CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

List of welding processes prevailing in the company

• Arc welding
• Inert Gas (CO2) welding
• Spot welding
• Stud Welding
• TIG Welding

1.1 ARC WELDING:

Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to

create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the
metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating
(AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding
region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapour, or slag. Arc
welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First
developed in the early part of the
20th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding
during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the
fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

1.2 METAL INERT GAS

WELDING:

Metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is
a welding process in which an electric arc forms between
1
a consumable wire electrode and the work piece metal(s), which heats the
work

2
piece metal(s), causing them to melt, and join. Along with the wire
electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the
process from contaminants in the air. The process can be semi-automatic
or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most
commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as
alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal
transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray,
each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and
limitations.

1.3 TIG
WELDING

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is an arc welding process that uses a
non- consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is
protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas(argon or
helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly
ionized gas and metal vapours known as a plasma.

1.4 STUD WELDING:

Stud welding is a form of spot welding where a bolt or specially formed nut
is welded onto another metal part. The bolts may be automatically fed into the
spot welder. Weld nuts generally have a flange with small nubs that melt to
form the weld. Studs have a necked down, un-threaded area for the same
purpose. Weld studs are used in stud welding systems.
Capacitor discharge weld studs range from 14 gauge to 3/8" diameter. They
3
can come in many different lengths ranging from 1/4" to 5" and larger. The tip
on the weld end of the stud serves a twofold purpose.

4
1.5 SP OT WELDING:
Spot welding is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by the
heat obtained from resistance to electric current. Work-pieces are held together
under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3
mm (0.020 to 0.12 in) thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy
electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to
simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through the
spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot
welding is a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time .

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the

resistance between the electrodes and the amperage and duration of the current.
The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's material properties, its
thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy won't melt the
metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too
much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld.
Another attractive feature of spot welding is the energy delivered to the spot can
be controlled to produce reliable welds.

The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited

work piece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no
required filler materials. While the shear strength of each weld is high, the fact
that the weld spots do not form a continuous seam means that the overall
strength is often significantly lower than with other welding methods, limiting the
usefulness of the process. It is used extensively in the automotive industry cars
can have several thousand spot welds.

5
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 RESISTANCE WELDING THEORY

Resistance welding process is applicable for joining electrically conducting

aerials, the joint s are made by raising the temperature of the weld zone and
the parts together during the plastic stage. Spot welding projection welding
seam welding and upset butt welding are all basically resistance welding,
the difference are mainly in the geometrical arrangement of parts. In all these
cases the heat required to raise the temperature of the metal is generated due to
the passage of electrical current through the joint. The contact resistance (of the
order of milli ohms) causes the heat to localize at the point of interest and the
current carrying electrodes are adjusted to increase this effect. No fillers are
required therefore the process is cheaper, neater and faster than most of the
other methods of metal joining.

CURRENT SOURCE:

The source of current is in general a special step down transformer. The

primary side of this fed from the power supply. In small machines up to about
(5kva) the transformers are designed to work from 220 volts ac. In case of larger
machines the power is fed from 2 lines of a three phase 440 volts system.
Another type of power source employed consists of a regulated dc supply which
is momentarily connected to a pulse transformer. Since any machine should be
adaptable for different jobs, normal type of resistance welding transformer is
provided with a number of taps on its windings. The secondary voltage is thus
adjusted depending upon the job to be weld.
6
2.2 TIMIN G CONTROLS:

2.2.1 WELD
TIME:

A very important requirement of spot welding is that the welding current is

delivered to the job only for a very short time, typical timings are only about
0.1 sec to 3 sec. Precision welding of highest quality are done with a timing less
than 1 sec therefore the unit of time preferred by the industry is the cycle.
One cycle corresponds to 1/50th of a second when referred to the power supply
frequency of
50 cycles per
second.

In simple machines a electromagnetic contactor is kept energised or a time

period suited to each requirement. The contacts of this conactor connect the
primary of the welding transformer to the power supply. The timing period is
determined by the settings of a variable resistor through which a capacitor is
charged to a predetermined level.

2.2.2 SEQUENCE
TIMINGS:

A spot welding operator preferably must have to operate only a simple switch or
a foot lever. The electrodes should contact the job pieces and when a
desired pressure is developed the current should flow for a selected time and the
electrodes should part after the weld is forged.

