International Business

INTERNATIONAL
BUSINESS
RAKESH MOHAN JOSHI
Professor (International Business and International Marketing)
Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
New Delhi
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Preface xi
Contents
Preface v 2.3 Theory of Absolute Advantage 48

List of Abbreviations xv 2.4 Theory of Comparative Advantage 52
2.5 Factor Endowment (Heckscher–Ohlin)
Theory 56
1. Globalization and 1
2.6 Country Similarity Theory 57
International Business
2.7 The New Trade Theory 58
1.1 Introduction 1 2.8 International Product Life-Cycle
1.2 Globalization of Business: Theory 59
A Historical Perspective 2 2.9 Theory of Competitive Advantage 62
1.3 Concept of Globalization 7 2.10 Implications of Trade Theories 66
1.4 Factors Influencing Globalization 15 Case Study: Emergence of Chip Design
1.5 Measuring Globalization 20 Industry in Asia 70
1.6 Globalization: Reality or Myth 24
1.7 Support of Globalization 24
1.8 Criticism of Globalization 26 3. International Trade Patterns 74
1.9 Response Strategies to Globalization and Balance of Payments
Forces for Emerging Market
Companies 32 3.1 Introduction 74
1.10 Concept of International Business 35 3.2 World Trade: An Overview 77
1.11 Reasons for International Business 3.3 India’s Foreign Trade:
Expansion 36 An Overview 91
1.12 Domestic versus International 3.4 Gains from International Trade 103
Business 38 3.5 Balance of Payments 107
1.13 Managing Business in the 3.6 India’s Sluggish Export Performance:
Globalization Era 41 An Evaluation 111
Case Study: Developing Countries’ Trade
2. Theories of International 45 Dependence and Exports Growth Opportunities 116
Trade Annexure I: India’s Foreign Trade 121
2.1 Introduction 45 Annexure II: Direction of India’s Trade:

2.2 Theory of Mercantilism 47 Exports 123

xii Preface
Annexure III: Direction of India’s Trade: 6.8 Regional Trade Agreements

Imports 125 vis-à-vis Multilateral Trading
Annexure IV: Share and Percentage System under the WTO 250
Change in India’s Exports 127
Annexure V: Composition of India’s 7. International Cultural 254
Exports 128 Environment
Annexure VI: Share and Percentage
Change in India’s Imports 130 7.1 Introduction 254
Annexure VII: Composition of India’s 7.2 Self-reference Criterion and
Imports 131 Ethnocentrism: Major Obstacles
in International Business Decisions 256
7.3 The Concept of Culture 256
4. Institutional Framework for 133 7.4 Comparison of Cross-cultural
International Business Behaviour 274
4.1 Introduction 133 7.5 Cultural Orientation in
International Business 286
4.2 International Economic Institutions 134
7.6 Emic vs Etic Dilemma: Cultural
4.3 Organizations for International
Uniquness vs Pan-culturalism 291
Trade Promotion 152
4.4 Institutional Framework for Case Study: Cross-cultural Misapprehensions
International Trade in India 156 over the Swastika in the West 295
5. World Trade Organization 175 8. Political and Legal 299

Environment
5.1 Introduction 175
5.2 WTO Agreements: An Overview 185 8.1 Introduction 299
5.3 Ministerial Conferences and 8.2 International Political Environment 300
Emerging Issues 211 8.3 International Legal Environment 312
5.4 The Deadlock in WTO Negotiations 215 8.4 Risks in International Business 320
5.5 GATT/WTO System and
Developing Countries 216
9. Policy Framework for 332
International Trade
6. International Economic 221
Integrations 9.1 Introduction 332
6.1 Introduction 221 9.2 Trade Policy Options for
6.2 Theoretical Framework of PTAs 223 Developing Countries 333
6.3 Forms of International Economic 9.3 Instruments of Trade Policy 337
Integration 227 9.4 India’s Foreign Trade Policy 340
6.4 Growth of Regional Trading 9.5 Policy Initiatives and Incentives by
Agreements 228 the State Governments 373
6.5 Major Regional Trade Agreements 229 9.6 WTO and India’s Export Promotion
6.6 India’s Participation in PTAs 238 Measures 374
6.7 Limitations of Regional Economic Case Study: Special Economic Zones
Integrations 249 under Fire 380

Preface xiii
10. Country Evaluation and 387 13.6 Emerging MNEs from

Rapidly Developing Economies 565
Selection
Case Study: Ranbaxy: No More an
10.1 Introduction 387 Indian Multinational 571
10.2 International Business Research 388
10.3 Country Evaluation 395
14. International Marketing 582
10.4 Tools for Country Evaluation and
Selection 431 14.1 Introduction 582
14.2 Framework of International
11. Modes of International 440 Marketing 584
Business Expansion 14.3 Setting Marketing Objectives 585
14.4 Market Identification,
11.1 Introduction 440 Segmentation, and Targeting 585
11.2 International Business 14.5 Entry Mode Decisions 587
Expansion Modes 443 14.6 International Marketing
11.3 Strategy for Selecting International Mix Decisions 588
Business Expansion Mode 475 14.7 Product Decisions 589
Case Study: International Business 14.8 International Pricing Decisions 601
Expansion Strategy of ONGC 483 14.9 International Distribution Channels 606
14.10 Communication Decisions for
International Markets 611
12. Foreign Direct Investment 491
14.11 Framework for International
12.1 Introduction 491 Product Promotion Strategies 621
12.2 Types of FDI 496 14.12 Reviewing Performance and
Consolidating International
12.3 Theories of International Investment 506
Marketing Operations 623
12.4 Patterns of FDI 513
12.5 Policy Framework to Promote Case Study: Barbie Faces Islamic Dolls 626
Foreign Direct Investment 520
12.6 FDI Trends in India 527 15. International Finance 634
Case Study: FDI in Automobile Sector
in India 533 15.1 Introduction 634
15.2 International Monetary Systems 635
15.3 Contemporary Exchange Rate
13. Multinational Enterprises 546 Arrangements 638
15.4 Prevailing Currencies and Markets 640
13.1 Introduction 546
15.5 Determination of Exchange Rates 641
13.2 Concept of a Multinational
Enterprise 549 15.6 Foreign Exchange Market 646
13.3 Types of Multinationals 554 15.7 Foreign Exchange Risks and
Exposure 651
13.4 Impact of MNEs on Host
Economies 558 15.8 Global Cash Management 657
13.5 Measuring the Extent of 15.9 Modes of Payment in
MNE’s Internationalization 561 International Trade 658

xiv Preface
15.10 International Trade Finance 667 18.2 Export-Import Procedures 767

15.11 Export Finance 673 18.3 Terms of Delivery in International
Trade Transactions 782
18.4 Documentation for International
16. Global Operations and 684
Trade Transactions 786
Supply Chain Management
16.1 Introduction 684 19. Global E-business 807

16.2 Global Operations Management 685
16.3 Global Supply Chain Management 690 19.1 Introduction 807
16.4 Third Party Logistics 699 19.2 Conceptual Framework of
16.5 Maritime Transportation in E-business 809
International Trade 700 19.3 Prerequisites for Effective
16.6 Alternates for Ocean Shipment 708 E-business Transactions 816
16.7 International Organizations 19.4 E-enabled Business Process
Associated with International Transformations and Challenges 817
Maritime Transportation 717 19.5 E-business Technology and
16.8 Institutional Framework for Environment 819
Maritime Transport in India 720 19.6 E-business Applications 824
19.7 E-business Models 826
19.8 Alternative E-business Strategies 831
17. International Human 725
19.9 Global E-marketing 832
Resource Management
19.10 Global E-services 837
17.1 Introduction 725 19.11 Electronic Processing of
17.2 Concept of International Human International Trade Documents 839
Resource Management 727 19.12 Policy Framework for
17.3 International Organizational Global E-business 846
Structures 729
17.4 Strategic Orientations and 20. Ethics and Social 851
Practices for IHRM 737 Responsibility
17.5 Managing International Human
Resource Activities 740 20.1 Introduction 851
17.6 Regulatory Framework and 20.2 Ethics 852
Industrial Relations 759 20.3 Unethical Business Practices 855
20.4 Corporate Social Responsibility 887
18. International Trade 763 Case Study: Multinational’s Lackadaisical
Procedures and Attitude Led to World’s Worst Industrial
Documentation Disaster 895
18.1 Introduction 763 Index 898

Globalization and International Business 1
Globalization and
1 International Business
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Ø To outline the historical perspective of globalization of business
Ø To explain the concept of globalization
Ø To elucidate the factors influencing globalization
Ø To discuss the various techniques for measuring globalization
Ø To examine the reasons for support and criticism of globalization
Ø To discuss global business expansion strategy for emerging market companies
Ø To explicate the concept of international business
Ø To delineate the motives for international business expansion
Ø To expound the strategy for managing business in the globalization era
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The forces of globalization have hardly been as intense before as to be explicitly
evident as influencing our daily lives. The advents in information and communication
technology (ICT) and the rapid economic liberalization of trade and investment in
most countries have accelerated the process of globalization. Markets are getting
flooded with not only industrial goods but also with items of daily consumption. Each
day, an average person makes use of goods and services of multiple origins—for
instance, the Finnish mobile Nokia and the US toy-maker’s Barbie doll made in China
but used across the world; a software from the US-based Microsoft, developed by an
Indian software engineer based in Singapore, used in Japan; the Thailand-manufactured
US sports shoe Nike used by a Saudi consumer. The increased integration of markets—
goods and financial—the mobility of people with transnational travels for jobs and
vacations, and the global reach of satellite channels, the Internet, and the telephone
all have virtually transformed the world into a ‘global village’.
‘Globalization’, one of the most complex terms used in international business, has
wide connotations. Interestingly, ‘globalization’ is a term not only used and heard
frequently, but also as often misused and misinterpreted. Globalization is used to

refer to the increasing influence exerted by economic, political, socio-cultural, and

financial processes across the globe. Globalization not only offers numerous challenges
to business enterprises but also opens up new opportunities. In the earlier era of
restrictive trade and investment regimes with much lower degree of interconnectedness
among countries, companies solely operating in their home markets were generally
protected and isolated from the vagaries of upheavals in the international business
environment. Therefore, developing a thorough conceptual understanding of
international business has become inevitable not only for the managers who operate
in international markets, but also for those who operate only domestically.
This chapter brings out the historical perspective of the globalization of business,
which reveals that India and China were the world’s two most dominant economies
till the early nineteenth century whereas the US, the UK, and Japan emerged as
strong economies only lately. Economic restrictions became pervasive around the
world after World War I, leading to de-facto de-globalization. Besides, the import
substitution strategies followed by most developing countries, which gained
independence from colonial rule in the post-World War II era, considerably restricted
international trade and investment.
A number of multilateral organizations set up after World War II under the aegis of
the United Nations, such as the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the World Trade
Organization (WTO), facilitated international trade and investment.
Elucidating the conceptual framework of globalization, the chapter delineates a
holistic approach to define the term, encompassing financial, cultural, and political
aspects, besides the economic. Movers and restraining factors of globalization have
also been examined at length. The arguments both for support and criticism of glo-
balization have also been critically evaluated. Globalization offers challenges and
opportunities for business enterprises and firms are required to adopt the most effec-
tive response strategy, which has been discussed with the specific perspective of emerg-
ing market companies.
The later part of the chapter also provides the conceptual framework of interna-
tional business, elaborating various related terminologies. It examines the reasons for
expanding business operations internationally. The distinguishing features of domes-
tic versus international business have also been explicated. At the end, the chapter
propounds strategy to manage businesses in the era of globalization.
1.2 GLOBALIZATION OF BUSINESS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Globalization is not a new phenomenon. In the initial years of human history, people
remained confined to their communities, villages, or local regions. There were hardly
any formal barriers, such as tariffs or non-tariff restrictions, for the movement of goods
or visa requirements for people. The concept of globalization can be traced back to
the phenomenon of a nation-state.

