Chapter 4 - Metal Joining Process - Rev01
Chapter 4 - Metal Joining Process - Rev01
Chapter 4 - Metal Joining Process - Rev01
JOINING PROCESS
Chapter 4
Chapter Outline
• Introduction to Metal Joining Process
• Gas Welding
• Arc Welding
– Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
– Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
– Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
– Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Resistance and Seam Welding
• Welding Defects
• Brazing and Soldering
Introduction
• Numerous components are assembled and
joined so that they can function reliably and
economical to produce
Introduction
• Joining is an all-inclusive term covering
processes such as welding, brazing,
soldering, adhesive bonding, and
mechanical fastening
• Some important aspect of manufacturing
and assembly operations:
1. Simple product may be impossible to
manufacture as a single piece
2. The product is easier and more economical
to manufacture as individual components
Introduction
• Joining processes fall into three major
categories:
1. Welding
2. Adhesive bonding
3. Mechanical fastening
• Welding processes are classified into 3
categories:
1. Fusion welding
2. Solid-state welding
3. Brazing and soldering
Introduction
Gas Welding
• Oxyfuel–gas welding (OFW) is a general term
used to describe any welding process that uses
a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a
flame
• In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to
weld metals. Welding metal results when two
pieces are heated to a temperature that
produces a shared pool of molten metal. The
molten pool is generally supplied with additional
metal called filler. Filler material depends upon
the metals to be welded.
Gas Welding
Gas Welding
Flame Types
• The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the
gas mixture is an important factor
• At a ratio of 1:1, the flame is neutral
• For greater oxygen supply, it is known as an
oxidizing flame
• For insufficient oxygen, the flame is a
reducing, or carburizing flame
Gas Welding
Filler Metals
• Used to supply additional metal to the weld
zone during welding
• Available as filler rods or wire and may be
bare or coated with flux
• Purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the
surfaces of the parts being welded by
generating a gaseous shield around the weld
zone
Gas Welding
Welding Practice and Equipment
• Can be used with most ferrous and nonferrous
metals for almost any workpiece thickness
• The equipment consists of a welding torch
connected by hoses to high-pressure gas
cylinders and equipped with pressure gages
and regulators
• The low equipment cost is an attractive feature
Gas Welding
Arc Welding
• In arc welding, the heat required is obtained
from electrical energy
• Process involves a consumable or a
nonconsumable electrode
• In nonconsumable-electrode welding
processes, the electrode is a tungsten
electrode
Arc Welding
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Shielded metal‐arc welding (SMAW) is one of
the oldest, simplest, and most versatile
joining processes
• Electric arc is generated by tip of a coated
electrode against the workpiece
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• It is simple, versatile and requiring a smaller
variety of electrodes
• The multiple-pass approach requires that the
slag be removed after each weld bead
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Electrodes for consumable arc-welding
processes are classified by:
1. Strength of the deposited weld metal
2. Current (AC or DC)
3. Type of coating
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Electrode Coatings
• The coating is brittle and takes part in
complex interactions during welding
• Basic functions:
1. Stabilize the arc.
2. Generate gases to act as a shield
3. Control the rate at which the electrode melts
4. Act as a flux to protect the weld
5. Add alloying elements to the weld zone to
enhance the properties of the joint
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Disadvantages
• electrode must periodically be changed.
– longer time
• electrode length varies during the operation
– affects the resistance heating of the
• electrode (current levels must be maintained
within a safe range or the coating will
• overheat and melt prematurely when starting a
new welding stick.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• The weld area is shielded by an effectively inert
atmosphere of gases
• The consumable bare wire is fed automatically
through a nozzle into the weld arc by a wire-
feed drive motor
Gas Metal Arc Welding(GMAW)
• The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A
constant voltage, power source is most commonly
used with GMAW, but constant current systems,
such as alternating current also can be used.
• The typical GMAW welding gun has a number of key
parts—a control switch, a contact tip, a power cable,
a gas nozzle, an electrode conduit and liner, and a
gas hose. The control switch, or trigger, when
pressed by the operator, initiates the wire feed,
electric power, and the shielding gas flow, causing
an electric arc to be struck.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Welding Gun unit
Submerged Arc Welding
• The weld arc is shielded by a granular flux
• The flux is fed into the weld zone from a
hopper by gravity flow through a nozzle
• SAW process is limited to welds in a flat or
horizontal position having a backup piece
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Advantage :
• Continuous electrode – reduce processing time
& able for automation
• Reduce waste filler
• Elimination of slag removal (since no flux is
used)
• Good versatility.
