy source has its own advantages and disadvantages. • Walking or cycling to work to conserve fuel
•These are in terms of accessibility, availability, efficiency, • Improving energy use efficiency by adopting modern technology
production costs and environmental impact. such as use of tsotso Stove
Explain How public transport help to conserve energy
What is an energy source? • Reduces amount of fuel and oil used
It is any material or object that can be burnt to produce energy or • Reduces traffic congestion meaning fast and efficient travel
to drive machinery reducing engine running time
• Carries more passangers than light vehicle saving on fuel use per
Classification of energy sources person per km
Energy source can be classified as • Fuel efficiency of a fully occupied train or bus is 15% higher than
(a) Renewable energy resources that of a single occupant car
• These are energy source that can replenish themselves naturally Renewable sources of energy
such that they don’t get finished easily as long as they are not • Seen as energy forms for the future, why
over exploited. • Describe the advantages and disadvantages of renewable
• E.g. Solar, wind, HEP, tidal power, animal power, wood fuel and sources of energy
geothermal • Solar, wind, water(HEP) tidal and geothermal
(b) Non renewable energy resources Advantages
• These are finite sources of energy which do not replenish • They are infinite sources which means they will always be there
themselves such that they quickly get exhausted with use • They are clean sources of energy
• Examples include coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power • Can be used to generate electricity since technology exist
• coal, oil, natural gas are also classified as fossil fuels • Are almost found everywhere
• Are relatively cheap to use and maintain once installed
Disadvatages
• Another way of classification is by grouping energy sources into
• Initial set up/ installing costs are very high eg to buy solar panels,
traditional and modern sources. wind mills or building dam
• Are not uniformly available in every country eg water deficit in
Traditional Modern deserts makes HEP generation difficult
• The solar panels, windmills and gridlines cause a lot of visual
Wood fuel Water (HEP) pollution
Charcoal Nuclear power • Many of these suffer from poorly developed technology
Straw/grass Geo-thermal power
Wind energy
Crop residues Thermal power from coal, oil and natural gas • Make use of windmill blades that are turned by wind
(stalks) or wood • The rotating blades turn turbines which produce electricity
• The rotating blades are also used to pump water
Cow dung Tidal power
• Wind energy is mainly used in countries such as Netherlands , UK
Sun Solar and German=wind farms
Wind Wind
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• In Zimbabwe wind speed is too low (2-3m/sec) hence very little Sustainable management involves the careful use of resources,
use of wind energy
conserving and monitoring their exploitation to ensure that
• Effective wind is one that is 3-6m/sec
present and future generations can meet their needs with little
Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy damage to the environment.
Advantages
• Clean source of energy
Strategies to achieve sustainable resource management in
• It is infinite resource and will always be available
• Is relatively cheap to maintain once installed Zimbabwe
Disadvantages
• Wind mills cause visual pollution ( wind mills are ugly and spoil 1. setting up organizations to monitor and manage use of energy
natural scenery)
resources . eg (EMA)
• Turning wind mills cause noise pollution
• Can only be used in areas with high wind speed 2. Establishment of Communal Areas Management Programme
for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE).
Biomass fuels 3. Joining of international conventions and protocols related to
• Biomass energy resources are derive from plants and animals
environmental management eg Rio Earth Summit Convention of
• Examples are wood fuel, charcoal, plant residues and animal
waste (cow dung) 1992, CITES
Fuel wood 4.Reforestation and afforestation.
• Mainly used for cooking and home heating in rural and urban 5.holding tree planting campaigns to bring awareness of the
areas
• Also used for curing tobacco, tea and coffee importance of trees to rural communities (educating
• Used in brick making communities).
• Fuel wood provides 50% 0f Zimbabwe’s energy needs 6.Introducing new technologies. Eg use of tsotso stove to
Why wood is the chief energy source in Zimbabwe
conserve firewood
• Is reliable and affordable for the poor
• Is locally available hence low transport costs 7.Substitution of wood fuel for other sources of energy. Solar
• Is source of income for those who sale firewood energy is now being introduced in the form of solar panels used
• Low levels of technology in rural communities means they are not for both lighting and cooking.
able to tape other sources 8.Resettlement of people from overcrowded communal areas to
• Lack of alternatives has also led to over-exploitation of
woodlands. relieve pressure on forest.
• Alternative are expensive in relation to the widespread poverty in 9.Recycling of products that use forest resources.
the communal area 10.Population control.
Describe and explain problems associated with the widespread
11.Use of fines and laws have been passed making it illegal to cut
use of firewood in rural and urban areas
• Increased deforestation leading to accelerated soil erosion, and and transport indegenous trees without a permit from the EMA
siltation of rivers
• Women and girls now travelling long distances to get firewood Advantages and disadvantages of using Biomass fuels
hence neglecting other jobs
• Severe shortage of wood resulting in use of cow dung and maize Advantages
stalks causing more pollution
• Are renewable forms of energy hence will continue to be there
• Firewood poaching and community conflicts
• The resource are locally available or can be grown
• Animals migrate as land slowly turns into a desert as their
• They are relatively cheap to get
habitats are destroyed
• Does not require sophisticated technology to extract and to use
• Low agricultural yields as the rich agricultural lands are degraded.
Disadvantages
• Increase run-off resulting in flooding.
• They release greenhouse gases hence contribute to global
• Siltation of water channels and reservoirs, resulting in water warming climate change
shortages.
• Can lead to deforestation
• Drying up of wells and rivers due to decreased infiltration and
• Food prices will go up if crops are used for energy production
sinking water tables.
Biogas
• Frequent droughts due to absence of localized Is a form of energy obtained from decaying biological waste
evapotranspiration. (plant, animal waste or food residues?)
Describe solutions that have been put in place to reduce negative
effects of deforestation and fuel wood shortage How to produce biogas
• Dig a pit bigger than a drum
• Construct a brick and motor wall or insert a drum in to the pit
Sustainable Management of forest resources
• Drill three pipes into the underground unit as shown on diagram
below

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 •From the switch yard, pylons carrying high tension cables are
erected to transmit the electricity to consumers.
•Along the transmission line, step-up transformers are installed
here and there to govern the amount of power needed by
consumers.

The siting and production of HEP

to produce biogas, organic matter such as sewage,cow dung,

food left overs and green manure is fed into the pit through mouth • Site refers to the actual ground on which something is happening.
• Lid at top is tightly sealed • The siting of a hydro-electric power station depends on a number
• A little water is poured through one of the pipes of physical factors.
• Anaerobic decay occurs releasing biogas
• Gas is collected through one of the pipes and directed at kitchen
• When organic matter no longer produce gas, lid is open and pit Gorge
emptied and fresh matter is added
• A gorge is a deep narrow river channel or river valley.
Advantages of biogas
• Siting an HEP station here has the following advantages.
• Cheap to produce
• Environmental friendly • Much water is stored in a deep narrow valley.
• Helps in controlling volume of waste • Evaporation losses are minimized in such a valley.
• Water flow is constricted and is fast and powerful to turn turbines.
Disadvantages
• The narrow valley reduces construction costs as not much
• The technology is still in its infancy especially by rural
communities concrete, cement and steel will be used.
• Not yet suitable for large scale industrial use • Through vertical erosion, hard rocks are exposed in the valley
with the advantages that a firm dam wall foundation is created
Hydro-electric power
and water loss through seepage is reduced.
• At a hydro-electric power plant, water leaves the lake or reservoir
at high pressure (speed) and goes through pen stocks (concrete • For these reasons, HEP stations have been built at Kariba gorge
or steel pipes) to the turbines in a power house underground. in Zimbabwe, Cabora Bassa gorge in Mozambique among others
• The force of the water is determined by the head of the water increasing discharge and deepening the valley.
which is the depth of the water from the surface of the lake to the
entry into the pen stocks. • A waterfall which is near a near-vertical drop in gradient along
river course is ideal for HEP stations because a large head of
water is naturally created.
• Turbines and generators are simply installed at the base of the
waterfall.
• Examples include Victoria Falls on the Zambian side, the Nkula
Falls HEP station in Malawi on the Shire river, the Owen Falls
station in Uganda on the Nile river among others.

The Zimbabwe hydroelectric power station

• Kariba dam was built in 1956 to1959

• Maily used for power production even though it is a multi-purpose
dam
•The larger the depth, the more the pressure and the more the • There are two power stations there on the south and north bank
electricity generated. of dam
•As the high speed water hits the cups of the turbines, the • South bank power station saves Zimbabwe while north bank
turbines will start spinning and rotating. saves Zambia
•These in turn, turn the generators . • Each power station produces 600MW
•As the generators turn, they in turn produce electricity in the What factors promoted the opening of Kariba Power station?
process. • Presence of the Kariba gorge
• the water from the power house is discharged back to the river. • High demand for electricity in Zimbabwe and Zambia
•The electricity from the generators meanwhile is transmitted to a • Presence of permanent river with high water volumes
huge stepup transformer at the switchyard and switching station. • Strong geological structure to support dam wall construction
•The step down transformer is regulatory mechanism to reduce
the power entering the high-tension cables, otherwise these will
burn and melt from so much energy being produced.

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 •Therefore, these plants should be located far from residential
Thermal power areas and Central Business Districts.

•In thermal power production, fuel is used to heat water in huge Transport
boilers, converting this water into steam.
•The steam at high pressure and through pipes, is directed to •Coal, oil and natural gas are bulky fuels and are used in large
turbines. amounts at thermal power stations.
•The pressure turns the turbines which in turn, turn generators •Plants that use coal can be located along railway lines while for
and electricity is produced. oil and gas-fired plants, are located along pipelines which
•The steam from the powerhouse is pumped to huge cooling distribute the fuels
towers where it is converted back to water. Geothermal power
•It is then repumped back to the boilers for reuse.
•A fuel is a substance which boils when lit and is always a •Geothermal power is generated using steam rhythmically
hydrocarbon. shooting out from underground at high pressure in the form of
•At a thermal power station, fossil fuels such as coal, oil or geysers.
natural gas can be used to boil the water. •To control the movement of steam, an intricate network of pipes
•A fossil fuel is one which formed millions of years ago from the is installed collecting and directing the steam to turbines on the
partial decay of organic matter and has to be mined before use. ground surface.
•The power of the ejected steam turns the turbines which turn the
However some fossil fuels such as wood, crop residues and generators to produce our electricity.
baggage are not fossil fuels types and are burnt directly after •Some of the pipes act as safety valves to release excess
harvesting pressure and steam while others are for driving steam to cooling
chambers to convert it back to water.
Thermal Power: Location Factors •This water is then pumped back to the geyser source
underground for reboiling naturally by hot rocks in an area of
Fuel source active volcanicity.
•Volcanicity is the process where molten magma or lava forces its
•Thermal power stations cab be locateand at Munyati in
way out from the earth’s crust unto the earth’s surface.
Zimbabwe.
Advantages
•Oil or gas fired thermal power stations behave in a similar way.
•It is clean and environmentally friendly
Flat land
•It is renewable
•Does not require clearing or damming nor does it result in
•A large piece of flat land is required to build a thermal power
displacement of people
station.
•It is inexpensive to run as there is no fuel required to turn
•The land will be used to build the powerhouse, the cooling
turbines
chambers, offices and transport routes as well as for stockpiling
•Reduces dependency on fossil fuels
the coal.
•A thermal power station must be located near large rivers or
Disadvantages
where there are abundant, sufficient and efficient water supplies.
•Pollution for example through the release of gases such as
Pollution
hydrogen sulfide
•Potential water pollution
•This is taken into account when locating thermal power plants at
•They are location specific and cannot be moved to suit other
the market.
factors e.g distance to market
•The burning of the fuel to boil water causes a lot of
•Plants have high maintenance costs
environmental pollution.
•The construction of geothermal stations can affect land stability
•Coal dust and oil leaks are disastrous pollutants.
as there is risk of land subsidence

147
•There is also the possibility of depletion •The processing generating so much energy that steel and
concrete shells containing heavy water or deutrerium must be
built to cool the whole reactor.
Geothermal power locational factors •This is to avoid it from melting down from the tremendous heat
and a nuclear fall-out occurs.
•Geothermal power can only be generated in areas of active
•This was the case in the Chenobyl disaster in the Ukraine in
volcanicity.
1986.
•These areas are known as geothermal hotspots.
•These are zones where volcanic activity underground makes •Nuclear power: Location factors
rocks hot and these rocks in contact with underground water, will •The pollution caused by nuclear power plants and the ever
convert it to steam which shoots to the ground surface. present danger of a melt down and nuclear fall-out have made
•Such areas are usually plate boundaries of both the constructive such plants very sensitive in terms of location relative to areas of
or destructive types associated with a lot of faulting or rock join high population densities.
formation. •Environmentalists in advanced countries have, through
•Examples are the Reikjanes fault in Iceland, which is part of the demonstrations, led to the shutdown of nuclear power stations.
fault systems of the Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge. •For these reasons, nuclear power plants are best located in
•Another example is the Rotorua and Waikiki districts in New isolated remote areas.
Zealand where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates converge. •They are also located far from human settlements in order to
•Like fuel-powered thermal power stations, geothermal plants are dispose of their nuclear wastes freely.
very pollutant. •Since large quantities of water are used at nuclear power
•This is because some of the geysers issue out steam of mixed stations, they therefore must locate near large rivers or near
Sulphur or ammonia or nitric acids or foul smelling gases. coastlines.
•Therefore the plants are sited away from largely populated •Large areas of land is also needed to build the power plants.
areas. •Other important factors in the production of nuclear power which
•There is also the ever-present danger of the power plant blowing are not locational in nature include demand, capital and
up if the volcanic steam production exceeds the capacity of the technology or skills.
plants. •Building a nuclear power station is very expensive and therefore
•There is little flexibility in their location compared to fuel powered large amounts of capital must be available.
thermal stations •Countries with nuclear power stations include the USA, the UK,
Germany, France, Sweden, Japan and Italy.
Nuclear power
•Well trained nuclear physicists must also be available to build
and maintain the stations.
•Nuclear power production is similar to thermal power production
•For a country to build nuclear power stations, the demand for
in a number of ways.
electrical energy has to be very high to warrant the construction of
•Both require a fuel to heat water and convert it to steam.
such expensive plants.
•However, in the case of nuclear power, the heat comes from
radioactive substances such as uranium, plutonium and
QUESTION SEVEN INDUSTRY AND TOURISM
strontium.
•These are at times enriched in order to activate chain reactions. Industry
•Pellets of the radioactive substances are placed in tubes.
•An electric current is introduced and radioactivity is accelerated What is industry?
with the result that massive amounts of heat are generated.
•This is the heat that boils the water converting it into steam and • Industry refers to the production of goods
the steam, as in other thermal processes, is used to generate and services in a country
electricity. • It is the capacity or ability to do work where
•The structure where the fuel pellets or rods are placed is called a some form of energy has to be used in the
nuclear reactor. process.
•It is here where the atoms are separated or split (fissioning) or • It can also be viewed as any economic
are bound together (fusioning). activity legally conducted and beneficial to
people.
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 Types of industry • All of manufacturing, processing, and
construction lies within the secondary sector.
Primary industries • Examples include metal working and
smelting, automobile production, textile
• These produce or extract raw materials from
production, chemical and engineering
nature (earth) to be used by other economic
industries, aerospace manufacturing,
sectors.
• Examples include fishing, farming, forestry energy utilities, engineering, breweries and
and mining hunting and gathering and bottlers, construction, and shipbuilding
quarrying Tertiary industries
• Primary industries involve the production of
raw material and basic foods • Tertiary or service industries
• Developing countries have traditionally been • This sector provides services to the general
suppliers of raw materials to advanced population and to businesses.
countries. • These industries provide back-up services to
• This is one of the reasons that they were primary and secondary industries so that
colonized. their functioning becomes easier.
• As a result, they have many well-established • Examples include administration, retailing,
primary extractive industries. power supplies, health, education, housing.
• There are also other reasons why extractive wholesale, transportation and distribution,
industries have grown in these developing entertainment (movies, television, radio,
countries such as Zimbabwe. music, and theatre), restaurants, clerical
o Among them is the availability of the raw services, media, tourism, insurance, banking,
materials, healthcare, communication and law
o the cheapness of extraction, • In most developed countries, a growing
o the availability of cheap labour required proportion of workers are devoted to the
o the need to create employment for the tertiary sector.
rapidly expanding population In the U.S., more than 80% of the labour
o lack of technology to develop processing force are tertiary workers
plants
Quaternary industry
• thus in developed countries a small • The quaternary sector of the economy
proportion of workers are involved in the consists of high technology and intellectual
(research) activities.
primary sector, while in LEDCs most
• It is knowledge based part of the economy
workers (two-thirds of the labour force) are
• Activities associated with this sector include
in primary sector
government, culture, libraries, scientific
Secondary industries research, consultation, financial planning
and information technology
• These are also known as processing and
• Examples of companies in this sector in
manufacturing industries.
Zimbabwe include The Scientific and
• In these industries, the production processes
Industrial Research and Development
are undertaken in a unit called the factory.
Centre SIRDC
• It is important to distinguish between
• Processing done here involves micro-
processing and manufacturing.
electronics such as those of Microsoft
• Processing involves the initial removal of
industries but included here is manufacture
impurities from raw materials(eg by
of precision medical tools, biotechnology
beneficiation industries) while
and pharmaceuticals.
manufacturing is a step further to make or
produce end-products (eg car assembly)
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• Information, office work expertise and • Only a limited amount of investment
research and development constitute major capital is needed.
inputs into these industries. • Examples: electrical goods, clothing, food-
• In advanced countries, much of the labour processing and toys.
force is employed in these industries • Are located in both rural and urban areas
• Use small quantities of raw materials
• Usually cause less smoke pollution
Heavy and light industries • Use very low levels of technology
• Land demands are low
Secondary industry may be divided into
• Examples are foodstuffs, drinks, textiles,
heavy, or large-scale, and light, or small- footwear and tobacco.
scale, industry • These can be referred to as footloose
industries because they can locate anywhere.
• Industries can also be classified as heavy and Light industries Heavy industries
light industries depending on the bulk and Manufacture Manufacture steel
weight of the raw materials being used. clothes, furniture structure and
• The weight and size of the end products is and electronics automobiles
also considered in this classification. Operations involve Use large sums of
less capital capital
Have lighter Cause high
environmental pollution
impacts
Produce ligter end Produce heavy
Heavy industries products end products

• These include the metallurgical industries

such as iron and steel at ZISCO, Redcliff, Large-scale and small-scale industries
basic metals at ZIMALLOYS, Gweru,
ZIMCAST, Gweru Lancashire steel, • Another traditional classification of
Kwekwe, ZIMASCO in Kwekwe. industries is on the basis of large scale and
• Others are mechanical industries such as small-scale industries.
heavy engineering, electrical industries such • Large-scale industries occupy a lot of space
as heavy engineering, electrical goods, as compared to small-scale industries.
railway stock, shipbuilding and car • An example is a car assembly industry
assembly. which requires a lot of space for building the
• aThey are dirty due to the nature of the job. assembly industry lines, offices, for storage
of kits and other spares, for test driving
• They are also referred to as engineering
vehicles from the assembly lines and for
firms
paring finished vehicles awaiting delivery to
• Big plants covering large areas of land.
markets.
• Capital intensive, big investment needed to
• On the other hand, an industry like a bakery
set them up.
uses very little space and is therefore, a
• Make large products often bought by other
small-scale industry.
manufacturing companies.
• Examples: steel, oil-refining, chemicals,
Formal and informal
engineering and ship building
Light industries
• Industries can also be categorized as formal
• Make small products or limited quantities of
or informal.
goods, mainly to be bought by individuals.
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• Formal industries are those operating in provide an income for people with next to
factories in well defined industrial zones. nothing.
• However, even some informal industries
may be undertaken in similar environments All industries can be thought of as a system of
though the majority are the so-called inputs, processes, outputs and feedback.
backyard industries cropping up in Industry as a system
residential areas in the urban settlements of
Zimbabwe or carried out in the open.
• Examples include backyard car repair and
pray painting, wire making, door and
window frame manufacture, shoe repair,
furniture, making, carving and crotchetry
industries among others.
• There are no hard and fast rules of
classifying industries.
• Everything depends on one’s aims and
objectives in undertaking the exercise.

Formal and informal industry

• The formal sector consists of the businesses,
enterprises and economic activities that are
monitored, protected and taxed by the
government, whereas the informal sector is
System diagram for industrial activity
comprised of the workers and enterprises
that are not under government regulation 1. Inputs are the things that go into the system.
•Most people in MEDCs have formal jobs The main three inputs are:
✓Physical inputs. These include sun, soil and
Advantages of formal industry water in primary industries and raw materials
•Employees have regular hours, such as cotton, metal or oil in secondary
•Workers have a stable weekly/ monthly industries.
set wage,
✓Labour - either skilled or unskilled.
•The industries pay taxes to government
✓Capital. This is the money invested in the
hence contribute to national development
•Workers have reasonable working business to pay for raw materials, staff,
conditions. machinery and the buildings used for production
and storage.
In LEDCs, while many people have Informal 2. Processes are all the things that happen to
jobs. those inputs to help turn them into outputs.
•These jobs do not involve the payment of These
taxes,
include:
•are often unskilled and labour intensive,
✓Production - for example the manufacturing of
•require little money to set up and
•offer no protection to the worker if they are cars, or the sewing of textiles.
sick or fall upon hard times. ✓Factory maintenance, which is necessary to
•Examples of informal jobs include shoe keep machines in working order.
shining, fruits and vegetable vendors and ✓Packaging which protects products during
small backyard businesses, all rob transit and presents them in a way that
governments of valuable tax money but makes customers want to buy them.
✓Transport, which is needed to move products
151
 from the factory to the warehouse and Energy supply
then on to the shops. • This is needed to work the machines in a
3. Outputs are the finished products, together factory.
with profits and wages. • Early industries were near to coalfields. For
example in Germany early industrial growth
4. Feedback includes anything that refines or
occurred in the Rhur region that had plenty
improves the system, such as:
coal
✓Customer feedback. Companies find out what • Today, electricity allows more freedom such
consumers think of their products that industries can locate any where and
through market research. They may alter or power will be connected by cables at lower
adapt their range according to feedback to cost than in the past
sell more products and maximise profits. • Frequent power outages in Zimbabwe are
said to be a major factor discouraging
industrial location in the country

Site and land

Industrial location factors • Most industries require large accessible areas
✓Power supply of cheap, flat land on which to build their
✓Communications - including transport, factories
telecommunications. Climate
✓Labour supply - including workers with the • Climate also plays a part in the location of
industries. The stimulating cool temperate
right skills.
climate is more suitable for the development
✓Access to market - where the goods are sold.
of industries because this type of climate
✓Grants and financial incentives - usually from adds to the work efficiency of the labour
governments. force.
✓Raw materials • This is one of the major reasons why
temperate latitudes have well-developed
Factors affecting the location of manufacturing industries rather than the
manufacturing industries tropics or the desert or the Tundra regions.
• Climate plays a significant role in location of
Physical factors cotton textile manufacturing industries for
Raw materials example the climate for Gokwe, Sanyati and
• The factory needs to be close to these if they Kadoma is favourable for cotton production
are heavy and bulky to transport so that it which then attracted ginning and textile
can minimise costs of production. companies.
• Therefore, most of the agro-based and forest- • On the other hand the eccessively hot and
based industries are located in the vicinity of wet equatorial climate discourages industrial
the sources of raw material supply. location there
• Nearness to the sources of raw materials
would reduce the cost of production of the Human and economic factors
industry and so is key to industrial
development. Labour
• ZISCO for example located et Redcliff close
to source of iron ore because the ore is bulk • A large cheap labour force is required for
and heavy to transport labour-intensive manufacturing industries.
• Ubiquitous- Water, Air, Soil…… • High-tech industries have to locate where
• Localized-Iron ore, coal, gold, tin suitable skilled workers are available

152
• The attraction of an industry towards labour products are light in weight and cheap to
centres depends on the ratio of labour cost to transport. Such industries are said to be
the total cost of production which Weber 'footloose
calls ‘Labour cost of Index • Also a market oriented location is no longer
• Many industries in Zimbabwe are found in very important due to technological
Harare where there is plenty skilled and sei- advancement that have introduced
skilled labour refrigeration

Transport Cost of land

Greenfield sites in rural areas are usually
• A good transport network helps reduce costs cheaper than brownfield sites in the city.
and make the movement of materials easier
• water, road, and rail transport, collectively Capital
plays an important role hence the junction • This is the money that is invested to start the
points of water-ways, roadways and business. The amount of capital will
railways become humming centres of determine the size and location of the factory
industrial activity • A place with easier access to capital like
• good transport network is required if an area loans usually attracts more industries than
is to attract industries because that is one without
required for easy movement of finished Break of Bulk
goods, labour and raw materials Industries that deal with products that loose
• that’s an area can have plenty raw materials much weight on processing need a location
but lacking good roads and rail and so close to source of raw materials eg oil
cannot attract industries eg Mutora Growth manufacturing companies
point has plenty cotton but is failing to Agglomeration economies
attract industries due to bad roads
Agglomeration
Market • The clustering of several similar or related
• An accessible place to sell the products is industries at the same location leading to
essential for many industries: geographic concentration.
• those that produce bulky, heavy goods that • For example, the heavy industry is
are expensive to transport concentrated along Bristol road in Gweru,
• those that produce perishable (goods that while the light industry is concentrated on
quickly go bad like bread) or fragile goods the northern end of CBDs.
(that break when being transported) needs to • Firms in the same industry often have lower
locate close to market to be able to sale their production cost when the located near their
goods while still fresh competitors as they inter-depend on each
• those that provide services to people also other.
need to be close to people • Agglomeration leads to External economies
• Have to locate near the markets to be able to of scale which are
reduce the costs of transport in distributing o Inter-plant transport saving
the finished product as in the case of bread o access to common pool of skilled labour
and bakery, ice, tins, cans manufacturing, o presence of special training institutions
etc. o presence of ancillary services
• Accessibility of markets is more important o research and development of collective
in the case of industries manufacturing facilities
consumer goods. o sharing cost of certain operation
• However, the market is not so important for • agglomeration also leads to internal
other industries such as high-tech whose economies of scale (advantages)
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• The term economies of agglomeration ('Development') areas such as Growth Points
describes the benefits that firms obtain when (eg Gokwe Centre) in Zimbabwe may
locating near each other. The more related receive financial incentives from the
firms are clustered together, the lower the government in the form of low rent and rates
cost of production because Explain fully how government policies can
• firms have competing multiple suppliers, influence location and growth of industries
• greater specialization and Governments can greatly influence the
• Development of specialist labor result location of industries by giving incentives,
• Greater market that the firm can sell into. cheap rent and other benefits to companies
• Industrial linkages between firms where that want to locate at Growth points in
goods flow between plants Zimbabwe
• availability of skilled manpower • Fiscal police ie
• common infrastructure of roads/ ports • system of taxes
• concentration of market demand • Availability and control of forex
• Control of use and banking of profit by
Greater possibility of specialization foreign companies
o mass production • Domestic policy Is it capitalism/ socialism
o bulk purchasing • Industrial location policy -Promoting growth
o special transport rates point location
o more efficient use of machines and labour
o lower production cost Government Policy and Location of
Advantages of industrial agglomeration industries
• Enjoy an already well-developed infra-
• This factor affects both industrial growth
structure
and location in a national economy in a
• enjoy a common pool of skilled labour and
number of ways.
expertise
• In terms of industrial growth, government
• enjoy cheaper supplies of material inputs
can affect this through:
and ancillary services
• Fiscal policy – Fiscal policy is the means by
disadvantages of industrial agglomeration
which a government adjusts its spending
• Agglomeration may also lead to traffic
levels and tax rates to monitor and influence
congestion, pollution and other negative
a nation’s economy. Under these policies
externalities caused by the clustering of a
industrialists will seek answers to questions
population of firms and people and that this
like, what is the nature of the tax regime
may lead to diseconomies of scale.
prevailing in a country? Does the
• Higher crowding and increased waiting
Government allow repatriation of profits by
time—can be observed in disciplines or
foreign companies? Is foreign currency
industries that are characterized by
readily available or are there stringent
constrained access to relevant production
controls over is flow?
facilities or resources.
• Domestic and foreign policy – if government
• because of the many competitors in the area
promotes free enterprise and privatization,
,a shortage of labour may be experienced
industrialists feel happy and will expand
leading to labour becoming expensive
their operations.
• Lack of flexibility among firms moves their
• On the other hand, where government
labourers around.
nationalizes private businesses or control
Political factors
prices or deliberately encourages trade
Government policies
unionization and fixes minimum wages,
• Industrial development is encourages in
entrepreneurs are threatened and move to
some areas and restricted in others.
greener pastures.
Industries that locate in depressed
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• It is the responsibility of government to In this case government directly decides the
supply basic infrastructure to industries in location of the industry for security reasons
the form of transport, power, health and and other considerations.
education so that industrialists simply tap
these services. Types of industrial location/ factors
influencing location of industries
As for industrial location, government can
influence this in the following ways: Power supply ( power oriented industries)

• Almost all modern industries use electricity

• Direct ownership of industrial firms – under
in their industrial process.
such circumstances, government will decide
• This power can come from individual small
where to locate its factories.
stations of thermal, nuclear or hydro-origin
• Industrial location policy – in advanced
in which case the industries must locate
countries such as France, Italy and UK there
close to the sources of power.
occur what are called depressed regions.
• Modern trends have shown consolidation of
• Under such conditions, government
power and supply through regional and
deliberately promotes industrial location in
national grid systems.
the depressed regions through offering
• In this case, it is efficiency and reliability of
multiple incentives while through local
power supply which plays an important role
authorities, it makes location in prosperous
in overall national industrial growth as well
regions very difficult.
as costs, because industrialists lose business
• In Zimbabwe, areas of prosperity are the
where power cuts are very regular or costs
larger established urban centres such as
are high and they have to cushion
Harare and Bulawayo.
themselves with provision of private
• Industrialists want to continue locating here
generators.
but the government, worried by the
• Industrialists shun to locate in developing
disparities in levels of total national
countries for this reason where this utility is
economic development, is in favour of
poorly run.
decentralization to smaller towns and
• Some industries consume so much power
growth points which are looked upon as
that they have to locate close to large
depressed regions.
supplies of it.
• In this regard, government is trying to
• Examples include the Valco aluminium
decentralize by offering incentives such as
smelters at Tema in Ghana near the
free or cheap land, a low tax regime, cheap
Akosombo power plant
water and electricity supplies, among others.
• the Kitimat and Arvida projects in Canada or
• The aim is to have equal economic growth,
• the pulp and paper mill on the southern
raising living standards in rural areas,
especially communal lands, stem rural- edge of the Laurentian Shield in Canada
urban migration by bringing jobs to the Footloose
people and provide basic modern • Footloose industries are those that are less
infrastructure. dependent on factors that tie them to a
• Growth points such as Gokwe and specific geographical location
Mupandawana have sprung up as a result. • Unlike manufacturing industries, tertiary or
• Strategic industries – government decides services, companies do not have to be near a
on what it terms strategic industries. These source of raw materials.
are industries of national importance such as • As long as they have suitable transport,
ZISCO which it feels should be determined energy and communications links, they can
where to locate by the state. locate themselves virtually anywhere in the
world.
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• Examples of footloose industries are • Industries like these become market oriented
computer software development, telephone in location because it is cheaper to assemble
sales and call centres raw materials at the market than to transport
the finished products to distant markets.
Raw Materials and Location of industries • Breweries and soft drinks factories are right
within markets.
• From this calculation, a number of situations • Situation number 3 is one where the RM
may arise: index is equal to 1 :
• That is where the weight of the raw
materials is equal to that of the finished
product.
• Such industries will locate either at the raw
material source or at the market or
• Industrialists calculate what is called the raw
somewhere between the two.
material index (RM index) to determine how
raw materials will affect the location of their Market and Location of industries
industries.
• Main factors influencing industrial
• Some industries are market-based not
location will vary from industry to industry
because their products are heavier than the
and from area to area as well as from
raw materials making them, but because
country to country.
they are perishable.
• One of the factors that has to be considered
• Examples are opaque beer and milk.
is raw materials
• Some of them locate close to the market
• If the RM index is greater than 1:
because they gain value upon manufacture
• the industry will be raw material based in its
for example, furniture which is more
location because the weight of the raw
valuable and fragile compared to planks.
materials is greater than the weight of the
• Others locate at the market simply because
finished product.
they need the huge buying power of urban
• Such raw materials lose weight upon
markets, for example, printing, TV, car and
manufacture and so to cut down on
radio assembly, garment making or shoe
transport costs of waste, the industry should
making factories.
locate at the raw material source.
• Yet others locate close to the market, usually
• For example, 7 tonnes of sugar cane produce
a town or a city because of the existence of
about 1 tonne of sugar.
skilled labour, for example watch making
• Hence it can be seen that sugar mills are
and garment manufacture
located on sugar plantations such as the
Hippo Valley mills. Break of bulk location
• Sugar can also lose weight upon processing. • Break of bulk industries; these are located at
• Sugar cane is a perishable in that it loses its ports where raw materials will be off loaded
juice by evaporation and cracks and from ships
develops fungi if exposed to bad weather • Instead of transporting the bulk raw
elements, going bad if not processed materials inland the industry choose to
immediately after cutting. locate at the port and manufacture products
• A second situation may arise where the RM there and transport finished goods
index is less than 1: • Examples are integrated British iron and
• in which case the weight of the raw materials steel, ship building and car assembly
is less than that of the finished product. Labour based locations (labour oriented
• For example, 1 tonne of maize, malt and industry)
hops combined make 8 tonnes of clear beer.

