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Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172

69th Conference of the Italian Thermal Engineering Association, ATI 2014

A pilot power plant based on concentrating solar and energy storage

technologies for improving electricity dispatch
Marco Cameradaa, Giorgio Caub, Daniele Coccob*, Alfonso Damianoc,
Valeria Demontisa, Tiziana Melisa, Maura Musioa,c
a
Sardegna Ricerche, Renewable Energy Cluster, Uta 09010, Italy
b
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Cagliari, Cagliari 09123, Italy
c
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Cagliari, Cagliari 09123, Italy

Abstract

This paper presents the main features and the expected performance of the pilot solar power plant under construction in Ottana
(Sardinia-Italy). The facility is based on a 600 kWe concentrating solar power (CSP) plant with thermal energy storage, and a
400 kWe concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) plant with electrochemical storage. The CSP plant uses linear Fresnel collectors,
thermal oil as heat transfer fluid, a two-tank direct storage system and an ORC module. The CPV plant consists of 37 dual-axis
trackers integrated with Sodium-Nickel batteries. The facility is characterised by the integration of different concentrating solar
and storage technologies. The pilot power plant has been designed in order to produce electricity with scheduled profiles
according to weather forecast.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-reviewunder
Peer-review underresponsibility
responsibility of the
of the Scientific
Scientific Committee
Committee of ATIof2014
ATI 2014.

Keywords: CSP plants; Linear Fresnel Collectors; Thermal energy storage, Concentrated photovoltaics; Electrochemical storage

1. Introduction

The increasingly widespread use of renewable energy sources (RES), supported by economic subsidies and
environmental policies, is changing the structure of the electric power system and is contributing to the spreading of

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-070-7655720; fax: +39-070-6755717.

E-mail address: [email protected]

1876-6102 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of ATI 2014
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.071
166 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172

the distributed generation (DG). The variability, intermittency and poor predictability of the electricity production
from RES and the decentralization of power generation raises serious challenges related to the reliability, control
and power quality of the electrical power grid. Coping to these challenges requires the development of active
distribution power systems and, in some countries such as Italy, to reinforce the balancing service at distribution
level. Currently, a unique and comprehensive operational strategy to overcome these issues has not been assessed
yet and intensive research is worldwide devoted to the development of new models, structures and control
algorithms [1-3].
For these reasons, the Regional Government of Sardinia (Italy), in the framework of the POR FESR 2007-2013
Program, is supporting the realization of three pilot facilities based on small scale concentrating solar power (CSP)
plants integrated with other RES technologies and energy storage systems. This paper focuses on the first pilot
facility which will be installed in the industrial district of Ottana. Its design has been developed with the scientific
support of Sardegna Ricerche and the University of Cagliari with the aim to effectively integrate solar concentrating
technologies and energy storage systems and therefore enhance the dispatch of solar power plants. Overall, the
Ottana pilot plant will be able to produce electricity with scheduled profiles according to weather forecast as well as
to provide ancillary services at distribution level. In particular, the facility consists of a Fresnel-based CSP plant
(600 kWe), a two-tank thermal energy storage (TES) system (capacity of about 15 MWht), a concentrator
photovoltaic (CPV) power plant (400 kWe) and an electrochemical storage system with a capacity of 430 kWhe.
The plant control system has been designed with the aim to manage the predictable and unpredictable daily power
fluctuations that occur in solar power plants in order to ensure the accomplishment of scheduled profile in
accordance with the weather forecasting and the planned electricity ancillary services at distribution level.

2. Main design specifications

The main design specifications of the integrated power plant were represented by an overall power output of
about 1 MWe, 600 kWe for the CSP section and 400 kWe for the CPV section. Moreover, since the power plant will
be able to produce electrical energy with scheduled profiles, suitable thermal and electrical storage devices were
included.
The site selected for the construction of the experimental facility is Ottana (40°25’00’’N, 9°00’00’’E), in the
center of the Sardinia island, at about 160 m asl. The design was carried out by using a data set for a typical
meteorological year obtained from the Meteonorm® software [4]. Figure 1a-b shows the monthly values of air
temperature and Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI). Overall, the annual DNI is about 1685 kWh/(m2·yr).
30 250
(a) Air temperature
(b) Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI)
25
200
Air temperature (°C)

20
DNI (kWh/m2)

150

15

100
10

50
5

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 1. Monthly values of air temperature (a) and DNI (b).