Submerged Arc Welding
• The flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded. In
all cases the arc is struck under a cover of flux. Flux
otherwise is insulator but once it melts due to heat of
the arc, it becomes highly conductive and hence the
current flow is maintained between the electrode and
the job through the molten flux. The upper portion of
the flux, in contact with atmosphere, which is visible
remains solid granular i.e., unchanged and can be
reused.
• The electrode at a predetermined speed is
continuously fed to the joint to be welded.
• The arc length is kept constant by using the principle
of a self adjusting arc
Submerged Arc Welding
Non consumable electrode : Gas Metal
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Gas Tungsten-arc Welding
• The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire
• As the tungsten electrode is not consumed, a
constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a
constant current level
• GTAW process is used for applications with
aluminum, magnesium, titanium and the
refractory metals
• Cost of the inert gas is more expensive but
provides high quality welds and surface finish
Non consumable electrode : Gas Metal
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin
sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous
metals such as aluminium, magnesium,
and copper alloys. The process grants the
operator greater control allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds. However, GTAW is
comparatively more complex and difficult to
master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower
than most other welding techniques.
Non consumable electrode : Gas Metal
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding
operation includes a welding torch utilizing a non-
consumable tungsten electrode, a constant-current
welding power supply, and a shielding gas source.
• GTAW welding torches are designed for either automatic
or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The tungsten electrode must
be held firmly in the center of the torch with an
appropriately sized collet, and ports around the electrode
provide a constant flow of shielding gas.
Non consumable electrode : Gas Metal
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Non consumable electrode : Gas Metal
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Advantages :
• high-quality
• welds, no weld spatter because no filler metal is
transferred across the arc, and little or
• no postweld cleaning because no flux is used.
• Weld more metals and alloys than any other
process (stainless steel, chromoly,alluminium and
etc)
• No smoke and fumes
• Only use one type of shielding gas (Argon) for all
applications.
Resistance Spot Welding
• Resistance welding (RW) is where heat required is
produced by electrical resistance across the two
components to be joined
• Tips of 2 opposing solid, cylindrical electrodes touch a
lap joint of two sheet metals, and resistance heating
produces a spot weld
• To obtain a strong bond in the weld nugget, pressure
is applied until the current is turned off and the weld
has solidified
• Surface of the spot weld has a slightly discolored
indentation
• Current level depends on the materials thicknesses
Resistance Spot Welding
• Simplest and most commonly used
• May be performed by means of single or
multiple pairs of electrodes
• Required pressure is supplied through
mechanical or pneumatic means
• Variety of electrode shapes are used to spot-
weld areas that are difficult to reach
Resistance Spot Welding
Spot welding involves three stages;
• First of which involves the electrodes being brought to the
surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure.
• Second, the current from the electrodes is then applied briefly
after which the current is removed but the electrodes remain in
place for the material to cool. Weld times range from 0.01 sec to
0.63 sec depending on the thickness of the metal, the electrode
force and the diameter of the electrodes themselves.
• Thirdly, the current is removed from the workpiece, it is cooled
via the coolant holes in the center of the electrodes.
Resistance Spot Welding
Resistance Spot Welding
Advantages:
• Very little skill required to operate the resistance welding
process. Most equipment
• available are semi-automatic or automatic
• High production rate
• Economical --- no consumable only electrical source)
• Heating involve small portion – less distortion
• Possible to weld dissimilar metal with different thickness
Limitation
• Equipment use are complex – expensive
• Limited to only lap joint
Seam Welding
• Electrodes are replaced by rotating wheels or
rollers
• Using a continuous AC power supply to rollers
• In roll spot welding, current is applied
intermittently and a series of spot welds at
specified intervals
• In mash seam welding, overlapping welds are
about one to two times the sheet thickness
Seam Welding
Seam Welding
Advantages of Seam Welding:
• A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process
makes it suitable for joining liquid or gas tight containers
and vessels.
• Efficient energy use.
• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated
fumes or gases. This results in clean welds.
Disadvantages of Seam Welding:
• Requires complex control system to regulate the ravel
speed of electrodes as well as the sequence of current
to provide satisfactory overlapping weldsDifficult to weld
metals having thickness greater than 3mm.
Welding Defects
• Porosity :During welding metal absorb gases (high
affinity to gases). When solidified, gases trapped in
metal. Large size of porosity called ‘blowhole.