In pneumatically operated machines the sequence of events as well as the

duration of each event are controlled by electronic timers. If the feeding of job
is made fast and regular it is possible to get a stitching type by recycling
7
through the sequence

8
2.2.3 SEAM WELDING:

For manufacturing leak tight drums and similar items the method used is
seam welding. Electrodes are rotating wheels the speed of which is adjustable.
A series of overlapping welds are made. Typical timings are 2 cycles on
followed by 2 cycles off and periods. Heavy current 100-500 amps are therefore
required to be switched at the rate of 10-20 times a second and an electronic
device is absolutely necessary. There are several products which are produced by
this type of welding

2.2.4 ELECTRODE FORCE:

Small and inexpensive machines utilize the force provided by the operator,
transferred through suitable lever mechanisms. Usually a spring is employed
to adjust the limit of force required when the spring is compressed to a set
point a switch is operated to start the weld.

Larger machines intended for heavy jobs and/or mass production

utilizes compressed air for delivering the force required. A pneumatic
cylinder is connected one of the welding electrodes and compressed air at a
regulated pressure is introduced into the cylinder at the start of the weld.

The pressure is removed after the weld is forged the switching of air being done
by an electromagnetic valve. In some equipments d ifferent pressures are
utilized during weld and forge. All the programmes is achieved through
electronic controls.

9
2.3 INSTALLATIO N OF SP OT WELDING MACHINE

The original installation of a piece of a equipment has a large bearing on

its subsequent operation and trouble free performance. This then deserves
first preference in the overall subject of service. This is especially true for
resistance welding machine because of the numerous utility services required
electric power, often two one for motor power and the other for the welding
power. In addition the welding machine may also require cooling water, air,
hydraulic and sometimes even gas services.

2.3.1 P REP ARATION F OR

INSTALLA TION

Upon receipt the equipment should be checked thoroughly, with all packing
lists, instructions, special tools, etc., properly accounted for. Also at the time of
receipt, the machine, motor and control nameplates should be checked fo r
proper service requirements

2.3.2 SETTING THE

MACHINE

Any machine that has mechanical motions, whether air hydraulic or

electrical actuation should be anchored to a rigid stationary surface to prevent
creeping or walking. The extent of this attachment to the floor or other
surface will depend upon the size weight or operation of the equipment also on
the type of building or floor. Pits are especially desirable for large splash
welding machines to act as a receptable for the flash metal from the weld. In
any case the machine should be leveled at its weight equally distributed on all
legs or hold down member. Careless setting of the machine may cause undue

10
strain on its members or binding of ways slides etc.

11
2.3.3 SAF ETY REQUIREMEN TS

Safety for the operating personnel and the elimination of fire hazards are
of paramount importance. Welding equipment manufacturers provide their
machine with majority safety features. Adequate guarding of gearing and
other moving parts safe and approved electrical wiring as well as various
types and kinds of safety controls such as simple palm buttons to prevent
operating the machine without both hand on the buttons interlocks etc. Never
attempt to override or evade these safety measures. In addition users may
install additional safety precautions: area barricades exhaust systems, flash
shield, etc. Rigorous maintenance of good housekeeping procedures should be
exercised at all the times.

2.3.4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

With the machine set properly in position, electrical service is run through the
weld controls to the welding transformers and to the motors when required.
The electrical service to the motors will be the same as any normal electrical
motor service which is adequately covered by city or national electric codes.

The voltage rating of the cables used for welding transformer supply is
important. Welding cable which is not marked or stamped 600v is not
acceptable for resistance welding primary lines. The cable must a rating of
600v ac or above. When machine are installed in a temporary manner a proper
electrical earth found must be provided to prevent electrically hazardous
condition.

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2.3.5 SETUP OF EQUIP MENT

With the equipment completely installed and with electrical power turned off,
the installation personnel must:

1. Check motors for proper

rotation.

2. Check all bolts , nuts etc., for tightness including electrical

connections.

3. Check air water oil lines for possible

leakages.

4. Make sure all cylinders function properly and see that hydraulic oil is
adequate

5. If water saver valves are supplied the manual valve should be closed prior
to turning on the power for the first time. Turn on electrical power.

6. Turn on hydraulically operated equipment. After checking pumps for

proper rotation, it is necessary to exhaus t all air from the system as any air at
all, even a bubble, may cause faculty operation.

7. See that all guards and safety devices are in place. Operate properly,
and adequately protect personnel from all moving parts of machine.