40
36.6
35
32.5
30
28.0 28.8 27.3
25.8 25.1
24.4
25
24.3 22.5
23.5 21.7
22.9 20.7 20.5
22.1 20.1
20
17.0
16.6 17.4
15
14.8
14.2
10
5.4 6.0 5.4
5 4.5 4.6 4.7
2.8 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.9 3.3
2.8 2.1
1.3 1.4 2.0
0.7 0.9 1.1 2.0 2.5 1.0
0.3 0.3 2.0 1.4 0.9
0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.0
1000 1500 1600 1700 1820 1910 1950 1970 2000 2006
Year
UK US Japan China India
Fig. 1.1 Percentage share in world population

Source: The World Economy, Vol. 1: A Millennium Perspective, Vol. 2: Historical Statistics, Development Centre Studies, OECD,
2006, pp. 636–43; World Economic Outlook, Spillovers and Cycles in the Global Economy, IMF, April 2007, p. 204.
In the beginning of the Christian era, India was the most populated country with
75 million people constituting 32.5 per cent of the world population (Fig. 1.1), followed
by China (25.8%) with 59.6 million, Italy (3%) with 7 million, France (2.2%) with
5 million, Spain (1.9%) with 4.5 million, Germany (1.3%) and Japan (1.3%) each with
3 million people, whereas the UK (0.34%) and the US (0.29%) inhabited merely
0.8 million and 0.7 million people, respectively, out of the total world population of
230 million.
Moreover, during this period, India was the world’s largest economy with 32.9 per
cent share of the world’s GDP, followed by China (26.1%), the former USSR (1.5%),
and Japan (1.2%). It was only after AD 1500 that some western economies, such as
Italy, France, and Germany emerged with 4.7 per cent, 4.4 per cent, and 3.3 per cent
share, respectively, in the world GDP whereas the UK and the US merely contributed
1.1 per cent and 0.3 per cent, respectively, of the world GDP (see Fig. 1.2). India and
China continued to remain the two most dominant economies till the early nineteenth
century.1
1 The World Economy, Vol. 2: Historical Statistics, Development Centre Studies, OECD, Paris, 2006, pp. 636–38.

35
32.9
32.9
30 28.9 29.0 27.3

26.1 24.9
24.4
25
24.4 22.1
22.7 22.4 21.4
22.3
20 19.7
18.9
16.0
15.1
15
12.3
10 8.8
8.2 7.8 7.1
6.5 6.3
5.2 7.5 4.6 6.3
4.1 4.5
5 4.2 5.4
2.7 3.1 2.9 3.0 2.6
4.2 3.2
1.2 1.1 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2
0.2 1.8 0.1 1.8
0.3
0
1000 1500 1600 1700 1820 1910 1950 1970 2000 2006
Year
UK US Japan China India
Fig. 1.2 Percentage share in world GDP

Source: The World Economy, Vol. 1: A Millennium Perspective, Vol. 2: Historical Statistics, Development Centre Studies, OECD,
2006, pp. 636–43; World Economic Outlook, Spillovers and Cycles in the Global Economy, IMF, April 2007, p. 204.
Venice played a key role from AD 1000 to AD 1500 in opening up trade within
Europe and in the Mediterranean. It opened trade in Chinese products via caravan
routes in the region around the Black Sea and in Indian and other Asian products via
Syria and Alexandria. Trade was important in bringing high value spices and silks to
Europe and also helped transfer technology from Asia, Egypt, and Byzantium. Portugal
played the key role in opening up European trade, in navigation and settlement in the
Atlantic islands, and in developing trade routes around Africa, into the Indian Ocean,
and to China and Japan. Portugal became the major shipper of spices to Europe for
the whole of the sixteenth century, usurping this role from Venice.
Right up to the eighteenth century, the ‘Indian methods of production and of
industrial and commercial organization could stand in comparison with those in vogue
in any other part of the world’ as written by Vera Anstey.2 India was a highly developed
manufacturing country and exported her manufactured products to Europe and other
nations. Her banking system was efficient and well organized throughout the country,
and the bills of exchange (hundis) issued by the great business or financial houses were
2 Anstey, Vera, Economic Development of India, Longmans, Green and Co., 1929; Nehru, Jawahar Lal, Discovery of India, Penguin
Books, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 308–09.

honoured everywhere in India, as well as in Iran, Kabul, Herat, Tashkent, and other
places in Central Asia. Merchant capital had emerged and there was an elaborate
network of agents, jobbers, brokers, and middlemen. The ship-building industry was
flourishing and one of the flagships of an English admiral during the Napoleon wars
was built in India by an Indian firm. India was, in fact, as advanced industrially,
commercially, and financially as any country prior to the industrial revolution. No
such development could have taken place unless the country had enjoyed long periods
of stable and peaceful government and the highways been safe for traffic and trade.
Foreign adventurers originally came to India because of the excellence of her
manufacturers, who had a big market in Europe. The British East India Company
was started with the objective of carrying manufactured goods, textiles, etc., as well as
spices and the like from the East to Europe, where there was a great demand for these
articles. Such trading was highly profitable, yielding enormous dividends. So efficient
and highly organized were the Indian methods of production, and such were the
skills of India’s artisans and craftsmen, that India could compete successfully even with
the higher techniques of production that were being established in England. Even
when the big machine age began in England, Indian goods continued to pour in and
had to be stopped by very heavy duties and, in some cases, by outright prohibitions.3
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the main exports into Europe were textiles
and raw silk from India and tea from China. The purchases of European products
into India were financed mainly by the exports of bullion and raw cotton from Bengal,
whereas the purchases into China were financed by the exports of opium. Until the
eighteenth century, the British generally maintained peaceable relations with the Indian
Mughal empire, whose authority and military power were too great to be challenged
by the British.
It was only after the development of new industrial techniques that a new class of
industrial capitalists emerged in Britain and under their influence, the British
government began to take greater interest in the affairs of the East India Company.
The British government now adopted the strategy to close the British market for Indian
goods and get the Indian market opened for British manufacturers. To begin with,
Indian goods were excluded by legislation in Britain. Since the East India Company
had the monopoly in the Indian export business, the exclusion influenced other foreign
markets as well.
During the pre-World War I period from 1870 to 1914, there took place a rapid
integration of economies in terms of trade flows, movement of capital, and migration
of people. The pre-World War I period witnessed the growth of globalization, mainly
led by technological forces in the field of transport and communication.
However, between the first and second world wars, the pace of globalization
decelerated. Various barriers were erected to restrict free movement of goods and
services during the inter-war period. Under high protective walls, most economies
3 Nehru, Jawahar Lal, Discovery of India, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 308–09.

perceived higher growths. It was resolved by all leading countries after World War II
that the earlier mistakes committed by them to isolate themselves should not be
repeated. Although, after 1945, there was a drive to increased integration, it took a
long time to reach pre-World War I levels. In terms of percentage of imports and
exports to total output, the US could reach the pre-World War level of 11 per cent
only around 1970. Most developing countries that gained independence from colonial
rule in the immediate post-World War II period followed imports substitution strategies
to promote local industrialization. The East European countries shielded themselves
from the process of global economic integration.
Multilateral organizations, especially the World Bank, the IMF, and the GATT,
set up in the post-war era contributed considerably to the economic integration of
countries. Setting up of the WTO in 1995 provided an effective institutional mechanism
for multilateral trade negotiations, integration of trade policies under the WTO
framework, and even the settlement of trade disputes among the member countries.
During the recent decades, most developing countries made a strategic shift from
their restrictive trade and investment policies to economic liberalization. The
transformation of the Indian economy from one following the import substitution
strategy with a highly complex system of licences and multiple procedures to an
economy open to globalization is summarized in Exhibit 1.1.
The breakthroughs in information, communication, and transportation technologies
and the growing economic liberalization have accelerated the process of global
Exhibit 1.1 India’s journey from the licence Raj (era) to globalization
Phase I (194765) sectors for private participation, leading to

n The focus was on government-led investments strong growth in a few sectors.
in manufacturing. n A key event was the formation of Maruti Suzuki
n Several large public sector units in steel, as governments 50:50 joint venture with
chemicals, and power were set up. Japans Suzuki motors.
n Many of these companies exist even today and
Phase IV (since early 1990s)
are among the largest companies in their
n The industry was further liberalized.
sectors.
n The scope of licensing was significantly
Phase II (196580) reduced.
n Government involvement in industry in- n Custom duties were slashed.
creased. n FDI in various sectors was opened up.
n Strong licensing laws were introduced with a
Phase V (2000 onwards)
sustained focus on import substitution.
n Companies began to reap the rewards of the
n Public sector units and formation of several
various phases of development learning.
small-scale private sector manufacturing
n Many Indian business enterprises became quite
entities grew.
competitive and looked at taking on global
Phase III (198090) players.
n The government partially opened its economy
to external trade and de-licensed some key
Source: ‘From Licence Raj to Globalization’, Hindustan Times, New Delhi, 31 July 2006.

economic integration. The major concerns about present-day globalization are

significantly higher than ever before because of the nature and speed of transformation.
What is striking about the current globalization is not only its rapid pace but also the
enormous impact of new information and communication technologies on market
integration, efficiency, and industrial organization.4
1.3 CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION

‘Globalization’ has become the buzzword that has changed human lives around the
world in a variety of ways. The growing integration of societies and national economies
has been among the most fervently discussed topics during recent years. Globalization
refers to the free cross-border movement of goods, services, capital, information, and
people. It is the process of creating networks of connections among actors at multi-
continental distances, mediated through a variety of flows including people, information
and ideas, capital, and goods.5
The breakthroughs in the means of transport and communication technology in
the last few decades have also made international communication, transport, and
travel much cheaper, faster, and more frequent. Globalization is the closer integration
of the countries and peoples of the world, brought about by the enormous reduction
in the costs of transportation and communications and the breaking down of artificial
barriers to the flow of goods and services, capital, knowledge, and (to a lesser extent)
people across the borders. With the arrival of the Internet, the transaction costs of
transferring ideas and information have declined enormously. ‘Global village’ is the
term used to describe the collapse of space and time barriers in human communication,6
especially by using the World Wide Web, enabling people to interact on a global scale.
Moreover, a number of interesting terms to signify the various aspects of globaliza-
tion, such as Westernization, Americanization, Walmartization, McDonaldization,
Disneyfication, Coca-Colanization, etc., have also emerged, as given in Exhibit 1.2.
Globalization tends to erode national boundaries and integrate national economies,
cultures, technologies, and governance, leading to complex relations of mutual
interdependence.
Globalization refers to the intensification of cross-national economic, political,
cultural, social, and technological interactions that leads to the establishment of
transnational structures and the integration of economic, political, and social processes
on a global scale.7
4 Rangarajan, C., ‘Globalization and Its Impact’ in Indian Economy since Independence, edited by Uma Kapila, 15th edn, Academic
Foundation, New Delhi, 2003, pp. 728–33.

5 Clark, William C., Robert O. Keohane, Joshep S. Nye, and Neal M. Rosendrof, in Joshep S. Nye and John D. Donahue (eds),
Governance in a Globalizing World, Brooking Institution Press, Washington DC, 2000, pp. 1–44, 86–108, 109–34.
6 McLuhan, Marshal, The Gutenberg Galaxy: Making of Typographic Man, University of Toronto Press, Toronto (1962); Wyndham,
Lewis, America and Cosmic Man, Nicholson & Watson, London, 1948, pp. 1–19.
7 Dreher, Axel, Noel Gaston, and Pim Marten, ‘Measuring Globalization and Its Consequences’, Globalization and the Labour
Market, Department of Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reforms, 13 December 2007.