Can be reduced by:
1. Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals
2. Improved welding techniques
3. Proper cleaning and the prevention of contaminants
4. Reduced welding speeds
Welding defects
Slag inclusion
• caused from oxide, electrode coating or fluxes trapped
• Failure to remove slag leads to slag inclusion
• With control of welding process parameters, the molten
slag will float to the
• surface of the molten weld metal and thus will not
become entrapped.
Welding Defects
Slag inclusion
Prevention :
• providing sufficient shielding gas
• cleaning the weld bead surface
• redesigning the joint to permit sufficient space
for proper manipulation of the
• puddle of molten weld metal.
Welding Defects
Incomplete Fusion and Penetration
• Produces poor weld beads
• Better weld can be obtained by:
1. Raising the temperature of the base metal
2. Cleaning the weld area before welding
3. Modifying the joint design
4. Providing sufficient shielding gas
Welding Defects
Weld Profile
• It is important because its effects on the
strength and appearance of the weld, indicate
incomplete fusion or the presence of slag
inclusions in multiple-layer welds
Welding Defects
Cracks
• Occur in various locations and directions in the
weld area
• Result from a combination of:
1. Temperature gradients
2. Variations in the composition of the weld zone
3. Embrittlement of grain boundaries
4. Hydrogen embrittlement
5. Inability of the weld metal to contract during
cooling
Welding Defects
• Cracks
Brazing
• Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby
a filler metal is heated above melting point and
distributed between two or more close-fitting
parts by capillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)
temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the
base metal (known as wetting) and is then
cooled to join the workpieces together. The filler
metal has liquidus temperature of above 450 °C
and below Solidus temperature of base metal.
Brazing
• A joining process where a filler metal is
placed between the faying surfaces to be
joined
• Temperature is raised to melt the filler metal
• In braze welding, filler metal is deposited at
the joint similar to oxyfuel–gas welding, but
base metal does not melt
• Dissimilar metals can be assembled with
good joint strength
Brazing
• Brazing
Brazing
Filler Metals
• Selection of the type of filler metal and its
composition depend on:
1. Grain-boundary penetration of liquid metal
2. Formation of brittle intermetallic compounds at the
joint
3. Galvanic corrosion in the joint
Brazing
Fluxes
• A flux prevents oxidation and removes oxide
films
• Wetting agents is added to improve the wetting
characteristics of the molten filler metal and the
capillary action
• Brazed surfaces is cleaned in order:
a)For proper wetting and spreading of the
molten filler metal in the joint
b)To develop maximum bond strength
Brazing
Advantages
• Inaccessible joint areas that could not be made by other joining
method
• Thin walled tubes and light gage sheet metal assemblies not joinable
by welding can be joined by brazing
• Able to join dissimiliar material
• Multiple joints can be made at once time as in furnace brazing
• Corrosive resistance can be provided for food service equipment.
Example : Ag or Ni filler metals for joining stainless steels.
• Less skilled operators are required for high production brazing
• Braze join are ductile
• Brazing is readily automated and high production rates are possible
Soldering
• Soldering is a process in which two or
more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal(solder) into the joint, the filler
metal having a lower melting point than the
workpiece. The filler has melting point below 450°C.
Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does
not involve melting the work pieces.
Soldering
• Solders melt at a temperature that is the
eutectic point of the solder alloy
• As toxicity of lead and its adverse effects on
the environment, lead-free solders are used
• Fluxes are used in soldering and for the same
purposes as they are in welding and brazing
• Two types of fluxes for soldering:
1. Inorganic acids or salts
2. Noncorrosive resin-based fluxes
Soldering
• Special fluxes have been developed to
improve the solderability of metals and
alloys
• They are:
1. Copper, silver, and gold are easy to solder
2. Iron and nickel are more difficult to solder
3. Aluminum and stainless steels are difficult to
solder
4. Steels, cast irons, titanium, and magnesium,
as well as ceramics and graphite, can be
soldered by first plating them
Soldering
Advantages
• Versatility ‐ variety of solder, fluxes, and heating method
available.
• Reliability ‐ reliable joints, most soldered joints can be
evaluate by visual
• Inspection, easily repaired and reworked. Low temperature
minimize distortion and heat damage to components
• Precise control – amount of fluxes, solder and heat can be
controlled accurately
• Fast production – easily automated to attain high
production rates
• Low cost – economical joining process with minimal energy
requirement
Reference
1) Serope kalpakjian & Steven R. Schmid , Manufacturing Engineering
and Technology 6th edition, 2010, Prentice Hall