Review Article

Branched-chain amino acids in liver diseases

Kazuto Tajiri1, Yukihiro Shimizu2
1
Department of Gastroenterology, Toyama University Hospital, Toyama, Japan; 2Gastroenterology Unit, Nanto Municipal Hospital, Nanto, Japan
Contributions: (I) Conception and design: All authors; (II) Administrative support: Y Shimizu; (III) Provision of study materials or patients: All
authors; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: All authors; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: All authors; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII)
Final approval of manuscript: All authors.
Correspondence to: Kazuto Tajiri, MD, PhD. Department of Gastroenterology, Toyama University Hospital, 2630 Sugitani, Toyama 930-0194, Japan.
Email: [email protected].

Abstract: Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) are involved in various bioprocess such as protein
metabolism, gene expression, insulin resistance and proliferation of hepatocytes. BCAAs have also been
reported to suppress the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells in vitro and to be required for
immune cells to perform the function. In advanced cirrhotic patients, it has been clarified that serum
concentrations of BCAA are decreased, whereas those of aromatic amino acids (AAAs) are increased. These
alterations are thought to be the causes of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), sarcopenia and hepatocarcinogenesis
and may be associated with the poor prognosis of patients with these conditions. Administration of BCAA-
rich medicines has shown positive results in patients with cirrhosis.

Keywords: Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs); cirrhosis; mammalian target of rapamycin signal
(mTOR signal); hepatocarcinogenesis; immunity

Received: 11 April 2018; Accepted: 06 July 2018; Published: 30 July 2018.

doi: 10.21037/tgh.2018.07.06
View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/tgh.2018.07.06

Introduction signaling pathway (3) and plays central roles in cell growth (4),
proliferation (5) and insulin resistance (6) (Figure 1).
The branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), valine
(Val), leucine (Leu) and isoleucine (Ile), are essential
Glucose and lipid metabolism
amino acids for human beings and are involved in the
BCAAs regulate the metabolism of glucose and lipids
pathophysiology of liver diseases (1). This review describes
through the PI3K-Akt pathway. Ile was shown to mediate
the biological properties of BCAAs and their clinical
glucose uptake by PI3K independent of mTOR (7) and
use in the management of liver cirrhosis. In addition,
to decrease the level of plasma glucose (7). BCAAs have
this review describes the role of BCAAs to suppress
been shown to promote the uptake of glucose by skeletal
hepatocarcinogenesis and their potential role in the
muscle through activation of PI3K and protein kinase C,
treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
and subsequently induce glucose transporter translocation
to the plasma membrane (8). Deficiencies in BCAAs
Basic aspects of BCAAs in the liver reduce hepatic fatty acid synthesis, promote fatty acid
β-oxidation and increase fat mobilization in white adipose
BCAAs and metabolism
tissue through the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-
BCAAs are involved in the metabolism of proteins, glucose mTOR-FoxO1 pathway (9,10). In adipose tissue, Leu
and fats. BCAAs activate mammalian target of rapamycin increases insulin-induced phosphorylation of mTOR and
(mTOR) signaling, stimulating the synthesis of glycogen Akt, and then enhances the uptake of glucose (11). In
and of proteins such as albumin (1,2). mTOR is involved in addition, BCAAs increase peroxisome proliferator-activated
the phosphoinositide-3-kinase-protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt) receptor (PPAR)-γ and subsequently uncoupling protein

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Page 2 of 11 Translational Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 2018

BCAAs

mTOR

PI3K p70S6K1
Glucose & lipid Protein
metabolism synthesis
Akt IRS-1
Cell growth Insulin
resistance

Hepatocarcinogenesis

Figure 1 Mechanism of BCAAs-stimulated mTOR signaling and hepatocarcinogenesis. PI3K-Akt, phosohoinositide-3-kinase protein kinase B;
p70S6K1, p70 S6 kinase 1; IRS-1, insulin receptor substrate; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; BCAAs, branched-chain amino acids.