3. Concentrating solar power plant

Currently, for the design of CSP plants, different options are available for solar field, power block, heat transfer
fluid and thermal energy storage [5-6]. For the power output here considered (600 kWe), the most interesting
alternative is represented by Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC), that require thermal energy inputs with temperature
levels in the range of 250-350 °C [7-8]. For such temperature levels, Linear Fresnel Collectors (LFC) may be a
 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172 167

viable alternative to parabolic trough collectors because they have a simpler design, show lower land requirements
and lower capital costs; on the other hand, they show a lower optical efficiency [9]. Moreover, the most suitable
choice for the TES section is based on a two-tank direct system, where thermal oil is used as heat transfer fluid and
storage medium [10]. Figure 2 shows a simplified diagram of the CSP plant and Table 1 reports its main design
specifications at reference conditions (DNI 900 W/m2, air temperature 17 °C, elevation 17°, azimuth 0°).

POWER BLOCK
Pump
S1 Hot
G Turbine Tank

Regenerator
Vaporizer THERMAL
ENERGY
Pump
STORAGE
Condenser

Heater
Cold Pump
Tank

SOLAR FIELD
Dry coolers

Fig. 2. Process flow diagram of the CSP plant.

Table 1. Main design parameters of the CSP plant .

SOLAR FIELD ORC UNIT

Loops (200x9.0 m) 6 Thermal power input 3000 kW
Solar field collecting area 8400 m2 Thermal oil temperatures (in/out) 260/150 °C
Solar field land area 10800 m2 Thermal oil mass flow 11.1 kg/s
Solar field conversion efficiency 62.0 % Gross conversion efficiency 20.0 %
Thermal oil mass flow 17.3 kg/s Gross power output 600 kWe
Thermal power output 4690 kW Condenser power output 2350 kW
THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE OVERALL CSP PLANT
Storage volume (each tank) 330 m3 ORC internal consumption 20 kW
Thermal oil mass 195 t Solar field internal consumption 30 kW
Thermal storage capacity 14.6 MWh Net power output 550 kW

The power block is based on an ORC unit, where thermal energy is converted to electrical energy by using an
organic fluid that follows a regenerated Rankine cycle. The condensing heat is removed by a dry cooling system due
to the lack of cooling water in the site. The ORC unit requires a thermal power input of about 3000 kW, that is
supplied by cooling the thermal oil from 260 °C to 150 °C.
The solar field is based on 6 "U" loops of LFC connected in parallel to achieve the required thermal power
output. Each collector loop (200 m length and 9.0 m width for a collecting area of 1400 m2) includes 50 collector
modules. The primary mirrors are mounted on a fixed steel structure placed at about 1.0 m above the ground and
concentrate the solar radiation onto the fixed receiver (7 m above the mirror plane) that includes a secondary
reflector and the evacuated receiver tube. The solar collector lines are aligned along the North-South direction and
are equipped with a single-axis tracking system to follow the sun’s path. The conversion efficiency of the solar field
at design conditions is 62% with a corresponding thermal power output of about 4690 kW and therefore a solar
multiple of 1.56.
168 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172

The excess thermal energy produced by the solar field during periods of high solar availability is stored in the
TES section using the same thermal oil as storage medium. In particular, the thermal oil from the cold tank (150 °C)
flows through the solar field, where it is heated, sent to the hot tank (260 °C) and subsequently pumped to the ORC
unit. The size of the TES section was evaluated in function of the required storage capacity (about 5 hours of ORC
thermal supply) and the thermodynamic properties of thermal oil (an average specific heat of 2.5 kJ/(kgK) and a
density of 700 kg/m3 at 260 °C were considered).