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• Are located in areas with plenty labour which would be made if, several firms were
because they are labour intensive for to locate together
example cone textiles in Chitungwiza that perfect competition exists, and that
• Some require highly skilled labour such as
decisions are made by economic man
Cango which had to locate in Bulawayo to
make use of skilled labour there

Weber’s locational triangles

• finding the least transport cost location and
adjusting this location to consider labour
costs and agglomeration economies.
• Transportation is the most important
element of the model since other factors are
considered to only have an adjustment
effect.
• To solve this problem, Weber uses the
location triangle within which the optimal is
located
• To solve this problem, Weber uses the
location triangle within which the optimal is
located • The above diagram illustrates the issue of
Optimum locational theory/ model minimizing transport costs.
• Considering a product of w(M) tons to be
• A model of industrial location proposed by
sold at market M.
A. Weber (1909, trans. 1929),
• w(S1) and w(S2) tons of raw materials
• assumes that industrialists choose a least-
coming respectively from S1 and S2 are
cost location for the development of new
necessary.
industry.
• The problem resides in finding an optimal
• The theory is based on the assumptions that:
factory location P located at the respective
• markets are fixed at certain specific points,
distances of d(M), d(S1) and d(S2).
• transport costs are proportional to the
• Several methodologies can be used to solve
weight of the goods and the distance
this problem such as drawing an analogy to
covered by a raw material or a finished
a system of weights and pulleys.
product,
• To assess this issue, Weber developed a
• raw materials and markets would exert a
material index (MI)
‘pull’ on the location of an industry through
• which is simply the weight of the inputs
transport costs.
divided by the weight of the final product
• Industries with a high material index would
(output).
be pulled towards the raw material.
• MI=weight of raw materials ∕weight of
• Industries with a low material index would
finished products
be pulled towards the market.
• Industrial location may be swayed by
agglomeration economies. The savings

157
 • If the material index is • The raw materials stated above are poured at
• higher than 1, location tends to be toward the top of the blast furnace using skips.
material sources. Eg sugar mills • Hot air is introduced at the base of the blast
furnace and fires up the furnace
• If it is less than 1, location tends to be toward
• At very high temperatures (1 500° C), the
the market eg brewaries iron ore and the limestone smelt.
• If MI=1 either locate at raw material source, • Molten pig iron being heavier settles at the
market or in between bottom of the blast furnace and slag settles
• Activities having a high level of use of raw on top of it as it is lighter.
materials tend to locate near supply sources • These are drawn out of the furnace through
different holes.
(raw material oriented )
• The slag will later be used to make fertilizer
• Aluminium factories have greater need of or can be used in the manufacture of bricks.
energy so tend to locate near power sources • The pig iron can directly be cast into ingots
(power oriented). or into tools such as those at ZIMCAST in
• Activities using ubiquitous raw materials, Gweru where it is used to make products
such as water, tend to locate anywhere (foot such as three legged pots, charcoal irons,
loose). sewage and drains lids and wheels of steel
ploughs.
• Industries that produce perishables or goods
• More importantly, the pig iron can be
that gain weight on manufacture need close converted into steel.
location with people (market oriented • Here the pig iron is mixed with pure carbon
Industrial Linkages or with manganese or with vanadium or
chromium or nickel in a furnace, depending
Refers to the interrelationship among various on the degree of technological advancement
industrial activities through the input-output of the country or company involved:
relationships or the economic value chain 1. The open heath method
2. The Bessemer convertor method
• forward 3. The electric arc method and
• backward linkages 4. The oxyacetylene method
• Vertical linkages • The resultant steel can then be modulated
• Horizontal linkages into blooms or rolled into thin sheets, ready
for sale.
A case study of ZISCO • A lot of water (input) is required to cool the
pig iron, the steel, the blast furnaces and
• This kind of industry is raw material based. steel mills.
• In the past, blast furnaces and steel mills
Raw materials required were located at different site.
• However, modern trends have shown that it
• Iron ore (Fe) is used to make pig iron or is more economical to have the two at one
steel; scrap metal may be used in its place. site.
• Limestone (CaCO3) is used to act as a flux, • This is termed an integrated iron and steel
mixing with and removing impurities and works such as ZISCO in Zimbabwe.
forming slag in the process.
• Coke from coal is used to provide the heat to Zimbabwe iron and steel company (ZISCO)
smelt the iron ore and the limestone.
• The steel works known as Zimbabwe Iron
Production processes and Steel Company (ZISCO) (then known as

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 RISCO, the Rhodesia Iron and Steel • Availability of large expanses of flat and
Company) started in 1938. uninhabited land.
• It was located in Bulawayo as a subsidiary of • Presence of large water supplies from Cactus
the South African company called Stewarts Poort Dam on the Kwekwe River
and Lloyd.
• They produced their first 3 tonnes of steel Advantages of iron and steel industries
the same year but shifted location a decade
later in 1948 to the present site at Redcliff • Many advantages accrue to a country as a
after the discovery of low-grade iron ore result of establishing its own iron and steel
called limonite in the area at Ripple Creek. works.
• Other raw materials such as manganese and
limestone at the Dan and Mel mines were Industrial growth
also discovered in the area, meaning that
only coking coal from Hwange and high • Iron and steel works are themselves
grade haemotite from Mt. Buchwa had to be industries, so establishing more of these
hauled long distances to Redcliff. means industrial growth.
• The present site therefore became the least • The amount of steel produced has been used
transport cost location point within the as a measure of a country’s level of
Zimbabwean space economy to assemble industrial development with the big ones
required raw materials and market the such as the USA, the UK, France, Germany,
products throughout the country. Japan and Russia leading the pack.
• The company was and still remains a • Iron and steel are the basis of most industries
strategic industry in the country heavily such as car assembly, agricultural
dependent on government subsidies for its equipment, household utensils and goods,
survival. the construction, transport and electrical
• In fact, government until recently has been industries.
the major shareholder in the company, • This creation of spin-off ancillary industries
declaring it as a parastatal as it is the only is called the multiplier effect.
steel works in the country. • For example, if there was no ZISCO in
Zimbabwe, we would not be having
Advantages of the present location of industries such as Lancashire steel (a direct
ZISCO subsidiary of ZISCO getting steel blooms
and wire from the parent company), Tor
• The steel work is centrally located in the Structures, Industrial pipe and fittings,
country to distribute products easily. Zimbabwe Wire and Rope Company (ZWR),
• An efficient rail and road network passing Salwire and ZIMCAST.
through the area making the steel works • This makes goods readily available locally.
very accessible.
• The lowering of assembly costs for raw Employment creation
materials and marketing costs for finished
products. • Iron and steelworks employ many people
• The presence of a large pool of labour with directly on site.
industrial metallurgical skills shared with • These work as fitter and turners, boiler
other heavy metal industries in the central makers, metallurgists, sinters, managers and
Midlands Province such ZIMASCO, plant operators as well as machine tool
Lancashire Steel, Tor Structures, Industrial conditioners.
Pipe and Fittings. The Zimbabwe Wire and • Others are employed as cleaners and drivers.
Rope Company all in Kwekwe and ZIM • If employment includes those working in
ALLOYS and ZIMCAST in Gweru. coal, iron ore and limestone mines all the
159
 way to those in related industries stated • Old machinery – ZISCO has 4 blast furnaces
above, then the number is large indeed. of which only Blast Furnace No. 3 has been
operating at near capacity/ Old and out
Foreign currency earnings dated machinery
• The others due to age have been shut down.
• A country producing excess iron and steel • The government undertook a refurbishment
will sell these on foreign markets, earning exercise code named “Operation Zambuko”
foreign currency in the process. to have spun over 5 years and costing about
Z$10 billion but to date only Blast Furnace
Urban growth No. 4 has been modified and commissioned
at a total cost of 2.5 billion.
• Where huge integrated iron and steel work • Another problem has been that of old rail
have been established, towns also grow. wagons which now cannot sustain an
• Redcliff in Zimbabwe grew as a result of efficient merry-go-round system of
building the ZISCO works there. transport.
• Shortage of money – the old machinery and
Social services production processes require a lot of money
to modernize them/ Lack of capital
• With urban growth, social services are • This money is not available.
supplied to the labour force and residents of • Government, realizing the strategic nature of
the area. the steel works has been constantly funding
• These include, for ZISCO, residential it in an effort to keep the company afloat.
suburbs like Rutendo, Torwood and Redcliff,
• Poor management – related to the problem
schools, hospitals and clinics in the area,
above has been the problem of corruption,
pubs, beer halls, hotels and ZISCO country
fraud and mismanagement of the funds
club as well as golf courses, soccer for teams
disbursed to ZISCO.
like ZISCOSTEEL, all meant to make life
• Markets/ Lack of viable market – local
bearable to the people settled there.
markets are too small to absorb products of
ZISCO or are too poor to do so.
Raising living standards of local people
• Competition – on the other hand,
Zimbabwe’s iron and steel are not
• As people are employed and earn wages and
competitive on the international market as
salaries and live in houses of bricks and
they are either too costly to buyers or are
mortar, and their houses are electrified, with
poorer quality as they have too much carbon
tap water and flush toilets, their living
and Sulphur content.
standards are raised.
• Also scrap metal is replacing pure iron and
Improvement in transport steel on international markets
• Poor quality of steel as compared with steel
• The assembling of distant and local raw from developed countries
materials for steel works requires the
Assembly Industries
establishment of efficient means of transport.
• Likewise the distribution of iron and steel
Are industries which bring together parts
products to market needs similar transport.
from other industries to make a finished
• In the end such transport routes and modes
product
available will not just be utilized by the iron
and steel works only but also by other
Examples
sectors of the economy and by the people
themselves Problems faced by ZISCO
• Car assembly
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 • TV assembly The site was chosen because of the following
• Bicycle assembly locational advantages:

Willowvale Mazda Industry • Large land for building the assembly lines
and parking vehicles from these lines.
• Willowvale Mazda Industry is part of the • Large labour force from surrounding
assembly industries suburbs.
• Large market in Harare.
Assembly Industries • Excellent rail and road transport to bring in
kits and distribute vehicles to the market in
• These are industries which bring together all parts of the country.
parts from different other industries to make • Availability of power from the national grid.
a new product. • Availability of many engineering firms
• Examples include car assembly, bicycle making some of the required components.
manufacture, radio and TV making and the
production of clocks and watches among In terms of characteristics, the industry has
others. joint ownership between the government
• The location of such industries depends on through the Industrial Development
where the parts to be assembled are coming Corporation (IDC) and the Japanese Mazda
from but generally small-scale assembly parent company.
industries locate at markets where demand
is high and where there is a large pool of o It is facing problems typical of many
skilled labour. developing countries such as:
• For larger ones like car assembly, markets 1. Poor local markets.
may be overridden by the land and transport 2. Low levels of production.
factors in determining their location. 3. Lack of foreign currency to buy spares for
• In Zimbabwe, small-scale assembly back up services.
industries like WRS radios and Philips TV 4. Lack of spares themselves.
are located in Bulawayo. 5. Stiff competition from established firms
elsewhere.
The car assembly industry 6. Low import duties and tariffs
7. Lack of local vehicle finance schemes
• The car assembly industry is unique in that it 8. Chaotic fiscal policy
demonstrates internationalization and 9. Lack of skilled labour
globalization of economic needs and 10. Decreased/Depressed demand for new
necessity. motor vehicles forcing capacity to fall below
• To manufacture cars, many different parts viable level
have first to be made in other industries all 11. The widespread usage of the internet
coming from different raw materials. allowing people to import their own vehicles
• These parts are then brought together at one with ease
site where they are put together (assembled) 12. Government defaulting on its purchases
to produce a motor car.
• There are too many car assembly plants and Car assembling in Japan
models of vehicles manufactured in the
world. • Japan has one of the largest and most
• This is centrally located in Harare’s prominent car industries in the world
Southerton industrial area, this industry has • The country has been in the top 3 car
typical characteristics and problems faced by manufacturing countries by number of cars
industries in third world countries. made since the 1960s
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• In 2015 the country made just over 9.2 5. The export drive nature of Japanese
million cars industry-no country on earth today does not
• It is only surpassed by the United States and drive a Japanese vehicle.
China. 6. Privatization of industry ensuring
• This has been achieved despite a lack of maximization of returns.
basic raw materials at home.
• Japan has very limited energy, it has to
import virtually all its coal, oil and natural
gas requirements. Industrial Relocation
• This shortage has been made more acute as
the country has decided to move away from • This is a situation where an industry which
Nuclear energy after the Fukushima disaster had been established in one area has to shift
• Most of the iron ore and coking coal needed and locate in a new different area.
to manufacture steel is also imported. • This may even involve trans-border location.
• The result has been the location of major • The industry has to stop functioning and
steel works on tidal sites at the country’s close down all operations in its original
deep and sheltered harbours. location and move elsewhere.
• These sites are import and export oriented as • Causes of relocation are numerous but the
well as being locations for car assembly main ones include:
industries (break-of-bulk locations). 1. Government policy.
• Japan’s major urban centres, linked by 2. Environmental pressures on pollution in old
modern communications, provide both the established industrial areas.
workforce and the large, affluent local 3. Local authority by-laws.
markets needed for such steel-based 4. Exhaustion of raw materials at original
products as cars. location and their discovery elsewhere and
• Within these conurbations (cities which have use of imported raw materials.
merged with each other as they grow), 5. Changes in market demand the market may
especially Keihin, Chukyo and Stetouchi, are stop buying a particular product due to a
found numerous firms making car new competitive one causing loses for the
component parts and the vehicles assembled industry
here are easily exported to all parts of the 6. Changes in production technology. New
world from these excellent sites. technology like refrigeration may encourage
• At some of these cities, assembly plants have some market based industries to relocate to
been built on land reclaimed from the sea as areas with cheap land costs
land is another very scarce resource in Japan. • The UK iron and steel industry has changed
• The county’s motor vehicles brands such as: location from in-land, small-scale,
Mazda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, Honda unintegrated coal or iron-ore field based
and Nisssan a world wide household names locations of the 1880s to present day coastal,
• Japan has been a contender in the world in modern, integrated, import-oriented
motor car production for the following locations of South Wales and North East
reasons: England because of these reasons.
1. Very stable socio-political system since 1945. • Industrial relocation has very negative
2. The hard working nature of the Japanese effects to the source regions from which
workforce. industries are moving away from. These
3. Very high technology used in assembly lines include the following:
as all are now robbotised.
4. Availability of capital. Effects of relocation on Losing area

162
1. Unemployment increases as industries move Solutions to problems of industrial
out leaving behind the labour force. relocation
2. There is general out-migration of the • Introducing new industries to the losing
economically active population as jobs are area
no longer available. • Government can put policies to prevent
3. As a result of these two effects, living relocation
standards will fall. • Government intervention through
4. Increase in crime and prostitution is subsidies and tax incentives to industry to
witnessed as people struggle for survival. give lucrative packages to those who do not
5. Abandonment sets in as buildings crack and relocate
collapse; paint peels off; sewage pipes burst, • Provide more services such as water road
network, schools and hospitals to avoid
water supply becomes erratic; as well as
population pressure on them
electricity provision and roads develop
• Introduce stringent pollution control
unattended potholes: there is general neglect
measures at industrial sites
of housing and infrastructure leading to the
• Reduce land prices at ghost town to attract
development of ghost towns and depressed other industries
regions.
6. Economic performance declines as shops Service industries
close down and migrate out.
7. Deterioration of infrastructure such as • define a service industry.
cracking of buildings resulting in the • identify and outline the factors influencing the
creation of ghost towns development of services industries.
• While sources regions of the industries • describe the role of the main service industries,
suffer, all too often, the destination areas e.g.,banking, insurance, distribution, tourism,
become the beneficiaries which experience information.
positive physical and economic effects which • compare the importance of service industries in
include: Zimbabwe with those of a developed country.
• Tourism-a case study of a service industry
Positive effects of industrial relocation on • describe tourism with reference to Zimbabwe
receiving area and one other country in Africa, e.g., Kenya
• Exploitation of resources which are lying
idle. Define a service industry
• Employment creation for the local • a service or tertiary industry is one which
population. provides back up services to other sectors of the
• Development of infrastructural services such economy such as primary and secondary
as roads, rails, power, telecommunications, industries
health, education and recreation, insurance • they are more developed in MEDCs than in
and banking. LEDCs
• General raising of living standards. • examples of service industries are banking,
Negative effects of industrial relocation on insurance, communication, health and tourism
receiving area
• Rise in land prices due to increased demand
• High levels of pollution compare the importance of service industries in
• Increased population pressure on social Zimbabwe with those of a developed
resources such as schools, clinics, hospitals country(UK)
• Population pressure on land and
accommodation Zimbabwe UK

163
 Scale of operation Large and well with the increase in the level of income.
for service industry developed service (iv) Rapid growth of services sector also
is smaller industry which benefitted from external demand such as
contributes 73% of the software industry and call centre services.
GDP (v) Liberalisation of financial sector provided
Tourism is the most Communication an environment for faster growth of financial
dominant service industry is most
services
industry dominant
Fewer people are More people are Tourism as a service industry
employed in this employed in the service • Tourism is a service industry which involves
sector industry people visting places for leisure
• A tourist is usually in search of rest, adventure ,
Tertiarisation relaxation and enjoyment in an environment
In the past 100 years, developed economies different from the one he is used to
have seen a transition from a manufacturing • A tourist is a person who visits a place or places
based economy to one where the ‘service sector’ of interest usually for a short period of time
or ‘tertiary sector’ dominates. Tertiarisation
involves the service sector coming to comprise
the biggest element of the economy. Benefits of tourism
• Employment creation
• Gains foreing currency
•
• Causes expansion of other related industries eg
transport and catering
• Encourage development of positive conservation
attitudes
• Promotes infrustructure development eg hotels
and roads
• Enables preservation of cultural herritage
• Creates market for local crafts
• Promotes agriculture eg market gardening
Problems / disadvantages of tourism
• Exploitation of workers as they work long hours
Tertiary sector has become important and are underpaid
because : • Promotes socially unbecoming behaviour eg
(i) demand for basic services like hospitals, prostitution in tourist areas
education, post and telegraph, courts has • Promotes littering which spoil environment
increased. outlook
• May bring foreign diseases into a country
(ii) Demand for services such as transport,
• Takes up land that could have been used for
trade, storage has increase due to
crop farming
development of primary and secondary
• Promotes problem animals which escape and
sectors.
destroy peoples crops
(iii) Demand for tourism, shopping, private •
schools, private hospitals, etc. increased

164
Tourism in kenya

165
 Guidelines/ Principles of ecotourism
Mass tourism Vs ecotourism Ecotourism sets out guidelines for how tourists
should behave when visiting fragile
environments:
• Protect the environment - keep to footpaths,
don't leave litter or start fires.
• Don't interfere with wildlife - don't scare or feed
the animals.
• Protect resources - don't take too many showers
or use air conditioning.
• Support local communities - stay in locally
owned accommodation and buy produce from
local people.
• Eat local food and drink - avoid products that
have been imported from MEDCs.
Ecotourism • Respect local customs and traditions - some
• Ecotourism is a type of sustainable development communities are offended when tourists wear
that aims to reduce the impact of tourism on inappropriate clothes in religious places, strip off
environments to ensure continued existence of on the beach or behave in a rowdy manner.
the environmental attractions for the benefit of Locals appreciate tourists who try to learn the
the present and future generations. language and show an interest in their culture.
Aims of ecotourism • Do not overdevelop a resort -Design, construct
• Ensuring that tourism does not exploit the and operate low-impact facilities.
natural environment or local communities. • Recognize the rights and spiritual beliefs of the
• Consultation with local communities on planned Indigenous People in your community and work
developments. in partnership with them to create
• Making sure that infrastructure improvements empowerment
benefit local people and not just tourists

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 • Local game scouts are trained to help stop
poaching and manage wildlife.
Case Study of ecotourism CAMPFIRE, Zimbabwe • Quotas : Every year the Department of National
• CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Parks helps to estimate the wildlife population
Programme for Indigenous Resources) totals so that sustainable quotas can be set for
• is a programme designed to assist rural hunting.
development and conservation. Where the money goes
• It works with the people who live in these • Income is collected and distributed by District
communal lands, supporting the use of wildlife as Councils, using guidelines produced by
an important natural resource. CAMPFIRE. They suggest that:
• CAMPFIRE is helping people in these areas • 80% of the money is given directly to local
manage the environment in ways which are both communities who should collectively decide how
sustainable and appropriate. it should be spent
• It aims to help people manage natural resources • 20% is used by the District Councils for
so that plants, animals and people - the whole administration and managing the local CAMPFIRE
ecosystem - all benefit. projects
• It helps provide legal ways for such communities
to raise money by using local, natural resources in Advantages of ecotourism in Zimbabwe
a sustainable way. (CAMPFIRE)
• As a result, many communities now actively
• communal lands can act as game corridors
protect local wildlife, seeing it as a valuable asset.
between existing National Parks, protecting the
Five main activities help provide extra income to genetic diversity of wild species
• it creates jobs - local people are trained and
local communities:
become involved as environmental educators,
• Trophy hunting: Individual hunters pay high fees game scouts
to shoot elephant (US$12,000) and buffalo and • it prompts environmental education and
are strictly monitored, accompanied by local, promotes the benefits of wildlife conservation to
licensed professionals. communities
• Selling live animals: Some areas with high wildlife • it provides an incentive for people to conserve
populations sell live animals to National Parks or wild species
game reserves e.g. Guruve district raised US$ • it generates funds, which are used for community
50,000 by selling 10 roan antelope. projects or to supplement household incomes
• Harvesting natural resources: e.g. crocodile • it creates more revenues for wildlife management
eggs, caterpillars, river-sand and timber are and conservation projects in areas that would
harvested and sold by local communities. otherwise not receive adequate financial support
• Tourism e.g. culture tourism, bird watching and for conservation
visits for scenic view
• . local people are employed directly as guides or QUESTION 8 AGRICULTURE AND LAND REFORM
run local facilities for tourists.
Form 4 AGRICULTURE AND LAND REFORM
• Selling wildlife meat: where species are plentiful
e.g. impala, the National Parks Department •explain agriculture
supervise killing and selling of skins and meat. •Identify types of agriculture
However, this only raises fairly small sums of •explain Physical, Political and Socioeconomic factors
money. influencing agriculture
• Organisation :each village wildlife committees List types of agriculture
responsible for counting animals, anti-poaching Farming as a system
•name elements of a farm
activities, conflicts which arise through 'problem
•classify inputs into physical, human and economic
animals' and environmental education.
•identify elements of a communal farm
Tabulate elements of a communal farm
167
Land use zoning •identify reasons for land reform in Zimbabwe
•identify land use zones in a community such as: •explain the land reform process in Zimbabwe
- arable land - grazing land – residential land •Resettlement:- Phase1 (the willing seller willing
Drawing different land use zones on maps buyer) and Phase 2 (accelerated)
•Explaining land uses in the local community * Aims * Processes * Outcomes * Challenges and
•Justify the need for zoning solutions
Land use legislation such as: the town and country * Characteristics of resettlement models
planning •outline the contribution of small scale farming to
Act food security
•outline suitability of land for particular land use •Identifying the effects of climate change on
Farming types in Zimbabwe agriculture worldwide,
•identify the dominant farming types in Zimbabwe •Discussing mitigation
Subsistence- * Benefits and challenges •Outlining measures for each effect
- Communal farming in Zimbabwe •Suggesting adaptation measures for Zimbabwe and
- Commercial * dairying, * horticulture/ market Southern Africa
gardening * cattle ranching • identify agricultural diseases and pests
* mixed farming * plantation and irrigation • describe the effects of pests and diseases on
farming productivity
•explain the characteristics of each farming type • suggest manual, biological and chemical control
Agroecological regions of Zimbabwe measures
•draw Zimbabwe`s agro- ecological regions on a map ●evaluate Urban agriculture – nature – advantages
of Zimbabwe - disadvantages - problems of urban agriculture
•describe the characteristics of each 1-6 region ●solutions for urban agriculture
•explain the farming activities of each region •list types of agribusiness in Zimbabwe
•describe land tenure •identify sources of funding for small scale
•identify forms of land tenure in Zimbabwe agribusiness
- Free- hold – Leasehold – Communal - State- owned, •evaluate importance of agribusiness to the individual
Advantages and disadvantages and economy
Describing characteristics of each tenure system
Land reform
•describe land reform Agriculture, or farming, is a primary industry involved in
•explain forms of land reform •Reorganisation of land cultivation crops and rearing animals
– Land tenure - Landuse Farming as a systems
•land consolidation Farming is a system with inputs, processes and outputs that
•land fragmentation are linked.
How would you justify or disapprove the need for land
reform

PROCESSES - these are things which take place on the

farm in order to convert the inputs to outputs OUTPUTS -
INPUTS - these are things that go into the farm these are the products from the farm
168
OUTPUTS - these are the products from the farm (i.e. capital Less capital used More capital used
wheat, barley, cattle)
Eg Inputs. processes and outputs of mixed subsistence farm seeds Selected from Buy certified hybrid
Inputs Processes outputs uncertified previous seed
year’s harvest
Physical inputs • Land • Grain
• Soil/land clearing and fertilizers Rarely use fertilizers, Plenty fertilizers,
Climate/ • Ploughi meat uses ash and pesticides and
Rain ng for manure herbicides used
• Sunshine • Weedin family
Use of Mainly for family food For sale at market
relief g • Fruits
harvest
Economic inputs • harvesti • Vegeta
• labour ng bles Tools Simple rudimentary Modern advanced
• Seed • vaccina • calves used tools eg hoes sticks machinery used
• Manure/ ash ting and tins
Human inputs
• Farmer’s Water Natural rainfall May drill boreholes
knowleddge used and construct dams
Farm classification
Sedentary or nomadic(shifting)? Land size small large
✓Sedentary farming is when a farm is based in the same
Arable, pastoral or mixed?
location all the time. Permanent home and field
✓Arable farms grow crops under natural rain.
✓Nomadic (shifting) farming is when a farmer moves from
✓Pastoral farming rearing animals eg normadic
one place to another.
pastoralism, cattle ranching, dairy farming, sheep farming or
Subsistence or commercial?
goats, poultry
✓Subsistence farming to feed the family
✓Mixed farming grow crops and rear animals on the same
✓Commercial farming to sell at market for a profit.
farm.
Distinguish between elements of subsistence and
Extensive or intensive?
commercial farming systems
✓Intensive farming is where a large amount of produce is
Element of Elements of generated from a relatively small area of land by putting a lot
subsistence farming commercial farming of inputs
✓ Extensive Farming - where the size of a farm is very
labour Provided by family Hired skilled and large in comparison to the inputs of money, labour etc.
members unskilled labour

Distinguish between extensive and intensive farming

169
 There are two types of intensive farming

Physical factors
✓Weather and climate
Labour Intensive, where huge amounts of manpower is put ✓Slope or relief of the land
into the system to maximise output. ✓Soil fertility
Capital Intensive, where huge amounts of money for ✓Water and drainage
resources and technology are put into the systems to Rainfall distribution is used by farmers to design farming
maximise outputs. calendar or to plan farming processes
Factors affecting farming Table one below shows rainfall and temperature for a
• Physical factors tropical area where subsistence farming is practiced
• Human
• Economic
month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temperature ( 0C ) 28 28 27 25 18 16 15 16 26 29 28 28
Rainfall (mm) 275 200 255 100 50 25 10 0 10 160 160 240

Using the climatic information given in the table only,

draw a simple diagram to illustrate the calendar of
farming activities throughout the year for the area.

170
 • Deep and
well drained
How physical factors have influenced farming activities in clay soils
Zimbabwe • Flat to
Zimbabwe is divided into five agro-ecological regions, known as natural farming regions on the basis of undulating
• rainfall regime, relief
• soil quality Region 3 • Rainfall Semi
• vegetation 650-850mm intensive
• Relief Mainly in • Higher Livestock
midlands
The quality of the land resource declines from Natural Region (NR) I through to NR V temperature with fodder
Zimbabwe’s natural farming regions 18-24 crop
• Infrequent Mainly
high rainfall drought
and mid- resistant
season crops
drought Irrigation
farming
done
Region 4 Rainfall 450-650 Semi
Low lying area in Hot region 20-25 extensive
the north and Frequent drought Too dry
south of the and severe dry spells therefore
country suitable for
Livestock
Natural farming characteristics Farming and
region systems Irrigation
farming
Region 1 • Rainfall is Specialized done
• East of the highest, above and Region 5 Rainfall less than Extensive
country 1000mm per diversified Lowland areas 450mm farming
• Chimanimani, year farming South east Hot region 22-30 Extensive
Vumba and • Low temperature lowveld and Flat land, sandy soils cattle
Inyangani • High altitude/ Zambezi valley production
mtns relief and wildlife.
Region 2 • Rainfall Intensive Irrigation
• North 750- crop and farming
eastern 1000mm animal Physical factors that have influenced the pattern of farming
high veld • Warm farming in Zimbabwe include
summer 18- • rainfall distribution and mount
22 • temperature
• Cool winter • relief
16-18 • soil type and fertility

171
These inputs are naturally occurring, so farmers must work - Leasehold ✓ Enabl ✓ Does not
with the physical factors of their farm's farmer uses es offers
location. land that is not landle security of
They can intervene/ modify these inputs by his but works ss ownership
• growing crops in greenhouse to protect them from as per farmer ✓ Cannot be
frosts and improve plant growth. agreement s to used as
• Drilling boreholes or construct dams to provide ✓ Eg have collateral
water share acces security
• Terracing step relief croppi s to ✓ Does not
• Adding manure or fertilisers to improve soil fertility ng land gives the
• Cloud seeding ✓ Cash ✓ Old farmer
Human factors tenanc and incentive to
y weak develop
Factors include: farmer farm
✓Government policy - eg through system of subsidies and s can infrastructu
loans and tax reductions can influence a farmers choice. also re
e.g. communist governments encourage collective farming earn a ✓ Can lead to
✓ Tradition –famers may have farmed in a certain way for living environmen
a long time and so may be resistant or reluctant to make by tal
changes leasin degradatio
✓ Religion influences a farmer’s choice of what to grow g their n as the
because churches prohibits their members from certain farms farmer
farming activities .e.g. SDA do not grow tobacco or keep knows the
pigs farm is not
✓ Land size. This depends on number of people his
competing for land in the area. Where farms are large
farmers practice extensive farming while where farms - Communal ✓ Offers ✓ May cause land
are small, farmers practice intensive farming land belongs to greater degradation as
✓ Land tenure refers to a system by which land is state but is social there is no
distributed, owned and used. This greatly influences given to cohesion direct
farmer’s decision community to as farmers responsibility
•identify forms of land tenure in Zimbabwe use only. can ✓ Cannot be used
Farmer does organize as collateral
Land tenure Advantages disadvantages
not have tittle themselves security
syste
deeds into village ✓ Does not offers
ms/ types
groups security of
Free- hold in ✓ Offers ✓ Land can be (nhimbes) ownership
this tenure security of easily sold by ✓ Cannot be used
✓ Farmers as collateral
system, ownership the farmer
benefit security
farmers own ✓ Can be ✓ Farmer can lose
from ✓ Does not gives
the land and used as land through
advice the farmer
have title deeds collateral bank loans
from the incentive to
for it security
local develop farm
✓ Gives the
agricultural infrastructure
farmer
extension
incentive to
workers
develop
✓ Enables
farm
sharing
infrastructu
ideas and
re
experience
✓ Enables
✓ Cheap
sustainable
labour from
manageme
family
nt as the
members
farmer
Cooperative a 1. owned and 1. entails longer
knows the
group of controlled by decision-making
farm is his
farmers jointly members. process.
forever.
own the land
172
 and they pull 2. democratic 2. some members ✓ The effects of transport have been greatly reduced in
their resources control: one may be lazy. the developed world because of innovations such as
together and member, one refrigerated lorries and bulk carriers.
they share the vote. 3. Extensive record ✓ It is still an important factor in many parts of the
produce or 3. has a limited keeping is developing world.
profit liability. necessary ✓ Many subsistence farms could not sell surpluses even if
4. Profit is 4. possibility of they had them because of the costs involved in
shared and development of transporting the surplus to the market place.
surplus may be conflict between
allocated in members.
shares or cash.