Exhibit 1.2 Globalization’s neological terms
Westernization The process of influence of the Calculability Objectives should be quantifiable

western culture on non-western society in terms (i.e., sales) rather than subjective (i.e., taste).
of life style, value system, language, technology, Quantity gains significance over quality as
etc. Westernization is sometimes equated, McDonalds sells Big Mac, not the Quality or
although inaccurately, with modernization. Superior Mac.
Americanization A term mostly used pejora- Predictability Standardized and uniform ser-
tively for the influence of the US of America on vices are guaranteed by the production process.
other cultures that leads to a phenomenon of sub-
Control Includes the substitution of more
stituting indigenous cultures with the US culture.
predictable non-human technologies for human-
Walmartization Refers to business practices labour.
followed by the American retail chain Wal-Mart, The McDonaldization of society has also been
which includes optimization concepts from referred to as a system of the iron cage in which
logistics, purchasing, finance, and stores manage- all institutions come to be dominated by the same
ment, contributing to its maintaining Always low principles. The criticism of McDonaldization
prices, Always. Charles Fishman in his book The includes
Wal-Mart Effect sheds light on the power of the
Irrationality Workers are expected to perform a
retail giant to affect everyones life. The economic
single and highly rationalized task, which spawns
effect of Wal-Mart include forcing smaller com-
irrationality and leads to workers burnout.
petitors to keep out of business and driving down
wages, but helping to keep inflation low and pro- Deskilling Workers are supposed to perform
ductivity high. simple and repetitive tasks with minimum level
Although Wal-Mart brings cheaper products of complexity. This leads to quick and cheap
to consumers in advanced countries, it epitomizes training of workers, who can be easily replaced.
the conservative model that a company must cut
Consumer workers McDonalds is criticized as
costs to remain competitive, or a country must
being tricky in making consumers its unpaid
cut taxes and the welfare state to continue to be
employees by carrying out the work usually
globally competitive.
performed by a service restaurant; for instance,
McDonaldization The term was used by serving food or a drive-through service.
sociologist George Ritzer in his book The
Disneyfication A term used to describe and
Mcdonaldization of Society (1995) to describe
denigrate a society that has an increasing
the principles of the fast food restaurant likely to
similarity to the Disney theme parks. The term
dominate more and more sectors of the American
has been used by Sharon Zukin (1996) in The
society as well as the rest of the world. According
Culture of the Cities whereas the term
to Ritzer, the four dimensions of McDonaldization
Disneyization was popularized by A. Bryman
are
(2004) in The Disneyization of Society.
Efficiency Refers to the optimal method for Disneyfication is used metaphorically to de-
accomplishing a task, that is, the rational scribe a society dedicated to themes, merchan-
determination of the best mode of production dising, huge consumption, and emotion-based
with little scope for individuality. labour. It also signifies a diluted or simplified
version of an original form.
Contd

Exhibit 1.2 Contd
Coca-Colanization A portmanteau word considered as dangerous to indigenous cultures.

derived from a combination of the words coca- The term Coca-Colanization was used by Arthur
cola and colonization to imply the invasion of Koestler (1961) to refer to Americanization in his
Western, particularly American, cultural values book The Lotus and the Robot.
Source: Charles, Fishman, The Wal-Mart Effect: How the World’s Most Powerful Company Really Works and How It's Transforming
the American Economy, Penguin Press, 2005, pp. 1–13; French Historical Studies, 17(1) Spring (1919), pp. 96–116; Ritzer,
George, The McDonaldization of Society, Pine Forge Press, 2004, pp. 1–19; Koestler, Arthur, The Lotus and the Robot, Macmillan
Company, New York (1961), pp. 1–34; Kuisel, Richard F., ‘Coca Cola and the Cold War: The French Face Americanization’,
1948–53.
Further, globalization is widely understood to imply economic globalization by

way of free movement of factor inputs (both labour and capital) as well as output
between countries. It is not only the economic integration of countries but also various
other aspects such as financial, cultural, and political integration across the world, as
depicted in Fig. 1.3.
Therefore, globalization may be defined as the process of integration and
convergence of economic, financial, cultural, and political systems across the world.
1.3.1 Economic Globalization

The term ‘globalization’ is widely used in business circles and economics to describe
the increasing internationalization of markets for goods and services, the financial
system, corporations and industries, technology, and competition. In the globalized
economy, distances and national boundaries have substantially diminished with
the removal of obstacles to market access. Besides, there have been reductions in
transaction costs and compression of time and distance in international transactions.
Economic Financial
globalization globalization
Globalization
Cultural Political
globalization globalization
Fig. 1.3 Globalization: A holistic approach

The changes induced by the dynamics of trade, capital flows, and transfer of technol-
ogy have made markets and production in different countries increasingly interde-
pendent. The growing intensity of international competition has increased the need
for cross-border strategic interactions, necessitating business enterprises to organize
themselves into transnational networks. Globalization is characterized by the grow-
ing interdependence of various facets. For instance, foreign direct investment (FDI) is
accompanied by transfer of technology and know-how, along with the movement
of capital (equity, international loans, repatriation of profits, interest, royalties, etc.)
generating exports of goods and services from the investor countries.
The growth in global economic integration is evident from the increase in the
percentage share of world merchandise trade in the world GDP from 32.3 per cent in
1990 to 47.3 per cent in 2005, whereas trade in services grew from 7.8 per cent to
11 per cent during the same period. The gross private capital flows rapidly rose from
10.3 per cent of the world GDP in 1990 to 32.4 per cent in 2005. Here are some
definitions of economic globalization.
The increasing integration of national economic systems through growth in international trade,
investment and capital flows.
– Dictionary of Trade Policy Terms, WTO
A dynamic and multidimensional process of economic integration whereby national resources
become more and more internationally mobile while national economies become increasingly
interdependent .8
– OECD
Economic globalization constitutes integration of national economies into international economy
through trade, direct foreign investment (by corporations and multinationals), short-term capital
flows, international flows of workers and humanity generally, and flows of technology .9
– Jagdish Bhagwati
The activities of multinational enterprises engaged in foreign direct investment and the development
of business networks to create value across national borders.10
– Alan Rugman
For the purposes of this book, globalization is defined as ‘the increasing economic
integration and interdependence of national economies across the world through a
rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, service, technology, and capital’.
1.3.2 Financial Globalization

The liberalization of capital movements and deregulations, especially of financial
services, led to a spurt in cross-border capital flows. The globalization of financial
8 OECD Handbook on Economic Globalization Indicators, 2005, p. 11.

9 Bhagwati, Jagdish, In Defence of Globalization, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 1–17.
10 Rugman, Alan, The End of Globalization, American Management Association, New York, 2001, p. 11.

markets has triggered a rapid growth in investment portfolio and a large movement
of short-term capital borrowers and investors interacting through an increasingly unified
market. The growing integration of financial markets has greatly influenced the conduct
of business and even the performance of the industrial sector. This has significantly
enhanced the vulnerability of stocks that were hitherto considered impervious.
A liquidity crunch in the US makes stock markets across the world go berserk.
Globalization of financial markets makes them inherently volatile with few options to
control left with the national governments.
1.3.3 Cultural Globalization

The convergence of cultures across the world may be termed as cultural globalization.
India’s rich cultural heritage has a glorious history of globalization (Exhibit 1.3), which
is evident even today by its profound impact on people and their lives. Globalization
Exhibit 1.3 India’s cultural globalization
In the sixteenth century, at a time when the North- Ramayana and the Mahabharata. At the site,
ern part of India was reeling under the waves of Cambodian guides earnestly explain the signifi-
conquests and cultural stagnation, people from cance of the symbols protecting the shrinethe
South India were exporting Indianness to South- naga, the shimha, and the garuda, correspond-
east Asia. It was an anonymous task carried out ing to the present-day navy, army, and air force.
not by warrior-heroes blazing across land bearing The marvel of the epic scale of the Hindu temple,
swords of conquest, but by individuals who had as impressive as the finest cathedral or mosque
come in peace, to trade, to teach, and to per- anywhere in the world, is also a marvel at the
suade. Their impact was profound. Even to this extraordinary reach of the Indian culture beyond
day, the kings of Thailand are only crowned in its own shores.
the presence of Brahmin priests; Muslims in Java Hinduism was brought to Cambodia by
still sport Sanskrit names, despite their conver- merchants and travellers more than a millennium
sion to Islam, a faith whose adherents normally ago, and has long since disappeared, supplanted
bear names originating in Arabia; Garuda is by a Buddhism that was also an Indian export.
Indonesias best-selling airline, and Ramayana But, at its peak, Hinduism influenced the culture,
its best-selling brand of clove cigars; and even music, dance, and mythology of the Cambodian
the Philippines has produced a pop-dance people.
ballet about Ramas quest for his kidnapped The Indian culture can be characterized by its
queen Sita. Right at the entrance of Thailands exceptional capability to imbibe align cultures,
Suwarnabhoomi International Airport in Bangkok and this feature distinguishes it from the rest of
is a fascinating sculpture depicting the Hindu the world. Indias present-day civilization draws
mythological story of the Churning of the heavily from Islam and Christianity, consequent
Oceans (samudra-manthan) between the de- to Muslim invasions and British colonial rules. A
mons and the gods (Fig. 1.4). Hindu bridegroom invariably puts on a sherwani
Angkor Wat, perhaps the greatest Hindu during the wedding ceremony, a practice that
temple ever built in the world, is in Cambodia, did not exist before the Muslim invasion of India.
not in India. The exquisite sculptures in the temple The once-alien cricket is Indias virtual national
recount tales from the great Indian epicsthe sport. In selecting the seven new wonders of the
Contd

Exhibit 1.3 Contd
Fig. 1.4 A grandiose sculpture at the entrance of Bangkok’s Suwarnabhoomi International Airport, depicting
the Hindu mythological story of the ‘Churning of the Oceans’ (samudra-manthan) between the
demons and the gods, evidences India’s deep-rooted cultural globalization.
world, Indians voted cynically for the Taj Mahal, Keeping its glorious cultural history in mind,
constructed by the Mughal king Shah Jahan India needs to invest more resources to gain from
and not for Angkor Wat, the most magnificent the globalization of its civilization by way of cul-
architect of the Hindu religion, a fact that testifies tural diplomacy rather than merely focussing all
to the uniqueness of the Indian culture. its efforts on economic and political diplomacy.
Source: Based on Tharoor, Shashi, ‘Let’s Promote the Great Indic Civilisation’, Times of India, New Delhi, 21 October 2007;
http://www.airportsuvarnabhumi.com.
has led to the development of global pop culture. Coca-Cola is sold in more countries
than the United Nations has as members. ‘Coke’ is claimed to be the second-most
universally understood word after OK. McDonald’s has more than 30,000 local
restaurants serving 52 million people everyday in more than 100 countries. Levi’s
jeans are sold in more than 110 countries. Ronald McDonald is second only to Santa
Claus in name recognition for most school children.

1.3.4 Political Globalization

The convergence of political systems and processes around the world is referred to as
political globalization. International business is increasingly conducted across the
juridical, socio-cultural, and physical borders of sovereign states. After World War II,
there has been a proliferation of sovereign states. In 1914 there were 62 separate
states, 74 in 1946, 149 in 1978, 193 in 1991,11 and 209 in 2007.12 The administrative
set-ups and the decision-making processes in multilateral organizations and UN forums
have considerably influenced the governance within sovereign states. Democratic
processes of decision making and governance to a varying extent are increasingly
receiving wider acceptance in most countries.
1.3.5 Dimensions of Economic Globalization

The rapid growth in integration and interdependence of economies can be explained
by the interconnectedness of the various dimensions of economic globalization, as
depicted in Fig. 1.5, such as the globalization of production, markets, competition,
technology, and corporations and industries.
Globalization of production
The increased mobility of the factors of production, especially the movement of capital,
has changed countries’ traditional specialization roles significantly. Consequently, many
firms in developing countries seek to strengthen their competitive advantage by
Globalization Globalization
of of
production markets
Economic
globalization
Globalization
Globalization
of
of
corporations
competition
and industry
Globalization
of
technology
Fig. 1.5 Dimensions of economic globalization
11 ‘A Survey of the New Geopolitics’, The Economist, 31 July 1999.

12 ‘World Development Indicators Databank’, World Bank, July 2007.

specializing in differentiated products with an increasingly large technological content.