2 (UCP2) in liver and UCP3 in muscle through glucose Insulin resistance

transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation (12), stimulating The activation of mTORC1 promotes insulin resistance
oxidation of free fatty acids and reducing triglyceride through serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate
concentrations in mouse livers (13). Thus, BCAAs regulate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2 (3). Serum BCAA concentrations were
fatty acid synthesis, transport, oxidation, lipolysis and found to be elevated in mice lacking mitochondrial BCAA
adipokine secretion by affecting the expression of genes aminotransferase that catalyzes BCAAs. Those mice show
encoding AMPKα, mTOR, sirtuin-1 (SIRT-1) and PPAR-γ lower fasting blood glucose and insulin concentrations, and
coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) (14). Furthermore Krüppel-like homeostasis model assessment scores for insulin resistance
factor 15, a transcription factor, was shown to be involved (HOMA-IR) were significantly lower as compared with
in regulating the metabolism of glucose, lipids and amino those in wild-type mice (26). Furthermore, administration
acids (15). of Leu or Ile improved insulin sensitivity in mice fed with
high-fat diets (27,28). Improvement of insulin resistance
Protein synthesis by BCAAs has been found to be achieved by several
BCAAs, especially Leu, contribute to protein synthesis mechanisms (1). For example, BCAAs were found to
through the mTOR pathway (16). Leu induces the stimulate liver-type glucokinase and glucose transporter (29),
phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) and 4E-binding as well as to suppress hepatic expression of glucose-6-
protein 1 (4EBP1) and the assembly of eukaryotic initiation phosphatase. BCAAs were also reported to transiently
factor 4E (eIF4E) in mTOR signaling (16), resulting increase plasma concentrations of insulin in healthy
in the synthesis of albumin (17-19). Leu also stimulates individuals (30). BCAAs were found to improve HOMA-IR
albumin mRNA translation through nuclear importation of scores and the function of beta cell in patients with chronic
polypyrimidine-tract-binding protein (20). liver disease (31). These results strongly suggest that BCAAs
BCAA metabolites, such as branched-chain α-keto acids can ameliorate insulin resistance (1).
(BCKA), β-hydroxy-β-methyl butyrate (HMB) and glutamate,
are also involved in regulating protein synthesis (21).
BCAA and hepatocyte proliferation
BCKAs were shown to decrease protein expression in
cardiomyocytes through mTORC2-Akt signaling (22). BCAA has been associated with cell proliferation through
HMB was also shown to be involved in muscle protein activation of mTORC1 (32). In a rat model of CCl4-induced
synthesis and degradation through the mTOR signaling liver injury, the supplementation of BCAA was shown to
pathway, mainly through mTORC1 (23-25). suppress hepatocyte apoptosis leading to retardation of the
progression of the injury (33). In contrast, BCAAs enhanced

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hepatocyte regeneration in a rat hepatectomy model (34) immune responses.