Resettlement
land is owned
by state but
distributed to
need farmers
on two models

Model A1 – The graph shows that

✓ village ✓ land close to the market gives the highest returns per
model unit area hence it is wanted by many farmers (there is
✓ 12-15 high demand for the land) hence the land is expensive
acres thus farmer tend to buy small pieces of land and
arable land intensify production
✓ Common ✓ Transport costs are lowest at locations close to the
grazing market this is because transport cost increases with
✓ Headed by increasing distance
village ✓ Away from the market land is cheap but transport cost is
head high hence to maximize profit farmer do extensive
Model A2 farming. Described
✓ Small Study graphs below which shows the relationship between
scale the net profit obtained per hectare and distance from the
commercia urban market of three farming activities
l farmers
✓ Self- (i)describe and explain the relationships between
contained farming activities and the distance from the urban
plots market(m)
✓ 5 to 40
hectares
ECONOMIC FACTORS

✓Labour - some farms require more labour than others, eg

a market garden will employ more
labourers than a hill sheep farm.
✓ Market- the farm needs to be close to its market ot to
routes of communication that allow the farmer to sell his
goods
✓ Demand for the product encourages farmers to grow a
given crop because they will be able to sell it
✓ Transport
Transport is an important factor in determining location
of farm types. ✓Finance /capital- money is needed for wages, seed,
✓ If a product is bulky such as potatoes then it should be buildings, animal feed, fertilisers, pesticides and
grown close to the market place to cut down on machinery.
transport costs. Cost of land if the land is expensive then farmers must farm
✓ If the good is perishable then again it should be grown intensively to make profit
close to the market place.
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✓ Techcnology. The green revolution increased food ✓ Land clearing is done by pollarding tree braches
production due to better plant breeding. arround …….. which is done by men
•new high yielding seed varieties ✓ Women and children gather the branches
•improved irrigation facilities ✓ Branchies are left to dry and are set on fire
•use of fertilizers arround…….. to produce ash, kill weeds and control
•use of pesticide pests
•multiple cropping ✓ Ashe is spread over a small plot
✓ When rains come women and children dig holes on the
Positive aspects of the green revolution plot and plant a variety of crops such as cassava, millet
• Increased crop yield - and therefore their income. and
• The plants grow faster, enabling multiple-cropping. Advantages of shifting cultivation
• Increased profits led to investment in the farm, e.g. the ✓ Fallow period allows the land to rejuvinate naturally
purchase of better machinery ✓ Helps to recycle land
• More food was produced hence hunger/ famine avoided ✓ Uses cheap inputs
Negative effects of the green revolution ✓ Fire destroys weeds and pests
• Hybrid seeds are expensive , poor farmers could not afford. ✓ Burning loosens soil
• Farmers could not afford irrigation schemes or fertilizers. Disadvantages of shifting cultivation
• Farmers borrowed money but could not afford to pay it ✓ Gives too low yields which does not give sufficient food
back, increasing their debt. – agricultural to people
idebtedness ✓ Causes deforestation
• Many farmers migrated to the city because they couldn't ✓ Leads to loss of soil microorganisms
compete with the large farms. ✓ Causes forest fires if burning is careless
• Prices dropped - a higher yield means there may be a ✓ Is limited to low density population areas only
surplus. ✓ Is a wasteful form of farming
• Many people lost their jobs due to mechanization. Bush fallowing
• Fertilisers destroyed the environment. ✓ Is a farming system in which the farmer has a
• Increased irrigation led to the spread of diseases such as permanent home but rotate field
bilharzias. ✓ The field is left uncultivated for 3-5 years so that it
• In conclusion, green revolution widened the gap between restores its fertility
the rich and the poor farmers. ✓ That’s bush fallowing has a reduced fallow period as
• Accelerated environmental deterioration population has increased
Advantages of Bush fallowing
Technology ✓ If fallow period is long enough, soil fertility is naturally
✓ Refers to the techniques and methods of production. restored
Subsistence Farming Types ✓ Less land is wasted because they allow fallow at
different times
• Farming aimed at producing to provide for family ✓ Enables permanent settlement
food ✓ Uses cheap inputs
The Massai nomadic pastoralists
Types of subsistence farming ✓ They live in valley floor of the Great East African Rift
1. Shifting cultivation valley
✓ Climate :-dry, rainfall below 600mm per year
✓ Also known as slash and burn or Chitemene in zambia :- hot temperatures of 25ⁿc and
✓ Is a type of farming which involves clearing of land, high
growing crops for 3 to 5 years and abandoning the land ✓ Seasonal variation in rainfall control movements of the
when it is infertile for 30 to 40 years? Massai
✓ Practiced in areas where population is still very low ✓ In the dry season, they move their animals up the
Characteristics of shifting cultivation which shows that surrounding mountains were its cool and wet due to
it is subsistence farming altitude
✓ It uses very simple rudimentary tools such as digging ✓ Wet season they move their animals to valley floor
sticks and machetes Way of life of nomads
✓ Usually gives very low yields per plot
✓ Uses family labour input ✓ Lead very simple life which is intertwined with livestock
✓ Uses ash as fertilizer ✓ They mainly depend on their animals for food
✓ All produce is for family consumption ✓ They also do batter trade with milk for grains
✓ May exchange grains with meet or milk ✓ They build temporal homes
How shifting cultivation is done ✓ They travel light with tents

174
✓ They quickly pitch up their tents when they get to a ✓ Produces mainly for consumption and sale surplus
place with enough water and pasture ✓ Practice mixed farming ie crops and animals on same
✓ They break up settlement and move when grazing and farm
water is finished Communal farming
✓ Is subsistence farming done in rural areas where the
Reasons why the Massai keep Zebu Cattle land belongs to the state but given to the community to
✓ They are able to walk long distances because of their use only
physical strengt ✓ They do not own the land and so does not have tittle
✓ They are disease resistant deeds
✓ They are drought resistant ✓ The resources in the area are shared by the whole
✓ They produce much beef community ie they are a common property
Reason for practicing nomadism ✓ There is very low level of mechanisation
✓ Low rainfall Advantages of communal farming
✓ Frequent drought ✓ Offers greater social cohesion as farmers can organise
✓ Lack of pastures themselves into village groups (nhimbes)
✓ Lack of permanent surface water ✓ Farmers benefit from advice from the local agricultural
✓ Tradition of the people extension workers
✓ Shifting position of the ITCZ rain belt coupled with the ✓ Enables sharing ideas and experience
advance and retreat of tsetse fly ✓ Cheap labour from family members
Problems faced by the Massai Disadvantages of communal farming
✓ Cattle diseases :- lack vaccination ✓ Lacks individual effort to develop a resource (eg dam )
✓ Overgrazing due to uncontrolled grazing because everybody has access to it
✓ Deforestation :- cut tree branches for cattle ✓ Farmers do not have tittle deeds so can’t get bank loans
✓ Soil erosion caused by overgrazing, deforestation and ✓ Lacks a well infrastructure eg raods, electricity and
following of traditional routes dams
✓ Increased drought and desertification ✓ There is overcrowding resulting in small farms
✓ Boundary conflicts ✓ There is shortage of capital to buy farm inputs
Why is nomadism disappearing? ✓ Lack farming machinery and irrigation equipment
✓ Increasing population size and density:- less land now ✓ Mainly located on marginal land with poor rainfall and
available for grazing soils
✓ Government policy forced them into sedentarism What can be done to improve production in communal
✓ Imposition of political boundaries areas
✓ Political instability in African countries ✓ Government to increase input scheme programmes e.g.
Why is there need for Sedentarisation of nomads? command agriculture
✓ To enable provision of services e.g. schools and clinics ✓ Give agricultural loans to communal farmers
✓ Enables vaccination on livestock ✓ Educate farmers on the best farming practices
✓ Enables controlled grazing to avoid overgrazing and ✓ Offer tillage programmes to communal farmers
desertification ✓ Improve crop and animal breeds to suit the different
✓ Help to reduce conflicts over grazing land climatic conditions
✓ Reduces criminal activities as people movements are ✓ Improve transport systems in communal areas
controlled ✓ Offer competitive market prices for agricultural produce
✓ Gives people sense of land ownership and responsibility Commercial farming
to care for it. ✓ Is a farming whereby farmers produce crops for sale
Reasons for the disappearance of nomadic hearding Aims of commercial farming in Zimbabwe
✓ Increased population ✓ To sale the produce
✓ Improved education ✓ To feed the nations
✓ Urbanization ✓ To help the development of infrastructure
✓ Government control and legislation ✓ To get profit
✓ Large areas are now reserved for the growing tourism ✓ To provide raw materials to industries
sector Elements of commercial farming
✓ Resettlement and Sedentarisation of the nomads inputs processes outputs
Sedentary peasant farming Land Land clearing Food crops and
✓ Is a settled type of subsistence farming where the Rainfall using bulldozers vegetables
farmer have permanent land and home Capital Mechanised Cash crops
✓ There is use of fertilisers and technology to improve Labour (skilled ploughing, Milk
production and semi-skilled) planting and Beef
✓ Government trained agricultural extension workers are Machinery harvesting Hides
deployed in communities to help farmers Hybrid seeds Capital

175
 Cattle breeds Planting using With reference to one farm/ market garden you have
seed drills and studied, outline its location
planters ✓ Name of farm: Wanu farm
Weeding ✓ Location 20km east of Gweru town along Mvuma-Gweru
Spraying high way
selling ✓ It is mainly engaged in market gardening and Flower
Importance of/ Advantages of commercial farming production
✓ Increased food supply leading to improved diets and Physical factors that have favoured it location
well nourished nation ✓ Presence of fertile red clay soils which are well aerated
✓ Earns foreign currency ✓ Drainage is good, preventing water logging
✓ Creates employment ✓ Availability of water in Najo dam
✓ Develops infrastructure eg roads, schools and rail ✓ High to moderate rainfall
✓ Provide raw materials to industries ✓ Presence of large gentle sloping or near flat land
✓ Encourage development of industries that produce ✓ Mild winters and early springs encourage good growth.
agricultural inputs Economic factors include
Disadvantages of commercial farming ✓ Close proximity to Gweru town for marketing of farm
✓ Exploitation of labour, especial child labour during produce
planting and harvesting ✓ Presence of Gweru to Mvuma highway road for easy
✓ Pollution of water and air through use of chemicals marketing of produce
✓ Low wages and salaries for unskilled labour ✓ Presence of large cheap land i.e. at 20km from town the
✓ Poor housing on farms land is cheaper
✓ Takes up much land when other farmers don’t have land ✓ The crops grown there are perishable and need to reach
✓ Heavy use of chemicals pollutes the soil the shops within 24 hours.
Commercial farming types Socio-political factors
1. market gardening/ horticulture/truck farming ✓ The area had very low population density hence ideal
✓ is atype of farming that involves intensive cultivation of for large scale commercial farming
vegetables, fruits and floors for sale ✓ The government had already set the area apart as
Features/ characteristics of market gardening commercial farming area
✓ is both labour and capital intensive ✓ Technology is very modern and a lot of scientific
✓ produce vegetables, fruits and flowers research is done by qualified workers.
✓ it is market oriented, therefore usually located close to ✓ There is a large labour input that help in planting,
major urban centres applying fertilisers and harvesting the crops.
✓ diversity of crops grown on a small area of land
✓ employs more manual labour and gardening techniques Livestock production/ pastoralism
✓ located in areas which have access to water for •There are basically two important commercial types of
irrigation livestock farming in Zimbabwe
Problems faced by market gardeners •Dairying
✓ theft and vandalism can be •Ranching
solved by fencing and hiring armed guards Dairy farming
✓ lack of capital ✓ Is a type of farming which involves keeping of cows for
✓ crops disease and pests can be selling their milk and milk products
solved by using pesticides and fungicides Characteristics of dairy farming
✓ land taken over by urban expansion ✓ Is the most advanced, labour and capital-intensive type
choosing a location away from urban centre of farming.
✓ natural hazards eg winter snow and hail storms can be ✓ There is much scientific management. A greater
solved by insuring crops/using green hses emphasis is placed on the improvement of herds.
✓ high input costs can be ✓ Dairy farms produce milk and milk related products.
solved by getting bank loans ✓ Dairy farmers usually do not sell their products directly
✓ land pollution due to pesticides solved by to consumers. they generally sell milk to Dairy Marketing
scientific management Board,
✓ completion leading to reduction of prices growing a ✓ Is practiced on small land areas
variety of crops
✓ lack of transport Describe and explain the distribution/ location of dairy
forming transport cooperatives farms in Zimbabwe shown
✓ fluctuating market prices
✓ lack of water sinking
boreholes
case study of a market garden

176
 ✓ Large tracks of open land enable grazing land for the
cattle
Describe the characteristic features of this commercial
dairy farming in Zimbabwe (6)
✓ The farm is intensively managed
✓ Milking is done by milking machines
✓ Keeps jersey and Friesland cows
✓ Uses plenty supplementary feeds
Cattle ranching
•Is also known as extensive pastoralism
•It involves large scale commercial production of livestock for
beef and beef products.
•ranching is suited to areas which:-
– Are arid or semi arid ( region 4 and 5)
below –Have cheap land because it is an extensive type of farming
–Have sufficient grass to support large numbers of livestock
Answer –Where other forms of land use are limited
Highest concentration of dairy farms is found within the –Where population density is low
first 10km for easy access to market •E.g. in Zimbabwe ranches are located in arid areas of
The density of dairy farms decreases with increasing Matabeleland south and south eastern low veld
distance due to increase transport costs However in areas of high rainfall such as region one and
There is a greater concentration of dairy farms along the two, intensive beef production is done
major roads for easy transportation Problems faced by cattle ranchers and possible
The 30km radius has the least number of dairy farms solutions in Zimbabwe
because it’s too far from the market hence milk will go ✓ Stock feeds are expensive to buy or grow
bad before reaching market irrigate natural grazing land
Other factors influencing location of dairy farms ✓ Unreliable rainfall pattern
•Dairy cows are very sensitive to heat and diseases, thus construct dams and drill boreholes
they require a cool and wet climate ✓ Poor infrastructure for ranching
•An area free from pests and diseases improve roads
•An area close to urban markets, hence it has to be full of ✓ Stock theft
grass to support many cattle on a mall piece of land increase security officers on farms
•Dairy farms also need locations that are close to roads for ✓ Pests and diseases
easy access to markets because milk is perishable buy vaccines and drugs from abroad
•Commercial dairy farms are mainly located in region one ✓ Vandalism of fence
and two employ farm guards
Dairy farming accounts for the most farm acreage in the ✓ Scarce and expensive vaccination medicines
eastern Zimbabwe. engage veterinary services
✓ Drought and shortage of water drill
Name one commercial dairy farm you have studied in bore holes
Zimbabwe (1) ✓ Poor road network
G.D. Anderson dairy farm/ Senale dairy farm constructs more roads
Briefly describe its location (2) One area dominated by cattle ranching is Matebeland North
✓ Senale farm is located along Gweru to Mvuma road and South
about 12km from Gweru town Describe the factors which influence the location of the
✓ The farm is linked to the main road by a narrow tarred farming (7)
road ✓ This area has dry climate which is not suitable for crop
✓ It is 2 to 3km off the highway to Mvuma cultivation
Explain the factors which have influenced the location of ✓ Has poor sand soils which cannot support crop growth
this dairy farm (6) ✓ There are vast expanses of land lying idle
✓ Presence of a dairy marketing board in Gweru town ✓ Traditionally the Matebele people who lived around
provided a market for the milk Bulawayo used to keep large heads of cattle
✓ The cool temperature being experienced in the Gweru ✓ There is greater demand for meat in the country
region are favourable to dairy cows ✓ Presence of both road and rail transport to carry cattle
✓ The area has sweet grass which is very palatable to the to markets across the country and beyond
dairy cows ✓ Drilling of boreholes by government has made watering
✓ Good transport network made it easier to move milk to of cattle possible
the market ✓ Matabeleland has lots of sweet veld for cattle

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Account for the importance of such type of farming to ✓ Modern technology is adopted in the production of the
the country (4) crops. High-yielding seeds, fertilizers and pesticides are
✓ Earns foreign currency used.
✓ Provide meat for local needs ✓ Most crops are processed in a factory on a plantation.
✓ Supports Bata shoe company with hides ✓ Many machines are used to process the outputs to
✓ Employs many people ensure the quality of the products is consistently high.
✓ Enables agro ecological marginal land to be put into use ✓ Farming is mechanised wherever possible. Emphasis is
Advantages of cattle ranching on raising the productivity and quality of the produce.
✓ Earns foreign currency ✓ Monoculture
✓ Helps to meet local and external demand for meat ✓ Plantation farming is capital intensive. To initiate and
✓ Provides raw materials to local industry e.g Bata shoe maintain tropical plantation, a large sum of capital is
company required
✓ Helps to effectively use semi-arid areas of the country The importance of plantation agriculture
✓ Integrates well with game ranching ✓ Create employment for local and expatriates
Plantation agriculture ✓ Produce raw materials for industries
✓ It refers to the large scale, capitalised and often highly ✓ Encourage industrial growth by building their factories
centralised cultivation in the growing of cash crops for ✓ Produce food for local and foreign market
export ✓ Produce cheap goods for local people
✓ is sedentary cultivation found in tropical countries ✓ Improve infrastructure by building roads and rail
The factors which encouraged the development of ✓ Provide important services such as schools, clinics,
plantation agriculture were: church buildings and stadiums
✓ the availability of land, ✓ Pay tax to government
✓ climate ✓ Act as centre of research and diffusion of ideas
✓ demand Why is plantation agriculture falling out of favour in
✓ Hot and wet tropical climate was conducive for the many African Countries?
cultivation of many tropical crops such as sugar-cane, ✓ Soil nutrients exhausted by monoculture
tea and coffee in Indonesia and rubber in Malaysia. ✓ Easily destroyed by disease due to monoculture
✓ There is great overseas demand for these tropical ✓ Does not invest profit in host country but export it to
crops. mother country
Characteristics of plantation agriculture ✓ TNCS just use host country’s resources and leave once
✓ Plantation crops are generally raised on large estates of the land is exhausted
more than 40 hectares. ✓ Occupy large tracks of land at expense of locals
✓ It is, therefore, one of the best examples of an export- ✓ Indulge in local politics
oriented system. ✓ Tend to monopolize local food industry
✓ Among the most important crops found on plantations Characteristics of mixed farming
are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and tobacco, ✓ Livestock production complements crop production with
citrus animals feeding on crop residues while their dung
✓ have foreign ownership e.g Malaysian rubber enriches the soil
plantations are owned by Europeans ✓ Several produce are produced
✓ Employs local and foreign labour. ✓ Requires skilled planning as there are many land use
✓ Builds a distinctive nucleated settlement consisting of zones
the office, factory, storage facilities, utility services, Advantages of mixed farming
health and education services and employees' houses ✓ Enables diversified production
in a central location relative to the cultivated land ✓ Ensures a steady income all year round
✓ there are roads and sometimes light railways to facilitate ✓ Enables farms to with stand market price fluctuations
transport in the undeveloped area. ✓ Provides greater security than monoculture
✓ use of high-yielding seeds, fertilizers, insecticides and ✓ Enables high outputs due to complimentary nature of
machinery animals and crops
✓ Carrying out R & D work to improve yields. R & D work Case study of a mixed farm
is undertaken SERIOUSLY:) to further improve the ✓ One example of a mixed commercial farm is Senale
yields and increase the quality of the outputs farm
✓ produce high-quality outputs ✓ Senale farm is owned by Mr GD Anderson
✓ Employs a large labour force which will include field ✓ It is about 3km away from Anderson school, 12 km from
workers to look after the crops, factory workers to Gweru town
process the crops, and drivers to perform transport ✓ It is is connected to the Gweru to Mvuma high way by a
duties and... narrow tarred road
✓ Engaging skilled management staff to run the plantation Farming activities done at Senale Farm
and look after the large labour force ✓ Intensive dairy farming

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✓ extensive beef production ✓ Farmers pool their resources in certain areas of activity.
✓ Intensive market gardening specializing in tomatoes, ✓ members generally ‘share’ resources and earnings, and
potatoes and flowers work towards mutual benefits for all
✓ maize production
Dairy production at Senale farm Irrigation farming
✓ the type of cattle kept is mainly jazzy cows and some ✓ Is the artificial supply of water on land in order to grow
cross breeds of jazzy and Brahman crops when climatic conditions are dry.
✓ the jazzy cows are said to produces a lot of milk but with Reasons for irrigation farming
low fat content ✓ To increase food production for an increasing population
✓ the cross breeds are said to produce less milk but with ✓ To produce crops throughout the year
high fat content ✓ To counter effects of drought
✓ so for the milk to fetch higher price at Dairy marketing ✓ To bring marginal land into production
board, they mix milk from these two types cows ✓ Harness and utilise water that might have been lost
✓ the dairy cattle are fed from bailed grass on sheds and through run-off.
are also given commercial food supplements Conditions for irrigation farming
✓ there is also a 100hactare land with irrigated grass for ✓ Large tracks of gentle sloping land
the cattle ✓ Clayey sub soils to reduce water loss in canals
✓ maize produced on the farm is also mixed with dry grass ✓ Semi arid hot areas for fast crop growth and less
and maize stalks and run in a grinding mill to make dairy diseases
feeds ✓ Large rivers for permanent water supply
✓ milking is done by milking machines History of south east lowveld irrigation farming in
✓ management is done by qualified manager with a Zimbabwe
veterinary degree ✓ Was started in 1919 by MacDougal using small canal
✓ there are 20 workers in the dairy section ( it is both from Mutirikwi river
labour and capital intensive) ✓ Gvt took over the project in 1945
✓ milk produced is mainly sold to Dairy marketing board ✓ 1954 south African sugar planters took over
using refrigerated truck ✓ 1956 Hippo Valley Estate established
Beef production ✓ Kyle dam was built and irrigation expanded
✓ is mainly an extensive activity ✓ 1965 Sabi Limpopo authority established to co-ordinate
✓ there are a variety beef breeds kept development in area as well as use of water
✓ beef cattle are given less food supplements and are ✓ Three estates were then established ie Mkwasine,
grazed on hilly and rock sections of the farm where crop Chisumbanje and Middle Sabi
production is difficult Gezira irrigation scheme
✓ the cattle are mainly slaughterd to provide beef to Mr
GD Anderson’s butchery in Gweru town
✓ there are fewer workers in the beef section
Reasons for location of the farm
Physical factors that have favoured it location
✓ Presence of fertile red clay soils
✓ Availability of water in Senale dam
✓ High to moderate rainfall
✓ Presence of large gentle sloping or near flat land
Economic factors include
✓ Close proximity to Gweru town for marketing of farm
produce
✓ Presence of Gweru to Mvuma highway road for easy ✓ Irrigation along the Blue and White Nile rivers
marketing of produce ✓ Soils are volcanic, fertile and semi-permeable
✓ Presence of large cheap land i.e. at 20km from town the ✓ Land is gentle sloping
land is cheaper ✓ Landscape is open with vey few trees and low
✓ Presence of large pool of cheap labour from Gweru population density
town and Chiwundura Communal area ✓ Rainfall is low ranging from 200 to 300mm ie is low
Socio-political factors (i)Using map evidence , rainfall and temperature figures,
✓ The area had very low population density hence ideal state the factors that have influenced the establishment of
for large scale commercial farming the irrigation project (5)
✓ The government had already set the area apart as (ii)What are the inputs and outputs of the irrigation scheme.
commercial farming area (6)

Cooperative farming

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Comparison of South East lowveld and Gezira Irrigation
schemes

✓ It is usually done to supplement income and food by

urban dwellers
Advantages of farm mechanisation Characteristics of urban agriculture
1. A large area of barren land can be cultivated more easily ✓ Done on small plots on vacant land
through use of tractors. ✓ Its mainly illegal
2. The installation of irrigation equipment will relieve the ✓ Done on wetlands and water ways
cultivators from uncertainty of water supply which will ✓ Crops grown are maize, vegetables and tomatoes
increase their production. Benefits of urban agriculture
3. Reduction of labour Cost and due to this income of the ✓ Utilise idle land
farmer increases. ✓ Contribute immensely to the country’s production
4. Use of machinery like combine harvesters also improves ✓ Provides employment to many
the quality of products. ✓ It supplement food fow low income families
5. The use of machinery saves the time since many acres of Problems of urban agriculture
land can be cultivated with tractor in few hours. ✓ Cause land and water pollution through heavy use of
6. The use of machinery increases the efficiency of the pesticides and fertilizers
worker and rises the out put per worker. So the income and ✓ Cause eutrophication
efficiency of workers improves. ✓ Causes clashes between municipalities and the
community
Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization :- Land reform in Zimbabwe
1. increased the rate of unemployment since a farmer now ✓ Is a change in the land tenure systems and land sizes
needs few workers in the country. History of land reform in Zimbabwe
2. Not Suitable for Small Holding ✓ Dates back to colonial occupation and defeat of Africans
3. may increase cost of inputs in the 1890s
4. Lack of Technical Knowledge :- ✓ 1930 land apportionment act
5. Requires much capitalto buy. ✓ 1951 land husbandry act
6. Lack of Energy Resources :- ✓ 1969 land tenure act
7. Lack of Capital :- ✓ These laws lead to Africans being forcibly moved to
Urban agriculture in Zimbabwe agricultural marginal land called the reserves as shown
✓ Is a form of intensive subsistence farming done illegally on pie chart below
in urban areas’ vacant land

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 As from 1980 to today, the government have implemented 3
What is Resettlement? resettlement programmes
✓ Is the relocation of families and individuals from their (a) phase one (1980-1987)
original homes and farms to new areas ✓ Was a willing seller willing buyer basis in which the
✓ It is part of land reform programme in Zimbabwe government was buying land from white commercial
What is land reform? farmers on willing basis
✓ Land reform refers to changes I system of land tenure ✓ Was based on Lancaster house constitution
and land ownership which can be ✓ Aim was to acquire 8.3 million hectares of land to
i. Reorganisation of land – Land tenure or – Landuse resettle people from congested communal areas
ii. land consolidation ie merging of small plots into one ✓ Only 3.5 million hectares were acquired
large farm Programme faced difficulties due to
iii. fragmentation ie splitting of big farms into several ✓ Financial constraints
small plots ✓ Drought
✓ Unwillingness by white commercial farmers to sale land
Aims/ objectives or reasons for justifying land to state
reform in Zimbabwe ✓ Lack of transparency on beneficiary selection
✓ To correct colonial land imbalances and equitable land (b) phase two (1990 to 2004)
distribution ✓ Target was to acquire 5 million hectares between 1990
✓ Relieve population pressure in overcrowded communal and December 2005
lands ✓ 1992 was land Acquisition Act , in 2000 was Land
✓ Giving land back to its original owners Occupier Protection Act and Constitution Zimbabwe
✓ To make use of land that had been laying idle Amendment number 17 of 2005
✓ To reduce tension between blacks and whites Aim was to resettle
✓ To increase agricultural production and have ✓ landless poor
sustainable development ✓ graduate of agricultural colleges
✓ To improve standard of living and to have food security ✓ individuals with eastablished farming experience
for the majority and poor people ✓ disadvantaged groups eg women
✓ To offer employment opportunities to the unemployed Phase 3 1998- 2002 (Fast Track Resettlement Phase
and landless [FTRP])
✓ was an acceleration of phase two
describe land reform processes in Zimbabwe/explain the ✓ was done in response to little progress made as a result
land reform process in Zimbabwe of resistance by white commercial farmers

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✓ land was compulsorily acquired through acts of
parliament Problems caused by the newly resettled farmers on the
Objectives of fast track resettlement phase environment
✓ to speed up identification of 5 million hectares of land for ✓ Deforestation
compulsory acquisition to resettle the now restless ✓ Overstocking and overgrazing
blacks ✓ Poaching wild animals
✓ to accelerate the planning and demarcation of acquired ✓ Destruction of wetlands
land and placement of settlers ✓ Illegal mining
✓ to provide limited basic infrastructure eg roads, schools, ✓ Veld fires
dip tank ✓ Soil erosion through stream bank cultivation
✓ to get land from companies and absentee landlords Solutions to these problems
FTLRP achievements ✓ Educating farmers on effects of environmental
✓ increased the number of small producers under model degradation
A1 scheme ✓ Afforestation and reforestation programmes
✓ small to medium and large scale commercial farmers ✓ Use of legislation against veld fires and poaching
increased under model A2 scheme ✓ Destocking especially in A1 farms
✓ more blacks got settled in region one and two ✓ Impose stiff penalties on poaching
resettlement models Small scale farming
model A1 ✓ Is farming done by families mainly in the communal
✓ farmers have 3-6 hactares of arable land away from farming areas
residential area ✓ All family members take part in farming processes as
✓ residential stand are 0.4 hectares (one acre) they contribute to food security
✓ have common grazing land, dip tank and cemetery Food security
✓ is a communal ownership ✓ Is the availability of adequate food per household to
meet daily food needs
Model A2 Food insecurity
✓ is self-contained plot ✓ Exist when a household or any other member of the
✓ is a commercial settlement scheme comprising small, household are not able to meet their daily food needs
medium and large scale commercial farming ✓ ie there would be food deficit
✓ aimed at giving farms to applicats with experience in Household food deficit
farming ✓ is when food is below required daily calorie of
✓ successful applicants are provided with 99year lease 2100kilocalories
with an option to purchase ✓ food deficit is lowest just after harvesting (march to
✓ Challenges encountered with Land Reform Programme October)
[LRP] and FTLRP ✓ food deficit is usually high from November to February
✓ Low producer prices
✓ Expensive and ever rising cost of inputs
✓ Lack of capital
✓ Drought
✓ Little farming knowledge by settlers
✓ Late announcement of producer prices
✓ Lack of collateral security ✓ Food insecurity affect mostly people in agroecological
✓ Fuel shortages for farm processes fragile land eg Gokwe, Binga, Chipinge, Mudzi and
✓ Lack of irrigation equipment Kariba
✓ Conflicts between settlers and previous farm owners ✓ Outline the contribution of small scale farming to food
✓ Corruption on land allocation security in Zimbabwe
What the government is doing to assist newly settled Characteristics of food insecure families
farmers ✓ child headed families
✓ Provision of free seed packs ✓ old aged people family
✓ Educating them on farming techniques through ✓ single parent families especially mothers
deploying AREX workers ✓ frequently ill persons
✓ Giving free fertilizer to farmers ✓ people with low educational levels
✓ Provision of tillage unit Strategies for preventing food insecurity
✓ Giving loans ✓ giving food aid to the vulnerable
✓ Starting credit schemes ✓ building proper storage facilities
✓ Eradicating corruption in land allocation ✓ starting community based programmes e.g. Zunde
✓ Giving 99 year lease Ramambo
✓ Encouraging full time farming

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✓ proper food preservation methods e.g. treating for
weevils
✓ having nutritional gardens REVISION EXERCISE
✓ encouraging assistance or remittance from extended
family members There are large expanses of land lying idle in
✓ drilling boreholes for rural communities the dry areas of Zimbabwe said a government
✓ growing traditional food crops minister.
Agribusiness (i) Put up arguments for the use that
✓ agribusiness refers to the business of farming such as
land for a game park and for
agrochemicals, breeding, crop production distribution,
farm machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well resettlement (7)
as marketing and retail sales (ii) State the problems you are likely to
✓ it covers processing and manufacturing and/or the face in implementing the
packaging and distribution of products. programmes stated in (i) above (2)
Types of Agribussiness
There are two broad types of agribusiness companies, Reasons why agricultural output per unit area
namely and per person is low
(a)those that manage and own farms ➢ Poor management/ lack of planning
Eg (i) Large Corporate Farms- growing plants to food ➢ Resistance to change from traditional
processing and packaging farming methods (laggards)
(ii) Niche Markets- focus on regional supply and
➢ Lack of capital to buy inputs
demand, produce only one or two food types.
➢ Low technology
(b)those that provide essential goods and services to Political reasons (civil unrest/political
those farms. sabotage
Eg (i) Farm machinery producers • Low levels of mechanisation
(ii) Packaging and Processing • High frequency of natural disasters like
(iii) Agrichemical producers drought and floods
• High prevalence of tropical diseases of
•identify sources of funding for small scale agribusiness crops and livestock
✓ GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS eg agricultural What can be done to improve agricultural
research and extension services (AREX)
production by subsistence farmers?
✓ DEVELOPMENT FINANCE INSTITUTIONS eg
Agribank • Educating farmers on new farming
✓ COMMERCIAL BANKS eg Standard chartered methods
Bank • Starting irrigation schemes in dry areas
✓ AGRICULTURAL COMPANIES eg COTCO • Government to sale fertilizer, seeds and
✓ DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES eg world bank pesticides to farmers at a subsidized
•evaluate importance of agribusiness to the individual and rate
economy • Provide government tillage tractors that
charge farmers low rates
• Resettlements of farmers on fertile land
• Introduce agribanks that gives farmers
loans at low interest
• Changing communal ownership to
private ownership
• Employing AREX workers to work with
farmers
Questions for further study

1 (a) Study photographs A and B below which

show two types of farming

183
 Photograph A Photograph B

(i) Describe the scene in each (ii) Select any two of these problems and
photograph for each explain how it affects
(ii) What evidence on the photograph A farming (6)
shows that it is commercial farming
(iii) Suggest ways of overcoming each
area? (3)
(iii) In what ways has the terrain shown one of the problems you referred to
in A helped to promote this type of in (b)(ii)(6)
farming?(3)
(iv) For a named area in Zimbabwe
where a similar type of farming to A 2 (a) study photograph A in question 1.
is practiced, what other additional
factors have helped the development (i) With reference to the crop shown in
of farming in that area? (8) photograph OR any other
(b) Problems facing farmers in developing commercial crop you have studied,
word include, state the natural conditions
necessary for the successful growing
• outdated farming methods, of the crop and explain how it is
• low yields seed varieties, harvested and prepared for export.
• floods,
(6)
• pests and diseases,
(ii) Some people support the growing of
• too many mouths to feed,
• soil erosion, cash crops and others do not. What
• lack of transport do you think are the main
• Drought arguments for and against the
(i) On your answer paper, write down growing of cash crops such as the
the headings shown below and then one shown in photograph B below
list each problem listed above under (b)Photograph B shows stage in cotton
correct heading (4) harvesting
Natural Man Combination of
causes made natural and man-
causes made causes

184
 (i) Describe and explain the
distribution shown (6)
(i) Describe and explain the activity shown (ii) Describe the nature of land, labour
(5) and capital inputs in a plantation
(ii) State problems faced by cotton farmers (estate) farming system. (6)
in the communal areas of Zimbabwe (6)
(iii) As a minister of agriculture suggests
measures you would take to improve
cotton production in the communal and
resettlement areas of Zimbabwe. (7)
3 (a)Distribution of plantations (estates) in
Zimbabwe

(b) Horticultural marketing into Harare

(i) Describe the relative importance of

the districts shown on the map in the
supply of horticultural products to
Harare. (5)
(ii) Give two reasons why the growers
market their products in Harare. (2)

4 (a) Survey on problems faced by communal

farmers in Zimbabwe

185
 dande

draught power
chipuriro
cash

gutu tools
satisfied
hwedza pests
labour
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
land

flies, restocking , giving out

tractors for tillage units or by
(i) Name the type of graph used to show encouraging farmers donkeys
the information above (1) • Tools problem can be solved
(ii) Calculate the percentage of farmers by giving farmers tools at low
with tool problems in Dande and prices
those with land problems in Gutu. • Pests can be controlled by
(2) spraying or permaculture
(iii) Using the graph only, explain why
• Capital problems can be
Wedza is likely to be the most
solved by giving loans at low
successful farming area. (4) interest
(iv) As an agritex officer what steps
would you take to solve the farming 5) In a field study of a farm, a geography
problems in Dande Communal
class obtained the following results on
Lands (7) the natural conditions.
Answers
Soil Deep, sand loams
(i) Compound bar graph/ divided bar pH Slightly acidic (6)
Rainfall 800mm, seasonal
graph/percentage divided bar graph
Temperature Summer 210C,
(ii) Dande tools problems 32 to 34% winter 180C
Gutu land problems 38% Vegetation cover Less than 30%
(iii) Almost all land used up Pests and diseases Insects, weeds fungi
Small percentage with tool problems (a) How would this information assist a farmer
Large percentage of farmers are on
satisfied (i) The crops to grow (2)
Small percentage with cash (ii) Farm inputs (4)
problems (iii)Conservation measures (2)
Small percentage with labour (b) With reference to one named example in
problems Africa, describe the advantages and
disadvantages of pastoral nomadism (6)
(c) The table below gives statistics on maize
(iv) Solutions to Dande problems
production in Zimbabwe from 1992 to 1997
• Draught power shortage can
1992-1993 12600 tonnes
be solved by: - killing tsetse 1993-1994 1350 000 tonnes
186
 1994- 1995 1 171 000 tonnes • Enables government to plan like schools to build, when
1995-1996 67 600 tonnes and where, to decide on population policy (pro-natal or
1996-1997 932 000tonnes anti-natal) to make financial budget decisions,
(i) Describe the trends shown on the employment creation as well as planning for health
delivery
table and suggest their possible
• Town planners need to have population data to help them
effects on food security in the structure the town
country. (7) • For environmentalist population numbers, habits and
(ii) You are an Agritex Officer and you activities help to predict, monitor and control
have submitted to the government a environmental impacts
• Other groups of people interested in population data
proposal to expand co-operative
include demographers, geographers, political parties,
agriculture in the communal areas of NGO and businesses
Zimbabwe. Justify your proposal. • To determine demand for goods and services
(4) Collecting population Data
Answer
There are three main sources of population data
(i) The sandy loam soil and moderate
rainfall would do well for any of • Census of entire population
tobacco, ground nuts, maize and sun • Registration of vital statistics
flower, cotton or soya beans
(ii) Acidic soil require lime • Sample surveys
• Secondary sources (church / school registers
Sandy soils require manure and Population census
fertilizers
• A census is an official and complete enumeration (
Seasonal rainfall requires counting) of the entire population with much details
supplementary irrigation as to age, sex, employment, race etc.
Insects, weeds and fungi require
• Zimbabwe conducts decennial census ( ie every ten
pesticides, insecticides and weed years) for example in 1982, 1992, 2002, 2012
killers
• It is carried out by enumerators ( these are employed
Labour official/people who move from house to house
Capital to buy inputs collecting information about the population)
Low temperatures require green
• It involves the process of collecting population
houses information as well as it compilation and publishing
(iii) Members obtain loans easily form
• It is the most accurate and comprehensive method
banks of compiling population data
Hiring transport becomes easy and
cheap • In a census the basic unit for compiling information
is the household (a place made up of a person/
Helps farmers to store their produce persons who live and eat together)
collectively until they are marketed
• Census is done by enumerators who visit each
Easy dissemination of information household during the enumeration period interning
(iv) Problems / disadvantages of heads of households and filling in questionnaires
cooperatives
• Census gathers data on age, sex, fertility, mortality,
Fraud by some members occupation, mortality , education housing type,
Section C population, settlement, location, water source, power type, income, services
e.g. radio, TV and internet
ransport and trade
Population Ordinary level studies outline The merits and demerits of population census include