Such specialization has given rise to intra-industry trade between developing countries.
Abandoned activities are often acquired by other firms in the same industry to
strengthen their positions. As a result, many firms, in all industries and different
countries, establish co-operative agreements or adopt strategies of mergers and
acquisitions and network organizations, which has contributed to a surge in FDI during
recent decades. Moreover, the privatization of public enterprises across the world has
also accelerated cross-border investments.
The globalization of production has led to multinational origin of product
components, services, and capital as a result of transnational collaborations among
business enterprises. Firms evaluate various locations world-wide for manufacturing
activities so as to take advantage of local resources and optimize manufacturing
competitiveness. Companies from the US, the EU, and Japan manufacture at overseas
locations more than three times of their exports produced in the home country. Intra-
firm export-import transactions constitute about one-third of their international trade.
Globalization of markets
Marketing gurus in the last two decades have extensively argued over customized
marketing strategies in the globalization of markets. Theodore Levitt, in his path-
breaking paper ‘Globalization of Markets’,13 views the recent emergence of global
markets on a previously unimagined scale of magnitude. Technology as the most
powerful force has driven the world towards converging commonality. Technological
strides in telecommunication, transport, and travel have created new consumer
segments in the isolated places of the world. Kenichi Ohmae also advocates the concept
of a borderless world and the need for universal products for global markets.14
Standardized products are increasingly finding markets across the globe. Such
globalization of markets has on one hand increased the opportunity for marketing
internationally while on the other has increased the competitive intensity of global
brands in the market.
The simultaneous competition in markets between the numerous new competitors
across the world is intensifying. This offers tremendous challenge to the existing business
competitiveness of firms, compelling them to globalize and make rapid structural
changes.
Globalization of competition
This refers to the intensification of competition among business enterprises on a global
scale. Such globalization of competition has resulted in the emergence of new strategic
transnational alliances among companies across the world. Increasingly, more firms
need to compete with new players from around the globe in their own markets as well
13 Levitt, Theodore, ‘Globalization of Markets’, Harvard Business Review, May/June, 1983, pp. 92–102.
14 Ohmae, Kenichi, ‘Managing in the Borderless World’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 53, May/June 1989, pp. 152–62.

as foreign ones. To cope with global competition, firms need to simultaneously harness
their skills and generate synergy by a broad range of specialized skills, such as
technological, financial, industrial, commercial, cultural, and administrative skills,
located in different countries or even different continents.
Globalization of technology
The rapid pace of innovations with international networks and convergence of
standards across countries has contributed to the globalization of technology. This
rapid dissemination of technology internationally and the simultaneous shortening of
the cycles of production has led to the globalization of technology.
Countries with advanced technologies are best placed to innovate further. Moreover,
unlike in the past when inventions and innovations were considered breakthroughs,
today they are a regular occurrence. This implies that the transformation process is
continuous and thus has important consequences both for the overall organization
of firms and for policy making. Global firms rely on technological innovations to
enhance their capabilities. Thus, technology is both driven by and is a driver of
globalization. Moreover, it has led to the emergence of new ‘technologically driven
character’ of the global economy.15
Globalization of corporations and industries

The worldwide economic liberalization led to the rapid growth in FDIs and the
relocation of business enterprises heavily driven by the various forms of international
strategic alliances and mergers and acquisitions across the world. As a result, there
has been widespread rise in the fragmentation of production processes, whereby
different stages of production for a given product are carried out in different countries.
1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING GLOBALIZATION

The process of globalization is characterized by the interplay of dynamic forces that
act as movers and restraining factors, as shown in Fig. 1.6, which offers significant
challenges to traditionally established ways of doing businesses. Since the driving
forces of globalization are considerably stronger than the restraining factors,
globalization of business assumes much higher significance.
1.4.1 Movers of Globalization

Economic liberalization
Economic liberalization, both in terms of regulations and tariff structure, has greatly
contributed to the globalization of trade and investment. The emergence of the
multilateral trade regime under the WTO has facilitated the reduction of tariffs and
15 Asian Development Bank, ‘Drivers of Change: Globalization, Technology and Competition’, Asian Development Outlook, Oxford
University Press, Hong Kong, 2003, p. 208.

Transportation Movers
Information and
communication
Manufacturing International Move towards
economic free marketing
Multilateral integration systems Rising R&D
institutions costs
Technological
breakthrough
Advents in
logistics
Economic management
liberalization
Emergence
of global
customer
segments
Globalization
Regulatory Management
controls myopia
Emerging Wars and
new trade civil disturbances
barriers
Cultural
Nationalism
factors
Restraining factors
Fig. 1.6 Globalization: Movers vs restraining factors
non-tariff trade barriers. In the coming years, the tariffs are expected to decline
considerably further.
Technological breakthroughs
The breakthroughs in science and technology have transformed the world virtually
into a global village, especially manufacturing, transportation, and information and
communication technologies, as discussed here.
Manufacturing technology Technological advancements transformed manufac-
turing processes and made mass production possible, which led to the industrial
revolution. The production efficiency resulted in cost-effective production of uniform
goods on a large scale. In order to achieve the scale economies to sustain large-scale
production, markets beyond national boundaries need to be explored.
Transportation technology The advents in all means of transports by roads, rail-
ways, air, and sea have considerably increased the speed and brought down the costs

incurred. Air travel has become not only speedier but cheaper. This has boosted the
movement of people and goods across countries.
Information and communication technology The advent of information and
communication technology and the fast developments in the means of transport have
considerably undermined the significance of distance in country selection for expanding
business. There has been a considerable reduction in international telecommunica-
tion costs due to improved technology and increased competition. This has given rise
to new business models, such as the off-shore delivery of services to global locations
and electronic business transactions.
Multilateral institutions
A number of multilateral institutions under the UN framework, set up during the
post-World War II era, have facilitated exchanges among countries and became
prominent forces in present-day globalization. Multilateral organizations such as the
GATT and WTO contributed to the process of globalization and the opening up of
markets by consistently reducing tariffs and increasing market access through various
rounds of multilateral trade negotiations. The evolving multilateral framework under
the WTO regime, such as Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS), Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), General Agreement on Trade in
Services (GATS), dispute settlement mechanism, anti-dumping measures, etc., has
facilitated international trade and investment. Besides, the International Monetary
Fund has contributed to ensuring the smooth functioning of the international monetary
system.
International economic integrations

Consequent to World War II, a number of countries across the world collaborated to
form economic groupings so as to promote trade and investment among the members.
The Treaty of Rome in 1957 led to the creation of the European Economic Community
(EEC) that graduated to the European Union (EU) so as to form a stronger Economic
Union. The US, Canada, and Mexico collaborated to form the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994. The reduction of trade barriers among the member
countries under the various economic integrations around the world has not only
contributed to the accelerated growth in trade and investment but also affected the
international trade patterns considerably.
Move towards free marketing systems

The demise of centrally planned economies in Eastern Europe, the former USSR,
and China has also contributed to the process of globalization as these countries
gradually integrated themselves with the world economy. The Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) countries—all former Soviet Republics—and China have
opened up and are moving towards market-driven economic systems at a fast pace.

However, the exceptions to free market systems are the autocratic countries, such as
North Korea and Cuba.
Rising research and development costs

The rapid growth in market competition and the ever-increasing insatiable consumer
demand for newer and increasingly sophisticated goods and services compel businesses
to invest huge amounts on research and development (R&D). In order to recover the
costs of massive investments in R&D and achieve economic viability, it becomes
necessary to globalize the business operations. For instance, software companies such
as Microsoft, Novel, and Oracle, commercial aircraft manufacturers like Boeing and
Airbus, pharmaceutical giants such as Pfizer, Glaxo SmithKline, Johnson & Johnson,
Merck, and Novartis, etc., can hardly be commercially viable unless global scale of
operations are adopted.
Global expansion of business operations

Growing market access and movement of capital across countries have facilitated the
rapid expansion of business operations globally. Since the comparative advantages of
countries strongly influence the location strategies of multinational corporations,
companies tend to expand their businesses overseas with the growing economic
liberalization. As a result, multinational corporations constitute the main vectors of
economic globalization.
Advents in logistics management

Besides these, the greater availability of speedier and increasingly cost-effective means
of transport, breakthroughs in logistics management such as multimodal transport
technology, and third-party logistics management contributed to the faster and efficient
movement of goods internationally.
Emergence of the global customer segment

Customers around the world are fast exhibiting convergence of tastes and preferences
in terms of their product likings and buying habits. Automobiles, fast-food outlets,
music systems, and even fashion goods are becoming amazingly similar across
countries. The proliferation of transnational satellite television and telecommunication
has accelerated the process of cultural convergence. Traditionally, cultural values were
transmitted through generations by parents or grandparents or other family members.
However, with the emergence of unit families that have both parents working, television
has become the prominent source of acculturation not only in Western countries but
in oriental countries as well. Besides, advances in the modes of transport and increased
international travel have greatly contributed to the growing similarity of customer
preferences across countries. Thus, the process of globalization has encouraged firms
to tap the global markets with increased product standardization. This has also given
rise to rapid increase in global brands.

1.4.2 Factors Restraining Globalization

Regulatory controls
The restrictions imposed by national governments by way of regulatory measures in
their trade, industrial, monetary, and fiscal policies restrain companies from global
expansion. Restrictions on portfolio and foreign direct investment considerably
influence monetary and capital flows across borders. The high incidence of import
duties makes imported goods uncompetitive and deters them from entering domestic
markets.
Emerging trade barriers

The integration of national economies under the WTO framework has restrained
countries from increasing tariffs and imposing explicit non-tariff trade barriers.
However, countries are consistently evolving innovative marketing barriers that
are WTO compatible. Such barriers include quality and technical specifications,
environmental issues, regulations related to human exploitation, such as child labour,
etc. Innovative technical jargons and justifications are often evolved by developed
countries to impose such restrictions over goods from developing countries, who find
it very hard to defend against such measures.
Cultural factors
Cultural factors can restrain the benefits of globalization. For instance, France’s
collective nationalism favours home-grown agriculture and the US fear of terrorism
has made foreign management of its ports difficult and restrained the entry of the
Dubai Port World.
Nationalism
The feeling of nationalism often aroused by local trade and industry, trade unions,
political parties, and other nationalistic interest groups exerts considerable pressure
against globalization. The increased availability of quality goods at comparatively
lower prices generally benefits the mass consumers in the importing country but hurts
the interests of the domestic industry.
On one hand, consumers in general are hardly organized to exert any influence on
policy making, while on the other, trade and industry have considerable clout through
their associations and unions to use pressure tactics on national governments against
economic liberalization.
War and civil disturbances

The inability to maintain conducive business environment with sufficient freedom of
operations restricts foreign companies from investing. Companies often prefer to
expand their business operations in countries that offer peace and security. Countries
engaged in prolonged war and civil disturbances are generally avoided for international
trade and investment.

Management myopia
A number of well-established business enterprises operating indigenously exhibit little
interest in expanding their business overseas. Besides, several other factors such as
resource availability, risks, and the attitude of top management play a significant role
in the internationalization of business activities.
1.5 MEASURING GLOBALIZATION

Although quantifying globalization is difficult, a number of approaches have been
used to measure globalization. As international managers are especially concerned
about economic globalization that affects businesses the most, it can be measured
based on the trade openness of a country, FDI inflows and outflows, capital account
restrictions, trade barriers, etc.
1.5.1 Trade Openness

The trade openness of a country can be measured as the percentage share of total
trade in the total GDP. The total trade is arrived by summing up exports and imports
of goods and credit and debits of services. The cross-country comparison reveals (see
Fig. 1.7) that Singapore is the most open economy with 474 per cent share of total
trade to GDP in 2007, followed by Hong Kong (409%), Malaysia (210%), Netherlands
(137%), Switzerland (115%), China (76%), Canada (68%), and South Africa (67%),
whereas Brazil is the least open economy with the share of total trade to GDP as
26 per cent followed by the US (29%), Japan (35%), Australia (39%), India (45%),
Russian Federation (51%), France (54%), and the UK (56%).
The percentage share of total trade in GDP increased only marginally for the US
and the UK from 23.1 per cent and 54.3 per cent in 1998 to 29 per cent and 56 per
cent, respectively, in 2007 whereas the percentage share of India and China increased
remarkably from 25.7 per cent and 39.2 per cent in 1998 to 45 per cent and 76 per
cent, respectively, in 2007. Countries with a higher degree of trade openness generally
grew relatively faster compared to those with low trade openness. Switzerland is home
to the largest number of the world’s top global companies in relation to its population,
followed by the US, Scandinavia, Britain, Belgium, Netherlands, and France. 16
1.5.2 KOF Index of Globalization

A holistic approach to assess globalization is adopted under the KOF overall Index of
Globalization based on three sub-indices, which are
Economic globalization This refers to the long distance flows of goods, capital, and
services as well as information and perceptions that accompany market exchanges.
16 ‘Tomorrow the World’, The Economist, 10 February 2007, pp. 5–6.