and were shown to increase the secretion of hepatocyte
growth factor (35). BCAAs are also shown to suppress
Serum concentration of BCAAs in cirrhotic
oxidative stress by stimulating the expression of PGC-
patients
1α or SIRT-1 (36), or by activating the genes involved in
antioxidant defenses (37). Those mechanisms could also In patients with advanced cirrhosis, decreased serum
contribute to promote hepatocyte proliferation. concentrations of BCAA and increased concentrations of
aromatic amino acids (AAAs), phenylalanine and tyrosine,
are often found, resulting in a decreased ratio of BCAAs
BCAA and immunity
to AAAs, called the Fischer ratio (47). A decreased Fischer
Nutrition is shown to be closely associated with the ratio is thought to be a cause of hepatic encephalopathy
maturation or activation of immunity, and BCAAs are (HE) (1). Fischer ratio tends to become lower with the
reported to be directly involved in the proliferation of progression of cirrhosis, which could help assess the
lymphocyte or the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) (1). prognosis of cirrhotic patients with or without HCC
All of the three BCAAs are shown to be requisite for (48,49). Moreover, a simplified Fischer ratio, the BCAA to
mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation (38), and Val tyrosine ratio (BTR), has been shown to be useful for the
has the most prominent effect for the proliferation of prediction of albumin concentration 1 year later (50). BTR
lymphocytes. was also reported to be useful in predicting the prognosis
The importance of BCAAs for immunity has been also of patients with liver cirrhosis (51). These data suggest that
shown in/by vivo studies. We previously evaluated the role of the imbalance of amino acid, either decreased Fischer ratio
BCAAs on the local immune function in the liver and spleen or BTR, is an indicator for progression and prognosis of
of rats (36). We found that supplementation of BCAAs cirrhosis, and that correcting either ratio may be useful not
increased the numbers of intrahepatic lymphocytes and only for nutritional improvement, but also for prevention of
stimulated natural killer (NK) cells and lectin-dependent HE, in patients with cirrhosis (1).
cytotoxic activities in the liver. It is of note that the number
of lymphocytes isolated form the liver was increased as
the concentrations of Val increased in plasma and liver. Clinical application of BCAA supplementation in
Importance of valine for the stimulation of immune response liver cirrhosis
is supported by a report by Kakazu et al., in which they BCAAs for liver cirrhosis
report the critical role of Val in the maturation of DCs (37).
These findings indicate that Val may have a therapeutic Since the liver is a central organ for nutrient metabolism,
potential for reducing hepatocarcinogenesis in patients with cirrhotic patients may develop various metabolic
cirrhosis by restoring the immune functions (1,37,39). complications (52). Patients with cirrhosis frequently show
In patients with liver cirrhosis, BCAA supplementation protein and energy deficiencies. Protein deficiencies could
has been shown to increase the numbers of intrahepatic lead to hypoalbuminemia, resulting in ascites retention and
lymphocytes and restores the phagocytic activity of hepatic edema, whereas energy deficiencies could reduce fat
neutrophils and NK activity (40,41). Furthermore, the and muscle mass and cause muscle weakness, both of which
supplementation of BCAAs was shown to increase the may significantly reduce their quality of life (QOL) (53).
number of circulating lymphocytes in postsurgical patients Significant improvement of QOL and prognosis in patients
(42,43). BCAA supplementation in patients with chronic with cirrhosis can be achieved by the supplementation
hepatitis C can restore malnutrition-association impairments of BCAA. Two randomized trials showed a significant
in interferon signaling through the mTOR and FoxO improvement of Short Form-36 scores of general health
pathways (44). Interestingly, supplementation of Val was perception by BCAA supplementation (54,55). Another
shown to reduce hepatitis C viral load, which could be caused randomized study showed that BCAA supplementation
by enhancing DC function or interferon signaling (45). improved weakness and fatigue (56). The supplementation of
BCAAs were also shown to increase immunoglobulin A BCAA was also reported to improve sleep disturbance (57).
secretion, which could enhance mucosal surface defenses (46). A large-scale post marketing study in Japan showed
Thus, BCAAs could regulate both innate and adaptive that oral BCAA administration significantly reduced the