Population studies is the scientific study of human Advantages (merits)

populations
• It is the most accurate count of a country’s
The importance of population studies and population data population on which official planning can be based
upon
187
 • It captures a wide range of a country’s population • The data is then used to estimate attributes for the whole
data and characteristics population
Advantages of sample surveys
• It has a wider coverage of a country’s population as
well as other variables such as income, housing, • They are cheaper than census
employment and sanitation • Can have higher level of detail and accuracy when it
comes to estimating population attributes since
Disadvantages (demerits) enumerators will be covering a small area
• Sampling error can be calculated and used to establish
• It is very expensive the accuracy of data
Disadvantage of sample surveys
• It can/ is only done after a long time interval e.g.
10years in Zimbabwe • Can be susceptible to sampling bias
• Errors made during sampling are magnified wen results
• It reliability is compromised in areas of high illiteracy
are applied to the whole population
• It is not fool proof is due to it taking several days, it • It can be difficult to ensure that the sample is
can result in over or under enumeration due to representative
changes in death, births and migrations Secondary sources of population data

• It is liable to purposeful lying by households • Secondary data refers to data that was collected by
someone other than the user.
• Double counting and skipping of some household • Common sources of secondary data for geography
may occur due to little training/ shortage of include
resources by the enumerators o censuses information collected by government
departments,
There are many reasons why census taking is difficult: o organisational records and data that was
originally collected for other research purposes
• Census taking is expensive. o registers, books and journals
• Nomadic people pose a problem as they move from Vital registry
place to place. They may be counted twice or missed
out altogether. This is a particular problem in African • This involves the registration of vital events such as
countries. birth, deaths, migrations and divorces or legal
• Illegal immigrants in places such as the USA may separations
not want to be counted. What makes it difficult to collect reliable population data in
• Under-registration is common. In China for instance, LEDCs
many baby girls are unregistered because of the
1. Inaccessibility
one-child policy.
• Low levels of literacy in developing countries mean
• Some areas are very remote ,mountainous and
that many people struggle with the forms.
have no proper roads and this make it difficult for
• There may be more than one language spoken in a
enumerators to move as they collect information.
country, such as in India. This means forms may
need to be printed in more than one language and
2. Shortage of money (lack of capital)
this increases costs.
• Migration is also a problem in many developing
• Some government do not have enough money to
countries. In places like Brazil, many people move
run a population census e.g Ethopia has gone
from rural areas to urban areas to live in favelas
for years without carring out a population census.
(shanty towns) and won't be counted.
• Poor communication links and infrastructure make 3. Cultural beliefs
census taking difficult and expensive. In developing
countries many people live in scattered areas and
• Information regarding to infant mortality
are difficult to access.
rate,miscarriages is not easily disclosed to
• Large countries such as Sudan, or mountainous outsiders for cultural reasons.
countries like Afghanistan, have difficulties with
collecting census data due to accessibility. Both 4. Ignorance
have also suffered war, which again makes census
taking difficult
• People also have a tendency to hide information on
Sample surveys
education level, occupation, age.
• Is when a group of chosen people in a district/ region
5. Political instability
have their information collected and then expressed as
representative of the whole population
• It is difficult to collect information in war torn
• In a sample survey only a part of the population is
country e.g DRC
covered ie data is gathered only from a subset of the
population
188
 6. Shortage of skilled manpower
7. Illiteracy
8. Resistance from people /lack of cooperation

Importance of collecting population data

Economic reasons

• For employment creation

• For development of projects
• To balance exports and imports
Social purposes

• Measuring the level and trend in the standard of living of

the population
• Allocation of resources
• To know number of schools, clinics, hospital, universities
to build
• To know number of dams to construct Birth rate for Botswana is 40/1000
• To know number of boreholes to sink
• To project into future needs for workers Death rate for Botswana is 11/1000
• To plan for old age security and pensions
Natural increase is = …………………………………
Political purposes
=.………………………………...
• For demarcation of political boundaries e.g.
constituencies or allocation of parliament seats. =………..%
Crude Birth rate: is the number of live births for every
thousand people per year Table 1 shows information about population in selected
countries in Africa and Europe (Mid 1990) estimates
Formula is

CBR= number of live births X 1000 Continent Countries Population in Birth rate Death rate Natural
Total population 1000s per per increase
Crude death rate: is the number of thousand thousand
deaths for every thousand people per Africa Swaziland 800 46 15 …………..%
year Lesotho 1800 …………. 12 29/1000
Namibia 1500 44 ………….. 32/1000
Formula is
Europe Denmark 5100 12 12 ……………
CDR= number of deaths X 1000 Norway 4200 14 ………….. 3/1000
Total population Finland 5000 ………….. 10 3/1000
Eg. The 1980 population in Calfonia
From table 1, it can be seen that less economically developed
was 23 000 000 and they were 190,237 deaths during that year.
Calculate CDR countries (LEDCS) have low birth rate and low natural
increase.

Reasons for high birth rate and high natural increase in less
economically developed countries

• Low level of education – education helps tointroduce

people to new information, methods and new ideas so low
Natural Increase: is the difference between birth rate and level of education prevents people from accepting
death rate change.
• Small scale use of family planning methods (low
Eg. BR in Sweden is 14 per 1000 and DR is 11 per 1000
contraceptive usage)
Therefore NI is 14/1000 -11/1000 = 3/1000 • Short education period and this promotes early
marriages.
Or this can be expressed in percentage as • Children are considered as economic assets who will
assists the parents in tilling the land, herding cattle,
3/1000 ×100/1
fetching water and to provide security in times of old age
=0,3%
• Traditional beliefs – most Africans prefer a boy child than
a girl child

189
• •
Low status of women – most women are unemployed and An infant is defined as a child who is less than 1 year
they are regarded as child bearing machines
• Cultural reasons which favour large families
• Level of medical technology is low

Reasons for low birth rate and low natural increase in more
economically developed countries (MEDCS) e.g. Sweden, UK, • Infant mortality rate is high in developing countries and
France low in developed countries e.g. IMR for Kenya is
142/1000, Nigeria 143/1000, Zimbabwe 96/1000 and USA
• High level of education –helps people to adopt to change 8/1000, Germany 8/1000 and Canada 7/1000
• Family planning methods are used on large scale (high Martenal Mortality Rate
contraceptive usage )
• Refers to the number of deaths of women who die from
• Longer education period
pregnancy related causes per 100 000 live births per year.
• Late marriages
• Developing countries have high maternal mortality rates
• Children are considered as an economic liability (burden)
compared to developed countries.
or as consumer durables which you can only have if you
Reasons for high martenal mortality rate in less developed
can afford them
countries
• Emancipation of women (this means giving women
freedom to make decision to follow carriers of their • Poor care for expectant mothers.
choice. Women are bread winners not children bearers) • Poor ante-natal and post natal care.
• Legalisation of abortion • Lack of education about health, pregnancy and child
• Well developed health are facilities birth.
Reasons for low death rate in developed countries e.g. • Poor nutrition /diet for expectant mothers.
Sweden France USA • Lack of access by women to resources.
• Lack of women empowerment.
• Improved medical technology and this enables treatment
of diseases
Reasons for low maternal mortality rate in more developed
• Better nutrition in form of a balance diet
countries
• Better hygiene
• High standard of living
• Improved sanitation
• Better access to health education • Better maternal care for expectant mothers.
• Low doctor to patient ratio (doctors attend to a few • Improvement in ante-natal and post natal care.
patients and they give a adequate attention to patients) • Improvement in obstetric care.
• High degree of disaster preparedness(they can easily • Education about health, pregnancy and childbirth.
cope with disaster if they occur) • Improved nutrition.
• Greater access to resources by women.
• Empowerment of women in decision making as to the
number of children to have and when to have them.
Life expectancy

• Is the average number of years which a person is

expected to live.
• Life expectancy is low in less developed countries e.g.
Ghana 49 years, Botswana 59, Lesotho 57.
• Life expectancy is high in more developed countries e.g.
Australia 76 years, New Zealand 75, USA 76 and France
74.

Reasons for high life expectancy in developed countries e.g.

Infant mortality rate Canada, UK, USA

• Is the number of deaths of children under 1 year old per • High standard of living (most people have access to food,
1000 births. energy, health services, clean water, high calorie intake
as % of needs etc.)

190
• Easy access to advanced health care facilities fewer NB if the ratio is
environmental diseases. • over 100 it means that there are more dependents than
• Better diet/nutrition. workers
• Low doctor to patient ratio (doctor attends to a few • below 100 means a large workforce than dependents
people at a time thus giving more individual attention to • the 0-4 age group is called the child dependents
patients) • the 64+ age group is the old age dependents
• Better pension schemes. Social and economic implications of a high dependency load
• Better care for ageing population (many old people’s Problems faced by countries with high child/ young
homes) dependents
• More recreational facilities which reduce stress related • more public services needed
diseases. • more schools needed
• Better sanitation. • more clinics/ health centres needed
• Surplus food supply. • there will be shortage of jobs
• rapid population growth as young people become adults
Reasons for low life expectancy in less developed countries • encourages demographic investment rather than
e.g. Ghana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi economic one
• budget is spent on provision of social services rather
• Low standard of living (most people have no access to than industrial development
balanced diet, energy, health facilities, clean water, low Population and resources relationship
calorie intake as % of needs etc.
• Lack of access to advanced health services. Population Carrying capacity
• High occurrence of environmental diseases e.g. In Africa Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people that an
area's resources can sustain without significantly depleting or
malaria is the major killer, in west Africa measles kill ½ a
degrading those resources.
million children each year especially children and nursing It includes not degrading our cultural and social environments
mothers as they are easily attacked by diseases. and not harming the physical environment in ways that would
• Poor diet/poor nutrition. adversely affect future generations.
• Poor pension schemes.
• Poor care for ageing population.
• Few homes for aged people.
• High doctor to patient ratio which means that a doctor
attends to a lot of patients at a given time and patients
are not given the necessary attention as the doctor
rushes to attend to as many patients as possible (long
queue of patients versus one doctor)
• Periodic food shortages e.g. Africa faces poor crop
production due to drought and this leads to wide spread
hunger, malnutrition and sometimes starvation.
• Poor sanitation. Optimum population: The population is such that it can
• Lack of recreational facilities which enhance stress maximise the benefits from the resources available. It is only
related diseases. when we have optimum population that the quality of life is
maximised.
Dependency ratio
Over population: The resources cannot sustain the current
population. As long as there is over population the quality of
• It shows the ratio of workers to non-workers.
life will decline through unemployment, pollution, degradation
• It measures the burden of the working age population
of the environment. It refers to a situation in which the
(15-65 age group) of supporting the non-working
number of people in an area is higher than the resources and
population (children under 15 and old people over 65)
skills available
Formula :Dependency ratio = P(0-14) + P(65+) × 100 Under population: The population cannot fully utilise the
P 15-64 resources available. Quality of life can only slowly be
• Active P improved. An increase in population would lead to an
• P stands for population. increase in quality of life.
Dependency (load) ratio is high developing countries and low
in developed countries, Zimbabwe 104 Morocco 102 Japan 48
USA 55 france 60
191
 • Moderate per capital income.
• Moderate standard of living.
• Low unemployment.
• High immigration.
• Examples of under populated countries include
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Botswana
Median age

• Is the age that divides the population into two equal

halves (refer to population pyramid which will come
later).
Sex ratio

• Is the number of males per 100 females.

Indicators (signs/symptoms) of overpopulation • Formula = male population ×100
Female population 1
• Low per capita income Population density
• Low standards of living/ low welfare levels
• High unemployment • Is the number of people per unit area/number of
• malnutrition people per square kilometre.
• Hunger and famine • Formula = Number of people in an area
• High rate of population growth Unit of area km2
Fast population growth can result in over population when • In an examination situation, candidates may be
increase in food supply will be lower than population growth asked to identify a country with a low population
as shown below density or a high population density from a table e.g.
The table gives figures for the population and area of four
countries

Country Population Area in Population

in (millions) (thousand density
km2)
A 1 600
B 7 120
C 8 400
D 14 800

Optimum population • The country with the highest population density is B

with 58,3 people per square kilometre.
• Occurs when the resources of a country are equal or • The country with the lowest population density is A
can support the population of that country. with 1, 6 people per km2.
Indicators or signs of optimum population are as follows : Zimbabwe population density. 2012census indicated
population to be 12973808
• High per capital income.
• Low unemployment (manpower job balance) Population distribution
• High standard of living.
• Well developed social and public services. • Refers to how people are spread over a given area.
• Migration exchange is low. • The world over, people are not evenly distributed
• High population density but there is rigorous they are several factors which influence the way
planning and environmental controls people are distributed. Below is a summary of
Under population factors which affect population distribution.
Factors which affect population distribution
• Refers to a situation whereby the number of
resources in a country will be more than the Natural factors
population.
1. Nature of relief

Indicators or signs of under population are as follows :

192
 • A gentle sloping land is more attractive for NB: when you have been given a question to describe the
setting up a settlement than steep, rugged, hilly distribution of people in a given area, populated. Many
areas which are sparsely populated. candidates lose marks by using the words over populated and
under populated in place of high population or low population
2. Climate
• Dry areas discourage setting up of settlements. Zimbabwe can be divided into 3population distribution areas
• Areas with moderate rains 500-1000 mm are Low population density areas (0-20 people per square
more favourable for establishment of kilometre )
settlements.
• For example Matabeleland North and South areas
• Areas which are extremely cold e.g. the poles
• The Zambezi valley and Limpopo valleys
are sparsely populated.
• These areas are dominated by National Parks and game
• Areas which are extremely hot e.g. hot deserts
reserves
are sparsely populated.
• In the Zambezi valley there is the steep escarpment which
discourages human settlement
3. Water
• People tend to settle in areas which have
water sources e.g. rivers. • Kalahari sands in western Zimbabwe as well as a
• People need water for various purposes frequent drought drives away people
e.g. domestic and industrial purposes. Medium population density areas (21- 40 people per square
4. Soils kilometre )
• Areas with fertile soils tend to attract • Includes the middle veld area, areas along railway lines
settlements than areas with poor soils. and main commercial farming areas on the high veld
• People need fertile soil for agricultural • Mining centres, small industrial and commercial towns
purposes e.g. the Nile river has a high 2

population density due to fertile alluvial High population density areas (41+ people per KM )
soils. • This exist mainly in large cities such as Harare ,
Bulawayo, Mutare and Gweru
5. Pests and diseases • Old reserves such as Gwayi, Shangani, Zvimba and
• Swampy and lowlands tend to discourage Chihota in which people were forced to settle by the
settlements. colonial land apportionment act
• Swampy areas are associated with mosquitoes Population distribution in Africa
which cause malaria e.g. The Zambezi valley in 2
Zimbabwe has a low in density because of malaria. • Total area of Africa is 20.2million KM
• By 2013 Africa’s population was 1.11 billion i.e. 15% of
the world’s population
Economic factors
• Therefore average population density is 36.7 people per
2
Mining KM
Low population density areas with a population below 10
Mines attract settlements e.g. copper belt in Zambia, Hwange 2
in Matabeland North, Zvishavane to mention a few. people per KM
• The desert areas of Sahara, Namib, Kalahari due to
Agriculture their aridity which makes human settlement difficult
(lack of water, pastures and presence of sandy soils)
Agricultural schemes such as irrigation projects attract
Medium density areas with population density of between 10-
settlement e.g. the Gezira irrigation scheme in Sudan 2
50 people per KM include the Zaire basin, west Africa and the
Industries Central plateau due to fertile soils, good rainfall as well plenty
forests
• Industries attract settlement
High density areas above 50KM2 include Cairo, Johannesburg
• People move to industries to look for jobs
great lacks region of Malawi, Zambian copper belt, Nile valley
Political factors/government policy
and several coastal towns, this due to plenty industries,
• Wars may force people to migrate efficient transport in these areas
NATURAL INCREASE, BIRTH AND DEATH RATES
• Resettlement programmes may initiate development of
Birth Rate is the term used to define the number of babies
settlement e.g. Zimbabwe situation on land reform of born every year per 1000 people in a population.
Ujamaa policy in Tanzania

193
Death Rate is the term used to define the number of deaths • As culture and religion still dictates this.
every year per 1000 people in a population. • There is likely to be very limited access to family
Natural increase in a population occurs where Birth rate is planning
greater than death rate. That is, that there are more births than
deaths in that population in a year. • women still have a very submissive role in society.
Natural decrease occurs when death rate is greater than birth Stage 3:
rate. This means that more deaths occur in a population than Birth rates now fall and death rates continue to fall. Natural
babies are born so population numbers decline. increase is still high and population growth rapid. An example
The demographic transition Model would be Chile or China.
Birth rates will start to fall as there is
• greater access to family planning
• People will also start to appreciate the expense of a
large family and opt for fewer children.
• The women emancipation
• Women now pursue a career instead of being a full
time mother.
Death rates continue to fall as the country continues to
improve
• medical and social care, s
• sanitation,
• living conditions.
Stage 4:
Birth rates and death rates level out. Natural increase is low
so population stabilises. Eg. Australia
Society is advanced; women can pursue careers and live
independent lives. Families opt for smaller families because
Stage 1: of the costs involved.
Birth rates and death rates are high so population is low and Death rates remain low. There is little scope for further
stable. This would include Amazonian rainforest people and decline.
subsistence farmers in Bangladesh. Stage 5:
Reasons for high death rates include, Birth rates fall below death rates so natural increase is now
• An unstable political society therefore possible civil negative. Population will start to decrease.
unrest. Japan and Italy are in this stage. reasons
• Reliant upon a subsistence economy therefore food • Birth rates fall further as people are waiting longer to
supply is very unreliable. have families.
• Water supply is likely to be unclean. • Parents are aware of the cost of children so have one or
• There is very little medical care or social care. two so they can still have a good house, holidays - a
• Disease and pests still have high effect on good standard of living.
population. • Women have full access to the job market and
• Hunger and famine • family planning is universally accepted and available.
High birth rates would be • Children spend more time in school and marry late
• A natural consequence of the high death rates. • Religion and culture no longer have strong effect
• Families have large families to compensate for the Key Terms Regarding Migration
large infant mortality rate and so the children can
work to support the families including parents Migration is the movement of people from one administrative
during their old age. area to another, whether regional or international, usually
• part of the culture and religion involving a permanent change of residence for at least one
• men are seen as powerful if they have many year. (UN)
children.
• Women's role in society is very much as a mother Circulations are temporary, reciprocal flows of people over
producing children. any spatial scale without any substantial long-term period of
change in residence.
Stage 2: Mobility refers to both migration and circulation as an overall
Death rates fall but birth rates remain high. Natural increase is term..
greater so population starts to grow rapidly. An example
would be Sri Lanka or Peru. migration
death rates falls due to Is defined as the movement of people from one place to another
• A medical or social breakthrough. For example new which involves as permanent change of residence which
hospitals, new vaccinations, should last a year according to UN
• new legislation to prohibit children from working in
factories. • Circulation or temporary migration refers to short term
• improvements could be made to water supplies or food, repetitive movement e.g. movement by nomadic
accommodation.
pastoralists or commuting from work
Birth rates remain high
194
• Migration is divided into international and internal
migration. International migration involves movement of Causes of migration
people from one country to another e.g. Zimbabwe to UK • Migration is caused by push and pull factors
• Internal migration involves movement of people from one • Push factors are factors which force people to move away
place to another within the same country e.g. Gweru to from one place to another
Kwekwe. Harare to Bulawayo, Zvishavane to Gokwe

Internal migration • Shortage of transport

• Shortage of employment opportunities
Type of internal migration
• Results in poor health and poor sanitation (leads to
spread of dieases such as T.B , cholera)
• Rural to urban migration
• Overcrowding results in busting and blocking of
• Urban to rural migration
sewer pipes as is the case of Mtapa and Mlambo
• Rural to rural migration
high density suburbs in Gweru and Mbare in Harare
• Urban to urban migration
• Puts strain on fire and ambulance services
Rural to urban migration
• Results in traffic congestion/traffic jam and this
• It is the most common type of migration in less causes frustration and delays(congestion occur
developed countries during the rash hours e.g. morning and evening)
Reasons of rural to urban migration • Results in urban growth which leads to urban
• better employment prospects(job opportunities) sprawl.(urban sprawl refers to outward growth or
• Better education facilities expansion of a town and as the town expands
• Better standard of living outwards it consumes land which is meant for
agriculture)
• Superior amenities e.g. piped water, modern
Effects or rural to urban migration with reference of donating
sanitation , electricity
area (source area which is the rural area)
• Better entertainment facilities(bright lights theory)
• Leads to rural depopulation as people migrate to
• Favourable climate
urban areas
• Adventure
• Leads to underdevelopment because of the
Effects of rural to urban migration with reference to receiving
reduction in young labour force. Able bodie people
area (which is the urban area)
will have left to urban areas and rural areas will be
• Shortage of accommodation
left with people who are too young and old to work
• Shortage of education facilities
• Results in shortage of labour
• Shortage of water
• Shortage of medical facilities
195
 • Results in a fall in agricultural production- most men • Rural to rural migration also occur due to marriage
will have gone to urban areas and women will be left as the wife migrates to join husband
behind to do the tilling of land Causes of rural to rural migration
• Break up in marriages
• Underutilization of available e.g. education facilities , • Overpopulation
medical facilities, and infrastructure • Frequent drought in an area
• Leads to an imbalance in sex ratio (more females • Conflicts and wars
than males) • Being labelled a witch or sale out
• Results in breakdown in rural way of life • Need for fertile land
• Results in family fragmentation • Shortage of farming land
Possible solutions to rural –urban migration • Intermarriages
• Environmental disaster eg severe soil erosion
• Introductionof growth points in rural area to offer Population structure
employment opportunities, provide goods and
services Population structure means the 'make up' or composition of a
• Government to build better schools in rural areas population according to: Age, Gender, Marital Status,
• Government to build better hospitals and clinics to Language, Religion, Occupation
provide health services in the rural areas
• Government to embark on rural electrification and Age and sex structure
piped water to improve rural quality of life
• Encourage banks and donors to give rural people • it shows how the population is divided between
males and females of different age groups
loans so that they can start income generating
• The left side of each pyramid shows the number of
projects such as poultry and bee keeping men in each age group,
• Starting upof irrigation schemes in rural areas to • the right side shows the number of women in each
improve food supply and cash incomes age group
• Need for government to start rural housing • Population structure can be shown as a population
programmes to provide decent housing pyramid, see diagram below:
Problems which are encountered in implementing the Features of a population pyramid.
solutions are as follows
• Population is divided into 5 year age groups.
• Shortage of capital by government to buy required • Population is divided into males and females.
resource/inputs • The percentage of each age /sex group is given.
• Shortage of skilled manpower
• Lack of cooperation from the rural people
• Corruption as inputs for development are diverted to
black market
• Nepotism as inputs are given to undeserving
relatives and friends
• Political interference result when struggle for
political power hinders development
Rural to rural migration

• In Zimbabwe this is mainly done by landless farmers

who migrate in serch of farming land. For example
resettlement programmes have caused migration of
over 4million people from communal areas to for
white commercial farms

196
197
 • Life expectancy is also low with few people reaching
old age
• High death rates reflect the lack of medication, clean
water and regular food supplies
• Populations are growing rapidly and in the case of
Nigeria are expected to double in 25 years

About population pyramids

• The shape of a population pyramid can tell us a lot
about an area's population.
• It gives us information about birth and death rates as
well as life expectancy.
• A population pyramid tells us how
many dependants there are.
➢ There are two groups of dependants;
✓ young dependants (aged below 15)
✓ and elderly dependants (aged over 65).
• Dependants rely upon the economically active for
economic support.
Population Pyramid ➢ Many LEDCs have a high number of young
• Narrow base with many women having less than two dependants,
children ➢ whilst many MEDCs have a growing number
• Women are marrying later of elderly dependants
• Contraception is universal in countries such as
Britain
• Excellent medical care and high standards of living
mean the infant death rate is low - most children
liveto middle and old age

Developing Countries’ Population Pyramid

• The wide base indicates a high proportion of
children
• Large families reflect the low status of women, early
marriages, lack of education and little family
planning available
• The steep sides show that the death rate is high for
both the young and adults

198
 • The model is an over-generalization of the
industrialized European experience;
• Model is too rigid in assuming all countries proceed
from stage 1-4; it ignores variables and exceptions
(eg. War, political turmoil);
• Industrialization is difficult to achieve for LEDC’s in
a trading system that protects the industries of
MEDC’s;
• The model assumes that reductions in fertility are a
function of increased wealth and industrialization–
other factors such as the status of women and other
social development are ignored

Compound bar graph

Population pyramid can also be used for

• be used to help predict changes in the population
and plan for the future.
• They can be used to predict the proportion of
elderly people in the population who will need health
care, or the number of young people who will be
economically active in the future.
• to suggest which stage of the Demographic
Transition Model a country is in.
• show strange developments in the population
structure caused by wars, population booms and
migration movements.

199
 - a growing 'grey' proportionally small 'colonies' in
market for leisure workforce LEDCs
and health - many young people - increase
products are employed caring taxes
- construction for the elderly. This - sell homes of
boom in favoured harms a country's the elderly to
retirement competitiveness, pay for
locations such as since they are not retirement care
the Costa del Sol producing products
(Spain). for export
Compare and contrast population problems for developed and
developing countries

Population Problem of Population problem for

Developed Countries developing countries

• High dependency ratio • Rapid growth of

• Aging population population
• Low work force • unemployment &
• Rural depopulation underemployment
• Isolation • Poor standard of living &
• Nuclearisation of malnutrition
family • mismanagement of
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of young and • Low or negative agriculture resources
population growth rate • Slow growth of Industrial
ageing populations • The no. of old age sector
females surpasses the • Orthodoxy
Young population male
advantages disadvantages solutions • •
• Provide • Puts strain • Family Population policies
large and on education planning A population policy is a deliberate attempt by a Government to
cheap services • Industrialisati influence the population of a country, to encourage or
labour force • Creates food on to create discourage growth.
• Provides shortages jobs Case study: Discouraging population.
growing • Result in • Increase years Country: China.
market for high spent in
manufactur unemployme school Reasons for initiating policy:
ed goods nt • Women • To control and maintain an explosive population in order
• High crime emancipation to pursue economic policies of development
rate and and • To reduce/ prevent shortages
social empowerment • China first tried to discourage births by promoting the
unbecoming slogan
behaviour • "Later, longer, fewer" – later marriages, longer wait
• Result in before children, fewer children.
shortage of • This failed to have any major influence so in 1979 adopted
accomodatio the infamous one child policy
n As the country is very closely controlled by the Government
they were able to initiate a strict policy.
Ageing population • Before getting married a couple will be tutored and tested
on family planning.
Advantages Disadvantages Solutions • Before having a child they have to apply for a certificate
- A larger - cost of providing - abolish state from their factory.
proportion of pensions, health pensions • Few certificates were issued annually.
ageing people care and sheltered - raise • If the factory meets certain targets of population control
can add housing leads to retirement age then every worker will get a wage increase
experience to the increased taxes on a - locate • couples signed a form promising to have just one child
workforce retirement
200
• For having one child couples were given bonuses at work, Reduce sexual and mother to child transmission.
receive priority for housing, a school and University place Ensure blood safety
for the child and higher pensions on retirement. Universal precautions to be used.
• If the family then have an additional child all benefits are Physical protection especially of women and children.
removed. Protect health care workers.
• It is also likely to provoke isolation from their peers as it Counseling and voluntary testing programs.
is not seen as being for the good of the country. Vaccination of asymptomatic HIV infected children with EPI
• The scheme was monitored by factory workers that act as vaccines.
snoops reporting anyone who looks pregnant or 'broody'. Symptomatic HIV infected children should not be given BCG
Assesment/evaluation of China’s one child policy or yellow fever vaccine
• The scheme has been very successful at reducing
population growth. Primary health care
• Fertility rates and Birth rates have fallen significantly. health care provided in the community for people making an
• Life expectancy has doubled. initial approach to a medical practitioner or clinic for advice or
• Literacy rates have increased treatment

The scheme has however been criticised for the following

reasons: QUESTION 11. SETTLEMENT STUDIES
• For encouraging to have an abortion.
• [email protected]
•
• For creating high dependency ratios of the elderly. Ordinary level settlement studies notes
• Encouraged female infanticide as parents want male
child. Introduction
• The custom in China is that when a couple marry they go
to live with the males' parents. This means that they will Sitting and location of settlements
look after them in old age. If your child is a girl you will
not have anyone to look after you in old age. • Define the terms site and situation.
• Explain how physical, factors, (relief, soil,
Population health and disease water supply) and other factors such as
Infant mortality rate accessibility, agricultural land-use, influence
the site and patterns of rural settlements you
Why are people living longer and fewer infants dying in have studied
MEDCs? Rural Settlements
• Increased food supply and distribution • Define the term rural and urban settlement.
• Better nutrition • Define the terms dispersed, linear and
• Medical advances nucleated settlement
• Improved sanitation
• Explain why dispersed, linear and nucleated
Why in LEDCs infant mortality rate high due to
• Inadequate health care for poor women during pregnancy settlements may develop.
and their infants • Describe the features or quality of rural
• Drug addiction among pregnant women settlements.
• High birth rate among teenagers • Describe the different functions that small rural
• Poor nutrition settlements fulfill.
• Poor sanitation
• Explain why only some settlements grow into
Prevention and control of Cholera larger towns and cities compared to others.
Prompt diagnosis and management Hierarchy of Settlements and Services
Establish treatment centers with barrier nursing.
Fecal material and vomit properly disinfected and disposed. • Define the term hierarchy of settlements and
Health Education on hygiene,safe water, safe food and hand services.
washing. • Define the terms high and low order
Funerals to be held quickly and near the place of
goods/services.
death.Meticulous hand washing for those who handle the
body. • Define the terms sphere of influence, threshold
Promote washing hands with soap and water when food is population, range,
being handled • Describe the relationship between the number
and size of settlements in an area.
HIV and AIDS
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 • Describe and explain why the type of services • Describe the problems associated with traffic
found at the apex and base of the settlement congestion.
and service hierarchy differ. • Explain why it is important to reduce traffic
• Explain why high order good have a large congestion.
range and threshold population. • Describe different methods of reducing traffic
Sphere of influence congestion.
Urbanization in MEDC’s and LEDCs • Explain why any attempts to reduce traffic
congestion are likely to create conflicts.
• Describe when urbanisation took place in • Describe how urbanization has affected the
MEDC’s and in LEDCs. environment – pollution (air, water, visual and
• Outline the benefits and problems of noise).
urbanisation • For a named urban area, describe the impacts
• Describe and explain why the population has of its growth on the environment.
increased in urban areas. • Name an urban area, which you have studied
Urban settlements and their structure where there is traffic congestion. Describe the
• For a named example of a large urban area causes of this problem and the attempts, which
which you have studied, explain the reasons have been made to solve the problem.
for its growth. Urban Sprawl
Land Use Zones and Models in urban areas
• Define the term urban sprawl and urban –rural
• Describe the Burgess’s concentric ring model fringe and green belt.
(1924) • Describe the main features and land-uses in
• Hoyt model’s sector model 1939). the urban-rural fringe of a city.
• Harris and Ullman’s multiple nuclei model • Explain why urban sprawl has taken place in
(1945) urban areas.
• Describe how land-use differs in each of the • Describe the effects of urban sprawl on the
urban zones of the models. surrounding area
• Explain the distribution of the different urban • Describe the characteristics of out of town
zones found within urban areas. retail centers.
Zimbabwe’s towns and cities • Explain why many out of town retail centers
• Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru, Mutare are built in suburban areas rather than in the
• describe the land-use zones for the towns and center of cities.
explain why they developed in that location, • Explain the impacts building an out of town
(shopping, residential and industrial). shopping centre will have on the surrounding
• Describe the main features and land-uses of area, (include - economic and environmental
the Central Business District. impacts).
• Describe the main features of different • Explain why some groups of people might be
residential areas in cities, high rise flats, in favour of building out of town shopping
Victorian terraces – inner city areas, centres and other groups against their
semidetached and detached suburban areas. development.
• Describe how some residential areas can be • Describe the term green belt.
redeveloped or improved so that the residents • Explain the problems and advantages of
have a high standard of living. creating green belt areas around cities.
• Describe and explain the location of industrial • With reference to a named urban area, which
areas with a city. you have studied, describe the problems in its
• Problems Associated with the Growth of Urban rural-urban fringe which are been caused by its
Areas and their Solutions growth.
• Describe and explain why traffic congestion • Name an example of a city, which you have
has increased in urban areas especially the studied where urban sprawl has taken place.
CDB’s. Describe it effects on people and the natural
environment.
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 Urbanisation in LEDC and MEDCs mountains. Thus situation is the position of the
settlement in relation to its surrounding
• Describe when urbanisation took place in • Settlements can also be described in terms of
LEDC’s their structure, size and functions
• Describe and explain why the population has • Settlements can grow from being harmlets, to
villages, to towns, to cities, to conurbations and
increased in urban areas, (migration and
megalopolis
natural increase).
• Explain why many people are migrating away Rural settlement
from rural areas in LEDC’s. • is a community involved predominantly primary
• Explain how natural population increase with activities such as farming, lumbering and
an urban area can increase its population. mining.
• Choose an example of rural to urban migration • Basically the countryside (everywhere outside
urban areas).
in an LEDC, which you have studied. Name
• Rural areas maybe farmland or forest
the area between which the people have depending on where you are in the world.
moved and explain why many people have • Rural areas do contain small settlements of
migrated. You should refer to both push and less than 10,000 people such as hamlets and
pull factors. villages.
Problems Associated with the Growth of Urban • Hamlet: A small group of houses, normally
Areas and their Solutions in LEDC’s and MEDCs about 5 to 10. There is often no services in a
hamlet.
• Define the term squatter settlement. • Village: A settlement of up to 10,000 people.
Villages will have some services in them like
• Explain why so many people live in squatter
small shops, a primary school, a doctor’s
settlements. surgery, bus routes.
• Describe the conditions found in squatter
settlements.
An urban settlement
• Describe how the conditions could be
improved for the residents of squatter • The population engages in predominantly in
secondary and tertiary activities such as food
settlements.
processing and banking.
• Describe how urban sprawl in an LEDC city • urban settlements vary in size from:-
has effected the environment. • Town: A settlement of over 10,000 people that
• Name an urban area in an LEDC where there has not be designated a city for example
are squatter settlements. Describe what has Gokwe town
been done to improve the quality of life for the • City: A large town, for example Gweru is city.
people who live in these settlements. • Capital City: The main administrative centre
within a country and the home of the national
• In all large urban areas attempts have been
government for example Harare
made to solve the problems faced by the
• Primate City: The largest and most important
people who live there. These include problems city within a country. The primate city will often
such as:(traffic congestion, squatter have double the population of the next most
settlements, housing shortage, urban sprawl). important city. Most of the time the primate city
District and service centers in Zimbabwe is also the capital city, but there are some
famous exceptions e.g. New York, Sydney and
Sao Paolo.
Introduction to settlement studies notes • Conurbation: Two or more towns or cities that
have joined to together e.g. Birmingham,
• Settlement refers to a place where people live.
Walsall, Dudley and Wolverhampton in
• A settlement can range from an isolated
England.
building to several buildings
• Megaopolis: A conurbation or a clustering of
• Site: The actual location or place that a
cities with a population of over 10 million
settlement is built. It is the space or position
people e.g. Tokyo
occupied by a settlement. It is the land upon
which a settlement is built
• Situation/location: The area surrounding the Differences between rural and urban settlements
site of a settlement. For example near a river,
or near the coast or in a valley surrounded by
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Differences Rural Urban linear,
in settlement settlement haphazard
occupation is a community engages in
involved predominantly Quality of life in rural areas in Zimbabwe
predominantly in secondary • Mainly use wood fuel 95%
primary and tertiary • Many have no access to clean water or toilet 52%
activities such activities such • Live in pole and dagger huts with dusty floors
as farming, as food • Many live far away from shops,clinics or schools
lumbering and processing and
mining banking Site and situation of settlements
Factors influencing site and location of settlements
Population A rural Urban • Basically five broad factors which are
size and settlement settlement often o Political/historical factors
o Physical factors
density tends to have has a large o Social factors
small population population size o Economic factors
o Technology
and low and high Physical factors
population population • Are mainly natural advantages. These may
have included:
density density • Water supply: Water is essential for drinking,
Hierarchy Is made up of Is made up of washing, irrigating crops and to cook.
• water also contains fish that can be eaten and
isolated towns, cities
it can be used as a transport route.
buildings, and • Fertile land: All settlements need food so it is
important to build need fertile soil, where it is
hamlets, Conurbations
possible to grow crops.
villages • Flat land (relief): It is a lot easier to build a
Land use Main land use is Main land use is settlement on flat land than in mountains.
Defensive position: a good defensive location
farming, has under houses, (on a small hill or surrounded by water) would
vast open land factories and have been very important.
• Building materials: Most houses would have
and scattered shops that are traditionally been made out of woods, reeds,
settlement densely packed etc. Therefore it would have been very
important to have been located near a source
Service In LEDCs, rural Have better of building materials.
provision areas are service delivery • Weather: Sites with fairly stable weather will
have been selected. You do not want some
characterised that is tapped where too hot or too cold, too wet, too dry or
by poor service water, too windy. To grow crops sun and rain would
have been very important
pattern delivery such electricity,
lack of clean advanced Economic factors and accessibility
• Transport links: settlement was built next to a
safe water, lack medical centers river, a site that allowed easy access across
of electricity, and universities the river would have been chosen.
Fuel: a location next to a reliable source of
hospitals and Iron grid pattern fuel wood was essential.
colleges • Trading Location: Settlements may have also
been built for their access to trading routes.
Nucleated, Coastal areas often make good locations to
dispersed, trade from.