0 100 200 300 400 500
Singapore 474
Hong Kong (China) 409
Malaysia 210
Netherlands 137
Switzerland 115
Saudi Arabia 98
China 76
Canada 68
South Africa 67
UK 56
France 54
Russian Federation 51
India 45
Australia 39
Japan 35
US 29
Brazil 26
Fig. 1.7 Cross-country comparison of trade openness, 2007 (percentage share of total trade to total GDP)
Source: World Development Indicators, 2008, World Bank.
Social globalization This is characterized by the spread of ideas, information, images,

and people.
Political globalization This is expressed as a diffusion of government policies.
Each of the above indices is allocated different weights: economic globalization
(36%), social globalization (38%), and political globalization (25%). In constructing
the indices of globalization, each of the variables introduced above is transformed to
an index on a scale of one to hundred, where hundred is the maximum value for a
specific variable over the period 1970 to 2005, and one is the minimum value. The
higher values denote a higher degree of globalization. The availability of the indices
for 122 countries consistently since 1970 enables the empirical comparison of global-
ization trends during the period.
Belgium tops in overall globalization with a score of 92.09 under the KOF Index of
Globalization, as shown in Table 1.1, followed by Austria (91.38), Sweden (90.02), and
Switzerland (88.60), whereas the UK ranks seventh with a score of 86.67, the US

Table 1.1 KOF Index of Globalization, 2008
Globalization Economic Social Political

Rank Country index globalization globalization globalization
1 Belgium 92.09 91.94 90.82 94.22
2 Austria 91.38 88.48 92.49 93.86
3 Sweden 90.02 89.51 87.43 94.69
4 Switzerland 88.60 83.13 95.38 86.15
6 Netherlands 88.40 88.04 89.41 87.38
7 UK 86.67 79.24 87.87 95.52
9 France 85.38 77.42 84.17 98.68
11 Germany 83.01 74.22 83.30 95.17
15 Canada 81.21 80.83 86.85 73.21
20 Singapore 78.37 95.90 92.26 32.12
21 Australia 77.35 67.74 81.51 84.82
22 US 76.76 63.15 76.52 96.67
27 Luxembourg 72.88 95.14 78.10 33.00
33 Russian Federation 69.82 57.29 64.40 96.04
43 China 64.56 61.54 49.08 92.39
48 South Africa 63.03 69.38 43.99 82.20
51 Japan 60.91 53.84 52.66 83.59
52 Brazil 58.86 61.69 36.82 88.26
58 Thailand 57.10 63.99 43.10 68.45
81 India 50.54 42.89 31.04 91.10
99 Tanzania 42.59 42.92 29.34 62.22
121 Burundi 22.41 27.43 24.19 12.50
122 Saudi Arabia n.a. n.a. 68.18 48.10
Source: Dreher, Axel, Noel Gaston, and Pim Martens, 2008, ‘Measuring Globalization—Gauging Its Consequence’, New York,
Springer.
n.a.: Data not available.
22nd (76.76), China 43rd (64.56), India 81st (50.54), and Burundi and Saudi Arabia
rank the last.
1.5.3 A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Globalization Index

A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Globalization Index (2007) measures 72 countries that
account for 97 per cent of the world’s GDP and 88 per cent of population. A
comprehensive framework to measure globalization is provided by the globalization
index brought out by A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy, based on 12 variables grouped
into four ‘baskets’, as shown in Table 1.2, is discussed below.
Economic integration Trade, portfolio, and foreign direct investments
Personal integration International travel and tourism, international telephone calls,
cross-boarder remittances, and personal fund transfers
Technological integration Number of Internet users, Internet hosts, and secured Internet
servers

Table 1.2 A.T. Kearney/foreign policy globalization index rankings, 2007
Overall Individual dimension’s ranking

ranking Economic Personal Technological Political
Singapore 1 2 3 15 40
Hong Kong 2 1 1 17 71
Netherlands 3 4 16 6 8
Switzerland 4 11 2 7 28
Ireland 5 6 4 13 5
Denmark 6 5 13 5 7
US 7 71 40 1 51
Canada 8 34 11 2 13
Sweden 11 15 19 8 10
Britain 12 18 21 9 6
Australia 13 26 39 3 41
Belgium 15 7 7 22 16
New Zealand 16 57 23 4 34
Germany 22 45 34 16 19
France 25 31 29 24 3
Japan 28 70 65 12 15
Thailand 53 21 57 49 68
Russia 62 49 60 46 52
China 66 43 67 56 65
Brazil 67 69 71 39 42
India 71 66 59 63 69
Iran 72 65 72 54 70
Source: A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Globalization Index, 2007.
Political integration Country memberships in international organizations, personal

and financial contributions to UN peacekeeping missions, ratification of selected
multilateral treaties, and amounts of government transfer payments and receipts
The A.T. Kearney Index ranks Singapore as the most globalized country in the
world, followed by Hong Kong, Netherlands, Switzerland, Ireland, Denmark, the US,
Canada, Jordan, and Estonia. Iran is the least globalized country in the index followed
by India, Algeria, Indonesia, Venezuela, Brazil, China, Turkey, Bangladesh, and
Pakistan.
It may be observed that most globalized countries are smaller in size. Eight of the
index’s top ten countries have land areas smaller than the US state of Indiana, and
seven have fewer than 8 million citizens. Canada and the US are the only large countries
that consistently rank in the top ten.
In fact, globalization is a matter of necessity when a country is a fly-weight. Reaching
out beyond national borders is the only way to find new opportunities for tiny countries.
Countries like Singapore and Netherlands lack natural resources. Small countries,
such as Ireland and Denmark, can hardly rely upon their domestic markets to sustain
large-scale production the way the US, India, and China can. Thus, these countries

hardly have an option other than to open up their economies and attract trade and
investment to be globally competitive.
1.6 GLOBALIZATION: REALITY OR MYTH

Rugman argues that globalization is a myth that never occurred anyway.17 The riots
in Seattle in December 1999 during the WTO ministerial and subsequent protests,
sometimes violent, were interpreted as defeat of free trade and globalization.
It is also interesting to learn that 43 per cent (i.e., 107) of the world’s top 250 retailers
have not yet ventured beyond their own borders. An additional 35 companies operate
in just two—typically contiguous—countries, such as the US and Canada, Spain
and Portugal, or Australia and New Zealand. Foreign operations of the world’s top
250 retail companies, on average, still account for only 14.4 per cent of their total
retail sales. A country-wise analysis of the world’s top 250 retailers reveals18 the
following astonishing facts:
l Over half of the US-based companies (i.e., 49 of 93 retailers) operate only in a
single country.
l Japan remains the most insular as two-thirds of the top 250 Japanese retailers
operate only in Japan.
l Asian, Latin American, and North American retailers are the least likely to have
foreign operations, although globalization is slowly accelerating.
l European and African retailers dominate in terms of the degree to which they
operate internationally.
l On an average, the top 250 European firms did business in 9.9 countries in
2005, generating 28.1 per cent of their sales from foreign operations.
l The five South African retailers in the top 250 list operated in an average of
8.8 countries, primarily throughout the African continent.
l French and German retailers are the most international in scope, primarily due
to low consumer spending, fierce market competition, and the tough regulatory
environment in home markets.
The sales analysis of the world’s largest 500 firms astonishingly reveals that 70 per
cent or more of their sales takes place in their home triad rather than global sales. It
leads to infer that the world’s largest companies hardly bother to be global; rather
they act local (see Exhibit 1.4) to harness their core competencies.
1.7 SUPPORT OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization means different things to different people and is considered to have
both positive and negative impacts. Opinions vary widely on its influence on national
economies. The major arguments in support of globalization include the following.
17 Rugman, Alan, The End of Globalization, American Management Association, New York, 2001, pp. 1–18.
18 ‘2007 Global Powers of Retailing’, Deloitte, New York, 2007, pp. 9–12.

Exhibit 1.4 Forget global, think regional, act local
Major implications of global business require then design a regional strategy and structure,
firms to work out regional strategies, rather than rather than a global one.
global ones. A global strategy of economic inte- n Do not assume that a global strategy is either a
gration is viable only in a few sectors, such as necessary or significant condition for better
consumer electronics. For most other manufac- performance; staying in the home region may
turing, such as automobiles and for services, be the optimal strategy.
regional strategies are required. n Look into the nature of the activities of leading
Therefore, the firms need to reconsider their competitors; if they operate regionally rather
than globally, it sends a useful message to be
strategies as discussed below:
regional too.
n Analyse the regional sales data for the company n Access and understand fully the business
as a whole and for each business unit. implications of regional trade organizations such
n Find out if the company and/or business unit as the EU and NAFTA; look into the WTO as it
is global as defined. If it is, develop a global affects regional trade and investment, rather than
strategy and structure. global business.
n If the company and/or business unit is actually n Think regional, act local, forget global.
home-region based (which is much more likely),
Source: Adapted from Alan M. Rugman, ‘The Regional Multinationals: MNEs and “Global” Strategic Management’,
Cambridge University Press, 2005.
1.7.1 Maximization of Economic Efficiencies

The global integration of economies has prompted a rapid rise in the movement of
products, capital, and labour across the borders. It contributes to the maximization of
economic efficiencies, including the efficient utilization and allocation of resources,
such as natural resources, labour, and capital on a global scale, resulting in a sharp
increase in global output and economic growth.
1.7.2 Enhanced Trade

Besides rapid trade growth, new patterns on international trade are fast evolving. The
creation of foreign-based affiliates by national firms and of host-country affiliates by
foreign parent companies has led to a rise in intra-firm trade.
1.7.3 Increased Cross-border Capital Movement

The economic liberalization across the world has paved way for FDIs even in a large
number of developing countries that had a restrictive regulatory framework. This has
opened up business opportunities for transnational corporations to expand their
operations by way of ownership on one hand and benefited developing countries
from increased flow of capital and other forms of finance on the other. Direct investment
is increasingly becoming crucial to companies’ international expansion strategies. This

has led to the globalization of manufacturing and fragmentation of the production

process into its sub-component parts in multiple countries.
1.7.4 Improved Efficiency of Local Firms

The heightened competition by multinationals compels local businesses to adopt
measures to cut down costs and improve quality for survival. On one hand, competition
makes the survival of inefficient businesses difficult; on the other, it encourages firms
to evolve innovative methods to improve productivity. As a result, business enterprises
become more competitive not only domestically but also internationally at times.
1.7.5 Increase in Consumer Welfare

Consumers benefit by increased access to products and services from manufactures
across the world. Import restrictions in a large number of developing countries has
deprived consumers of global brands and the quality thereof. Besides the intensification
of market, competition has also compelled domestic producers to reduce prices. As
all domestic and multinational companies compete with each other to woo the
customer, the consumer became the ultimate gainer.
1.8 CRITICISM OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is often denounced by social organizations, NGOs, politicians,
consumers, and even the general public on multiple grounds as the sole cause of all
ills. It is often decried as just another term for Americanization and US global
imperialism. There have been numerous protests against globalization in various parts
of the world. Contrary to general belief, the support for globalization is the lowest in
the US and even in certain other developed countries, including France, Britain, and
Germany, whereas it is much higher in developing countries such as India and China
(see Exhibit 1.5).
Exhibit 1.5 Globalization losing steam in the West
Developed countries seem to be losing their en- wary of immigration that accompanies the open-
thusiasm towards globalization, MNCs, and free ing up of the economy. People often feel threat-
markets, as revealed by a survey carried out by a ened by this as it could endanger their culture
Pew Global Attitudes Report covering 45,000 and environment, which need to be protected.
people across 47 countries. Countries like the US, The study reveals 64 per cent people in China
Britain, France, and Italy are not so supportive of and 73 per cent in India support foreign compa-
globalization any more, unlike their stand even nies (see Table 1.3), while in the West, where
five years ago, whereas people in China and economic growth has been relatively modest, the
India show much higher support for globaliza- figure is as low as 45 per cent in the US.
tion. While supporting capitalism, people are
Contd

Exhibit 1.5 Contd
Table 1.3 Support for globalization (in percentage)
Countries Trade MNCs Free market

China 91 64 75
India 89 73 76
Germany 85 47 65
Britain 78 49 72
France 78 44 56
US 59 45 70
Source: The Pew Global Attitude Project Report, Washington DC, 4 October 2007.
Globalization is frequently criticised on several grounds as discussed below.
1.8.1 Developed versus Developing Countries:

Unequal Players in Globalization
The dynamics of the globalization process reveals that developed and developing
countries participate on unequal footings. Developed countries along with their mighty
multinational corporations exert a very strong force globally while developing country
governments and civil society organizations hold much less sway. Developed country
governments often reserve and exercise the right to take unilateral and bilateral actions
that have global scope and implications concurrently with their participation in debates
and negotiations.
According to the neo-classical economic theories of equilibria, capital will flow
towards areas of cheap labour but labour will flow towards the areas of expensive
labour—thereby raising the cost of labour where it was once cheap by reducing the
available numbers and bringing down the cost of labour where it was once expensive.
Although there have to be some bottlenecks in the theoretical framework, it seems
that the ‘powerful’ countries, the ‘superpowers’ themselves, use their power to create
such bottlenecks. In the developed world, quotas, controls, and oppressive legislation
curtailing the movement of people, derogatorily called ‘economic refugees’, are justified
in the name of protecting ‘national’ principle but similar measures are seldom applied
against the movement of capital.
Economic efficiency is often one of the strong reasons for advocating globalization
in that allowing free movement of goods and capital across borders would lead to the
lowest costs and thus the lowest prices. But this argument ignores the real social
consequences of the search for economic efficiency. For instance, farmers in developing
countries commit suicides as the commodity prices crash, workers are thrown out of
jobs as factories close, unique and specialized businesses are driven out of the market
because they do not have the advantage of economies of scale, etc.