4. Concentrating photovoltaic power plant

Concentration Photovoltaic is currently the solar technology with the highest conversion efficiency [11].
Recently, CPV modules achieved values of conversion efficiency of about 35% [12]. In particular, High
Concentration Photovoltaic (HCPV) represents the most advanced CPV concept, which has already demonstrated its
reliability and efficiency. The main advantage of this technology is represented by its potential to increase the
efficiency reducing at the same time the active material and therefore the cost of electricity production. Based on the
geometry of the optics, CPV systems can be divided in refractive (such as Fresnel lenses) and reflective (such as
parabolic mirror) optics based systems [13]. Presently, the main part of commercial CPV modules employs
refractive optics because of their cheapness and minor complexity. In fact, Fresnel lenses are usually made with low
cost Poly-methyl methacrylate (PMMA) lenses characterized by a typical thickness of 4-5 mm. Thanks to these
features the Fresnel-based technology has recently reached the technological and commercial maturity, as proved by
the global cumulative installed capacity which hit about 100 MW at the end of 2013, with extra 200 MW expected
to be installed by 2014 [14]. This optic configuration was therefore adopted for the Ottana pilot plant.
The CPV power plant is based on 37 two-axes solar trackers, with an overall power of about 400 kWp. Each
solar tracker includes 48 modules, subdivided in two strings which are connected to a dedicated three-phase DC/AC
converter integrated with two independent MPPT systems. This solution allows to enhance the reliability of the CPV
plant, ensuring continuity of the energy supply when faults and brownouts occur only in a section of the CPV plant.
Figure 3 shows the picture of a typical solar tracker.

Fig. 3. Solar tracker unit.

The dual-axis tracking system is equipped with a four quadrants solar sensor and an on-board meteorological
station, which measures DNI and wind speed. Such data are used by the tracker controller to continuously follow the
sun position, together with the information about the astronomical ephemerides. In fact, the trackers accuracy relies
on a hybrid tracking mode, ensuring a very low tracking error (about ± 0.1°) compatible with the divergence angle
of most CPV modules currently in the market [15]. Table 2 reports the main design parameters of the CPV plant.
Table 2. Main design parameters of the CPV plant.
 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172 169

CPV MODULE TRACKING SYSTEM

Optics technology Refractive Tracking technology Two axes
Solar cells technology Triple-junction Pointing accuracy 0.1 °
Geometric concentration factor 500 suns Azimuth range 0°-360°
DC efficiency 25% (IEC 62670-1) Elevation range 6°-90°
Maximum DC power 225 Wp Maximum wind speed 40 m/s
Open-Circuit Voltage 36.4 V Wind stow condition 15 m/s
Short-Circuit Current 8.3 A Tracking control mode Hybrid
Cooling system Passive Communication interface PLC
DC/AC CONVERTER OVERALL CPV PLANT
Conversion unity type Inverter PWM DC/AC conversion losses 2.80%
European conversion efficiency 97% Overall efficiency 22%
N° independent MPPT 2 Net peak power output 400kWp_AC
@ 850W/m2 DNI

5. Electrochemical storage system

In the pilot plant, CSP and CPV systems are integrated with the final purpose of trading electrical energy or to
provide system support services. Nevertheless, this task can be accomplished only if these solar energy-based
generators are combined with electrical storage devices (ESDs) in a synergic and complementary way. Among all
available electrical storage technologies, electrochemical batteries are currently considered one of the most efficient
and suitable ESD solutions for smart grid applications. In particular, in this project a Sodium-Nickel (NaNiCl)
battery has been proposed [16]. The NaNicl battery operates at relatively high temperature close to 300 °C in order
to achieve adequate battery performance by melting both electrodes and improving the conductivity of the solid
electrolyte (β’’-alumina) and of the secondary electrolyte (sodium chloroaluminate in liquid state). Thanks to the
ceramic electrolyte, the battery has no electrochemical self-discharge and the electrodes are not involved in side-
reactions, resulting in a coulombic efficiency of 100% [17]. Since ESD are generally characterized by high
investment costs, their diffusion at the distribution grid level requires a careful evaluation and a correct sizing,
calibrated on the real application’s needs.
For the Ottana pilot plant, the rated power and capacity of the NaNiCl battery were determined considering the
high variability and poor predictability of power production from CPV systems as well as their dynamics, which are
much greater than those of the CSP plant. In particular, the design was carried out in order to allow a programmable
generation of the CPV system in 30 seconds-time intervals and compensate forecasting errors. Moreover, the size of
battery was calculated by assuming that the initial battery’s state of charge (SOC) was preserved at the end of the
simulation time-horizon and with reference to a maximum SOC of 80%. Overall, the capacity of the battery is 430
kWh with a maximum power of 300 kW.