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 • Settlements akso located along transport •Route centre eg Gweru town is a route centre for long
routes and communication lines (nodal distance drivers from SA, Botswana, Zambia and from
settlements) other countries
• Nodal settlements often develop at • Gap town eg Mutare is a gap town settlement
convergence of roads, railway lines, water • Port eg Wavis bay, Dar-esalam
courses, mountain passes, gaps and valleys • Minerals eg Hwange is a coal mining town
• Nodal settlements are heavily influenced by
communication networks Empress village location

• Resources: It is useful being near resources Empress village is located in Zhombe communal land
like wood, coal, gold, water, grass and fertile under chief Samabwa. It is to the north west of
soil because people need them to build Kwekwe town. It is connected to Gokwe and to the
structures, farm or trade with nearby Kwekwe to Harare Highway by a tarred road. The
settlements. village grew mainly due to gold mining
• Water is a very important resource that attracts
settlements as it is used for domestic , Factors that promoted the growth of Empress Village
irrigation and fishing purposes. Sometimes
water can be used for transport if the river is Physical factors
navigable. That s in Egypt linear settlement
have developed along the Nile river • Water supply. The village is located close to
• Minerals such as asbestos have attracted Gondoma River which is a permanent source
development of settlements like Zvishavane, of water. a pipe line was constructed to tape
coal Hwange
water from the river to the village
Social factors/ human preferences
• Settlements are now being planned according • Flat Land: Compared to most of Zhombe, the
to human preferences and desires since area around Empress Village is relatively flat
technology has enabled overcoming of making it easier to build houses, shops and
physical barriers offices.
• For example people now settle on steep slopes • Climate: Again compared to many other areas
such as Gweru Kopje for prestige using
in Zhombe, the slightly higher relief of Empress
landscaping technology
• Kinship ties also may influence choice of site Village makes the climate slightly cooler and
as people prefer settling near relatives or wet making the working environment more
fellow church members bearable.
Historical / Political factors • Situation: Empress is located close to a once
• The desire to build settlements on prominent Gold mine that is well linked by
defensive sites was a very strong factor to tarred road to Gokwe, Kwekwe and Kadoma,
consider in the past as tribal wars were
common This makes it easy for businesses to trade with
• That’s most settlements were built on neighbouring districts of Kwekwe , Kadoma
hilltops that could be easily defended and and Gokwe.
which also enabled the enemy to be seen
from afar Economic factors
• This explains settlements such as Great
Zimbabwe, Khami and Nyanga on hillsites • Education: Empress has two secondary
• In Zimbabwe most rural resettlements in
schools and two primary schools that attracted
the communal areas owe their siting to the
colonial Land Apportionment Act of 1930 a lot of students to establish bush boarding at
• The liner settlement pattern in most Nyaradza, B-mine and Sidakheni secondary
communal areas was a result of planned schools. the schools also attracted parents
legislated land settlement patterns from the who settled around them in order to ensure
colonial master. that their children attends better quality
education.
Situation Factors
Situation refers to the environmental factors that exist • Communications: Empress Village has shops
around or next to a settlement site. For example a and offices that are well connected to internet
settlement could be located at/ close to and mobile phone network making it easier for

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 businesses to communicate with customers also contributed to the decline of empress village. For
and suppliers. example large supermarkets such as Spar and TM
established at these nearby growth points, providing
• Market: Empress used to house mine workers
commodities at cheaper price which meant that shops
and illegal gold panners so businesses had a at Empress lost customers and so closed down.
large market to sell their products to hence Independent stores and post offices become less
lead to growth and development of a profitable because of rural depopulation.
flourishing rural service centre.
• Capital: Empress gold mine provide the main Settlement functions
What are the functions of rural settlement?
source of capital that speared development
• Provide accommodation to many people e.g.
projects such as piped water supply, post 80% of Zimbabwe’s population live in the rural
office and two surgeries areas
• Act as dormitory settlement for urban workers
Socio-Political factors e.g. Domboshawa accommodates workers
Empress grew as a result of colonial land from Harare
apportionment act which lead to Zhombe being • Are a main source of food production and other
designated as tribal trust land under chief Samabwa raw materials used in industries
• Provide recreational areas for tourists and so
Factors that promoted the decline of Empress village earn money for
Empress gold mine closed down in 1990 which • Act as centers for preservation of cultural and
automatically lead to the decline of empress village. All religious beliefs
the mine workers were left without employment hence • Act as administrative centers with chiefs and
they moved out of the village kraal heads mainly for administrative functions

Job losses Rural Areas: Rural areas tend to have less

Empress gold mine closed down in 1990 which functions than urban areas.
automatically lead to the decline of empress village. All The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is
the mine workers were left without employment hence normally agriculture (farming) and possibly tourism.
they moved out of the village. Agriculture production is This is because rural areas have less people, poorer
naturally low at Empress due to lack of effective transport, poorer communication, less technology and
rainfall, this meant less people were needed to work on the land is better used for other purposes i.e.
the land. Agriculture was also affected by availability of agriculture.
food and other agro-raw materials from commercial
farms that grew around Kadoma and Kwekse which Urban Areas: Urban areas tend to have a lot more
meant that the demand from the countryside functions ranging from shopping functions, to
decreased hence many people left empress and educational functions, to transport functions, to
migrated to towns. administrative functions and residential functions. The
bigger the urban area, the more functions that it
Raw materials which have been mined got exhausted, normally has.
so mine closed and left the remaining population
without enough income to support various businesses
that had been opened. The shops and banks then Rural Settlement patterns
closed. This caused more people to move out of Rural settlements can develop in many different ways
empress village giving them a unique shape (morphology). The four
main settlement patterns are
Demolition of mine houses also pushed people out of
the area. This is because when the mine closed, all the
workers were moved out and roofing material and
radial Radial settlement pattern often
window frames were removed and sold. Government
form at crossroads, or nodal
laws also restricted new developments in the area such
points
that from 1990 to 2003 empress declined to near ruins
They radiate out from a central
as the destroyed houses, cinema halls and disused
point like spokes of a bicycle
shops dilapidated. The unemployed population also felt
wheel
it cheaper to establish new homes in other rural areas.
Thus the people migrated to surrounding rural areas.
Nodal points include rural
service centres such as district
Competition from other established rural growth points
offices or growth points
such as Gokwe Center and Joel rural service center
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 • No job prospects, school or hospital so that there is
nucleated nothing to attract people to one place
• when there is peace and tranquility such that
people are not scared to settle any were they want
When all the houses in a
settlement are built very close • Good transport links (road, rail, river)
together, often around a central • Good fertile land nearby to grow food.
village or church, Water hole , • Flat land, that is easy to build on
market place or in camps • Stable weather that is good for growing crops.
• Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel
These settlements tend to be
• Good job prospects
gathered around a centre of
• Good schools and hospitals
attraction like electrons in an atom
• Good and reliable supply of electricity, gas and
settlements grow along a road water
(e.g. in a narrow valley or on
watershed) along the coast or Factors that affect land use in urban areas
river. Ribbon development is when
housing grows out from a town
• The pattern of urban growth and land use
along a main road
depends on a number of factors including:
This is a settlement that has grown • Communication- This includes roads, railway
in a line. The line doesn't have to be lines, telephone/fiber lines etc. For example
straight, but will normally follow a
factories tend to be located along/near railway
road, a river, the coast, the valley
floor or water shade. lines and roads for them to receive raw
materials easily and ferry goods to the market.
Dispersed settlements have no
obvious centre and are often hamlets The Central Business District (CBD) is at the
spread all over the land. center of towns and easily accessible from all
sides of town hence land tends to be
Isolated: Singly buildings on their
own. These will normally be found in expensive here. Only those activities that can
mountainous areas or in areas with pay for this land are found in the CBD e.g.
fewer resources that cannot support Banks, Offices and Insurance businesses.
dense populations
• The nature of the land for example whether it is
Is very common in commercial gentle in terms of terrain.
farming aeas • The cost of the land. For example competition
for land at the CBD results in steep costs so
The individual buildings are separated
by several hundred meters. They do
only businesses that can pay for this land our
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT DISPERSION
not form a single settlement/pattern found there.
due to lack of planningr • The rent or rates payable. This is similar to the
• Mountainous areas that is hard to build on and
hard to build good transport links to. cost of the land.
• Severe weather conditions for example extremely • The position of the plots in relation to other
hot may cause settlement to spread out settlements.
• Mainly private commercial farm land with each • The size of the piece of land. The smaller the
farmer settling in his/her own farm land the larger the size.
• Floodplain or coastal area that is vulnerable to
flooding leaving scattered portions of land that are Types of Land uses in urban areas
less prone to floods
• Limited natural resources that exist is several
• Land use i.e. what the land is used for in urban
scattered places
area differs with each area.
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 • Although land uses are usually mixed for center. For example Avenues houses and flats
example some industries can be found in and Mbare.
residential areas land uses tend to be defined. • Housing stands became smaller and smaller.
• Similar land uses attract each other and push • Semi detached housing and squatter camps
other land uses out. became a common feature in inner-city zones.
• For example if more and more industries locate • For example Hopely farm.
in a residential area more and more people will
leave due to things like pollution. Urban settlement structure
• Most areas have one dominant land use.
• The structure of urban settlements is known as
• There are different types of land uses in urban
urban morphology
areas.
• Models are used to describe and explain the
• These can be classified into:
structure of cities
• Industrial • A model is a systematic description of an object, in
• Commercial this case a city
• Residential • There are three urban land use models namely
• In some areas these land uses may mix. o The concentric/ ring model (1924) by
Burgess
Historical developments of urban settlements o The sector model (9139) by Hoyt
o The multiple nuclei model (1945)by Harris
and Ullman
• Most modern towns in Africa and Europe are
• These models attempt to describe what a typical
influenced by industrialization town/ city looks like,how it came to be what it is
• As new factories were built large numbers of and why
works migrated from rural areas to towns. • A model is a simplification of reality. Models only
• The large influx of people led to pressure on show generalisations so no area may be exactly
urban land and the development of urban the same as the model.

planning. Burgess (1924) Model (concentric circle model)

• Competition for land in the CBD led to a rise in • The Burgess Model was developed in 1924 by the
its cost, rentals and rates. sociologist Ernest Burgess.
• He based it solely on the US city of Chicago.
• Functions that could not afford this land were
• He noticed a distinctive commercial area in the
pushed out of the city center to less expensive center of the city and called this the CBD.
urban outskirts. • He then noticed an area of factories which he
• Wealthy individuals also moved out of the CBD called the transition zone followed by steadily
improving housing as you moved away from the
to escape overcrowding and smoke from transition zone.
industries to the peripheral areas. • The model is very simplistic, only based on one city
• They could build larger houses with gardens and now largely out of date as periods of
deindustrialization and regeneration have changed
and recreational parks.
much urban land use.
• For example Borrowdale. Concentric Ring model
• Low income and unemployed migrates moved
nearer to the places of employment at the city

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 •
• Their study revealed that the city could be It is the commercial core where hotels, banks,
specialized services, theaters, departmental stores,
divided into a number of concentric land-use finance houses and cinemas
zones :
• The Central Business District • are found.
• The Zone of transition
• The Zone of transition Zone of transition
• The Zone of workingmen’s houses
• The Zone of middle income or medium density • It surrounds the CBD
housing • It has residential areas with poor housing.
• The Commuter Zone • It has offices and light industries.
• The model assumes that the city grows from a • It is characterized by industrial functions that
single nucleus (core) in concentric circles of require a lot of land.
distinct land uses. • It infamous for its crimes and social problems
• The city grows by urban ecology or expansion for example prostitution.
due to demand of different goods and services. • It is characterized by transient population,
• The city will continue to grow into surrounding migrant workers, the poor, aged and
rural areas. unemployment.
• Examples are Mbare and Avenues.
The CBD
Zone of workingmen’s houses/Low class residential
• It is the nucleus of the city areas
• All (communication) routes meet in this area.
• It has high rise buildings/skyscrapers. • This is known as to the zone of workingmen’s
• Rentals are normally high in this area. houses or low-income residential zone
• It has very few people and traffic during the • This zone is found near heavy industries for
night and high traffic densities of people and example Highfield and Glen Norah suburbs
traffic during the day. near Willowvale industries and Mbare and
Graniteside Industries.
• The density of houses per unit area is high
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 • The zone is characterized by high density • However, unlike Burgess' circles he noticed the
suburbs with each house located on a small development of wedges.
• He noticed that industry often developed along
plot of land.
major transport routes e.g. railways, canals and
• This area is occupied by factory works, single
roads.
houses, small yards and untarred roads. • He then noticed that the poorer residential areas
were focused near the industry while richer
Zone of middle income/medium density housing residential areas tended to grow further away from
polluting industrial areas.
• This is characterized by large houses, • Again there are some limitations because Hoyt
• with gardens and broad tree-lined streets.. only looked at North American cities in a period
• A small commercial centre and before mass car ownership.
• Also like with Burgess' model many changes have
• greenbelts can be found within this zone.
since taken place in MEDC cities
• Social centers like pre-schools and schools
can also be found in this zone.
• Examples are Hillside and Cranborne suburbs
in Harare.

Commuter zone

• Is located some distance away from the city

center.
• People use commute to the CBD in order to
get to work using trains, cars and buses.
• The zone starts off with low density, high
income residential areas,
• with large spaced houses and gardens.
• In some places market gardening may be
practiced for example Honey Dew farm in
Greendale. • It was published as an alternative to Burgess
• They usually have a suburban shopping center and Park’s concentric model
for example Sam Levy in Borrowdale and • It was based on a study of 142 American cities.
Kamphinsa in Greendale.
• The zone may also give way to larger farms Assumptions
supplying fresh fruits, dairy products and
vegetables to the town. • In making the model Hoyt made some assumptions
• The model assumes wealthy people who can
Sometimes the farming zone may be interrupted by
afford the highest rentals and rates chose the best
small dormitory towns such as Chitungwiza
sites.
Hoyt Model • Wealthy residents can afford private cars or
transportation thus they live further from industry
• The Hoyt Model was developed in 1939 by the
and near main roads.
economist Homer Hoyt.
• Similar land uses attract each other and repel other
• Hoyt based his model on 142 North American
land uses.
cities.
• Like Burgess he noticed a largely commercial area • This process is referred to as sector development
in the centre of the urban areas (the CBD). • The city or town as a single CBD or core.

210
• People need to move from one area of the town to They made their study well after the other two models
another. had been published and thus had the benefit of
hindsight and cities had since grown in size.
The model
Findings
• According to Hoyt areas alongside main
roads/communication lines attract the highest • They realized the fact that modern cities have
rent and rates. a more complex structure than described by
• The city grows in a series of wedges the Concentric and Sector models
• Land use follows transport routes from the • Cities usually grow from several independent
CBD. nuclei rather than or in addition to the main
• Once a certain area has developed a CBD.
distinctive land use or function it tends to retain • These cores include sub-urban shopping
that land use as the city grows outwards centers in most modern cities.
• Hoyt also identifies different residential zones • Each of these nucleus acts as a point of
in relation to income, opportunity and class. growth and usually has some of the functions
• Sectors thus replace the rings in Burgess and found in the main CBD and other nuclei for
Park’s model. example it might have banks, shopping malls,
• This is because of unequal access as the city supermarkets etc
grows outwards along major routes. • For example Sam Levy shopping center,
• Major routes attract manufacturing. Kamphinsa, Westgate, Makoni shopping
• Next to the industrial zone are low class centers
worker’s houses for example Mbare and • These centers grow with time to merge with
Leighton industries, Willowvale and Highfields each other to form one large urban center.
and Mbare and Graniteside. • Harris and Ullman were able to study later
• These houses are followed by middle class urban settlements that had satellite residential
houses ( Waterfalls next to Mbare) and then and industrial suburbs in their model.
high income houses. • If the main city becomes too large and
congested some functions may disperse to
form new nuclei.
• Multiple nuclei thus develop out of the need for
quick access to the center, to keep certain land
uses apart and to decentralise.
• The city of Harare closely approximates this
model with the main large CBD at the center
and various nuclei in the form of shopping
centers such as Borrowdale, Same Levy,
Machipisa in Highfield, Kamphinsa in
Greendale, Westgate, Pendennis in Mt
Pleasant etc.
• It also has satellite towns in Ruwa and
Chitungwiza.

Harare structure in comparison to the three models

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CBD: The focal point of the city, with the highest land functions of the CBD will include retail, entertainment,
prices. The CBD is where shops will locate as they financial services and other professional services.
characteristics of the CBD of a city
know it is the most accessible point for the people of
the city. The high land prices mean that buildings tend
to grow upwards, and this is why CBD’s often have tall
DESCRIBE THE SCEEN IN THE PHOTOGRAPH AND
skyscrapers, particularly in American cities. The main EXPLAIN WHY IT COULD BE CBD AREA

212
 The CBD is located in the centre because it is
• High/multi-storey buildings.
• Expensive land values.
• Department stores or specialist shops, like
jewellers.
• a central location for road/railways to converge
• Shopping malls and pedestrian precincts.
• the most accessible location for workers
• Cultural/historical buildings, museums and
• accessible to most people for shops and
castles.
businesses
• Offices, finance, banks, administration, town
hall (business sector).
• Bus and railway stations (transport centres).
• Multi-storey car parks.
Inner City:

• Traditionally this used to be an area of industry, but

• This is Burgess’s zone of transition, the area as industry has relocated these areas are being
between the CBD and the largely residential regenerated into mixed land use areas including
suburbs. houses, shops and entertainment

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 and drives. These types of houses are normally found
• The inner city in the 19th Century would have
in thesuburbs.
been the centre of industry for most cities.
• Low paid workers would have lived in the many Flats or Apartments: These are buildings with multiple
rows of terraced houses that were built beside the levels. Normally a flat or apartment will only be on one
floor within the block of flats or the apartment building.
factories.
• Nowadays, although the factories have gone, Tenure: This means who owns the house. Houses can
many of the terraced houses remain. be owner occupied, which means the people living their
that own it, council houses which means the government
own its, privately rented, which means a private
Commuter villages (dormitory town):
landlord (owner) owns it, or owned by a private
• Is an area of residential land use where people organisation (housing association) and rented privately.
travel from to their work place.
Even though the UK population is fairly stable the
People might access services near their place of work demand for houses has increased. The reasons for this
so commuter villages are often devoid of any other include:
land uses or services

• Family sizes are now smaller, so the average

number of people per house is lower
Industrial: This is factories, traditionally found in the • There are more divorces and single people so
transition zone, they are now more likely to be found in more houses are needed
the rural-urban fringe. • People tend to leave home younger so need
their own houses
Recreational: Any activity that people do in their spare • Many migrants are single and need there own
time. This land use may include golf courses, football house
pitches, museums, sports centres and tennis courts. • People are getting married later, so need there
own house for longer.
Retail: This is shops. Traditionally the main shopping
• A lot of old houses are considered to be
areas have been in the CBD but increasingly shops
uninhabitable (no bathroom, etc.)
have been relocating to shopping malls in the rural-
• Old people are choosing to live on their own
urban fringe
instead of moving to their family or moving into
Educational: Any building connected to education e.g. a care home.
libraries, schools and universities. This land use may
be found anywhere in urban areas. Controlling Growth in the Rural-Urban Fringe

Classification of urban Residential Housing .

Council Housing: This is government housing which is The Rural-Urban Fringe

usually given to people that are unemployed and have
Rural-urban fringe: The boundary between the urban
a low income. The rent on council houses are lower area (towns and cities) and the rural area
than the rent on private property. (countryside).

Detached Housing: A single house that is not attached Because so many people want to work and live in the
to any other house. A detached house will normally rural-urban fringe, different groups frequently come into
conflict over how to use it. Groups that may come into
have a garden and a drive. These types of houses are
conflict include:
normally found in the suburbs.
• House developers
• House buyers
Semi-Detached Housing: Two houses that are joined • Farmers
together. They will probably have individual gardens • Hikers and cyclists

214
 • Road builders • There is often a shortage of space, so shops
• Factories and shopping centres are unable to expand.
• Supermarkets • Because of the shortage of space, land is very
• Business or science parks expensive, making shop rents very high.
• Roads leading to the CBD are often small and
For example farmers and industry will probably not designed for cars.
disagree over many things. Industry might want to build • There is limited parking in the CBD.
on farmers land, farmers maybe worried about pollution
• Some CBDs have a lot of derelict buildings and
disturbing crops and animals and both might be
worried about each other’s transport. You can high crime rates which scares potential
complete the conflict matrix below to look for other customers visiting the area.
possible conflicts. • Because of the small roads, deliveries may be
hard and delayed
Changing Location of Retail Land Use
Disadvantages of locating shops in the rural-urban
Traditionally most main shopping areas have been
fringe
concentrated in the CBD. However, in recent decades
there has been a trend of shopping areas moving to
• Customers without cars may find it hard to
the rural-urban fringe. Below are some of the reasons
access shopping malls in the rural-urban
why they have moved.
fringe. However, some will develop public
Advantages of locating shops in CBD transport links (buses and even trains).
• It can cause environmental damage as
• Most public transport links (trains, subways and greenfield sites are destroyed in the rural-
buses) tend to head towards CBDs urban fringe.
• There are many nice buildings in the CBD, giving • Although the new shopping centre may create
the area much more character. new jobs, other jobs may be lost in the CBD as
• There are often other associated services that you other shopping areas are forced to go out of
can visit at the same time e.g. banks, restaurants, business.
post offices or even libraries. • It encourages greater use of the car, furthering
congestion and pollution
Advantages of locating shops in the rural-urban fringe
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-
URBAN FRINGE
• There is plenty of land in the rural-urban fringe
so shopping centres are able to expand
• Because of the availability of land (often flat • New public transport links may be developed
and easy to build on) rents are normally • There will be new facilities that local residents
cheaper. can access and use
• The extra land allows shopping centres to build • Local residents may get jobs in the new
more car parking spaces. shopping centre.
• There are often main roads near the rural- • The shopping centre may pull more people into
urban fringe so it is easy to access the the area and may benefit existing services,
shopping centres in cars. possibly owned by local residents (positive
• It is possible to make the shopping centres multiplier effect).
very large and put them all under one roof,
DISADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN
eliminating any issues of bad weather
RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

It is easier for the shopping centres to receive

There will be an increase in congestion as more
• deliveries.
• people travel to shopping centre by car.
Disadvantages of locating shops in CBD
215
 • The shopping centres may create noise, air o route Centre town
and visual pollution all affecting local residents Pattern and form
o linear
(negative externality)
o circular
• Shopping centres may destroy greenfield sites o radial
that have previously been used and enjoyed by o dispersed
local residents. the West Gate Shopping mall o isolated
Case Study o iron and grid pattern
Size
o Isolated Building
• The West Gate Shopping mall is a large shopping
center on the A1 (large Lomagundi road) on the o Hamlet: A small group of houses 5
edge of Malborrough (on way to Chinhoyi). to 10.
• West Gate Shopping mall has many people living
o Village: A settlement of up to
within about Malbrough, Meborrine and Northend.
• The site of the shopping centre was chosen 10,000 people.
because it was relatively cheap (previously it was o Town: A settlement of over 10,000
marshland), fairly flat land, people
• This meant that planning controls were more
o City: A large town, for example
relaxed and it was exempt from property tax.
• West Gate Shopping mall has very good transport Gweru is city.
links as it is located at a nodal point. o Capital City: The main
• Most people arrive via car on the A1 and use any administrative Centre
of the 10,000 car parking spaces.
o Primate City:
• However, it is also possible to reach the shopping
o Conurbation:
centre via bus and Combis. The shopping centre
has over 300 shops and 20 restaurants o Megalopolis:
Classification of settlement theory/ models eg the rank size rule
• Settlements are generally classified as either • is a classification of settlements according to
rural or urban
size of population. settlement with largest
• Rural settlements are those settlements where
mostly primary activities such as mininmg, population size is ranked first and the rest
farming, fishing and forestry occur follow in descending order
• Rank size rule: This tells us that in any country
settlements can be classified according
there will be one dominant settlement. After
location
• wet point settlement develop at a spring or this, each settlement will decrease in size
desert oasis according to the rule.
• dry point settlement devlop on hill tops in • This rule is that the "size of settlement 'A' will
flood prone areas be equal to the population of the largest
• Gap town eg Mutare is a gap town settlement divided by rank of 'A'.
settlement
• Port eg Wavis bay, Dar-esalam
• Minerals eg Hwange is a coal mining town
• Route centre eg Gweru town is a route • Therefore, if the largest city has a population of
centre for long distance drivers from SA, 1,000,000 then the second largest city will
Botswana, Zambia and from other
countries have a population of 500,000 then 333,333
then 250,000 and so on.
The development of urban primacy (primate city)
Function
o administrative town • A primate city is one that has more than twice
o manufacturing town the population of the next biggest city.
o resort and recreation town • An example is Lima (Peru) that is more than
o cultural town ten times larger than the next settlement.
o mining town primate city
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 • Advantages of agglomeration of economic activity. • Unequal distribution of investments deters national
• Large market for goods and services. economic development.
• Ability to offer high-end goods and services • Unequal economic and/or resource development.
(including education) because of larger threshold • Unequal distribution of wealth and/or power.
population. • Transportation network (hub and spoke) prevents
• Advantages of enhanced flow of information and equal accessibility to all regions.
ideas in large population. • Impact of centrifugal forces and difficulties of political
• Advantages of centralized transportation and cohesion on economic development.
communication network. • Brain drain — migration and unequal distribution of
• Global trade opportunities; primate cities can compete education, entrepreneurship, opportunities.
on a global scale and attract foreign investment
Settlement Hierarchy and Services
Negative impacts of primate city graphs to show settlement hierarchy
(a) use of scatter graphy

• As you move up the hierarchy, the size of the

settlement and the distance between similar sized
(b) using pyramid to show settlement hierarchy settlements increases.
• As you can see from the diagram above, there are
• The hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on more cities than conurbations, more towns than cities
three variables: and more villages than towns.
• The number of services that a settlement provides
The size of population
• The range and number of services increases with settlement size.
• The sphere of influence • Small settlements will only provide low-order
• Obviously these three variables are very much services such as a post offices, doctors and
interconnected. For services to be offered there has to newsagents.
be a minimum threshold population. When services are • Large towns, cities and conurbations will provide low
then offered more people are attracted. As more
people are attracted more services are offered and the andhigh-order services such as leisure centres, chain
sphere of influence increases. stores and hospitals.
• As you move down the settlement hierarchy the • Larger settlements and conurbations have a much
number of settlements increases. For example you larger sphere of influence than smaller ones.
only get one capital city (near the top of the hierarchy) • This means they attract people from a wider area
in each country, but you get thousands of isolated
buildings (farms - near the bottom of the hierarchy) in because of the facilities they offer.
every country.