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incidence of complications such as liver failure, esophageal did not clearly prevent HE in advanced cirrhotic patients
varices rupture, HCC, and death (55). Furthermore, the (54,55). Furthermore, postoperative BCAA supplementation
supplementation of BCAA in cirrhotic patients showed did not prevent the development of postoperative HE (72).
the improvement of glucose metabolism and an increase Recently, a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study
in serum albumin concentration (58), and the effect of found that the supplementation of BCAAs did not reduce
BCAA on maintenance or an increase in serum albumin the recurrence of HE, although minimal HE can be
concentrations in patients with both compensated and prevented and muscle mass reduction can be recovered (73).
decompensated cirrhosis was confirmed by a randomized Moreover, a systematic review showed that oral but not
study (59). The effect of BCAA supplementation on serum intravenous supplementation of BCAAs improved HE
albumin concentration may be more effective in the early development (74). Non-absorbable disaccharides, which is
stages of cirrhosis than in the advanced stage, which could much cheaper than BCAAs, have been shown to improve the
enhance total hepatic parenchymal volume (60-62). development of HE and prevent overt HE, suggesting that
Accelerated fat oxidation and a catabolic state after fasting non-absorbable disaccharides should be used for HE first,
are frequently observed in cirrhotic patients, which can be with BCAAs considered as the second line treatment (74).
presented by a decrease in respiratory quotient (RQ) (63). A meta-analysis showed that oral supplementation of
A late evening snack containing BCAA was shown to BCAAs in patients with cirrhosis inhibited manifestations
improve RQ, nutritional state and glucose intolerance of HE especially in patients with overt HE rather than in
(63,64). Since BCAAs have a higher energy efficiency those with minimal HE (66). Thus, oral administration of
than glucose or fatty acids, BCAAs may be the preferred BCAAs, especially in combination with non-absorbable
nutrients for cirrhotic patients (65). disaccharides, should be the treatment of choice in cirrhotic
The guidelines of the European Society for Clinical patients with HE (1).
Nutrition and Metabolism and the Study Group for the
Standardization of Treatment of Viral Hepatitis Including
Sarcopenia
Cirrhosis of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of
Japan recommend BCAA supplementation in the treatment Sarcopenia is an age-related progressive loss of skeletal muscle
of advanced cirrhosis due to those preferential effects of volume that leads to muscle weakness (75), and is associated
BCAAs (1,66,67). with poor prognosis in patients with cirrhosis (76-78).
Sarcopenia may be due to reduced muscle protein synthesis
(79,80), and deficiencies in essential amino acids including
BCAA for HE
BCAAs are thought to contribute to these processes (81,82).
HE is a major and serious complication of advanced For example, Leu can stimulate mTOR signaling including
cirrhosis associated with decreased QOL in those patients, S6K1 and 4E-BP1, leading to translation of mRNAs encoding
and often shows recurrence. Increased blood ammonia is ribosomal proteins (83,84), as well as in older rats (85).
usually found in HE patients, and ammonia is a pathogenic A recent clinical study showed that mTOR signaling is
factor for HE development (68). BCAAs are used for the impaired and autophagy is increased in cirrhotic patients, and
treatment of HE especially in cirrhotic patients, with that these alterations can be reversed by supplementation
preferential effects in most cases. The effects of BCAAs are with Leu-enriched BCAAs (86).
not due to decrease in blood ammonia levels, but is thought In clinical settings, supplementation with BCAAs,
to be due to the correction of a decreased Fischer ratio especially Leu, may increase skeletal muscle loss by
in patients with HE. HE frequently occurs in advanced activating mTOR signaling (86,87). However, the
cirrhotic patients after gastrointestinal bleeding, which is improvements in muscle volume were limited only
possibly associated with an absence of Ile and an abundance to patients who showed improvements in metabolic
of Leu in hemoglobin molecules. The blood proteins with parameters (87). Nutritional intervention with high-protein
imbalanced BCAAs are absorbed from the gut lumen, diets in elderly individuals, however, showed negative
leading to HE by way of BCAA antagonism (69). results (79,88). A recent study suggested that the effect
A systematic review showed that BCAAs appeared to of BCAA supplementation may be strengthened by light
be beneficial on HE without adverse events (70,71). In exercise, which upregulates amino acid transporter in
contrast, two randomized studies showed that BCAAs skeletal muscle (89), and a prospective study also showed