Developing countries are continually preached about on the need to reduce tariffs
by multilateral organizations. Ironically, the West and the European Union impose
such rigid non-tariff barriers that firms from developing countries hardly have any
chance to break into their markets. Global pharmaceutical companies often gang up
against drug companies from developing countries.
For most Europeans and Americans, globalization only means two types of fear:
fear of cheap Chinese goods and fear of Islamic immigrants. Business process
outsourcing (BPO) still remains a big political issue in the US.19 Getting ‘Bangalored’
is often used in a pejorative way in the US to refer to the loss of a job because it has
been exported to India.
1.8.2 Widening Gap between the Rich and the Poor

The gains of globalization are not evenly distributed. Under globalization, those who
possess capital and skills are better off, but the middle class is reported to get more
and more squeezed. Noble laureate Joseph Stiglitz observes that globalization is creating
rich countries with poor people. The benefits of globalization have failed to reach the
poorest citizens of the world’s wealthiest country and this was evident when Hurricane
Katrina hit the US province of New Orleans. Globalization has applied intense
downward pressure on the wages of the unskilled and the less skilled of the labour
force even in advanced countries.
Globalization is often accused of contributing to the rise in poverty in developing
countries, while in the developed world it is associated with growing economic
inequality, unemployment, and fears about job security, which fuels demand for trade,
protection, and more restrictive trade policies. Globalization, often characterized by
connectedness among countries, has bypassed a huge swathe of territory from Africa,
the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central and Southwest Asia to South Asia, parts of Southeast
Asia, and parts of the Caribbean. Poorer countries’ share in world trade has fallen
over the past 20 years.
Income inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient has risen over the past decades
in most regions, such as in developing Asia, emerging Europe, Latin America, and
the newly industrialized economies of Asia as well as in advanced economies. In
contrast, it has declined in sub-Saharan Africa and the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS).20
The failure of the WTO’s Doha round—because of the tenacity of both the US and
Europe’s persistent refusal to reduce trade-distorting subsidies and of the developing
countries to open up their market access—was bad news for poor farmers in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America. Rich countries spend US$300 billion a year on agriculture
subsidies—more than six times the amount they give away as foreign aid. The subsidies
19
Sanghvi, Vir, ‘Liberalisation vs Globalization’, Hindustan Times, New Delhi, 19 February 2006.
20Jaumotte, Florence, Subir Lall, Chris Papageorgiou, and Petia Tapalova, ‘Technology Widening Rich-Poor Gap’, IMF Survey
Magazine, 10 October 2007.

depress world prices for such agricultural commodities as cotton, peanuts, and poultry,
making it harder for farmers in developing nations to make a living.
Despite tall claims of welfare in the globalized era, more than a billion people in
the world still live on less than a dollar a day. To the policy makers of rich countries,
they are simply considered as forces of threats ranging from illegal immigration to
drug smuggling to crime and as vectors of diseases.
Economic failure in countries in the ‘non-integrating gap’ has resulted in a global
job crisis leading to migration problems. As the per capita GDP of the high-income
countries grows at a rate of about 66 times that of the low-income countries, the lure
of better-paid jobs has become stronger than ever. Tens of thousand of people from
the hopeless economies of sub-Saharan Africa make desperate attempts to enter
Europe. Unable to compete with cheaper imported grains, many Mexican farmers
have abandoned their rural occupations for a hazardous journey to the US as illegal
immigrants.21
Immigration laws in developed countries have been tightening against a rising tide
of poor migrants, and the planned erection of a 700-mile long fence along the US–
Mexican border has become a symbol of the anti-immigrant sentiment across the
Western world. ‘Globalization’ has become a dirty word in Latin America, the continent
described as ‘the most inequitable’ on the planet.
On an average, developed countries impose tariffs on developing countries four
times higher than those on developed ones. Rich countries have cost poor countries
three times more in trade restrictions than they give in development aid.22
1.8.3 Wipe-out of Domestic Industry

Opening up of countries for trade and investment for foreign corporations often leads
to buying up of local industry by Western conglomerates. As a result, a few ‘global
brands’ dominate the markets, no matter which country you are in.
The clusters of smaller firms in Italy and Germany that were once successful
exporters have suffered as commoditized textiles, footwear, and toys from China have
swamped the market. To cope up with the competition from cheap imports, companies
keep the production of core parts of their output at their home base and send
components for assembly in low-wage countries such as China.23
1.8.4 Unemployment and Mass Lay-offs

Globalization is reported to have pushed workers from the organized to the unorganized
sector, where they enjoy much less job security and sometimes lower wages as well.
This has aggravated the problems of unemployment, shifting labour from secured to
casual or parttime jobs with little security and lower wages for tasks requiring lower
21 Chanda, Nayan, ‘Disruptive Events Can Derail Globalization’, Business World, 16 July 2007, pp. 84–88.
22 Stiglitz, Joseph, ‘Globalization Is Creating Rich Countries with Rich People’, Business World, 16 October 2006.
23 ‘In the Steps of Adidas’, The Economist, 10 February 2007, p. 12.

skills. The process of cost-cutting has raised the share of capital in value addition.
Higher business profits are often attributed to exploitative efficiency rather than
increased opportunities.24 The bargaining power of trade unions has considerably
declined. In order to save the workers from job losses, trade unions are often forced to
accept cuts in wages and salaries, freezing of numerous monetary and non-monetary
benefits, increase in share of temporary workforce, and curbing of union activities
and even lay-offs.
1.8.5 Balance of Payments Problems

The liberalization of foreign investment policies results in an increase in foreign capital
inflows that leads to the appreciation of local currency. This adversely impacts the
export competitiveness and in turn the export-intensive manufacturing industry in
the country. Consequently, imports become relatively cheaper and the viability of
indigenous industry even for the domestic market is adversely affected. This has led
to mass lay-offs of the workforce besides exerting pressure on the country’s balance of
payments, especially in developing countries.
1.8.6 Increased Volatility of Markets

The global integration of economies has made markets highly vulnerable to external
upheavals. For instance, the soaring popularity of the film Titanic in the US created a
boom in the worldwide demand for the gem tanzanite whereas its subsequent
association with a terrorist outfit drastically brought down its prices (see Exhibit 1.6).
Exhibit 1.6 Global reach of Titanic and Taliban affects tanzanite’s glitter
The consequences of globalization have both some terrorist outfits such as Al Qaeda. Tanzanite
desirable and undesirable influences on business is mined at only one place on earth, a thirteen
activities. The globalization of markets with an square kilometre catch of graphite rock in
emerging global customer segment leads to Mererani or Merelani hills in Tanzania. Tanzanite
worldwide boom of market demand, whereas the is known to be 1000 times rarer than diamond
global reach of terrorism is increasingly getting due to its rare occurrence. Although sapphire is a
capable of creating tremors in business operations comparatively costlier blue stone than tanzanite,
across the world. it is believed to carry Saturn effects with it whereas
The blue gem tanzanite swamped the West tanzanite is reported to be free from astrological
with the release of Titanic in 1997. The demand impacts. Thus, tanzanite is known purely for its
for tanzanite peaked in the global markets during aesthetic value. Besides, it is available at prices
this period as actress Kate Winslet hurls the ranging from US$2 per carat to US$500 per carat,
gem into the sea in the film (Fig. 1.8). However, its making it affordable even to the developing
sales came down drastically when the gemstone country consumers.
was regarded as a source of financial support for
Contd
24 Datta, Ruddar and K.P.M. Sundharam, Indian Economy, S. Chand Publications, 56th edn, New Delhi, 2007, p. 255.

Exhibit 1.6 Contd
The Indian city of Jaipur is the biggest pro-

cessing hub of gem stones, claiming 95 per cent
of the total exports of the finished gemstone. The
other processing centres, Thailand and Germany,
contribute a meagre 5 per cent of finished tanza-
nite. The US remains the largest market for tan-
zanite, which is second in popularity only to
sapphire.
In 1997, when the popularity of tanzanite
soared its crest, the US was selling US$380
million worth of tanzanite jewellery a year. This
later nosedived to around US$200 after the 9/11
terrorist attack. Its sales hit rock bottom when
the gem was rejected by the US market on the
pretext of its Al-Qaeda links. As a result, Jaipur
jewellers were left in tizzy as they imported
roughs in large quantities from Tanzania. Jaipur
was once exporting tanzanite worth Rs 2 billion,
which came down to Rs 700 million by
December 2007, out of the total Rs 10 billion
coloured stone market.
The over-dependability on a particular market,
that is, the US, which is highly sensitive to
perceived threats of terrorism, led to the rapid
fall of tanzanite, putting the tanzanite industry,
which is largely export-based, into debacle. The
Fig. 1.8 Tanzanite swamped global markets with the industry now needs to explore new markets as
release of Titanic, in which it was worn by one does not know when business blues will
Hollywood actress Kate Winslet. overpower the glitter of tanzanite blue.
Source: ‘From Titanic to Taliban: The Saga of Tanzanite’, Economic Times, 21 December 2007.
Use of lead to paint toys by Chinese manufacturers evokes serious concerns among
consumers around the world, compelling children in several countries to abandon
their favourite toys, including the Barbie doll. Stock markets have become highly
interconnected to global happenings. Any plunge in the US stock market sends tremors
to shareholders across the world.
1.8.7 Diminishing Power of Nation States

The global forces, the increasingly transnational character of capital, the erosion and
sometimes the voluntary surrender of state sovereignty have all made countries less
powerful, for instance the transnational alliances such as the European Union. As a
result, less powerful countries find it difficult to control their own destinies and become
victims of forces beyond their control. Diminishing sovereignty is reported to be the

source of many of the ills of the contemporary world. Its citizens lose control of their
day-to-day lives.
1.8.8 Loss of Cultural Identity

The proliferation of satellite channels, the Internet, and the means of transportation
and communication have immensely affected the social and cultural values of masses
across the world. Most people agree that globalization is changing our values and
making lives too fast and impersonal.25 The forces of globalization have led to cultural
convergence across countries, and individuals tend to lose their country-specific cultural
values and national identity.
1.8.9 Shift of Power to Multinationals

As a result of the globalization of markets and production, a number of transnational
companies, such as Microsoft, General Electric, Unilever, Procter & Gamble, Sony,
Ford, Toyota, etc., have emerged to operate across the globe. The total sales revenue
of these MNCs is greater than the total national income of a large number of mid-
sized and small countries. The global scale operations of multinationals empower
them with enormous financial and political muscle to monopolize the markets and
influence government decision making.
Nations often fear losing their sovereignty due to the shift of power to MNCs and
supernational organizations. Multinationals are often accused of exploiting resources
and abusing the environment. Consequent to economic liberalization, India’s best-
selling soft-drink brands, i.e., Parle’s Thumps Up and Limca, were bought by the
global giant Coke.
1.9 RESPONSE STRATEGIES TO GLOBALIZATION FORCES

FOR EMERGING MARKET COMPANIES
Most books and business literature on the subject often discuss at length the global
strategies of mammoth multinationals, such as Coke/Pepsi, Sony/LG, or Unilever/
Nestle, but very little is known or written about local firms, especially from the emerging
economies. Since local firms in the emerging markets can hardly match the resources,
expertise, and experience of large multinationals, it becomes crucial to understand
their strategic perspective to respond to the forces of globalization. Depending upon
the industry pressure to globalize and the transferability of assets, the emerging market
companies can adopt four strategic options26 (Fig. 1.9) as follows.
1.9.1 Defender
In some industries, where the pressure to globalize is low and the local companies’
primary competitive strength lies in their deep understanding of the markets or their
25 Neilson, A.C., Global Consumer Opinion Survey, 2006; ‘Global Villagers’, Hindustan Times, 24 August 2006.
26 Dawar, N. and T. Frost, ‘Competing for Giants’, Harvard Business Review, March–April 1999.