217
• Cities such as London have a global sphere of Growth points/service centers in Zimbabwe
influence, whereas a small hamlet or village may only
have a sphere of influence of a couple of kilometres. Suggest reasons why the government of Zimbabwe
• Services such as department stores selling high order embarked on the development of growth points/service
goods have a higher threshold than those selling low centers in Zimbabwe (4)
order goods such as newsagents. The Zimbabwean government established growth
points in the 1980s as a means of
• This means they need a higher number of people to
• decongesting cities and towns.
support them and make them profitable, therefore they • curb the rural-to-urban migration
will only be found in larger settlements. It also means • employment creation
that there are fewer big department stores than small • availing of basic services to people in rural areas.
newsagents.
• The range of a service or product is the maximum
distance people are prepared to travel to purchase it. • Urbanisation-is the increase of the proportion of
The range of a newspaper is much lower than an item people living in cities and towns.
of furniture for example. • Please note it urbanisation is not to be mistaken with a
mere increase in urban populations.
• There has to be an increase in the portion of the
Sphere of influence
population living in urban areas.
• Urbanisation is thus the process of change from being
• A sphere of influence is an area which depends on a
rural to being urban.
given urban area for a particular good or service.
• This is usually a result of movement (migration) of
• This area is also known as a town’s hinterland.
people from rural to urban areas.
• The type and variety of goods and services that an
• This is known as rural-to-urban migration or just rural-
urban center offers depend on its size and population
urban migration.
size.
• The urban population of Zimbabwe rose from 25%
• Small centres offer a limited number of goods and
(1982 census data) to 30% (1992 census data)
services when compared to larger cities
• The urban population rose to 35% from 1992 to 2002
• Large towns and cities also provide specialist services
• The 2012 data shows that 33% of Zimbabwe’s
in addition to providing a wider variety of goods and
population lives in Urban areas which is a 2% decrease
services to the wider population
in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
• The large populations of large cities enable them to
• The United Nations has estimated that 60% of the
provide higher order goods and services tha are not
population will live in urban areas by 2030
frequently in demand e.g. building materials
• They thus have a larger sphere of influence
Causes of Urbanisation
• Small centers provide lower order goods that are
frequently in demand e.g. groceries
• As a country industrialises the number of people living
• These centres thus have smaller spheres of influence
in urban areas (towns and cities) generally increases
• These centres offer offer goods and services that meet
• While prior to 1950 most urbanisation processes took
people daily needs for which consumers are not
place in More Economically Developed Countries
prepared to travel long distances for
(MEDCs e.g. the United Kingdom)
• These goods are known as consumer goods
• Most urbanisation is now taking place in Less
• The larger centres in addition to providing lower order
Economically Developed Countries such as Zimbabwe,
goods and services also supply goods and services
Malawi and Zambia
that are less frequently in demand and for which
people are willing to travel longer distances e.g. cars.
This is because:
• These goods are known as comparison goods

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 • The rapid increase in rural populations is Positive effects on source areas (rural areas)
resulting in increased pressure on limited
resources such as arable land and pastures • There is reduced pressure on land and other
• This forces some people to leave rural areas resources
and look for employment in urban areas • There is reduced deforestation which is the
• These are known as push factors primary source of fuel in rural areas and is
• People are drawn to towns as they view the used for other things as well e.g. tool handles
standards of living in urban areas as being • The emigrants send back money to rural areas
higher than in rural areas for example access which is now easier to do with technologies
to safe drinking water and electricity such as mobile money e.g. Ecocash.
• These are known as pull factors • More inputs can be sent back by those
• Natural population increase as the death rate employed in urban areas e.g. seed and
decreases whilst the birth rate remains high fertilizer
• The adoption of technology in some rural areas • Enables the rural areas to catch up with the
such as tractors on farms leads to some entire world as the urban population brings
people being left unemployed thus forcing back some of their knowledge and
them to migrate to urban areas advancements during visits

Push Factors of rural areas Negative effects on source areas(rural areas)

• Mechanisation of agriculture is leading to

significant reductions in the workforce needed. • Rural depopulation
• Lack of quality secondary education and higher • Shortage of manpower as migration tends to
education services. selectively target the young and the educated
• Poor service provision and infrastructure • This is also known as brawn drain
(internet, cell-phone, piped water, reliable
electricity). • There is also brain drain as the most skilled
• Drought and humger and knowledgeable people leave rural areas
• Civil unrest and war • Decreased production
• Family feuds
• Increased incidents of poverty

Pull Factors of urban areas

Positive effects on destination areas (towns)
• Range of entertainment & leisure services
(restaurants, cinemas, shopping malls, nightclubs • There are increased human resources
• Universities, colleges, main hospitals.
• There is an enlarged market for goods
• Range of job opportunities (IT, banking,
politics, office jobs) & higher wages. • Urban centers will be able achieve the
threshold population of more services
The rapid rate of urbanisation in developed and • An increase in the Multiplier effect on
developing countries brings a host of urban problems
due to a large increase in the number of urban industries and services
dwellers.
Negative effects on destination areas (towns)
The benefits and problems of urbanisation

• There is increased unemployment

• Urbanisation brings about certain effects
• There are housing shortages
• There negative and positive effects
• Shanty towns emerge
• These effects affect both the source (rural
• There is increased pollution
areas) and receiving areas (the towns)
• There will be overpopulation and overcrowding

219
 • There is increased pressure on services such • Land redistribution in rural areas
as schools, hospitals, water, power etc • Availing people to affordable housing in urban
• There are transport problems such as areas for example through council housing
congestion and shortage of transportation projects
• Shortage of resources such as fuel and urban • Skills training programs to promote
deforestation entrepreneurship and subsequently creating
• There might be urban expansion into more employment opportunities.
productive farmland
• The destruction of vital ecosystems due to In Zimbabwe there are several strategies being
used to try and provide descent accommodation to
expansion of towns all.
• Increased urban poverty
Provision of houses through the ministry of National
Possible solutions to Urbanisation problems Housing and Urban development – provide high rise
flat in Harare and Bulawayo since the land is scarce.
This has enabled most of the middle class people to
• Most LEDCs such as Zimbabwe struggle with
find affordable housing in flats. For example in Harare
urbanisation problems and Bulawayo flats were built to accommodate Police
• This is because most countries cannot cope workers, railway workers and others close to CBD.
with the rapid rate of urbanisation
Site service and self-house development approach.
• as the rate of industrialization and economic
This is when the government and the local town
growth is outpaced by the rate of urbanisation authorities service plots of land by constructing roads
• Certain measures and solutions can be water and sewage systems. The stands are then sold
to individuals at low cost especial for the low income
implemented to try and solve the urbanisation
earners. Individuals are then allowed to build own
problems houses while the town planners supervise the process
• These include: to ensure that proper houses are built.
• Developing rural areas by providing rural areas
Allowing donors and world bank to build houses for
with agricultural inputs such as fertilizer
people at affordable prices. For example in Kwekwe,
• This improves the productivity of the land and Mbizo 18 and 19 houses were built by donors and
reduces pressure on resources surrendered to the city council to allocate to people on
• Decentralising some industries to rural areas the housing waiting list. The high density houses built
enabled the council to reduce by great margin its
• This can be done by implementing policies that housing challenges
favour industries that locate in remote areas
• The creation of Growth Points The private sector, compricing of banks, individuals
• Introducing income generating projects in rural and companies have also been allowed to service
stands and sale to people in need which has helped to
areas for example broiler and layer projects reduce housing demand. For example the FBC, CABS
• Reducing the birth rates in both rural and and ZBC banks in Gweru , Harare and other towns
urban areas have built houses for people to buy at affordable terms
• This can be done by say for example
Provide low cost housing to relocate slum dwellers and
introducing family planning programs squatter. This has been done through the “hlalani
• Increased investments in both rural and urban khuhle/ garikai” programe in Zimbabwe. In this
areas programe the government built core houses, mainly
two rooms and toilet and then allocated to people
• Investments in the former will enable cities and displaced by operation murambatsina
towns to be able to cope with the increasing
populations Squater camp adoption and rehabilitation has also
• The latter dissuades people from migrating to been used in Zimbabwe. The approach involved
improving the living condition of slum and squatter
urban areas by negating some of the pull settlements instead of removing them by providing
factors of relocating to towns
220
piped water and sanitation. This has been done at -Increase awareness of health, hygiene and ills of
Hatcliff squatter holding camp and for Epworth. pollutions.

Establishment of growth points to control or reduce Decentralisation

rural-urban migration. This led to development of
growth points such as Gokwe, Murambinda and • This is the movement of shops & businesses
Magunje. This has helped to reduce overcrowding in out of the centre of urban areas to the edges.
the cities. For example the 2012 census indicated that
• Traffic congestion, lack of parking space, high
Gokwe now has a population of over 24000 that it
land values, lack of room for expansion are
absorbed and prevented from migrating to established
pushing firms out..
cities such as Kwekwe and Gweru
• The internet & ICT development have meant
that firms dont need to be close to other
services. More rural locations offer better
Table 4.1.2 changing population numbers at Gokwe working environments for many tertiary
industries.
Centre, census results • Room for expansion, ample parking and more
sub-urban workforces attract firms to out of
town locations

Year Naming of Census • Urbanisation-is the increase of the

Gokwe results proportion of people living in cities and towns.
Centre • Please note it urbanisation is not to be
1982 Ward 16 3689
1992 Ward 16 5184 mistaken with a mere increase in urban
2002 Growth point 5549 populations.
2012 town 24054 • There has to be an increase in the portion of
the population living in urban areas.
Source: CSO (2014)
• Urbanisation is thus the process of change
Other methods used to improve livelihood of the people from being rural to being urban.
in Zimbabwe include • This is usually a result of movement
(migration) of people from rural to urban areas.
2. Water supply- to increase water supply is build more
• This is known as rural-to-urban migration or
reservoirs.-To improve the quality of water, more
treatment plants were be built and old rusty pipes just rural-urban migration.
replaced. Educating the public in the virtues of water • The urban population of Zimbabwe rose from
conservation.
25% (1982 census data) to 30% (1992 census
data)
3. Transport- to ease congestion in the developed
countries road and railways network have to extend. • The urban population rose to 35% from 1992
Build extensive one ways and wider roads to ensure to 2002
smooth flow of traffic.-Encourage to use public
• The 2012 data shows that 33% of Zimbabwe’s
transport to reduce traffic congestion such.
population lives in Urban areas which is a 2%
4. Pollution- several ways to curb pollution such as decrease in the proportion of people living in
imposition of fines to protect the environment from urban areas.
littering and emission of excessive exhaust fumes.
• The United Nations has estimated that 60% of
Increase in waste collection frequency. for example in
developed countries authorities now collect waste the population will live in urban areas by 2030
three times a day
LEDC Urbanisation and urban Growth
- increase the number of sewerage pipes in the city.
Location: Cairo, Egypt
- growing tree as a noise buffer in the expressway.
Cause: Rapid population growth –rural to urban
migration. 13 + million people.
221
Effects: own, they don’t pay rent or propety taxes. Usually they
settle down at the outskirt of the city.
• Housing shortages, 80% of people living in self The Living Conditions and the features of Squatter
built shanty houses. settlements.
• People living in tombs (City of Dead). - Shacks made out of cardboard, boxes, sack-clothed,
• Traffic congestion & air pollution. and crushed beverage cans
- No proper toilet or sewage system
• Lack of jobs & jobs often poorly paid.
- Lack of schools, paved roads, telephones and proper
• Water pollution: ground water & the Nile.
piped system.
- They don’t have their own source of electricity.
Solutions:
The reasons why existence of Squatter settlement are:
• New towns being built outside Cairo to
accommodate people & provide jobs (10th ~High population in the urban/cities -similar to
Ramadan City). urbanization.
• Metro line (underground train) has been built, ~Less housing
limited lines currently but 1 million ~Migration in search of work- People travel in search of
commuters/day. work since the cost of living in a city is increasing.
• Improved sewers and rubbish collection ~Constant threat of Eviction- Slums can be anywhere,
services. such as next to railways or even 5 star hotels, though
• Large ring road built around the city. they live in constant fear.
• CBD: The Central Business District. This the
area in the middle of urban areas where there Congestion (London Case Study)
Probably one of the most common problems is
tends to be a concentration of retail and
congestion. The problem of congestion is caused by
commercial land uses. multiple factors, including:

Urban Problems
Urbanisation: The increase in the proportion of people • Increase in car ownership
living in urban areas. Although this can be caused by • Limited amount of public transport or
natural increase (higher birth rates in urban areas than expensive public transport or overcrowded
rural areas), it is more likely to happen because of public transport
rural-urban migration. • Roads not designed for cars, but rather horses
Urban growth or Sprawl: A growth in the size of the and people.
urban area. This normally happens because of building • Population growth and rural-urban migration
in the rural-urban fringe, although it may also include • The movement of freight (containers) onto
things like land reclamation.
lorries
Rapid urbanisation and urban growth can cause many
problems in urban areas including:
Congestion (an increase in the amount of traffic leading The problems caused by congestion can be divided
to traffic jams) into social, environmental and economic problems.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
• Destruction of greenfield sites • As car ownership increases so does the
amount of pollutants released by cars. This
• Pollutions (air, water, noise, visual) can lead increased chest problems e.g.
• Electricity blackouts asthma
• Water shortages • People travelling to work have to leave home
• Unemployment earlier and arrive back later, therefore
• Homelessness spending longer away from their families
• Growth of informal settlements
• Crime • More cars on the roads increases the
frequency of accidents
SLUM & SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS • More traffic jams can increase the frequency of
road rage
Slum and Squatter settlement is an area in a less
developed city where people reside on land they do not
222
 • Increased car ownership has increased road From the 1950s the urban infrastructure became
building which often leads to the destruction of
outdated and deteriorated rapidly. both housing and
greenfield
• The air pollution can contribute to acid rain and industry were considered to be no longer fit for purpose
the greenhouse effect and large areas were abandoned or allowed to
• Building new roads is very expensive, deteriorate, attracting a variety of economic,
especially when private property is purchased environmental and social problems.
• Late deliveries caused by traffic jams costs
Since the 1980s there has been a general view that
companies and the economy money.
• Workers also arrive late to work because they these areas could best be improved by encouraging
are stuck in traffic. housing, jobs ad services back into the centres - to
• It creates a reliance on oil and more oil is used produce mixed-use development.
at slow speed than normal travelling speeds

In the past 30 years many different initiatives have

Counter-urbanisation aimed to:

Counter-urbanisation is people moving from the urban

areas to the rural areas. The UK has been undergoing
• bring derelict land and buildings back into use
counter-urbanisation. There are age-related and social
• improve housing conditions
group-related elements in these changes:
• bring new jobs
Some people retire and move to the countryside, the
• improve the chances of local residents to apply
seaside or to a small town
for these jobs, through education and training
Young people go to universities which are usually in
• encourage private-sector investment in these
the bigger towns and cities
areas
Many people seek their early jobs in cities and live as
• encourage self-help to improve the social
close to work as possible
fabric of the area
When people start families they often move outwards,
• improve the quality of the environment
towards suburbs, small towns or rural areas
Some successful urban dwellers buy second homes in
the country and this may distort the census figures
All these initiatives are designed to improve conditions
Immigrants often settle in inner urban areas because of
for residents to encourage them to stay in inner cities
access to jobs, available in neighbourhoods based on
and also to encourage people to move back to the
the group's origin
cities.

Initiatives to encourage re-urbanisation

Re-urbanisation
Initiatives have included:
Since the 1970s there have been many initiatives
Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) were set up
aimed at regenerating the inner areas of towns and
to regenerate areas that contained large amounts of
cities in the UK. These are the areas where the growth
derelict land. London Docklands and the Merseyside
linked with industrialisation took place. Industry,
Development Corporation were set up in 1981, and a
housing, transport and other services became
further 11 followed between 1986 an 1993. The UDCs
concentrated here in the 19th and the first half of the
had the power to acquire land, clear it and provide
20th centuries.
infrastructure then they were to encourage the private
sector to develop the area. It is generally greed that
223
 for promoting women's health, functional literacy and
they brought economic development to these areas,
income generation activities through inter-sectoral
but local needs were often ignored in the interests of actions. The objective is to improve the living standards
outside investors. Subsequent developments (such as and health status of vulnerable women, and to use their
health status as a measure of development.. The project
the UDCs involved with planning the Thames Gateway) has been a major success in improving the women's
have tried to take local needs into account. health as well as their socio-economic status and it is
ready for replication.

Measures taken to improve the welfare of It should be noted that the focus on population has been
disadvantaged groups in Zimbabwe mainly on improving the health of the mother and child,
through child spacing and fertility management, rather
than on reducing numbers per se. Another approach has
Programmes and Projects for poverty alleviation
been to increase access to birth control devices as well
as education and awareness, particularly for women and
As poverty in rural areas was exacerbated by land girls. Programmes on population have generally focused
pressure and overuse of resources, the Government on education and awareness, child spacing and fertility
introduced a land resettlement programme in 1983. The methods, and the health of the mother and the child.
Government bought farms and resettled people from
communal areas using specific models. Although this
Financing health for the aged, children and less
programme was discontinued in 1990, due to the lack of
privvilaged members of society
funds to purchase land, it will soon be resumed.

Financing of health services in Zimbabwe is mainly

To improve the agricultural productivity of the rural poor,
from fiscal revenue complemented by substantial donor
particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, the Government
assistance. At 2.5% of the government budget, health
adopted a Give-a-Dam project which ensures that each
care is one of the biggest. Nevertheless, this allocation
district has a dam. Irrigation projects are established to
is far too small to meet the health needs of the
assist the rural poor to increase their income through
population. Most heath centres lack essential facilities
higher productivity.
and basic drugs.
The Government is currently mobilizing funds to electrify
Protecting vulnerable groups: Zimbabwe is a signatory
rural areas. A solar photovoltaic project, funded by the
to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and has
Global Environmental Facility (GEF), is under
already produced a Children's Action Plan. Specific
implementation to improve lighting in the rural areas.
programmes to protect children's health and welfare
include the Child Supplementary Feeding, for those
Several economic programmes have been put in place children under the age of five, and Promotion of Breast
to revitalize the economy with a view to eradicating Feeding. To date, thirty-nine baby-friendly hospitals
poverty in the long-term. These include, ESAP, Vision have been established which promote the exclusive use
2020, and the recently adopted on ZIMASSET. The of breast milk. Growth monitoring programmes have
latter programme focuses on poverty alleviation and been introduced at every clinic and community; the only
employment creation. limitation is the availability of scales

Financing poverty eradication CAMPFIRE ( Communal Areas Management for

Indigenous Resources )
There is no direct budget since poverty reduction is a
cross cutting issue. However, the Poverty Alleviation This program involved encoporation of rural
Action Plan alone is estimated to require US $2.1 communities in the management of wildlife so that the
million. At the same time, there is targeted social communities could benefit from the resource, improve
expenditure. Zimbabwe believes that human their status and at the same time ensuring sustainable
development is the key to poverty eradication. Thus, management of their natural endowments.The
20% of the country's budget is devoted every year to Government runs an extension programme which
financing education and health. includes workshops, training courses for village leaders,
mobile environmental programmes and village
Programmes and Projects to promote women health awareness campaigns. Since Independence there has
and decision making been a concerted effort to promote methods of
education and awareness that do not impose
Promoting women in decision making: Zimbabwe conservation on communities. Consequently, extension
initiated a programme, with the assistance of the WHO, has become more participatory, drawing on traditional
224
experiences of conservation and dissemination of these development. The Department of Rural and Urban
to wider audience. Many departments, such as the Planning of University of Zimbabwe carries out
Forestry Commission, now acknowledge the value of research and training in this area.
traditional practices in forestry conservation and
promote these widely. An appreciation of the role and Government financing of low income groups’
contributions that communities can make to accommodation
conservation has resulted in proposals to develop
initiatives for resource sharing where the government
In terms of finance, the Government has offered
and the community are equal partners in resource
subsidies to encourage private financial institutions to
management.
issue low income mortgages, to make housing more
affordable for households in the lower income bracket.
Programmes and Projects for disadvantaged rural A large proportion of the budget in the fiscal year 1995
areas was channelled to low income development. The 1992
revision of the Minimum Building and Planning
Zimbabwe subscribes to the concept of planned human Standards, a policy of the Housing Act which was
settlements and has put into place programmes to previously a strain on the poor and on affordability,
develop human settlements, such as planned reduced the plot size for low income detached house
ressettlements, which involves the replanning of rural from 300 square metres to 150 square metres, As a
areas to facilitate the provision of services. Service result of the 1992 reforms, 70% of the population can
centres and growth ponts have been designated through now afford to buy a house, a rise from 23% before 1992.
physical planning to ensure accessibility to the , the Government has offered subsidies to encourage
communities which they serve. The Government, private financial institutions to issue low income
through different departments, has provided various mortgages, to make housing more affordable for
services at the growth points such as issuing of IDs, households in the lower income bracket. A large
passports and skills training. For example. The local proportion of the budget in the fiscal year 1995 was
government structure, instituted in 1984, was meant to channelled to low income development.
decentralize planning and to encourage investment in
the rural areas. As aresult 55 growth points were Cooperation with private sector and NGOs
established across Zimbabwe. However only a few have
been successful the rest failed to stimulate the much
The Government of Zimbabwe encouraged increased
wanted rural development such that people continue to
partnerships with the private sector, NGOs, other
migrate to major towns and cities members of the civil society, and the international
community. For example,the World Bank and the
Energy suply Zimbabwe Urban Development Project provided a loan
in 1995 to promote Zimbabwe's financial and
The Government, through the Department of Energy is institutional capacity to supply affordable housing
exploring and promoting alternative sources of energy, through reform of the housing delivery system and the
such as solar energy and biogas as well as energy housing mortgage market. The 1995 USAID and the
saving devices. The rural electrification programme Private Sector Housing Programme enabled several low
which started in 1982 has not progressed as income groups to access descent accommodation in
anticipated. urban areas.

Capacity-building, Education, Training and Awareness-

raising
Revision exercise
In 1996 the Ministry of Local Government, Urban and
Rural Development set up a capacity building Settlement
programme for Rural District Councils. The programme
trains local authorities in terms of manpower, Rural settlement pattern, site and situation
institutional building, resources and human resource

225
 Describe the factors leading to the development of nucleated rural
settlements (4)
Suggest how each of the following factors has influenced the sites
and growth of settlement If you were a rural development planner, what points would you
in the area shown in Fig. 2.1: raise to convince locals in haphazard settlement on the need for
(i) transport and accessibility [2] planned resettlement (4)
(ii) water supply [1]
(iii) protection from flooding [1] Urban settlements
(iv) relief. [2]
Fig 8 shows two different types of housing in a town in Zimbabwe

With reference to an example, explain the urban problems faced by

residents of housing type Y and suggest solutions to the problems
Describe and explain the differences between the two types of (7)
houses (6)

226
What problems are likely to be encountered in implementing the Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 (Insert) are photographs which show two
solutions suggested above (2) residential areas of Windhoek, the capital city of Namibia.

Identify and explain one problem commonly faced by residents in

housing type X

(b) Study Fig. 2.2 (Insert), which are maps showing the percentage
of people in African countries living in squatter settlements in 1995
(a) Describe the housing shown in Fig. 3.1. (5) and 2015.

(b) Give three differences between the residential area shown in

3.1 and the residential area shown in 3.2. (3)

227
(i) Identify a country which is labelled on Fig. 2.2 where the (ii) Put the three services in rank order according to the size of their
percentage of people living in squatter settlements: spheres of influence.

– increased between 1995 and 2015 ................ 1st .................................. largest 2nd ..................... 3rd
..............................smallest [2]
– decreased between 1995 and 2015 ........................
(iii) State the smallest type of settlement where the services would
– was the same in 1995 and 2015. ............................... be located.

[3] (ii) Explain why a large percentage of the population in many Parliament ...........................................................................
cities in LEDCs are living in squatter settlements............. [5]
Pharmacy .........................................................................
(c) For a named urban area you have studied, describe the
strategies used to improve the housing conditions of the people (iv) Explain why people will only travel a short distance for some
who live there. Name of urban area ................................. (7) services. [4]

Settlement hierarch i) Which one of the following statements describes a settlement

hierarchy? Tick only one box
2 (a) Study for parliament building, pharmacy and grocery shop
which one offers low-order service? [1]

ii) Which one of the following statements describes a service? Tick only one box

(b) Study Fig. 2.4, which shows information about the relationship between settlement size and the number of services in them

228
i) Describe the relationship shown by Fig Refer to different types of
settlement in your answer. (3)

(ii) Explain why there is a relationship between settlement size and

the number of services provided. (5)

2 (a) Study Fig. 2.1, which shows information about a settlement

hierarchy

c) For a named urban area, describe the causes of a problem faced by the residents and explain how the authorities in that urban area are
attempting to solve it. (7)

Tick the one statement which best describes a settlement hierarchy

(iii) Give three examples of high order services which are likely to
be located in large cities,
(ii) Using evidence from Fig. 2.1 only, describe the relationship
between population size and number of settlements. Give such as capital cities.
examples of settlement types from Fig. 2.1 in your answer. (2)
1 ......................... 2 .......................3 ........................[3]

229
 (iv) Explain why large cities, such as capital cities, have many high (a) Study Fig. 3, which shows information about the population of
order services (4) five LEDCs

(b) Study Fig. 2.2, which gives information about rural decline.

(i) Name the city with the largest population in Kenya.... [1] Rural life in decline
(ii) Using Fig. 3 only, identify the country which has the largest Nearly half of rural settlements in the UK have seen the closure of local
percentage of: services in the past four years. Villages across the country are losing
- the total population of the country living in towns and basic services such as post offices, doctors’ surgeries, shops and
cities;.......... [2] schools. A study found that residents of the village of Wrotham, in Kent,
- the total population of the country living in its largest suffered the greatest loss of services. The study also found that
city................... [2] 233000 people in the country are living in areas with no post office
(iii) The largest cities named in Fig. 3 are examples of high-order within 2 kilometres and no bank or cashpoint (ATM) within 4 kilometres.
settlements.
Give three characteristics of high order settlements. 3] (i) Using Fig. 2.2 only, give three examples of services which are
being closed in rural
c) For an area or country you have studied, describe the hierarchy settlements.
of settlement and service provision. (7) 1 ................ 2 ...................... 3 ...................[3]
(ii) Explain why service provision in some rural areas is
Name of area or country declining..........................................................[5]
Urban geography Name a settlement you have studied. Describe and explain its
functions.
(i) What is an urban area? ................... [1]
Name of settlement ...............................................................[7]
(i) Give three reasons why urban areas in Zimbabwe experience
Urbanisation
increased traffic congestion. 1............................. [3]
(iv) Explain why urbanisation is occurring in LEDCs such as Kenya.
(ii) suggest how traffic problems could be reduced in urban
.................................................................. [4]
areas.............................. [5]
Rural urban fringe
(c) For a named urban area you have studied, describe a change in
land use and explain why it has caused conflict. Name of urban area (a) Study Fig. 2.1 (Insert), which shows the urban area and
........................................ (7) surrounding rural-urban fringe of Ottawa in Canada (an MEDC).

(c) For a named urban area you have studied, describe and explain the (i) What is meant by rural-urban fringe? .........................[1]
characteristics of the CBD.

Name of urban area (7)

230
(ii) Suggest two likely differences between the housing in areas X 8. What do we call it when a large group of people
and Y. 1............................................................... 2. move from the country to the city? A) Urbanization B)
Non-distribution C Ruralization D) Distribution
(iii) Using evidence from Fig. 2.1, describe how the urban area of 9. A settlement in which majority of the people are
Ottawa has grown in size since 1900..........................................[3]
involved in primary activity is called as A) Hamlet B)
(iv) Suggest problems that are likely to have been caused by the Village C) City D. conurbation
growth of Ottawa’s urban area...................................... (4) 10. Area in which wholesale and manufacturing
activities are carried out is classified as A) rural urban
(ii) Explain why many people are moving from areas close to the fringe B) suburbs C) inner city D) Central Business
centre of cities in MEDCs to areas close to the rural-urban fringe.[5] District
11. The law of the primate city proposes that: A) The
(iv) Explain why many people migrate from rural areas to cities in primate city is at least eight times as big as the second
LEDCs. (4) largest city and more than eight times as significant. B)
The primate city is at least twice as big as the second
largest city and more than twice as significant. C) The
Settlement studies Multiple choice test
primate city is usually half the size of the second city,
but at least twice as significant. D) The primate city is
1. An organized pattern of human habitation is called a
larger than the secondary city, even if only by one
_____. A) Settlement B) Rural area C) City D) planned
resident.
community 12. What does CBD stands for? A) Central bank district
B) Commuter belt district C) Central business district
2. In what way does a rural community differ from an D) Central buildings department
urban one? A) A rural community is lightly populated 13 In Ullman and Harris’ multiple nuclei model, middle
and is mostly agricultural in nature. B) A rural class residential area and heavy manufacturing are
community does not include businesses other than found in zone A) 3 an 5 B) 4 and 6 C) 4 and 7 D) 2 and 6
family farms. C) An urban community usually has a 14. The Concentric, Sector models and multiple nuclei
higher crime rate and fewer people. D) An urban models have many features in common except that
community includes both industry and agriculture. A) all have one centrally located C.B.D. B) In all models
3. What are densely populated, mostly non- Land value and population density decline with
agricultural areas called? A. Urban areas B. Dispersed distance from the central places. C) There are clear-cut
settlement C) Compact settlement D) Rural areas and abrupt boundaries between the land-use zones.
4. What is possible disadvantage to locating a business D) Residential segregation
in a CBD? A) You will attract a diverse customer base 15 which one is not a difference among Concentric
in this area. B) The cost of building rental is likely to be and Sector models
high. C) There will be plenty of parking available for A) concentric model with circular pattern of land use
customers. D) People are likely to go to this area to zones; while sector model with sectoral pattern of
shop. land use zones B) land use zones in sector model
5. What is the model that identifies five zones of a city developed along transport routes radiating out from
arranged in an organized manner? A) Urban structure CBD; while concentric model never mention the
model B) Sector model C) Concentric zone model transport development C) sector model emphasizes
D)Multiple nuclei model the repelling forces of land uses; but concentric model
6. What is rural depopulation? A) People moving from concerns the invasion, succession forces on the
urban to rural areas B) People moving out of rural pattern of the land use D) a centrally located C.B.D
areas C) Farmers housing other rural residents D) 16 which one is not an economic factor in the siting of
populating rural areas rural settlements A. Transport links: B Trading Location C
7. What type of pattern is illustrated by a settlement is Resources: endowment D Water availability
clustered together around a village green? 17 A settlement that grows along a road, a narrow
A) A nucleated pattern B) A dispersed pattern C) A valley, watershed, along the coast or river is called A.
linear pattern Clustered B nucleated C linear D radial
18 Causes of settlement dispersion include all the following except
A. Mountainous relief B private commercial farming C Scattered

231
 portions of land that are less prone to floods D) Plenty natural • There are basically two broad categories of transport
resources types i.e. traditional and modern
19 which one is not true for an urban areas’ Zone of transition A) It Traditional
• This refers to forms of transports that have been in
surrounds the CBD B) has residential areas with poor housing C) It
use since antiquity including:
has offices and light industries. D) there is less or no crimes and • The human being (porter) i.e. walking, running,
social problems. carrying goods on their heads, shoulders or backs.
• Horses, mules, donkeys, camels, carts, sledges,
20 A residential land use where people travel from to their work rickshaws, bicycles, canoes, dhows.
Modern
place is called A) Primate City B) Conurbation: C dormitory town • This refers to those forms of transport that have been
DMegalopolis: brought about by modern technological
advancements.
• • Vehicles for example cars, Lorries, tram cars, buses,
QUESTION 12 TRANSPORT AND TRADE commuter omnibuses (kombis), trains, ships, planes,
pipelines
Comparative Costs- road rail water and air
Transport: Introduction different modes of transport are characterized by different
• -refers to the means by which goods and people are cost per given distance
moved from one point to another on the earth’s AA
surface.
Transport is an outcome of supply (production) and
demand (consumption).

Why do we need transport?

• to move goods or raw materials from production site
to consumers or manufacturers.
• to move workers from to and from workplaces. • At short distances O-A, road transport is the
• People also move to and from places of social and cheapest
cultural activities. • At medium distances A-B rail is the cheapest
• Wherever there is distance between two places, there • At longer distances B-C water is the cheapest
will be need for transport. • At very long distances beyond C pipe line becomes
Factors affecting transport choice. the cheapest
• The choice of transport that will be used between two • Air transport is the most expansive at short and
points depends on the following: medium distances
• The type of goods to be transported e.g. liquids can • when two or more modes are directly competing for
be carried by pipeline or tankers the same market, the outcome results in lower
• The quantity of goods to be transported e.g. bulky or transport costs
heavy goods can be shipped or transported by rail • containerized transportation:- which is the movement
while light goods can be flown in. of freight in huge metallic boxes allowed significant
• Quality for example perishables need to be reduction in freight transport rates around the world
transported quickly to the market before they go bad. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Modes of
• The number of people to transport. transport
• Human preference a) Human Beings
• The cost of the type of transport Using human beings or porters for transport has the following
advantages and disadvantages:
• Accessibility of the source and destination.
Advantages Disadvantages
• The affluence of the people involved.
• It is cheap especially where small • There is a limit to
• distance between the two places
quantities of goods are involved. the quantity of
Types of Transport
• It is easy as there are no special goods that a
• Refers to all methods of moving goods and people
requirements or laws. human being can
on land, air or water from one point to another
• It is readily available. carry.
232
 • It is versatile i.e. humans can carry a • Humans tire • Faster than rail and • Highly prone to accidents
variety of goods without the need for easily. ship • Slow and tiring over long
adaptations • It is a slow form • Is fast compared to distances for example between
• Does not require special transport of transport. bicycles and carts countries
networks e.g. a railway line as they can • Needs constant • They are • Exhaust gases gasses serious air
just use tracks. rest. comfortable e.g. pollution
• Can be used to reach remote areas and • Can cheat or they have air • More expensive than rail and
areas that are hard to access using steal conditioning and water transport
other means of transport e.g. heating. • Carries less goods compared to
mountainous regions • They are protected rail or water transport
Draught power from weather • They are expensive to buy and
• Refers to the use of animals such as elephants, mules, elements. maintain
donkeys, camels and horses • Independent i.e you • They carry fewer passengers
Advantages Disadvantages can drive them to • Most are not versatile e.g. there
• It is cheap because there • Can only carry a limited wherever you like are kombis, trucks, vans, sedans
are no fuel costs amount of goods whenever you want etc.
• It is much more readily • It is slow. as they do not have • They can cause fatal accidents.
available • It is not durable fixed time tables or • They pollute the environment.
• Can scale steep terrain and • Needs constant rest. route permits • They create congestion
reach inaccessible areas. • It can be inefficient and • • They require roads.
• Does not require special uncertain • They require fuel which might
networks e.g. road/rail make them expensive to operate
f) Buses and Tram cars (public transport)
Bicycles, carts and Rickshaws Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages • They are fast compared • They are less versatile
• Cheap to use over short • They only carry a to carts • Cannot provide door to
distance because does limited amount of • They are comfortable door services.
not need expensive fuel goods/people • They are punctual • They are relatively slow.
• Clean because no • Can cause traffic • They carry a lot of • Require expensive
exhaust gases are congestion or make it passengers at once. good quality roads.
produced worse. • They are cheaper than • Can cause fatal
• versatile • They can be tiresome other modern modes of accidents.
• simple and available as they are powered transport. • Cause air pollution
technology which makes by human energy. • They have prescribed • Thefts can occur at bus
them easy to • Slow compared to pick up and drop stations
manufacture and repair cars and planes points (bus stops and • Cannot access some
• Usually they do not stations) remote areas e.g. some
require route permits • The reduce traffic parts of the Eastern
congestion Highlands were roads
d) Canoes and Dhows • They use cheaper fuels cannot be constructed.
Advantages Disadvantages (i.e Diesel which is • Touts who man these
• They are cheap as no • Cannot carry large amounts mistily cheaper than buses often cause
fuel is used of goods and passengers. petrol) havoc and chaos
• clean source as it does • They are very slow. • Enjoy economies of
not case air pollution • They require navigable water scale.
• They are versatile as bodies and canals.
they can carry a variety • They may capsize causing Trains and rail transport
of goods death and/or injury/damage Advantages Disadvantages
• They are simple to to goods • Is relatively cheaper • Does not provide door to
manufacture and repair. • Some of them are powered than road transport door service.
by human energy which can • Caries bulk goods • Cannot scale steep
be taxing such as coal and gradients e.g. Eastern
Road transport (private transport) unprocessed ores Highlands
Advantages Disadvantages • Carries large • Require railway lines
• Offers door to door • Congestion especially during amounts of goods which are expensive to
services peak hours and or passengers construct.
• Carries a variety of • High costs of making and per trip compared to
goods maintaining roads
233
 all other modes of • Restrictive e.g. trains in • There is closure of mines and farms, which are vital
transport the SADC region may be sources of income.
• They are unable to service other • Shortages of coal for some of its locomotion or the coal
comfortable especial countries as they use becoming too expensive.
in the first class different railway gauges. • Competition for passengers and goods with road and air
section • Require special handling transport.
• Can be very fast if equipment to load and • Occasional power-cuts by ZESA affecting signals and
the rail is electrified unload. train movement on the electrified section.
• They are less prone • Is not versatile as special • Inefficiency and corruption by board members.
to fatal accidents trailers are required for • For trains using diesel, the very high costs of the fuel or
• Eases the problem some loads. its capacity has also been another problem.
of congestion • Is relatively slower than Past exam question June 2007. fig 13 shows the rail network
because only one other forms of transport of Zimbabwe
train can carry all e.g. air due to delays at
the passengers at a sidings
time • Not suitable for perishable
goods.
• Slow when using coal
• In Zimbabwe we have only
one track which means
trains cannot pass each
other
Rail transport network in Zimbabwe
• The railway network of Zimbabwe is less complicated
when compared to the road network.
• There are, however, some striking similarities between
these.
• The main railway line of Zimbabwe runs along the Central (i) Describe and explain the railway network shown
Watershed from Bulawayo through Gweru, Kwekwe, (ii) what arguments can be put for and against the extension of
Kadoma and then Harare to Mutare. the railwayline into the area marked X?
• It was built in the late 1890s and early 1900s. (iii) state two problems faced by the National railways of
• All other lines are considered branch lines from this Zimbabwe
route, built for specific purposes.
• Railway lines are even more expensive to build than
tarred roads. NRZ problems and solutions
• This is why there are fewer rails than roads in Zimbabwe Problems faced Solutions to these
or anywhere else for that matter and why Government has problems
concentrated more on roads since independence. Decline of country’s privatisation
• Three factors have played a key role in the layout of the economy means there is
network of Zimbabwe, these being: lack of capital to improve ,
• The need to link areas of economic importance in the service or maintain wagons
form of towns and cities, mines and commercial farming and railway line
areas. Lack of maintenance due to Employ competent staff
• Relief- railways are more sensitive to relief features than lack of skilled labour
roads and so have to be laid down where relief is fairly Lack of fuel eg. diesel is Need for good financial
gently. Trains have difficulty in scaling steep gradients. imported and electricity is in management
Building bridges, embankments, cuttings and tunnels for short supply
railways is equally more expensive than roads. debt Improve financial
o The need for links with surrounding countries management
and export ports also accounts for the rail Theft of signals, electricity Employ competent security
routes. cables officers
• The railways of Zimbabwe are run by a parastatal called h) Air Transport
the National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) with its Advantages Disadvantages
headquarters and major workshops in Bulawayo. • Is very fast for example • Airspace is usually
• This replaced the Rhodesian Railways (RR) which for a trip to the Victoria restricted and
operated during the colonial era Falls takes 1 hour 15 controlled by host
The NRZ is facing numerous problems, minutes by air and over countries as a matter
• Ageing and outdated rolling stock (wagons). 12 hours by road. of national security.