6. Supervision and control system

The supervision and control system, which is summary described by the scheme of Fig. 4, is based on an
innovative optimal control strategy applied to the integrated renewable and storage systems. The proposed optimal
management strategy mainly consists of an appropriate one-day ahead Optimal Scheduling Procedure (OSP)
combined with a Real-Time Control algorithm (RTC): the OSP synthesizes an optimal combined RES-storages
power profile one-day ahead on the basis of technical and economic criteria, by taking into account forecasted RES
power production profile, storages status and availability, as well as electricity market and grid constraints. Then, in
the next day, this optimal power profile is tracked by means of the proposed RTC, which has to compensate for the
deviations of the RES actual production profile from the forecasted one. As a result, the proposed optimal RES
management will enhance RES exploitation and integration, by improving programmability and reliability of RES
power plants at the same time.
170 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172

Ist Level
Weather Definition of one day ahead production Electricity Market
Forecast and storage profiles

P*CPV
P*CSP

P*ESS
ECSP

EESS
weather IInd Level Power System
Real time Up-dating of one day ahead production profiles

ECSP, PCSP

PESS, EESS
P*CSP

P*ESS
PCPV
IIIrd Level
Control Systems
of each components of Plant

Fig. 4. Scheme of the supervision and control system.

7. Expected performance of the pilot plant

The Ottana pilot plant is currently under construction and Fig. 5 shows a 3D representation of its layout. As
mentioned, the expected performance of the plant was evaluated on an hourly basis with reference to a typical
meteorological year.
In particular, the performance of the CSP plant was calculated as a function of solar radiation and solar position
by using a devoted simulation model [18], for given values of the main geometrical and technical characteristics of
the solar collectors, thermodynamic properties of the heat transfer fluid as well as design and off-design
performance of the ORC module. Figure 6a shows the thermal power output of the solar field over the year. Because
of the low solar multiple, the thermal power output exceeds that required by the ORC unit (at design condition) just
for few months, when irradiance reaches high levels. For the same reason, as illustrate by Fig. 6b, the charge
percentage of the storage tank rarely exceeds 50%. However, the availability of an high thermal storage capacity is
very useful in view of the experimental purposes of the pilot plant.
Moreover, a devoted algorithm was developed in order to simulate the optimum management of the battery
according to the CPV power output, desired power profile and battery SOC. Figure 7 reports the desired power
profile, the CPV power production, the battery power and energy flows on a daily basis, considering weather
conditions with partially overcast sky and highly variable DNI, which are the most challenging for the battery
compensating CPV power fluctuations. Overall, the expected electricity production is around 1600 MWh per year,
900 MWh/yr from the CSP section and 700 MWh/yr from the CPV one.

Fig. 5. 3D representation of the Ottana Pilot Plant.

 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172 171

6000
Thermal power output (kW)

(a) Solar Field

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Hours of the year

100

(a) Thermal Energy Storage System

80
State of charge (%)

60

40

20

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Hours of the year

Fig. 6. Thermal power output of the solar field (a) and State of charge of the TES system (b).

250
Pcpv
200 Ptilde
Power [kW]

150

100

50

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time [min]

200
E
100 P

0
Energy [kWh]
Power [kW]

-100

-200

-300

-400
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time [min]

Fig. 7. Evolutions of the CPV power (top graph-blue line), constant delivered power (top graph-red line), battery energy and
power (bottom graph-red line and blue line, respectively).
172 Marco Camerada et al. / Energy Procedia 81 (2015) 165 – 172

8. Conclusions

A pilot plant based on concentrating solar thermal and photovoltaic power plants integrated with thermal and
electrochemical energy storage systems is under construction in the industrial district of Ottana (Sardinia). The main
aim of the facility is to demonstrate the possibility to produce electricity form a high variable renewable energy
source, such as solar energy, with scheduled profiles as well as to provide ancillary services at distribution level.
In particular, the facility consists of a Fresnel-based CSP plant (600 kWe), a two-tank direct TES system with a
capacity of about 15 MWht, a concentrator photovoltaic plant (400 kWe) and an electrochemical storage system
with a capacity of 430 kWhe. A specifically developed control systems was developed with the aim of produce
electricity with desired power profiles in accordance with weather forecasting. Overall, the expected electricity
production is around 1600 MWh per year, 900 MWh/yr from the CSP section and 700 MWh/yr from the CPV one.

Acknowledgements
The Ottana Solar Experimental Facility is supported by European Union (POR-FESR 2007/20013). The
institutional supervisor of the project is the Industry and Energy Office of Sardinian Region. The design and the
building of the plant were entrusted to ENAS, the Sardinian Water Company. Sardegna Ricerche, in collaboration
with the University of Cagliari, will develop the research activities on the facility. ENAS will be in charge of the
operation and management of the pilot plant.

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