Competitive assets
Customized to Transferable
Industry pressure home market abroad
High Dodger Contender

to globalize
Low Defender Extender
Fig. 1.9 Response strategies of emerging market companies to globalization forces

Source: Dawar, N. and T. Frost, ‘Competing for Giants’, Harvard Business Review, March–April 1999, 119–29.
competitive assets are customized to the local markets, companies should adopt a
defensive strategy that focuses on leveraging local assets in market segments where
multinationals are weak.
For instance, in order to successfully counter the multinational enterprise (MNE)
competition from fully automatic washing machines in India, Videocon developed
semi-automatic machines, targeting value-conscious Indian consumers by focusing
on this segment. Similarly, when Western cosmetic multinationals entered China, the
local cosmetic company Shanghai Jahwa did not compete with them head-on by
targeting global range products; rather it responded by developing products to suit
the local complexion and appeal to the local people. The Mexican food company
Bimbo responded to global competition by defending their deep penetrating
distribution system that reached far-off rural areas with 420,000 deliveries daily through
350,000 stores, thus creating a huge barrier to the entry of PepsiCo, whose reach was
largely big supermarkets in urban areas. Thus, under the defender strategy, local
firms concede some markets to multinationals while building strongholds on the other
market segments.
1.9.2 Extender
When industry pressure to globalize is low and companies possess competitive skills
and assets that can be transferred abroad, companies can focus on expanding to markets
similar to the home base, using competencies developed at home.
Faced with intense competition from Western fast food chains, such as McDonald’s
and Pizza Hut in the Indian market, the Indian foodmaker Haldiram focussed on
traditional Indian vegetarian food and expanded overseas primarily to cater to ethnic
Indians. Similarly, Jolibee foods, a Philippines fast food chain, countered McDonald’s
by developing spicier products better suited to the Filipino palate. The company then
followed the Filipino population across the world.

The Mexican media company Televisa globalized by marketing its Spanish language
products to Spanish-speaking populations across the world. Asian Paints developed
strong capability tailored to the unique Indian environment, characterized by the
extensive network of thousands of small retailers and numerous low income customers
whose primary requirement is confined to small quantities of paints that can be diluted
to save money. The aggressive business model of multinational paint companies that
largely focuses upon affluent customers in developed countries had a tough time
cracking the markets with low-income customers, whereas Asian Paints leveraged
such capabilities not only in India but also in other countries with similar requirements
for low-end products, such as Asia, Pacific, and Africa.
1.9.3 Dodger
To compete in industries with high globalization pressures is a highly difficult situation
for local companies. The situation becomes highly vulnerable when the competitive
assets based on the superior understanding of local markets are neither adequate to
face the competition from multinationals in the home country nor transferable overseas.
Under such circumstances, local companies have no other option but to dodge the
competition.
Such strategy may include cooperating through a joint venture with the MNE,
selling off to the MNE, or become a supplier or service provider to the MNE. For
instance, faced with MNC competition, Kwality, a dominant player in the Indian ice-
cream market, sold its manufacturing assets and brand to Unilever. This paved way
for Kwality Walls to become the market leader in the ice-cream market in India.
Consequent to the changes in the economic policies in Russia after the iron curtain
came down, Vist, the Russian manufacturer of personal computers, focussed itself on
distribution rather than on competing with American and Japanese multinationals.
As the distribution system in Russia was ridden with corruption and inefficiency, the
foreign companies faced formidable difficulties. As a result, Vist is a vital link in
supporting MNC distribution of personal computers in Russia. Skoda, the leading
state-owned automaker in the Czech Republic, was sold by the government to
Volkswagen much as the selling of government stake in Maruti-Suzuki to Suzuki by
the Indian Government.
In situations, when local firms find it difficult to compete head-on with the multina-
tionals, such co-operation becomes necessary. If you cannot beat them, join them.
1.9.4 Contender
Companies that have high pressure to globalize and competitive advantages that can
be leveraged overseas can aggressively compete in the global market by focusing on
upgrading their capabilities and resources in the niche segment to match multinationals
globally. A large number of Indian companies have achieved global competitiveness
in their niche segment. For instance, Bharat Forge, the second largest forging company

in the world, is a global supplier of specialized engine and chassis components for
trucks and passenger cars. One out of every two trucks in the US uses front axles
made by Bharat Forge. Similarly, Sundram Fasteners competes in niche auto
components, such as high tensile fasteners, radiator caps, precision forced differentiated
gears, etc., and supplies to leading auto manufactures across the world. The company
has also received a number of international quality recognitions, including the
prestigious TPM Excellence and Consistency Award from the Japan Institute of Plant
Maintenance. The Chinese company TCL not only rapidly caught up with global
cellular phone companies such as Nokia and Motorola, but also emerged as a significant
player in a number of consumer electronics.
Competition from multinationals in the home markets has driven a number of
local firms in the emerging markets to become globally competitive. Some of the
local firms, especially in India and China, have not only challenged supremacy of
giant multinationals in their home markets, but leveraged their competitive advantage
internationally. Indian companies’ global expansion, such as Tata’s buying Corus,
Birla’s buying Novelis, Ranbaxy acquiring Terapia, has not only affirmed their global
competitiveness but also earned them global respect. This has convinced a number of
Indian and Chinese companies of their global strengths in terms of quality, cutting-
edge technology, cost competitiveness, and human capital. As a result, these companies
are undoubtedly much better prepared and equipped to face competition in the global
arena.
1.10 CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS

In simple terms, international business implies the conduct of business activities beyond
the national boundaries. It is a much wider term comprising of all the commercial
transactions taking place between two countries. These transactions, including sales,
investment, and transportation, may take place by government or private companies
with or without an objective to make profit.27
In order to facilitate understanding, some of the related terms widely used are
explained below.
International trade
It refers to exports and imports of goods and services by a firm to a foreign-based
buyer (importer) or from a seller (exporter).
International marketing
It focuses on the firm-level marketing practices across the border, including market
identification and targeting, entry mode selection, and marketing mix and strategic
decisions to compete in international markets.
27 Daniel,
John D., Lee H. Radebaugh, and Daniel P. Sullivan, International Business: Environments and Operations, Pearson Education
(Singapore) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 1–27.

International investments
It implies cross-border transfer of resources to carry out business activities. It may
either be portfolio investments with short-term objectives or capital investments with
long-term objectives.
International management
It refers to application of management concepts and techniques in a cross-country
environment and adaptation to different social-cultural, economic, legal, political,
and technological environment.
International business may be defined as all those business activities that involve
cross-border transactions of goods, services, and resources between two or more
nations. Transaction of economic resources include capital, skills, people, etc. for
international production of physical goods and services such as finance, banking,
insurance, construction, etc. An international transaction involves both international
trade and international investments.
Global business
Global business refers to the conduct of business activities in several countries, using
a highly co-ordinated and single strategy across the world.
As the differences in the terms ‘international business’ and ‘global business’ are
more semantic in nature, both the terms are generally used interchangeably in business
literature.
1.11 REASONS FOR INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS EXPANSION

The motives for expanding business operations overseas vary from company to
company and depend upon a variety of factors. The basic motives for international
expansion of businesses may be summarized under three heads: market seeking,
economic, and strategic motives, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
1.11.1 Market-seeking Motives

Marketing opportunities due to life cycles
Businesses expand to foreign countries to seize marketing opportunities arising due to
differences in stages of life cycle for different products, which varies considerably
among different countries. When marketing opportunities for a product or service get
saturated in a domestic or an international market, a firm can make use of such
challenges and convert them into marketing opportunities either by expanding overseas
or by shifting its operations from one country to another.
Uniqueness of product or service

Products with unique attributes are unlikely to meet any competition in the overseas
markets. This offers enormous opportunities for marketing abroad. For instance,

Market-seeking Economic
motives motives
Domestic
company
Strategic
motives
Fig. 1.10 Motives behind international business expansion
Himalayan herbs and medicinal plants from India and the value-added BPO services
and software development at competitive prices provide Indian firms an edge for
overseas expansion.
1.11.2 Economic Motives

Profitability
Higher profits from overseas business operations form a significant motive for
international expansion. Such differences in profitability may be due to a variety of
factors, including
l Price differentials among various country markets.
l Export incentives by home country government motivates firms to exports.
l Fiscal incentives by host country government makes foreign investments
attractive.
l Low cost and abundant availability of factors of production, such as raw materials,
human resources, capital, etc., in the host country leading to low costs of produc-
tion compared to home country making businesses to invest abroad.
l Low intensity of competition in foreign markets.
High import tariffs discourage imports by making it less competitive in foreign
markets while making direct investment a preferred choice for international expansion.
Achieving economies of scale

Large-size production capacities necessitate domestic firms to dispose off their goods
in international markets, as the domestic markets become saturated. Businesses that
require huge investments to build up production facilities with large production
capacities have hardly any option to achieve scale economies unless they market
internationally. Moreover, global business operations also contribute to business
synergies and increased economies even in marketing, logistics, supply chain, and
other functional areas.

Spreading R&D costs

Companies manufacturing products that involve massive costs of R&D, such as soft-
ware, microprocessors, pharmaceutical products, etc., need to recover speedily the
costs of such investments. Besides, the increased market size and the larger coverage
of the profitable market segments anywhere in the world become critical to the firm’s
success. This necessitates a firm to expand its operations internationally.
1.11.3 Strategic Motives

Growth
International expansion of business becomes inevitable when marketing potential in
the domestic market gets saturated with little scope for further expansion. Moreover,
even for survival, companies from smaller countries such as Singapore, Hong Kong,
Scandinavia, etc. are always required to expand their business internationally, given
the small size of their home markets. For countries with a relatively larger market size,
such as the US, China, and India, enormous marketing opportunities exist to sell
domestically. Therefore, growth is hardly the motive for international expansion for
most firms.
Risk spread
International expansion is also used as a risk mitigation strategy so as to offset the
economic upheavals in the home market. Operating in several countries reduces
dependence on any particular market and spreads the business risks.
1.12 DOMESTIC VERSUS INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS

The basic difference in domestic and international business arrives from the differ-
ences in environment of their operations. International managers have to deal with
environmental challenges, which are beyond the firm’s control and do vary signifi-
cantly among countries. If a firm operates in multiple countries, the severity of busi-
ness complexity increases multi-fold. Besides, the inter-country interaction among
these environmental challenges influences the firm’s international business strategy.
1.12.1 Economic Environment

International business decisions are greatly influenced by the economic environment,
both of home and host countries. The domestic tariff structure and the various import
duty exemption schemes offered by the home country government determine the
cost of imported inputs, which contribute to the final cost of production and therefore
affect the cost competitiveness. The exchange rates and the foreign exchange
regulations of the country influence the cost of imported inputs and options available
for making and receiving cross-country payments. The national policies on foreign
direct investment determine the kind and magnitude of foreign investment in the

country and the entry mode for foreign firms. With the process of gradual liberalization
in FDI policy and exchange regulations, the business environment around the world,
in general, has become friendlier to foreign investors. The economic conditions of a
country, such as the state of foreign exchange reserves and inflationary conditions
also affect the openness of a country’s trade policies. In recent years, economic
liberalization in developing countries, including India, has paved way for import and
distribution of consumer goods. However, it has exerted considerable pressure on the
domestic firms to compete with international brands.
The economic stability in the country of business operations facilitates an
international manager’s task. Economic uncertainties and hyper-inflation as
experienced in the CIS countries, Brazil, Argentina, and Zimbabwe pose severe
problems related to certainty of payment and call for specific strategies to manage
delayed payments under inflationary conditions. However, the situation becomes
graver in case the payment is to be received in the currency of the importing country.
Besides, the soundness of the financial institutional system in the target country is also
a pre-condition for the smooth flow of payments. In case of financial upheavals and
instability, an international firm needs to adopt innovative ways to manage foreign
exchange risks and exposures and payment modes.
1.12.2 Socio-cultural Environment

Cultural factors play an important role in operating business internationally. The
countries that have cultural similarity to the target countries can generally be
approached more easily as compared to the countries with cultural diversities.
Traditional Indian products such as sarees and salwar-kurta and Indian ethnic foodstuffs
are exported to the international markets that have sizeable Indian ethnic population.
Similarly, Chinese foodstuffs, goods of worship, and Chinese traditional medicinal
and herbal products find easy markets in the countries with sizeable population of
ethnic Chinese, especially in East Asian countries. The culture of the target market
affects the product modification, especially in consumer products such as garments
and foodstuffs. The social environment also affects the motives to make a buying
decision and communication strategies need to be customized as per the varied social
traits for different countries. Social beliefs and aspirations also vary significantly among
countries and the marketing mix has to be tailor-made to suit the social norms of the
target market.
This socio-cultural environment of business has been discussed separately in
Chapter 7. The international marketing strategy may vary from highly aggressive, as
in case of the US, to extremely formal and polite, as in case of Japan. The French tend
to be more formal, the Americans more result-oriented, while the Japanese emphasize
more on building long-term relationship. A firm has to carefully study the socio-
cultural traits of the countries of its operation while making international business
decisions.