234
 • Is comfortable since it’s • They can be affected • Ageing aircraft.
not affected by potholes by extreme weather • Lack of foreign currency for spares.
and road roughness conditions e.g. • A poor local market as living standards are falling and
• Not easily affected by cyclones. people are becoming poorer.
weather elements such • Cannot provide door to • Corruption
as floods and snow. door services. • Incompetent leadership
• Not affected by surface • Require expensive air • A very unionized educated labour force constantly going
relief or high altitude ports to take off and on strike for better working conditions and higher pay.
• Can be used in times of land. • Political wrangles between government and some
emergency for example • Airports are usually European countries reducing the clientele for Air
helicopters are used in located far away from Zimbabwe.
air rescue missions residential and • Low turnover, implying that the state has to subside an
such as after the industrial area which unprofitable airline, and,
earthquake in Nepal. means additional • Competition from establishes airlines which are more
• Can cover large modes of transport are reliable, more comfortable and cheaper.
distances without the required. Sea Transport
need to refuel. • They are very Advantages Disadvantages
• They can take direct expensive to purchase, • Is relatively cheaper. • Slower than other forms
routes. maintain or use. • Caries bulky goods of transport e.g air.
• They can carry high • Accidents are almost like cars at once • Requires good ports
value goods such as always fatal and costly • They are very which may be expensive
gold and diamond in damage terms. comfortable for to construct
safely for example there • Prone to sabotage, example cruise ships • Requires special handling
are no air pirates. terrorism and and ocean liners are equipment to load and
• There is no congestion hijacking. often fitted with unload.
on route • Cause too much noise luxury facilities such • Can be susceptible to
and air pollution as bathrooms, weather hazards such as
• Has restricted time toilets, casinos and cyclones.
schedule entertainment • Accidents can cause
facilities. damage to people, goods
Modern airports • Easy handling of and the environment for
• are very costly to build and maintain and require a very goods for example example Oil leaks
large area of flat land on which to build arrival and RoRo ships. • Causes water and air
departure terminals, custom offices and warehouses • Containerization pollution
• are to be located away from high population centers makes it easy to • Cannot move or dock
because (i)aircrafts make too much noise transport perishable when water level is
(ii) to avert disaster if a plane crashes at landing or take-off. goods shallow
(iii)to have enough landing ground • Rarely experiences • Is restricted to countries
(iv) so that people will not inhale air polluted by airplane congestion on route with access to the sea and
exhaust gases not in land locked
(v) to avoid disruption on normal bussiness by noise countries such as
• New trends in Zimbabwe, that the government are Zimbabwe and Zambia
working on is to extend existing airports rather than build j) Pipelines
new ones, for example, the building of new, very modern Advantages Disadvantages
terminal at Harare International airport.
• They are very efficient • They are immobile i.e
• Upgrade runways and handlings facilities at older airport the route cannot be
• They are cheap once
such as at Bulawayo, Victoria Falls, Masvingo and Buffalo changed once they are
the installation has
Range. installed.
been completed.
• Provide greater comfort and speed to the ageing fleet of
• They can carry fluids in • Can only carry fluids
airport and the planes. such as oil, gas and
bulk.
Problems water and not solids
• The best for
• Air transport in Zimbabwe mostly falls under the like meat.
transporting fluids
jurisdiction of Air Zimbabwe, a government parastatal
such as liquids and • They are very
which together with ZESA and NRZ, form the three core expensive to install and
gases
profit-making parastatals in the country. maintain.
• Carries bulky fluids
• Air transport in the country, together with Air Zimbabwe • They are easy to
and gases
faces numerous administrative, economic and operational sabotage e.g. the
• Does not experience
problems which include: RENAMO bandits
congestion
235
 • Does not affect lifestyle constantly threatened
especially if buried and sabotaged
underground Zimbabwe’s Beira-
• Causes less land or air Feruka pipeline during
pollution when there the Mozambican Civil Tarred roads can be dual carriage ways, national highways
are noleakages War. and strip roads
• Leaks and damage can • Gravel roads usually link rural areas
be difficult to detect if • Roads in Zimbabwe are classified using the A-system.
the pipeline is • A standing for the German word autobahn which has a
underground. number added to it to indicate the smoothness of the
• Special pipelines are surface.
required to carry • A1 is the best surfaced road in Zimbabwe followed by A2,
flammables A3, A4, or A5 and so on.
• Costly to install in areas • Regional Road Corridors are numbered R1, R2, R3 and so
of high relief on. They may also be called by their original type and
Exam questions route name like A1, A2, A3 etc.
Fig 10 shows how urban population travels to work (2003N) • In some cases one type “R” road may comprise two or
more type “A” routes; e.g. R2 comprises A5 and A7
(Harare-Plumtree Road).
• Ordinary primary roads are numbered P1, P2, P3 etc.
These are primary roads but not convenient for cross-
border traffic and services.
• In Britain, they use the
• M-system where M stand for Motorway while in the USA,
they use the H-system for
Study past exam questions
(b) in a field study, a geography class discovered the (2012N) (a) (i)Describe and explain the distribution of the main
following about the transport system of a village:- 80 road network of Zimbabwe shown (7)
scotchcarts, 5 biclcles, 10 sledges, 1bus, 5km dust roads and
numerous paths
(i)Describe the quality of transport available in the village (4)
(ii) State the problems created by the available means of
transport (4)
(iii) Suggest giving reasons, solutions to the problems you
stated in (b)(ii) above (7)

Road Transport situation in Zimbabwe

• Major cities and towns have got some forms of public
transport such as buses, kombis and taxies so that
moving around Zimbabwe is not very difficult
• The most popular mode of transport is the road
• Roads have been divided into groups, namely wide tarred (NB. To describe is to tell what you are seeing and to explain
roads, narrow tarred roads, strip roads, all weather gravel is to give reasons for the description you made)
road (ii)what problems are faced by the users of these roads? (4)
(iii) What efforts are being made by the government and local
authorities to improve the state of the roads in Zimbabwe? (5)

• There are more wide-tarred roads in the central, north-

east and in the eastern part of the country.
• These roads are fewer in the south, south-west, west,
north-west and north of the country.
• These are general descriptions
• Connectivity is high in the northen part of the country
than the southern part due to high economic activites
cause by high agricultural output, many industries as well
as administration functions
• The Zambezi valley, Save valley and Limpopo Valley have
fewer roads due to rugged terrain and hash climatic
conditions that repel settlements,.
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• Wide tarred roads are fewer than other roads and mostly
wide tarred roads follow commercial farming areas while
other roads link communal areas.
• Wide tarred roads also link cities, towns and growth
points.
• The greatest concentration of wide tarred road is found
around Harare with 8 such roads radiating from it.
• Bulawayo has 4 wide-tarred roads stemming from it.
• There are also many wide tarred roads around
Zvishavane, Masvingo, Chivhu, Bindura and Gweru.
• The wide tarred roads cross Zimbabwe’s boarders at 6
points.
• These are Victoria Falls, Plumtree, Beitbridge, Mutare,
Nyamapanda and Chirundu.
Road construction
• There are many wide-tarred roads in the central, north-
• On a more local scale, the construction of road is strongly
east and eastern parts of the country because there is a
affected by physical relief features on the ground.
lot economic activity in the form of commercial farms,
• Roads can be built whenever possible even along
mine, manufacturing industries as well as tourism.
watersheds.
• Another reason is because there are more towns and
• This is done in order to prevent erosion of the road by
cities as well as large populations which need to be linked
rivers or flooding and washing away of bridges.
by these roads.
• Another reason is to avoid the cost of building bridges to
• Physically, the land is fairly flat here, making it easy to
cross the rivers.
construct wide tarred roads.
• It also prevents waterlogging, development of
• In the other parts of the country, the wide-tarred roads are
corrugations and sinking of the road.
fewer because of low population densities, hot, dry
• Examples of watershed roads abound in the Eastern
environment and lack of vibrant economic activities.
Highlands of Zimbabwe such as the road from Rusape to
• Some of the land here are state lands used for parks and
Nyanga via Juliasdale, the Juliasdale-Mutare road via
so do not need many wide-tarred roads.
Watsomba and Wengezi-Chimanimani road.
• The wide tarred roads are fewer than ‘other’ type of road
• In hilly terrain, roads are built along valleys or gaps and
because they are more expensive to construct.
passes in order to reduce the gradient scaled by vehicles
• Poor quality roads occur in communal areas because of in transit.
political reasons.
• Spectacular winding roads have been built at Christmas
• The colonial governments wanted to bring better
Pass, Mutare and at the Boterekwa Pass (formerly known
infrastructure only to commercial farming areas.
as Wolfshall Pass) just south of Shurugwi.
• However since colonialism the government has built a
• A smaller but equally spectacular gravel road has been
number of wide-tarred roads through communal areas in-
constructed at Zibwi Pass south of Mnene Mission in
order to re-address this issue.
Mberengwa.
June 2012 Past exam study question
• At times, in the need to follow the shortest possible
Fig 9 below
routes linking places, roads have to be built across large
shows the volume of traffic on Zimbabwe’s roads
rivers with all the entailing costs of building imposing
(i) name the method used to show traffic volume on the map
bridges.
(1)
• An example is Birchenough Bridge where the Masvingo-
(ii)describe and explain the volume of traffic shown (7)
Mutare road crosses the Save river, the Victoria Falls
(iii) explain why the area marked M on the map has poor
bridge, the Chirundu bridge and Beitbridge.
transport network (3)
B(i) what is a commuter? (2) • Where marshes and lakes occur, a road will avoid these,
(ii) outline the problems faced by the public passenger taking longer, winding routes around them.
transport system in Zimbabwe,(5) • If the ground is very uneven, it may be necessary to make
embankments at depressions and cutting on higher
ground or hill edges to let a road pass through.
• Tunnels may even be cut through mountains to shorten a
route.
• Modern roads are very expensive to build.
• At present, there is need for such road in Gokwe North,
Mberengwa, Gwanda, Beitbridge, Tsholotsho, Lupane and
Chiredzi districts with a large economic potential but with
terrible road network.
1998 past exam study question

237
 • Building pipelines is very expensive and many countries
in Africa are too poor to do so.
• There is no tradition and technology to use pipelines.
• It is hoped that more pipelines will be installed in Africa
as urbanization and industrialization improve and living
standards are raised as demand for water, oil and oil
products increases.
A route linking village X and Q in A is to be constructed. Two Railways, ports and inland waterways
methods shown in fig B and C have been suggested. • Africa’s transport network is the least developed in the
(i) suggest the advantages and disadvantages of each of the world for various reason.
methods. (6) • The continent has some of the world’s poorest nations
(ii) describe the importance of air transport in world trade (7) with very low Gross Domestic Products (GDPs), Gross
National Products (GNPs) and per capital incomes.
• The continent also has some of the harshest
environments in the form of deserts, drought, cyclones
and hot, wet climates inhibiting the establishment of route
networks.
• Physically, the continents has plateaus, mountain ranges
rift valleys, lakes, swaps and marshes, plains prone to
flooding and waterfalls and rapids all working against the
construction of good transport network.
• Politically the continent is very unstable with many civil
and inter-country wars and military coups.
Along which line (A, B or C) would be best to construct a road, • Historically the continent has been partitioned and
why? compartmentalized, leading to the development of a
Draw a labelled cross section from X to Y and use it to explain disjointed and irrational transport network such as
your choice for road construction differently railway gauges between countries.
• The need to maintain links with former colonial power for
economic and other gains has also contributed to the
chaos.
• Poverty, however, is mainly responsible for the problems.
Railways, Ports and Inland waterways
• The development of ports led to the growth of railways.
• The ports of Africa, which incidentally are mainly cities
were established during the colonial period by colonizing
powers.
• These ports were supposed to ship raw materials to the
colonizing powers in Europe.
• These ports were used as administrative and service
centres, as well as transshipment points for manufactured
Pipeline Transport in Africa goods from Europe back to African markets.
• Whereas pipeline transport is very highly developed in • In line with this, railway lines were therefore built linking
advanced countries such as Germany and Canada and in these ports with the interior hinterlands of mines,
oil-producing Middle East countries like Saudi Arabia, indigenous forests and commercial farmland.
Kuwait, Iran and Iraq, this mode of transport is very • The ports of Africa spatially indicate four clear patterns.
poorly developed despite the advantages. • One group, which is the largest, includes those ports on
• In Africa, pipelines are used to transport oil, natural gas, the west coast from Cape Town in South Africa to
water and sewerage, though for commercial purposes, Nouakchott in Mauritania, the Atlantic seaboard ports.
only the first two commodities are of importance. • The second is on the east coast, the third on the
• Africa has very limited use of pipeline transport because Mediterranean coast and the fourth of inland ports either
of the following reasons. along major rivers or inland seas or lakes.
• There are very few industrial areas which use oil and gas • West coast ports have direct links with the Americans and
products. Europe to which they send iron ore, oil, timber, cocoa,
• The oil and gas deposits on the continent are few and coffee, groundnuts and palm oil while Indian ocean ports
those being exploit are not fully worked. are linked with the Middle East (oil), S.E Asia
• The oil mined is mainly exported rather than being used (manufactured goods), the Far East and Australia.
on the continent.

238
• Barbary Coast ports conduct trade with Europe using the • These vary from graphical approaches, descriptive or
Mediterranean Sea shipping lane, the strait of Gibraltar qualitative approaches as well as quantitative methods
and the Suez canal. • Topological maps and graphs are often used to analyse
Transport routes transport networks
Factors affecting the development of transport routes • Various terms are used when doing this
Human and Economic factors These terms include:
• Economic activities: Areas with great economic activities • Route- refers to alink between two places/ pathway
like mines, agriculture, tourism and industries have better followed by transport type to a place
transport links than those with no economic activities • A route is typically shown by a solid line linking nodes
• Thus areas like Bindura, Hwange, Rad region of Sa and • It is also called an edge or a link
the copper belt of Zambia have well developed transport • Node- is any settlement through which a route passes or
system ends (the end point of a route)
• Government policy: Some governments may formulate • Transport routes link or connect node which maybe
policies that promote development of some areas than homes, villages, towns, mines or cities.
others. This may encourage transport development in • All routes begin and end at different type of nodes.
other areas than others • Routes and edges can be used to calculate the beta index
• The government can deliberately develop transport of a transport network
network in remote areas as a way of encouraging • The larger the beta index, the better the connectivity of
settlement there eg the Trans-Amazon high way which settlements in an area.
was meant to intergrate the Amazon forest with the rest • As transport networks develop and become more
Brazil efficient, the value of the B.I should rise
• Population: Areas with higher population densities(eg
Harare, bandura Mazowe) have better transport networks
than areas of low population densities such as Gokwe
north and Binga
Physical factors
• Relief: mountainous areas like inyanga, Mavuradonha and • Places like Plumtree, Bulawayo and Shangani on
Bumi hills are difficult to set up transport links than gentle this diagram are nodes A,B,C,D are routes. People
sloping areas such as Midlands and Bulawayo can use different routes to a node.
• Drainage: Swampy areas as well as those with high Calculating beta index
drainage density are expensive to drain and construct • It is the relationship between edges and nodes in a
bridges hence most likely to have few transport links given area
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝑬
• Climate: Areas with high rainfall are always water logged • The formula is Beta index = [ ]
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝑵
hence difficult to set up transport links eg the tropical
• The lager the Beta index, the better the connection of
rainforest in the DRC
settlements in an area
• High rainfall encourage the growth of vegetation which
• If the beta index is greater than 1, the area is well
makes them difficult to clear for transport purposes
connected and if its less than one the area is poorly
Development of transport routes in Africa
connected
• E.g. the Beta index for Bulawayo on above diagram is
• Most transport routes were developed during the colonial 𝟑
era to link Africa with the rest of the world. • Beta index = =0.75
𝟒
• They were developed mainly in areas which had • Thus Bulawayo is poorly connected
resources so as to aid their exploitation eg minerals • In a network with a fixed number of nodes, the higher
• The major modes that were developed were road and rail. the number of links, the higher the number of paths
For example Main roads in Zimbabwe developed as a possible in the network.
result of linking mining and farming areas during the • Complex networks have a high value of Beta.
colonial area.
• Ports in Southern Africa include Durban, Cape town,
Wavis Bay and Dar es Salaam. They are for imports and
eports between Southern Africa and other continents
Transport network/ route networks
• A transport network is a spatial pattern of transportation
facilities in a given region
• It shows the pattern of transportation facilities that cover
a given area e.g. a country, region or continent
• Various methods are used to analyse and describe
transport networks

239
 • With technology advancement, increase in human
population and growth in national, regional and
international trade, there has been tremendous
improvements in all modes of transport for good and
people.
• The main aims of these improvements are to increase
speed, efficiency, safety and comfort.
• These developments differ between developed and
developing countries.
Road transport
• In developed countries, large 6 to 8 lane highways are
being constructed to link major urban settlements for
example the London to Merseyside motorway, with very
elaborate interchange to other towns built along the way.
• Graph A and B are not fully connected and their Beta • Road surfaces are smoothed, with traffic signals working
value is lower than ……… efficiently and road signs placed at convenient points.
• Graph C is connected and has a Beta value of • Modern buses with air-conditioning, music and videos
………….. transport people daily.
• Graph D is even more connected with a Beta value of
• Each route has well-schedule timetable and number of
………….. buses allocated to it.
Calculate and interpret beta index for Gweru and Harare
• Where buses are not enough then taxis can help
passenger movement.
• For private cars, more luxurious saloon vehicles with
power steering and locking devices have been produced
by assembly lines to provide comfort and safety to
Transport: Topological Maps drivers.
• A topological map is one where straight lines are drawn to • Tyres being manufactured can withstand great speeds
replace winding routes of transport networks. and pressure changes without bursting.
• These straight lines may replace roads, rails or waterways • In urban areas, special parking lots have been established
but they are always drawn to link nodes. for the urban commuter, complete with security for the
• Topological maps have certain advantages and cars.
disadvantages as they are cartographic (geographic) • On heavy vehicles, containerization is the main
tools of data presentation. development which has taken place.
• In geography and geology, a topological map is a type of • A container is a large steel box which is lockable.
diagram that has been simplified so that only vital • Goods are placed inside these boxes which are then
information remains and unnecessary detail has been locked and loaded onto heavy vehicles.
removed. • The supplier locks and retains one key while the buyer
• These maps lack scale, and distance and direction. has the other key to unlock the container when it arrives.
• They are subject to change and variation, but the • The driver simply transports, without even knowing the
relationship between points is maintained. contents inside.
• The name topological map is derived from topology, the • Containerization has the advantage that goods are safe
branch of mathematics that studies the properties of from both thieves and weather elements.
objects that do not change as the object is deformed. • Handling is easy and fast as the containers are loaded
• It retains useful information despite bearing little and unloaded mechanically using cranes.
resemblance to the actual layout of the underground • Damage is kept at a minimum and the container can be
system. used for storage at depots.
Advanages Disadvantages • In developing countries, development of roads has meant
straight lines ignore physical factors building more roads and re-surfacing them.
Easy to constuct • Older roads are widened and road signs and traffic
affecting routes
with higher network densities, the lines signals are installed.
Easy to process criss-cross each other and are difficult • More modern buses such as the Yutong are replacing the
to count older versions such as the AVM.
Quick visual • Commuter omnibuses are widely in use to transport
impression of some nodes no longer become visible passengers.
connectivity • Police highway patrols in speedy cars, monitor speeds
Easy to analyse and roadblocks account for unroad- worthy vehicles.
Transport: Modern Developments in Transport • All this is done for the safety and comfort of the travelling
public.
240
• Bus terminals have shelters to protect travelers against 7. Which one of the following modes of transport is best suited
weather elements. for providing relief supplies to people affected by floods?
• Battery operated vehicles such as those from Tesla A air B pipeline C rail D road
• Hybrid vehicles that save fuel 8. The most effective method of transporting tourists through
• Driver-less vehicles also known as self-driving cars that a large nature reserve is by A air B rail C road D water
can drive themselves using Artificial Intelligence 9. Some horticulturalist in central Africa transport flowers
• The use of phone Apps to hail, order and pay taxis for daily from rural farms to foreign markets. which method of
example Uber and Lyft transport would be the most appropriate? A air and sea B rail
and air C road and air D road and sea
10. The graph below shows costs of transporting products by
air, rail, road and the sea
Typical exam questions on transport
1. The best technique used to show the volume of traffic on a
map is
A. bar graph B. scatter graph C flow line D pie chart
2. study the graphy below showing comparartive costs of
transport of rail, road and water transport and answer
question 2, 3 and 4
Which of the graphs A, B, C, and D could be rail transport

11. The topological diagram below shows the wide tarred

roads servicing for towns in Zimbabwe

At what distance is it economic to use rail transport A. 200km

B. 650Km C. 800km D. 400km
3.The graph shows the cost of transporting products by air,
rail, road and sea. Which one could be air transport?

Which of the following towns is best serviced A. Gweru B.

Masvingo C. Mvuma D. Zvishavane
4. Which transport is best suited to transport fresh produce
from market gardeners to their nearest town?
A. air craft B. bicycle C. train D.
truck
5 the table below shows the various methods of transport and
the materials to be transported. Which one of them is least
suitable method of transport for the materials shown 12
method of materials to be 23 using the above diagrams, which route network is most
transport transported likely to cause congestion
A Air Craft fresh vegetables and A. network d B. network a C. network b D. network c
flowers 13. Referring to diagrams on question12 calculate number of
B Railways mineral ore links, number of nodes and beta index for route network D
C Ocean Liner containerized goods A B C D
D Road Truck gravel number of 5 6 10 8
links
E Pipeline refined oil
number of 5 4 5 5
nodes
6. Which of the following transport systems could a
beta index 1 1.5 2 1.6
Zimbabwean farmer most profitably use to transport a
consignment of fresh flowers to markets in Western Europe
A. air B. rail C. road D. water
241
for questions 14, 15, 16 and 17 calculate Beta index for each
of the route networks shown below

que 14 15 16 17
stio
n
num
ber

The greatest flow of traffic is to A Bindura B. Mutare C.

Bulawayo D. Chinhoyi
24. The volume of traffic between Harare and chinhoyi per
num A .7 B. 6 A 7 B6 C5 A 5B6 A2 B week is: A. Below 30 B 31-50 C 51-80 D above 80
ber C. 5 D.4 D4 C7 D8 1 C3 25. The best location for an international airport is
of D4 A. Close to built up area B. close to mountain C. in farming
link areas D in open flat areas
s 26.Which of the following methods of transportation would be
num A, 3 B, 4 A 5 B6 C7 A 6 B7 A4 B3 most suitable for moving milk from a dairy farm to a large
ber C. 5 D. 6 D8 C8 D9 C2 D5 urban settlement 50km away? A air B rail
of C road D water
nod 27. Which of the following is not an advantage of the use of
es containers for bulk transport compared with traditional
beta A. 1,2 B. A 0,8 B0,6 A. 1,2 B. A 0.2 methods?
inde 2,1 C. 1 C0.5 D0.4 2,1 C. 1 B 0.4 A Greater variety of cargoes B. more jobs provided C quicker
x D. 2 D. 2 C0.5 loading and unloading D reduced losses
D 0.7 28. In developing countries, pollution levels caused by
18. Study fig 18 the topological diagram below transport are increasing. To what can this mainly be related?
A diesel and locomotives B jet air craft C oil
tankers D urban traffic
29. What is seaport’s hinterland?
The Beta index of the transport network shown is A. 0.75 A a container terminal B break of bulk C shipping routes
B. 0.86 C. 1.30 D 2.00 linking a port D the area serviced by the port
19 fig 19 below shows a transport network 30. What term describes the daily movement of people to and
from work usingvarious forms of transport?
A commuting B circulating C cycling D migrating
31. The advantages of using containers to transport goods is
that
A. goods are easily handled B. many goods are carried in one
20. The diagram shows a topological map
trip C perishable goods are easily preserved D. storage
terminals are not required
32. A port to which goods in transit are brought for temporary
storage and re-export is referred to as
what is the beta index of the map? A1.5 B 1.4 C 0.62 D 0.58 A. a harbour B. a seaport C. an entreport D. a
21. The map below shows Zimbabwe’s international air routes road port
33. All the factors listed below are a cause of traffic network
challenges in Zimbabwe except
A pollution B congestion C accidents D containerization
34. The importance of transport network is that: A it cause
congestion B causes pollution C enables trade D enables
climate change
35. Main forms of transport in Zimbabwe and Africa are: A rail
and road B air and road C rail and air D water and air
22. The diagram below shows traffic movement from Harare to 36. Urban traffic challenge shown in photograph below is: A
various destinations pollution B congestion C accidents D Japanese cars

242
 43 Omni buses are used to move: A goods to industries B
commuters to and from work C flowers to the market D iron
ore to industries
44. The cheapest mode of transporting oil from Beira,
Mozambique to Feruka is: A air B water C road D pipe line
45 When was the railway line between Dabuka and Harare
electrified: A 1993 B 1963 C 1883 D 1983
46 an open transport circuit is
37. Reasons for traffic congestion in Harare are all the factors
sated below except
A bad driving practices by taxi and comb operators B heavy
increase in vehicles C narrow roads D lack of traffic laws E.
few/not working traffic lights
37. Which one will not help to solve traffic challenges in major
towns of Zimbabwe? 47 which one is not a characteristic of rail network in SADC
A installing more traffic lights B banning combs and illegal region
taxies from CBD C. adopting intelligent traffic system (ITS) D A. link areas of mineral extraction B. some countries have one/
road widening E none of the above two trunk routes C. Tanzania Mozambique and Angola have
38 urban transport challenges and solution. which pair is not little internal connectivity D. coastal areas are well connected
correct by rail E. Botswana is well linked by direct line to Angola
transport challenge solution 48 the increased use of the car has resulted in challenges
A traffic congestion and using intelligent except
parking difficult transport system (ITS) A construction of inner ring roads to reduce traffic in CBD C.
B longer commuting widening roads and establishment of outer of town shopping centers and
hours having one way roads hypermarkets
C inadequate public introducing mass B decline in use of train and buses D increased road
transport transport trains juaccidents E all the above
49 establishment of viable railway network in SADC countries
D damaged roads build more house for
is facing which challenges
people to stay home
A lack of cooperation by member countries B use of different
E pollution introducing carbon taxis
rail gauge C political instability D lack of adequate demand for
rail transport E. all the above
39 transport challenges and solutions in developing countries
50 Road dualisation means
like Zimbabwe include all the factors below except
A road widening B increasing number of lanes C increasing
transport challenge solution road construction costs D taking land from farmers
A lack of transport privatize road 51 Problems facing air transport in Africa are listed below
networks development to bring in which one is not a challenge
more players A air travel is too expensive for ordinary persons B capital
B un-coordinated increased use of ITS costs for air companies are too high C hijacking and terrorist
development D fatal accidents E none
C need for skilled and train more road saviors 52 to solve air transport challenges, all the following works
competent road except
network designers A using fuel efficiently B reduce operational costs by sharing
D pot holes and animals put more tall gates passengers C increased security at airport D less investment
on roads in pilot training
E too many road blocks introduce GPS, GIS and 53 main reasons why water transport is poorly developed in
remote sensing to Zimbabwe are
control road blocks A. inadequate deep river channels B. too many waterfalls and
40 which form of transport is most environmental friendly rapids C. seasonal flow D. all the above
A bicycle B airplane C railway D pipe line
41 the pattern formed by transport routes and links between or
among settlements is called
A. transport modes B. transport network C. transport routes D
supply chains
42 Zimbabwe is landlocked. what does this mean
A the country has a lock B The country is surrounded by
ocean C the country is surrounded by other countries D none
of the above

Longitude and latitude

243
 latitudes longitudes

• Latitude is the angular distance of aplace measured north and •Lines of longitude are vertical lines which run from north pole to south
south of the Equator. pole.
• The equator is at an angle of 0 degrees latitude and is an • Each line extends from its starting point at the North Pole, to its finishing
imaginary line that runs around the centre of the eath hence point at the South Pole.
called the “Great Circle” •These lines form large semi-circles of equal size.
• Often, the northern hemisphere has positive measures of •These lines are also called meridians of longitude.
latitude and the southern hemisphere has negative measures •Lines of longitude are measured in degrees and minutes, in the same way
of latitude that lines of latitude are.
• run in a west to east direction encircling the globe • lines of longitude extend from 0 to 180o east or west.
• indicate angular position north or south of equator •The most important line of longitude is the Greenwich Meridian (also
• Values range from +90° at the North Pole to -90° at the South known as the Prime Meridian
Pole. which is known as the universal zero point of longitude.
• In the northern hemisphere the latitude is always given in all other longitude are based on the Greenwhich Meridian
degrees north and in the southern hemisphere it is given in •The Greenwich Meridian divides the world into an Eastern and Western
degrees south Hemispheres.
run parallel to equator and to each other •The lines of longitude in the east (E) are sometimes written as plus (+)
degrees and those in the west (W) are sometimes referred to as minus (-)
degrees.
•Longitudes are very important in calculating time

Is a system of intersecting latitudes and longitudes used to give

Fig 1.1 location on maps: location of places on the world atlas.
The coordinate systems When latitudes and longitudes are placed over each other on map,
they form a grid/ graticule used to locate features on earth

Start by giving the lines of latitude followed by longitude (lalo)

Using latitudes and longitudes to locate places
244
For example the latitude of H in fig 1.1is 300S ie 300 south of longitude and latitude are used to divide the world into
equator and it is 600E (east of green which meridian) hemispheres
Therefore the latitudeand longitude of H is 300S 600E

• one complete rotation of the Earth is makes up 360°, a full

cycle, which is covered in 24 hours causing day and
Longitude, time and the international date line night.
• In international trade, it is very important to understand • Therefore, to find the degrees covered by the rotation of
geographical time differences as they affect the planning the earth we simply divide 360 by 24 to get 150.
and execution of international transactions. • This means that a place 15° east of another is always 1
Time Zones hour ahead in time and that which is farther with 30° is 2
• A time zone is a region of the globe that observes a hours ahead.
uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social • Similarly, because the earth rotates from the west to the
purposes. east always, places to the west are always behind those
• Time zones tend to follow the boundaries of countries and to the east by 1 hour for each 15°.
their subdivisions because it is convenient for areas in • Lines of longitude are used to calculate local times at
close commercial or other communication to keep the different points on the earth’s surface.
same time. One way used to calculate local time is to use • If we know the longitude of a place, we can calculate its
World Time Zones. local time using that of another place whose time is
• areas within the same time zone experiences the same known.
standard time • Time changes occur as we cross the International Date
• in Zimbabwe we get our time zone from the longitude 30E Line either from west to east or from east to west
which passes right at the centre of the country Using longitudes to calculate time
• The time difference in different countries is caused by the • Because one day is 24 hours long one can easily use time to
rotation of the Earth, ie the earth spinning on its axis. calculate longitude.
• The Earth rotates always from its west to east, one half of • One hour of time difference corresponds to 15° of longitude
it facing the sun while the other half is in darkness. (360°/24 hours = 15°/hour).
• This causes day and night. • Suppose an observer sets his accurate watch to 12:00 at noon
• As a result of this rotation, the sun always rises from the in Greenwich, England and then travels a great distance.
east and sets in the west. If time at 00 is 3 pm
• Hence, sunrise always occurs first in places to your east • Every 150 when moving eastwards time will increase by 1hour
and the same applies for sunset. • And decrease by 1hour every 150 when moving westwards.
• The Earth is a spherical in shape,
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• Since the Earth rotates at a steady rate of 360° per day, or • First determine the number of degrees between the two
15° per hour, there is a direct relationship between time and places. For example, between 0° and 60°. So 60 – 0 = 60°.
longitude. Since, there are 360 degrees of longitude and there • Divide the number of degrees by 15° to determine the
are 24 hours in a day, one hour is 15 degrees longitude. number of hours ° = 4 hours.
Steps used in calculating the number of hours between two • Then add the hours if you are moving to eastwards or
lines of longitude subtract the hours if westward.