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that BCAA supplementation and exercise had beneficial DNA but high levels of serum HBV surface antigen (102).
effects in cirrhotic patients (90). BCAA supplementation Therefore, other supportive therapies are needed to
for sarcopenia in cirrhotic patients should therefore be suppress HCC development in those patients.
combined with adequate exercise.
Inhibition of HCC cell proliferation by BCAA in vitro
Early in vitro studies showed that increased BCAA/AA
Insulin resistance
ratios (103) in the medium inhibited the proliferation of
Insulin resistance is often observed in patients with HepG2 liver tumor cells. BCAAs were found to decrease the
chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, which are expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) receptor
thought to be associated with various complications, on HepG2 cells, leading to a decrease in insulin-mediated
such as steatosis, disturbances in glucose metabolism, proliferation of HepG2 cells (104). In the presence of high
and hepatocarcinogenesis (91). BCAAs, especially Leu insulin concentrations, BCAAs were also found to reduce
and Ile, were shown to have beneficial effects on glucose the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
metabolism (92). It has been revealed that BCAAs directly by HepG2 cells, an effect mediated by shortening of VEGF
act on insulin target organs, such as adipose tissue, skeletal mRNA (105). Although these findings suggest that BCAAs
muscles, and the liver (93). Intravenous administration directly inhibit the growth of HCC cells, studies are needed
of BCAAs was shown to decrease plasma glucose levels to show whether BCAAs can clinically inhibit tumor growth
in advanced cirrhotic patients (94), and oral BCAA inhibition.
supplementation was shown to reduce both blood glucose BCAAs were shown to reduce the expression of a cancer
levels (95,96) and insulin resistance in male patients stem cell marker, epithelial cell adhesion molecule, via
with cirrhosis (31,97). Furthermore, long-term BCAA the mTOR pathway, thereby increasing tumor sensitivity
administration was reported to improve glucose tolerance to 5-flourouracil (106). Clinical trials showed that BCAA
in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)- supplementation synergized with acyclic retinoid (107)
related cirrhosis, suggesting that long-term BCAA may or sorafenib (108) in tumor treatment, suggesting that
be an effective treatment for NASH (98). A randomized combination of BCAAs and anticancer drugs can potentiate
study showed that BCAA treatment decreased HbA1c the antitumor effects of the latter.
concentrations and improved insulin resistance in patients
with chronic hepatitis C (99). Prevention of HCC development in animal models
Obese diabetic rats spontaneously develop liver tumors.
BCAA supplementation was shown to inhibit the
BCAA in the prevention and treatment of HCC development of preneoplastic lesions in these rats, an effect
Prevention of HCC by BCAA mediated by the suppression of VEGF expression (109).
BCAAs showed similar antitumor effects in obese diabetic
HCC usually develops in patients with chronic liver mice (110).
diseases, especially liver cirrhosis. Chronic inflammation
and fibrosis are thought to be the major mechanisms for BCAAs in clinical trials
the development of HCC, with chronic hepatitis B virus A report from Japan revealed that BCAA supplementation
(HBV) or HCV infection being the leading cause of HCC. reduced the development of HCC in obese [body mass
Although viral eradication is likely the most effective index (BMI) >25 kg/m2] cirrhotic men and in those with
strategy for preventing the development of HCC in patients alpha-fetoprotein levels >20 ng/mL (111). Another Japanese
with chronic HCV infection (100), elderly patients and study also showed that BCAA supplementation (for longer
patients with advanced liver fibrosis were found to develop than 6 months) significantly reduced HCC occurrence
HCC even after complete eradication of HCV by direct- while enhancing event-free survival rates in Child-Pugh
acting antivirals (101). Nucleos(t)ide analogs have been grade A cirrhotic patients (112). Those results are coincided
found to strongly suppress viral replication in patients with the preferential antitumor effects observed in animal
with chronic HBV infection, significantly inhibiting the models. Although there are no other data showing that
development of HCC. However, hepatocarcinogenesis BCAAs suppress hepatocarcinogenesis in cirrhotic patients,
can still be observed in patients with undetectable HBV- BCAA supplementation is thought to have beneficial effects

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Page 6 of 11 Translational Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 2018

on the suppression of the liver cancer development, an Conclusions

effect that may be associated with improvements in insulin
BCAAs have been shown to have various biological
resistance and/or the suppression of VEGF expression.
effects, including the promotion of protein synthesis and
hepatocyte proliferation, simulation of immune systems,
BCAA administration as supportive therapy during
improvement of insulin resistance, inhibition of liver
treatment of HCC
cancer cell proliferation and neovascularization. All of these
BCAA supplementation in patients undergoing liver
findings indicate that BCAAs may have beneficial effects
resection for HCC resulted in a shorter hospital stay and
on the management of patients with chronic liver diseases
rapid improvements in liver function after surgery (113).
with/without HCC.
In addition, BCAA supplementation was found to increase
protein metabolism and suppress progression to liver
cirrhosis after hepatectomy for HCC (114). A recent Acknowledgements
randomized controlled trial showed that preoperative
administration of BCAAs before liver resection for HCC None.
resulted in a lower frequency of ascites and higher serum
albumin concentrations postoperatively (111). BCAA Footnote
supplementation also suppressed early recurrence after liver
resection for HCC (115). Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest
In contrast to these findings, one report showed that to declare.
pre-, peri-, and post-postoperative supplementation with
BCAAs did not reduce tumor recurrence rate or improve References
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doi: 10.21037/tgh.2018.07.06
Cite this article as: Tajiri K, Shimizu Y. Branched-chain amino
acids in liver diseases. Transl Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;3:47.

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