1.12.3 Legal Environment

The political forces within a country affect international business decisions. The changes
in trade policies, fiscal policies, and other matters related to bilateral and multilateral
trade are made in view of the political priorities of governments in power. Earlier,
India had a ban on international trade transactions with South Africa and Fiji in protest
to apartheid and violation of human rights. The change in government also affects the
trade policy changes in a country. Besides, national governments have rights to impose
restrictions on international trade transactions on the grounds of national security,
integrity, and preservation of morale and cultural values.
A well-developed sound legal system in the target market facilitates the reduction
of business risks and a firm can expect relatively unbiased and fair treatment. Coun-
tries with a higher stage of economic development and a democratic form of govern-
ment generally provide a relatively independent and more just legal system. In countries
that have switched over from planned economic systems to market-oriented econo-
mies, such as the CIS and China, various issues related to uniformity of interpretation
of laws and clarity of legal procedures are also in transition phase and yet to stabilize.
1.12.4 Political Environment

Political stability and government policies greatly affect international business
decisions. For instance, the passing of CIS countries through transitional phase makes
the business environment very unpredictable for international business. Under such
circumstances, a firm would like to adopt a risk avoidance strategy. It makes sound
economic sense that would benefit the ultimate consumers in Pakistan to remove the
trade barriers on import of goods from India and grant it the most-favoured nation
(MFN) status. However, the political and strategic compulsions between the two
countries prohibit the national governments from doing so.
1.12.5 Competition
A firm generally faces more severe competition in the international market as com-
pared to its domestic market. The competition in international markets comprises of
products imported from various parts of the world, those produced locally, and
competitors from the exporter’s own country. The products imported from other
competing countries have significantly different business environment that affect its
competitiveness. Besides, various trade barriers, both tariff and non-tariff, make busi-
ness decisions much more complex for operating internationally compared to solely
domestic operations.
1.12.6 Infrastructure
The development of physical, financial, human, and institutional infrastructure in a
country has a positive impact in facilitating firms to operate. Places like Singapore,
Hong Kong, and Dubai, which have got sound financial, institutional, and physical

infrastructures, have become international trading hubs. Investors weigh various

investment alternatives before deciding locations for export production, which has
been dealt with in Chapter 11. The constraints faced by developing countries, including
India, in terms of physical infrastructure, such as roads, telecommunication, and port-
handling capacities, hinders international marketing efforts and adds to the cost of
logistics for international trade.
1.12.7 Technology
There are vast variations in availability of technology between the developed and
emerging economies. This opens up opportunities for developing countries like India
and China to market their products at competitive prices in other developing and
least-developed countries. India’s indigenous technology is highly cost-effective and
finds easy access to the developing and least-developed countries. India has carried
out a number of turnkey projects and international management contracts in Africa,
Middle East, and Latin America, primarily due to its cost effectiveness in their niche
market segments.
1.13 MANAGING BUSINESS IN THE GLOBALIZATION ERA

Globalization is essentially a macroeconomic phenomenon driven by the strategies
and behaviour of the firms that have responded to environmental changes. The high
degree of economic integration among the countries has also posed considerable risks
of contagion following economic and financial upheavals in foreign countries, even if
a firm is not directly involved. Globalization offers both challenges and opportunities
for business enterprises, including the following.
Challenges
l Opening up of domestic market to foreign companies increases competition
even for the firms solely operating in domestic markets.
l Liberal investment regime facilitates international competitors in establishing
business operations, giving rise to increased competition to firms that have been
accustomed to operate in protected economies.
Opportunities
l Increased market access and reduced tariffs make foreign markets not only
accessible, but increases competitiveness as well.
l Liberalization of regulatory framework for investment in target countries enables
companies to invest and expand their business operations abroad.
l It offers opportunities for integration of business operations on a global scale.
l Provides increased opportunity to establish foreign collaborations and ownership.
l Facilitates consolidation of business operations in various countries and devel-
oping global capabilities.

Firms, whose output was previously significantly more limited by the size of the
domestic market, now have the chance to reap greater advantages from economies of
scale by ‘being global’. Global companies are differentiated by their strong global
position in terms of global assets, capabilities, brands, and their relative resilience to
shocks and even to the business cycles.28 The abilities to become globally competi-
tive and leverage global opportunities are what make a firm global. Global compa-
nies can attract stronger talent, can enable cross-learning across markets, have greater
opportunities to service and develop capabilities for global customers, and can invest
more in R&D that can be spread over larger markets. Further, global companies can
act in multiple markets to retaliate against increased competition from other large
companies in any given market. The global strategies adopted by business enterprises
may include
l Global conception of markets
l Multi-regional integration strategy
l Changes in external organization of multinational firms—Mergers and acquisi-
tions, rather than greenfield operations, strategic alliances, international subcon-
tracting, worldwide network structure, etc.
l Changes in internal organization—Just-in time inventories, global outsourcing,
reduced emphasis on hierarchical relationships, need for greater transparency
and for corporate governance regulations, etc.29
The book is conceptualized to facilitate both practitioners and beginners to develop
a thorough understanding of international business for effective decision making.
Although in precise theoretical terms, a company should follow a single business
strategy for its operations in various countries in ‘global business’, the strategy adopted
in ‘international business’ may vary to some extent. Since the differences in ‘global’
and ‘international’ business appear to be too semantic and obscure, the term ‘interna-
tional business’ is used throughout this book. Explicating the concept of globaliza-
tion, the book equips the readers to manage business in the globalization era.
SUMMARY
Globalization, one of the most widely-used terms world through a rapid increase in cross-border
in recent times, refers to free cross-border move- movement of goods, service, technology and capital.
ment of goods, services, capital, information, and Besides, a number of interesting terms such
ideas. Movement of goods, capital, and people was as Westernization, Americanization, Walmarti-
much less restricted prior to World War I. Global- zation, McDonaldization, Disneyfication, Coca-
ization has been defined as increasing economic Colanization, etc. have been coined to imply
interdependence of national economies across the globalization. A holistic approach to globalization
28 Tata, Ratan, ‘Driving Global Strategy’, Tata Review, vol. XXXIX, no. 1, January–March 2004, p. 8.
29 OECD Handbook on Economic Globalization Indicators, 2005, pp. 16–20.

includes economic, financial, cultural, and politi- enhancing trade, and increased cross-border
cal aspects. The various dimensions of economic capital movements. Developing and developed
globalization include globalization of production, countries are unequal players in the process of glo-
markets, competition, technology, and corpora- balization. Critics often accuse globalization for
tions and industries. widening the gap between the rich and the poor,
Economic liberalization, rise in R&D costs, of wiping out domestic industry, leading to unem-
multilateral institutions, international economic ployment and mass lay-offs, bringing in balance-
integration, the move towards free marketing of-payments problems, increasing volatility of
systems, breakthroughs in manufacturing, transpor- markets, diminishing power of nation states, lead-
tation, information and communication technolo- ing to loss of cultural identity, and causing a shift
gies, advents in logistics managements, and of power to multinationals. Response strategies for
emerging global customers’ segments have been globalization forces for emerging market compa-
the prime movers of globalization, whereas regu- nies include defender, extender, dodger, and con-
latory controls, emerging new trade barriers, tender.
cultural factors, nationalism, war and civil distur- International business refers to the conduct of
bances, and management myopia restrain global- business activities beyond national boundaries.
ization. Reasons for expanding business operations over-
The empirical methods to measure globaliza- seas include market-seeking, economic, and stra-
tion include trade openness, KOF index of global- tegic motives. International business varies from
ization, and the A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy operating domestic, primarily because of environ-
globalization index. mental differences such as economic, socio-cultural,
legal, and political environment, besides competi-
Globalization is often supported on the
tion, infrastructure, and technology.
grounds of maximization of economic efficiencies,
KEY TERMS
Americanization A pejoratively used term for of financial services, led to a spurt in cross-border
the influence of the US on other cultures that leads capital flows.
to a phenomenon of substituting indigenous Global business Conduct of business activities
cultures with the US culture. in several countries, using a highly co-ordinated
Coca-colanization Implies invasion of Western, and single strategy across the world.
particularly American, cultural values considered Globalization Free cross-border movement of
as dangerous to indigenous culture. goods, services, capital, information, and people.
Cultural globalization Convergence of cultures International business All those business activi-
across the world may be termed as cultural global- ties that involve cross-border transactions of goods,
ization. services, resources between two or more nations.
Disneyfication A term used to describe and deni- Transaction of economic resources includes capi-
grate a society that has an increasing similarity to tal, skills, people, etc. for international production
the Disney theme parks. of physical goods and services, such as finance,
Economic globalization Increasing economic banking, insurance, construction, etc.
interdependence of national economies across the International investments Cross-border trans-
world through a rapid increase in cross-border fer of resources to carry out business activities.
movement of goods, service, technology, and International management Application of
capital. management concepts and techniques in a cross-
Financial globalization The liberalization of country environment and adaptation to different
capital movements and deregulations, especially

social-cultural, economic, legal, political, and tech- McDonaldization The principles of the fast
nological environment. food restaurant likely to dominate more and more
International marketing Firm-level marketing sectors of the American society as well as the rest
practices across the border including market of the world.
identification and targeting, entry mode selection, Walmartization Business practices followed
marketing mix, and strategic decisions to compete by Wal-Mart, which include optimization concepts
in international markets. from logistics, purchasing, finance, and stores
International trade Exports and imports of management.
goods and services by a firm to a foreign-based Westernization Influence of western culture on
buyer or from a seller. non-western society in terms of life style, value
system, language, technology, etc.
CONCEPT REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Briefly describe the historical perspective of 5. Explaining the concept of international busi-
globalization of business. ness, evaluate the distinguishing features
2. Explain the concept of globalization, using the vis-à-vis domestic business with suitable ex-
holistic approach. amples.
3. Critically evaluate various dimensions of eco- 6. Write short notes on
nomic globalization and their impact on busi- (a) Cultural globalization
ness enterprises. (b) Globalization of markets
4. Examine various factors influencing globaliza- (c) Globalization of production
tion.
(d) Trade openness
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
1. Carry out a comparison of trade openness 2. Select any five firms that have been affected
of your country with the major economies of by the globalization forces. Identify the busi-
the world. Also examine its changes over the ness strategies these firms adopted to respond.
last two decades. Explore the reasons for the Evaluate the strategy used for their effective-
same. ness with the help of the framework studied in
the chapter.
PROJECT ASSIGNMENTS
1. Has globalization done more harm than led for its overseas expansion and compare with
to benefits for your country? Put forward your those of similar companies.
arguments and discuss in class in the form of a 3. Visit a nearby company having operations in
debate. multiple countries. Explore the differences in
2. Select a company that has expanded its busi- its operations in various countries.
ness operations overseas. Find out the reasons

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INTERNATIONAL

© Oxford University Press

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© Oxford University Press 2009

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

Database right Oxford University Press (maker)

First published 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided

ISBN 13: 978-0-19-XXXXXX

Typeset in Baskerville by Le Studio Graphique, Gurgaon 122 001

© Oxford University Press

Preface v 2.3 Theory of Absolute Advantage 48

2.1 Introduction 45 Annexure II: Direction of India’s Trade:

© Oxford University Press

Annexure III: Direction of India’s Trade: 6.8 Regional Trade Agreements

5. World Trade Organization 175 8. Political and Legal 299

© Oxford University Press

10. Country Evaluation and 387 13.6 Emerging MNEs from

© Oxford University Press

15.10 International Trade Finance 667 18.2 Export-Import Procedures 767

16.1 Introduction 684 19. Global E-business 807

18.1 Introduction 763 Index 898

© Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press

refer to the increasing influence exerted by economic, political, socio-cultural, and

1.2 GLOBALIZATION OF BUSINESS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

© Oxford University Press

UK US Japan China India

Fig. 1.1 Percentage share in world population

© Oxford University Press

30 28.9 29.0 27.3

UK US Japan China India

Fig. 1.2 Percentage share in world GDP

Books, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 308–09.

© Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press

Phase I (194765) sectors for private participation, leading to

© Oxford University Press

economic integration. The major concerns about present-day globalization are

1.3 CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION

Foundation, New Delhi, 2003, pp. 728–33.

Market, Department of Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reforms, 13 December 2007.

© Oxford University Press

Exhibit 1.2 Globalization’s neological terms

Westernization The process of influence of the Calculability Objectives should be quantifiable

© Oxford University Press

Exhibit 1.2 Contd

Coca-Colanization A portmanteau word considered as dangerous to indigenous cultures.

Further, globalization is widely understood to imply economic globalization by

1.3.1 Economic Globalization

Fig. 1.3 Globalization: A holistic approach

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1.3.2 Financial Globalization

Phase I (194765) sectors for private participation, leading to