•
• QN3 if the time along 300E is 11 am. what is the time along
• If when you divide you have a remainder, multiply the 450E?
remainder by 4 to convert into minutes. Time 450 E is calculated as follows
• For example, you want to know the number of hours Difference in degrees = 45-30= 15
between 0° and 35°E, first calculate the number of Difference in time 15/15hr =1hr
degrees between the two lines (35 – 0 = 35°), then divide Going eastwards so we add the time ie it is
by 15°. This gives 2 hours remainder 5. Then multiply 5 x ahead by 1hr
4mins = 20 mins. Therefore time along 450 E is
• Therefore the number of hours between 0° and 35°E is 2 11+1hr=12noon
hours and 20 minutes. QN4 • If you are in London at 12:00, and want to know what
time it is in Japan, you would need to first figure out that
QN1. If the time in Harare, Zimbabwe 300 E is 10:00hrs. London is 0 degrees or right on the prime meridian, and Japan
calculate the time in Dhaka, India which is 900E is 135 degrees East.
The difference in degress= 1350,
The difference in longitude is : 900 - 300 =600 To get time difference divide by 15 which equals 9.
to find time difference : 60 /15= 4hrs Which means there is a 9-hour difference between London
since its to the East add 4hrs to 10:00hrs = 14:00hrs and Japan.
QN2. if time in Harare, Zimbabwe 300E is 10:00hrs calculate Since Japan is further east than London is, you would add 9
time in Tobago which is 600W Since Tobago is to the west hours to 12:00.
longitude difference is: 300 + 600 = 900 The answer is at 12:00 noon London time, it is 9:00pm in
to get time difference 90/15= 6hrs Japan
Since Tobago is to the west of Harare we subtract: 10:00hrs -
6hrs= 04:00hrs The International Date Line (IDL)

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 1. The earth rotates on its axis from: A. north to south B west
• passes through the Pacific Ocean. It is an imaginary line, to east C south to north D east to west
like longitudes and latitudes. 2. A complete rotation of the earth takes: A 356days B 24hrs C
• The time difference on either side of this line is 24 hours. 23 seconds D12hrs
So, the date changes as soon as one crosses this line. 3 which imaginary lines run parallel on earth: A. longitude B.
• To avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn through latitude C. meridians D. date line
where the sea lies and not land. Hence, the IDL is drawn 4. Accra is at 00 longitude and Cairo is at 300 longitude. What
in a zig-zag manner. time is it in Cairo when it is noon in Accra: A 1pm B 2pm C
• Since the International Date line is completely political. It 3pm D4pm
was set for the convenience for the nation states it passes 5 if time is 1200 noon on Monday at Green which, what time
around, hence the crookedness. would it be at 600 East?
• It roughly follows the 180 degree longitude line. That line A 8.00am Sunday B10.00am Monday C4.00pm Monday
is opposite the politically set 0 degree longitude or prime D8.00am Tuesday
meridian in Greenwich, UK. 6 Given that local time at a place X (longitude 00 ) is 10.00am,
• Also, remember that with 24 time zones the local time at what is the local time at placeY located along longitude 600
another location can be anywhere from 0 to 24 hours East?
different from you, and it can even be a different date! A 12.00noon B 6.00am C 4.00pm D2.00pm
Summary 7 A soccer match kicks off in Mauritius at 450 East at
there are three important lines on a map 1800hours GTM. the local time in Zimbabwe would be
(i) the eaquator A 0900hrs B1200hrs C 1500hrs D 2100hrs
is the zero degree latitude 8 what is time in New York longitude 750 west, when it is noon
it is an imaginery line that runs around the earth half way in Harare longitude 300 east? A 0500hrs B 0700hrs C 17oohrs
between the poles D 1900hrs
it divides the earth into the northern and southern hemisphere 9 when it is 0600hrs on Thursday at 600 East, what day and
(ii) the prime meridian time is it at 450 west?
is the zero degree longitude A Wednesday 2300hrs B Thursday 13oohrs C Wednesday
it is an imaginery line that passes through the Earth from the 13oohrs D Thursday 23oohrs
north pole to south pole running through Greenwich in 10 A television viewer in Alaska (1650 W) is watching a live
England match being played in Bamako, Mali 00 at 11.00 hrs GMT on
it divides the earth into eastern and western hemisphere Sunday 10 february.at what time and day is another viewer in
(iii) the international date line Siberia (1650 E) watching the same game
is measured at 1800 longitude A 1100hrs Saturday 9 February B 2300hrs Sunday 10 February
it is an imaginery line located directly opposite the prime C0900hrs Monday 11 February D 2300hrs Tuesday 12
meridian where date changes February
Typical exam Questions

247
11 A men travelling from Siberia at 9pm on Friday crossed the Internal trade
pacific into Alaska some 150 E arriving at 10pm. what day was • The buying and selling of goods and services within the
it in Alaska geographical boundaries of a country is known as internal
A Friday B Saturday C Sunday D Thursday trade.
12 if local time of a place is 1600hrs and GMT is 1400hrs the • Is also called domestic trade ( can be locally, regional or
longitude of the place is: A 300E B 300W C 450w D 450E national )
13 Town A is 15 to the west of town B and local time at A is the • Its chain of production involves goods moving from
same as the GMT. what is the longitude of town B manufactures to wholesalers to retailers and finally to
A o0 B 300E C150E D 450E consumers’
14 the captain of an ocean liner observed that the longitude • Wholesalers sale goods in bulk and at cheaper price Ok mart,
was 75W when the time in London was11.00hrs. the time in the N Richards
liner was • Retailers sale in small quantities and at higher price eg TM,
A 0500hrs B 1500hrs C0600hrs D1600hrs OK, Spar
15 Moscow and Nairobi are on the same line of longitude 37E, Producers can sell directly to processing industries.
it can be deduced that Wholesalers act as an important link between the consumer and
A they are the same distance from the equator B They have the industries.
similar hours of day and light on 21 june Apart from bulk storage before selling to retailers, wholesalers
C they have noon at the same time D dawn is of the same repack and label commodities
duration in both places International trade
Trade
• Trade, or commerce, involves the transfer of goods or
services from one person or entity to another, often in
exchange for money.
• It can also be defined as the flow of commodities and services
from producers to consumers.
• Trade can be divided into two groups: visible and invisible
trade.
Types of trade
Visible trade is the exchange of physically tangible goods between
countries, involving the export, import and re-export of goods at
various stages of production.
Commodities such as food, raw materials, fuels and manufactured
goods constitute visible trade.
Invisible trade is the exchange of physically intangible items Trade between countries is referred to as external or international
between countries. trade.
Is the exchange of goods and services between countries such as
Zimbabwe and South Africa
Can further be devided into three categories
Export trade:- when a trader from one country sales goods to a
trader located in another country e.g. a trader in Zimbabwe sales
goods to customer in Botswana
Import trade:- when a trader in a country purchase goods from a
trader in another country eg a trader in Zimbabwe buys goods from
Dubai
Entreport Trade (re-export) :- importing goods with specific
Services such as insurance, technical advice, tourism and finance intention of re-exporting eg when Japanese import car spare parts
fall under invisible trade. from China to assemble them into a car and sale to Zimbabw
What are the differences between visible and invisible trade Balance of trade (BOT)
Visible trade Invisible trade • deals with visible trade only
Trade in goods only eg Trade in services only eg • Is the relationship between a nation’s imports and exports
tobacco, wheat, clothes and tourism, insurance • It is calculated by using the formular: Export (value of visible
cars goods) – import (value of visible goods)
Calculated for a given year Calculated for a given period • Most African countries have a negative or unfavourable BOT
of time usually a year because imports always exceed exports.
Visible balance (balance of Invisible balance= X services • This is because African countries export low value raw
trade)= Export (goods) – – M services materials and import high value processed or manufactured
import (goods goods
Balance of payments (BOP)
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• deals with both visible (goods) and invisible (services) trade In addition to tariffs, a government can reduce its country’s imports
• Is the summary of international transactions ( total earnings) by enforcing a quota, or a maximum limit that can be imported.
for aspecific period, usually a year prepared in a single Quotas have been commonly applied to a variety of goods
currency imported by the United States and other countries.
Formula for BOP is External and type of funding by agencies such as the
• BOP =( visible exports +invisible exports) –(visible imports + International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and
invisible imports) commercial banks.
• A country’s trade account, which is defined as the difference Some governments offer subsidies to their domestic firms, so that
between export earnings and import costs is known as the those firms can produce products at a lower cost than their global
balance of payments. competitors. Thus, the demand for the exports produced by those
• It encompasses all transactions between a country’s residents firms is higher as a result of subsidies.
and its nonresidents involving goods, services and income; Many firms in China commonly receive free loans or free land from
financial claims on and liabilities to the rest of the world; and the government. These firms incur a lower cost of operations and
transfers such as gifts. are able to price their products lower as a result, which enables
• Countries which export more than what they import have a them to capture a larger share of the global market.
trade surplus. Available raw materials
• Countries that import more than they export have a trade A country which is rich in natural resources directly affect the
deficit. country’s international trade in primary products. Such as
Democratic Republic of Congo said which is known as “Mid-Africa
• International trade can significantly affect a country’s
gem “, in the national export commodities, because it exports
economy, it is important to identify and monitor the factors that
minerals (70% ~ 80%).
influence it.
Degree of economic development
Distinguish between BOT and BOP (4)
Economic development level can directly affect a country’s foreign
BOT BOP
trade commodity structure and the position in international trade.
Visible trade only Both visible (goods) and
The United States, Japan and the European Union’s national
invisible (services) trade
economic development level is high, the imports and exports
Formula for BOT is Formula for BOP is accounted for half of the world and the population of the country
BOT= Export (value of visible BOP =( visible exports accounts for only about 1/7 of the world. Developing countries
goods) – import (value of +invisible exports) –(visible relatively have backward economies, hence foreign trade is
visible goods) imports + invisible imports relatively less.
Factors influencing world trade Transport and communication
National income Countries which are mid-latitude, have moderate climate and
If a country’s income level (national income) increases by a higher located near coastal areas, have convenient transportation and
percentage than those of other countries, its current account is communication which is deemed good for development of
expected to decrease, other things being equal. As the real income international trade. High-latitude climate cold, inland mountainous
level (adjusted for inflation) rises, so does consumption of goods. A areas have traffic block, adverse to the development of
percentage of that increase in consumption will most likely reflect international trade.
an increased demand for foreign goods. Political stability
Government policies The world’s political relations, the policy of a country also has a big
A country’s government can have a major effect on its balance of impact to international trade. The gulf war after Iraq’s oil exports
trade due to its policies on subsidizing exporters, restrictions on plummeted, is due to political reasons. In China since the late
imports, or lack of enforcement on piracy. 1970s adopted a policy of opening to the outside world, which saw
Exchange rates foreign trade developing quickly.
Exchange rates is the strength of different currencies. Prices of Bilateral agreements.
goods, services and raw materials. Each country’s currency is • Due to the geographical location of the country, countries are
valued in terms of other currencies through the use of exchange forced to develop bilateral trade with its neighbors.
rates, so that currencies can be exchanged to facilitate international Other factors may include the ones listed below but these can also
transactions. fall into one of the main factors mentioned earlier.
Restrictions on Imports
• World economic order
If a country’s government imposes a tax on imported goods (often
• Stability, growth or recession in the world economy.
referred to as a tariff), the prices of foreign goods to consumers are
effectively increased. Tariffs imposed by the U.S. government are • Degree of diversification and specialization
on average lower than those imposed by other governments. Some • Level of TNC investment
industries, however, are more highly protected by tariffs than • Links with other countries (trading bloc)
others. American apparel products and farm products have Trade between developing and developed nations
historically received more protection against foreign competition Developing countries export mostly raw materials to developed
through high tariffs on related imports. countries and the volume of trade among developing countries is
International laws or rules governing trade, for example, generally low.
agreements and conferences

249
Developing countries have the highest proportion of the world’ Developing countries Developed countries
population and their economies are based on export of raw A poorly developed transport Trade is facilitaed by well
materials which are needed in developed countries. infrastructure, hampers trade. developed transport networks
Due to this imbalance, developing countries have a trade Countries have many trade
dependency on developed countries. Trade links are strongest with
partners but the greatest
This has a disadvantage because any changes in economic developed countries than wih other
volume of trade is with other
policies and conditions has a severe impact on the developing developing countries.
developed countries.
countries.
Trade is affected severely when Trade is badly affected when
An example is the shift towards new raw materials such as
there is a world economic there is a world economic
replacing copper wire with optical fibre in telecommunications has
recession. recession.
greatly reduced the demand for copper on the world market.
Ways in which developing countries can improve trade
This has a negative effect on Zambian economy which is heavily
dependent on export of copper. • Diversification of their economies, that is, by producing a
Similarly, technological developments which involve recycling and variety of new value added manufactured goods.
use of synthetic materials in manufacturing has reduced the • Investing in human resources so as to produce highly skilled
demand for primary raw materials drastically. manpower for the new industries.
Exports earnings by developing countries are also eroded by • Adopting modern technology and machinery inorder to reduce
tendency amongst these countries to oversupply the market and production costs.
this lower commodity prices. • Improving packaging of goods to international standards.
In developing countries exports are dominated by one or two • Upgrading and extending transport networks.
primary products mainly minerals or crops, whereas in developed • Increasing funding for industrial development.
countries there is a wide variety of manufactured goods. • Improving basic infrastructure such as water, fuel and power
Problems being faced in the export market supplies.
Developing countries Developed countries • Use of tarrifs/ laws to discourage the importation of finished
Exports dominated by one or two goods into the country and thus protect infant industries from
Mainly a wide variety of external competition.
primary products e.g minerals,
manufactured goods • Offering subsidies to stimulate exports.
crops
Prices and demand for primary • Joining regional trading blocs and signing agreements and
Demand for manufacture treaties on trade.
products fluctuate at a low level
goods is steady at a high level • Invest in technology to process raw materials into finished
and the rate of commodity price
and the price have risen goods ( value addition and beficiation)
increase is generally low.
The total trade for these countries Volume of total trade is large • Use of international trade expos for marketing purposes
is small and most countries have a and countries have a trade • Increase industrial funding
trade deficit surplus • Specialization and standardization to improve quality of
Trade is dominated by a few large produce
TNC which export profits to their All profits are retained by the • Establishing export processing zones to boost export potential
parent companies which re in exporting companies. Past exam questions on trade
developed countries. June 2012(c) suggest the benefits and problems associated with
trade restrictions (7)

Definition Are regional economic grouping

(i) what are the differences in export trade between the two can take the form of free trade areas, custom unions, common
countries (5) markets and economic unions.
(ii) what measures should Kenya undertake to change the nature of Free trade areas: there are no trade barriers for the member
its export trade and what problems is it likely to face (7) states of the trade area. Member countries are free to engage in
Trading Blocks
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trade with other countries outside the trade area for example
COMESA.
Customs union: trade is more closely arranged and all trade
barriers between member states are removed. There is also an
element of protectionism where common tariffs are imposed
against imports from non-members.
Common market: no barrier to trade and there is free flow of
labour and capital amongst member states.
Economic union: there are common policies for example,
currency, pricing policies and taxation.
Aims of trading blocks
To promote regional and international trade through a trade
agreement which would allow free movement of goods, services
and finance within the member states
Improvement of standards of living for the people within the trading
block by allowing participation in various fields of responsibilitiues
To encourage the setting up of export oriented industries The benefits and problems facing SADC
Promote self-sustaining development Benefits
Alleviate poverty • The countries collectively from a large regional market.
To promote regional unity, peace and security • Jointly, the countries have a diverse resources base. If
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) exploited fully these would stimulate rapid economic growth
Aims within the region.
To raise standards of living of the people of Southern Africa • Bilateral trade between member states.
through active participation by all members states. Each member • There are good prospects for expanding the transport
state was thus allocated an area of responsibility. infrastructure linking all member states.
To promote regional integration through the implementation of a Problems of regional integration within SADC
trade agreement which would allow free movement of goods, • Political instability in some member states for example, Angola
services and finance the member states. whose economy has been destroyed by many years of
To change the thrust for development by setting up export oriented internal civil wars. Land reform programmes in Zimbabwe and
industries. the subsequent negative publicity has eroded Zimbabwe’s
Mauritius Tourism capacity to promote food security.
Energy
Angola conservation and Namibia Sea fisheries • Most countries are generally poor and rely heavily on
development Industry and agriculture and international aid. These countries also have
Tanzania serious problems of foreign debts.
Agricultural trade
• There is no free movement of goods among member states.
research and Manpower
Botswana Countries still maintain complex tariff and trade regulations.
animal disease Swaziland development
This has often caused some friction between member states
control and trade
for example Zimbabwe and South Africa and Zimbabwe and
Soil and water South Finance and Botswana.
Lesotho conservation and Africa investment
• South Africa is the most economically advanced country within
land utilisation Southern the region and it dominates the flow of goods to other
Fisheries, wildlife African countries. By flooding the regional market with cheaper goods,
Malawi Zambia
and forestry development South Africa may indercut smaller and less efficient industries
fund and mining
Mozambique transport and within the region for example the Textile and footwear
communications industries in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe
Food security • Wide regional disparities and general trade dependency on
developed countries makes regional intergartaion difficult.
• There is still a heavy dependency on South Africa in areas of
transport and mining.
• Natural disasters such as floods caused by tropical cyclones
and frequent droughts have had adverse effects on the
economies of these countries
COMESA
Formerly known as Preferential Trade Area(PTA)
was formed in 1981
was changed to COMESA in 1994

251
 • is an inter-governmental organisation of 12 oil producing
countries
• was formed at Bagdhad conference in 1960
• its headquarters arein Viena, Australia
Aims
• to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among member
countries
• to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers
• to provide efficient, economic and regular supply of pertroleum
• to achieve a fair return on capital to those investing in the
industry
Aims and Objectives of COMESA Achievements
• Encourage commercial and economic co-operation within the • it led to the control of domestic petroleum and major say to the
region control of petroleum products on world market
• promote regional trade and forming of institutional mechanism • it established the OPEC fund for international Development
including monetary arrangement • contributed to establishment of protoleum policy
• creating a regional common market • helped strengthen and stabilise oil prices
• aims to establish free trade area that promotes interregional Problems
Achievements of COMESA OPEC’sability to control oil pricing has fallen due to discovery of oil
• Has achieved a lot in the area of trade, customs, transport, in other countries
development finance and technical cooperation
• trade facilitation and trade liberation Domestic Trade in Zimbabwe
• transport cost have been reduced by abpout 25% Zimbabwe’s internal trade (domestic trade) is controlled by
• Network development to enable direct telecommunication links processing, manufacturing and marketing of agro-based products.
through reliable infrastructure The flow of goods starts with the producer of raw materials, through
• promoting investments in the region to marketing boards, to manufacture, to wholesalers and retailers
and then to consumer.
• facilitation of bilateral agreements
Due to this agro-based nature, the supply of goods, especially
• promoting exports drives by individual states
foodstuffs, on the local market is affected by drought cycles and
ECOWAS (ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN
other climatic hazards.
STATES
The immediate impact of the fast track land redistribution exercise
has seen a significant decline in the supply of agricultural products
on the domestic market.
Internal trade is hindered in the fact that the majority of the people
are subsistence farmers with little disposable income.
Informal traders are becoming an important part of this trade as is
evidenced by the ever increasing number of open air vendors.
Foreign trade involves export and imports of goods.
South Africa has and is still Zimbabwe’s largest regional trading
partner for historical reasons as well as geographical proximity.
Originated in Nigeria and was founded in 1975 Other important trading partners for Zimbabwe include the
Aims European Union countries, SADC and the Common Market for
• to promote economic integration among countries that share Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) countries.
the CFA franc a sa common currency International trade is mostly influenced by political relations
• to finance projects in industry, natural resources and between countries, therefore Zimbabwe is trying to diversify its
agriculture international trade by looking for new markets in South East Asia,
• to protect member states from external military attack the Middle East and Libya.
• to increase trade between member states Zimbabwe’s exports are dominated by agricultural products such as
• to improve communications tobacco, meat products and sugar.
Problems faced Mineral such as ferro-chrome, gold and asbestos are also export
• political instability and lack of good governance products.
The country’s exports are mainly low value goods.
• lack of economic diversification by member countries
In return the country imports manufactured goods, petroleum
• too many regional integration blocks with the same objectives
products, machinery, chemicals and textiles.
for ECOWAS member countries
These imports are of very high value and this results in a negative
• outbreak of diseases like Ebola balance of payments.
Export Processing Zone at Beitbridge
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Ways of improving Zimbabwe’s export potential

252
One way of improving foreign trade was to introduce the Zimbabwe Heavy reliance on foreign markets
International Trade Fair (ZITF). where competition from other
This is held annually in Bulawayo as a showcase for Zimbabwe’s producers is high and there is
products. tendency to over supply the
Zimbabwean companies also participate in trade fairs organized by market.
other countries for example Zambia, Tanzania and Libya. Firms often have weak linkages
Another strategy which was adopted in 1994 to boost Zimbabwe’s with local firms.
export potential was the establishment of Export Processing Zones Underpricing of goods being
(EPZs). exported.
EPZs are small favourable investment and trade conditions that are
created in-order to attract export oriented industries.
The main characteristics of an EPZ are: Reasons for the slow establishment and expansion of EPZs in
Geographical separation (area is usually fenced off) Zimbabwe include:
Export oriented products. • Outdated machinery.
Focus on manufacturing activity. • Competition from South Africa which has a larger industrial
High participation by Translational companies (TNCs). base.
Incentives offered to attract investments at potential EPZs • Since the abolishment of the policy of separate development
Repatriation of profits by foreign firms. (apartheid) in 1994, the number of foreign investors in South
Tariffs are waivered in importation of machinery used for the Africa has increased significantly.
manufacture of goods for exports. • Negative international publicity related to land redistribution
Limited foreign exchange controls. has resulted in a significant decrease in foreign investment in
Provision of infrastructure such as transport, water and power Zimbabwe.
supply. • Sites such as Mutare, Beitbridge and Norton have limited
Cheap land. infrastructure and a small industrial base.
Industrialists are allowed to operate from temporary structures
• Political control or influence over choice of sites for EPZs has
while they are constructing permanent ones.
resulted in the selection of sites with limited potential for
Tax reductions are given on money spent on training of manpower
industrial growth.
and provision of social services.
• Zimbabwe’s land locked position has inherent problems, for
Firms are allowed tax holidays.
example, high costs of transport to ports of exports, high
Regulations relating to minimum wages are often suspended.
handling costs at ports and negative impact of internal security
Advantages of EPZs Disadvantages of EPZs
problems in neighbouring countries.
• High tariffs also have a tendency of reducing exports.
Empowered creation as TNCs import highly skilled
• Resources exploitation is not easy and there are many
industries are generally manpower.
difficulties that are faced which can be grouped into physical
labour intensive. Low firm loyalty. Firm can
factors and human factors.
Diversification of the disinvest if market condition
economy through change or they are changes in • The following are physical and human factors that may cause
industrialization and government policies. problems of resources exploitation
increased investment. Exportation of profits limits the Informal Cross-border trade
Industrial growth occurs in firms’ contribution to the economy • COMESA defines informal cross-border trade (ICBT) as a
the absence of a large of the country. form of trade that is unrecorded in official statistics, and is
local market. Exploitation of labour through carried out by small businesses in the region.
Transfer of technology. underemployment and low wages. • Informal cross border traders are vendors who travel to
Development of human Foreign labour practices are neighbouring countries to sell local products and in return
resources through on the introduced. bring back goods for resale.
job skills training. High labour turn out due to low • Examples of the local products they sell are craft ware,
Increased goods for the wages. clothing and food stuff.
local market. There is limited transfer of • This kind of trade is mostly dominated by women.
Expansion of international technology as foreign workers • The largest flow of goods is between Zimbabwe and South
economic linkages. often return to their countries of Africa.
Government revenue origin. • Vendors also make periodic visits to Tanzania, Mozambique
through company taxation. High cost of imported materials Botswana, Zambia and Namibia.
Stimulation of the growth restricts the sale of surplus goods
of local industries which on the local market. Therefore Advantages of informal Disadvantages of informal
do sub-contract work for goods are too expensive for the cross-border trade cross-border trade include:
foreign owned firms. locals. include:
Increased market potential High cost of provision of Supply of goods which The quality of goods is not
of the area and growth of infrastructure. are in short supply on the guaranteed.
service industries. domestic market. Exploitation of child labour.

253
 Prices are rarely fixed Operations are often illegal. • Limited choices for consumers: Consumers have access
and so negotiation is Encourages sale of stolen goods. to fewer goods in the market as a result of limitations on
possible. Loss of government revenue as foreign goods.
Little capital is required. most of the goods is smuggled into • Increase in prices (due to lack of competition):
Creation of jobs in the the country. Consumers will need to pay more without seeing any
form of self-employment. Sale of foreign currency on the significant improvement in the product.
A viable way of earning a black market creates a shortages • Economic isolation: It often leads to political and cultural
living. of foreign currency in the banks. isolation, which, in turn, leads to even more economic
Goods are relatively There are no records of the actual isolation.
cheaper for example, volume of trade and therefore its (c) suggest advantages of trade liberalisation (4)
second hand clothing. benefits are difficult to quantify. Trade liberalisation
Trading is flexible. Little benefit to the economy as is a type of trade policy that allows traders to act and transact
Vendors can operate at vendors do not pay income tax. without interference from government
home or from pavements Irregular working hours and
uncertain income and wage.
Disruptions of family life as the
parents are always on the go.
No government assistance.

.
Typical exam questions on trade
1(a) define the term trade protectionism and trade liberalisation (4)
Protectionism, policy of protecting domestic industries against
foreign competition by means of tariffs, subsidies, import quotas, or
other restrictions or handicaps placed on the imports of foreign
competitors.
(b) What evidence suggest that there is protectionism in Zimbabwe
(5)
• Existence of trade tariffs that tax imports Six Advantages
• Imposition of import quotas Free trade agreements are designed to increase trade between two
• Lowering of local currency to make imports expensive or more countries. Increased international trade has the following
• Subsidising local industries to help them compete with six main advantages:
foreign ones
• Standardization measures tend to reduce foreign Increased Economic Growth: The U.S. Trade Representative Office
products in the market eg all fire extinguishers to be SAZ estimates that NAFTA increased U.S. economic growth by 0.5% a
certified year.
Advantages of trade protectionism More Dynamic Business Climate: Often, businesses were protected
• Enables local companies to grow before the agreement. These local industries risked becoming
• More growth opportunities: Protectionism provides local stagnant and non-competitive on the global market. With the
industries with growth opportunities until they can protection removed, they have the motivation to become true global
compete against more experienced firms in the competitors.
international market Lower Government Spending: Many governments subsidize local
• Lower imports: Protectionist policies help reduce import industry segments. After the trade agreement removes subsidies,
levels and allow the country to increase its trade balance. those funds can be put to better use.
• More jobs: Higher employment rates when domestic firms Foreign Direct Investment: Investors will flock to the country. This
boost their workforce adds capital to expand local industries and boost domestic
businesses. It also brings in U.S. dollars to many formerly isolated
• Higher GDP: Protectionist policies tend to boost the
economy’s GDP due to a rise in domestic production countries.
Disadvantages of trade protectionism Expertise: Global companies have more expertise than domestic
companies to develop local resources. That's especially true in
• May lead to production of low quality goods
mining, oil drilling, and manufacturing. Free trade agreements allow
• May eventually slow down economic growth
global firms access to these business opportunities. When the
• Limits skills transfer multinationals partner with local firms to develop the resources,
• Stagnation of technological advancements: As domestic they train them on the best practices. That gives local firms access
producers don’t need to worry about foreign competition, to these new methods.
they have no incentive to innovate or spend resources on Technology Transfer: Local companies also receive access to the
research and development (R&D) of new products. latest technologies from their multinational partners. As local
economies grow, so do job opportunities. Multi-national companies
provide job training to local employees.
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Lower prices. The removal of tariff barriers can lead to lower prices
for consumers. E.g. removing food tariffs in West would help 8. Tariffs may encourage inefficiency
reduce the global price of agricultural commodities. This would be
particularly a benefit for countries who are importers of food. If an economy protects its domestic industry by increasing tariffs
Increased competition. Trade liberalisation means firms will face industries may not have any incentives to cut costs.
greater competition from abroad. This should act as a spur to Seven Disadvantages
increase efficiency and cut costs, or it may act as an incentive for The biggest criticism of free trade agreements is that they are
an economy to shift resources into new industries where they can responsible for job outsourcing. There are seven total
maintain a competitive advantage. For example, trade liberalisation disadvantages:
has been a factor in encouraging the UK to concentrate less on
manufacturing and more on the service sector. Increased Job Outsourcing: Why does that happen? Reducing
Economies of scale. Trade liberalisation enables greater tariffs on imports allows companies to expand to other countries.
specialisation. Economies concentrate on producing particular Without tariffs, imports from countries with a low cost of living cost
goods. This can enable big efficiency savings from economies of less. It makes it difficult for U.S. companies in those same
scale. industries to compete, so they may reduce their workforce. Many
Inward investment. If a country liberalises its trade, it will make the U.S. manufacturing industries did, in fact, lay off workers as a result
country more attractive for inward investment. For example, former of NAFTA. One of the biggest criticisms of NAFTA is that it sent
Soviet countries who liberalise trade will attract foreign jobs to Mexico.
multinationals who can produce and sell closer to these new Theft of Intellectual Property: Many developing countries don't have
emerging markets. Inward investment leads to capital inflows but laws to protect patents, inventions, and new processes. The laws
also helps the economy through diffusion of more technology, they do have aren't always strictly enforced. As a result,
management techniques and knowledge. corporations often have their ideas stolen. They must then compete
3. Increased exports with lower-priced domestic knock-offs.
Crowd out Domestic Industries: small s can't compete with
As well as benefits for consumers importing goods, firms exporting subsidized agri-businesses in the developed countries. As a result,
goods where the UK has a comparative advantage will also see a they lose their farms and must look for work in the cities. This
significant improvement in economic welfare. Lower tariffs on UK aggravates unemployment, crime, and poverty.
exports will enable a higher quantity of exports boosting UK jobs Poor Working Conditions: Multi-national companies may outsource
and economic growth. jobs to emerging market countries without adequate labor
protections. As a result, women and children are often subjected to
4. Economies of scale grueling factory jobs in sub-standard conditions.
Degradation of Natural Resources: Emerging market countries
If countries can specialise in certain goods they can benefit from often don’t have many environmental protections. Free trade leads
economies of scale and lower average costs; this is especially true to depletion of timber, minerals, and other natural resources.
in industries with high fixed costs or that require high levels of Deforestation and strip-mining reduce their jungles and fields to
investment. The benefits of economies of scale will ultimately lead wastelands.
to lower prices for consumers and greater efficiency for exporting Destruction of Native Cultures: As development moves into isolated
firms. areas, indigenous cultures can be destroyed. Local peoples are
uprooted. Many suffer disease and death when their resources are
5. Increased competition polluted.
Reduced Tax Revenue: Many smaller countries struggle to replace
With more trade, domestic firms will face more competition from revenue lost from import tariffs and fees.
abroad. Therefore, there will be more incentives to cut costs and
increase efficiency. It may prevent domestic monopolies from Structural unemployment. Trade liberalisation often leads to a shift
charging too high prices. in the balance of an economy. Some industries grow, some
decline. Therefore, there may often be structural unemployment
6. Trade is an engine of growth. from certain industries closing. Trade liberalisation can often be
painful in the short run, as some industries and some workers
World trade has increased by an average of 7% since 1945, suffer from the decline in uncompetitive firms. Though net
causing this to be one of the significant contributors to economic economic welfare improves, it can be difficult to compensate those
growth. workers who lose out to international competition.
Environmental costs. Trade liberalisation could lead to greater
7. Make use of surplus raw materials exploitation of the environment, e.g. greater production of raw
materials, trading toxic waste to countries with lower environmental
Middle Eastern countries such as Qatar are very rich in reserves of laws.
oil, but without trade, there would be not much benefit in having so Infant-industry argument. Trade liberalisation may be damaging for
much oil. developing economies who cannot compete against free trade. The
Japan, on the other hand, has very few raw materials; without infant industry argument suggests that trade protection is justified
trade, it would have low GDP. to help developing economies diversify and develop new industries.

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Most economies had a period of trade protectionism. It is unfair to
insist that developing economies cannot use some tariff As an official in the Ministry of Trade and Commerce, suggest how
protectionism. Because of this argument, some argue that trade you would protect local industries from external completion (4)
liberalisation often benefits developed countries more than develop What problems are likely to be encountered in this exercise (4)

fig 1 shows the nature of imports and exports for a country

Some of the world’s economic groupings are COMESA and EU
(i) what do COMESA and EU stand for (2)
(ii) what do you consider as the differences between the EU and
COMESA in their achievement and problems
(c) propose 6measures you would implement to deal with regional
imbalances in the economic development of your country (6)

1. Outline the advantages of using (i) Animals (ii) Bicycles as

means of transport (7)
2. (i)Name 2 SADC countries that are to the far north of the
region(2)
(ii) Name one SADC country that is an island (1)
3. Outline the responsibilities for the following SADC countries
Describe the nature of the country’s trade (6) South Africa, Lesotho, Angola and Zimbabwe. (4)
Outline the disadvantages of this type of trade (5) 4, name members of SADC that are also members of Preferential
How can this country create a favourable balance of trade (BOT) Trade Area (PTA) (4)
(5) 5. Suggest how SADC countries can reduce problems of exports
Explain the term balance of trade (2) markets (7)
Describe and explain the causes of the debt crisis found in Anesu and nhoro
developing countries (5) Exoplain with reference to examples why the value of exports in
Suggest problems likely to be faced as a result of the increased LEDCs is usually less than the value of imports (9)
debt and measures that developing countries can take to reduce Suggests measures that African countries could take to improve
this debt their balance of trade
Fig 2 shows world trade and trends in manufactured goods and raw Average weekly traffic flow in Harare
materials
taffic flow
15000
10000
5000 taffic flow
0
Describe and explain the trends shown (5)

Fig 2 shows in simplified form Zimbabwe’s pattern of trade Describe and suggest reasons for the trends shown by the graph
for traffic flows in Harare (9)
What improvements to transport facilities for a city such Harare
would you recommend in view of the trends shown on the graph
(12)
Miranda mutetwa
Fig below shows the railway network of some SADC countries

Decribe the pattern of trade shown (6)

Give reasons for the pattern you have described above (5)
As minister of industry and international trade what steps would you
take to promote trade in southern Africa (7)
Why is the volume of trade among developing countries smaller
than that with developed countries (7)
256
 State three environmental problems likely to be caused by the
nature of transport in this town and suggest possible solutions to
these problems (6)
What is informal cross border trading? (2)
Suggest arguments for and against informal cross-border trading
(5)
How can this type of trade be made more beneficiary to
Zimbabwe? (3)

Describe and explain the railway network shown (8)

Using information from fig above only, explain why Bulawayo is
more accessible than Windhoek (3)
What problems are being faced in intergrating the railwaynetwork of
the SADC region (3)
Fig below shows time taken by motorists to drive to the CBD of a
city

State the tie taken by motorists to travel to the CBD from points R
and S respectively (2)
Describe the problems faced by motorists travelling along the road
marked P and suggest solutions to these problems (6)
Chipunza and Sibanda
Fig below shows how a sample of urban population travels to work

mode of transport
commuter
omnibus
private car

train

Name the technique that has been used to represent the data (1)
Describe and explain the contribution made by each mode of
transport (8)
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