8. Set the weld control to the 'NO WELD' position. Set the 'SQUEEZE
TIME',
'HOLD TIME' and 'COOL TIME' functions at
maximum.

If everything is functioning properly , the machine is ready for the

13
operating department, which will set the machine and weld controls as required
for the parts to be joined. Proper weld schedules may be defined by the
machine manufacturer, to proceed with production.

14
2.4 SERVICE REQUIREME N TS

2.4.1 Compressed
air:

Moisture free air at a recommended flow volume is required at a working

pressure of 5.6kg/cm2.compressed air is useful for determining the reservoir
size and flow rate. The values are calculated without considering the piston
rod diameter varies for a given size of cylinder. The cylinder is supposed to
work at 5.7 gauge pressure and perform 100 operations.

2.4.2 Cooling water:

Clean residue water at minimum 2.1kg/cm2 pressure across machine

and temperature below 30 degree Celsius at recommended flow rate is required.
Each water cooling water circuit should have 5lpm flow rate hence cooling water
rate required is (5*n) plum, where n is the number of cooling water circuits.

2.5 COOLING SYSTEM

Resistance welding equipment develops very high secondary currents. this

coupled with compact design makes the need for proper cooling mandatory.

Water supply must be sufficient and at the proper temperature and

pressure difference as recommended.

If supply of city water does not meet specifications and if high in lime content
, a re-circulating system using distilled water should be considered.

15
Water circulation should be checked often to assure that all parts of the welder
requiring cooling, receive water. Water flow should b e checked at the outlet of
the machine.

If a water system becomes plugged or if flow gets restricted, an air line may
be utilized to remove the obstruction. The usual procedure is to remove both
inlet and drain lines from the machine and connect airline to the drain and force
air in the direction opposite to water flow.

When equipment is not to be used for a period of time, the water should be shut
off by closing the water shut off valve.

Hoses which have become worn, cracked or swollen should be replaced by

new ones. when replacing be sure that the water circuit is not changed.
Cooling the thyristor must always be considered important, Water should enter
each tube at the bottom of the metal jacket and be discharged at the top. the
jumper hose in series between two pads of the thyristor pair should be atleast
600mm long.

2.6 ELECTRODES AND DIES

All the high current generated by the water secondary is concentrated at the
contact points of the electrodes or dies. This current must be transmitted under
pressure to the work piece to be welded. Therefore, electrodes must have good
electrical and thermal conductivity and be able to withstand high pressures. It
is important to maintain the cleanliness and smoothness of electrode contact
points to assure consistent, good quality welds.

16
Electrodes must be dressed whenever pitting, metal pickup or deformation is
noticed. Metal pickup by electrodes must be immediately removed before next
weld.

An adequate supply of spare electrodes is recommended to reduce downtime the

electrode dressing needed. Frequent cleaning of the electrode in the machine helps
maintain weld quality and lengthen the electrode replacement.

When dressing electrodes, always maintain the required contour. Electrodes often
have a radius or shape to conform to the part being welded or to properly
concentrate the weld current. A poorly dressed electrode directly contributes to
poor weld quality.

17
2.10 WELD
TESTING:

The purpose of quality control is to assure duplication of welding results under

controlled combination. Without quality control, poor welds may occur for a
long period of time before detected. Defects undetected may result in scrap ,
re-work, lost production and failure of final product.

Sizes of samplings can be statistically established to yield a very accurate

control over the process. The number of welds per hour will usually govern the
frequency of the sample selection and the size of the sampling. Occasionally, a
process will require non-destructive testing of 100% of the welds. The type of
test used will depend on the type of welding process to be tested. A specific type
test is recommended for each welding technique. Good control over the welding
process can usually be achieved by making regular tests on the weld and
maintaining the electrodes in proper condition.

2.10.1 TENSION SHEAR

TEST:

Perhaps a common test of a weld is the Tension Shear Test. In this test
the specimen is pulled to destruction in a standard tension testing machine.
The size and shape of this specimen is very important. Each test specimen
should have its failure point recorded.

18
2.10.2 OTHER TESTS:

Other weld tests are as

follows:-

1. Tension Test

a) Cross tension
test. b) U-tension
test

2. Impact test

a) Shear impact
test. b) Drop impact
test.

3. Fatigue test

4. Microtech test

5. Radiographic test

6. Twist test

7. Hardness test

8. Pillow test

Most satisfactory tests are of a destruction type. For very expensive products, a
destruction test is usually not economical or practical. Usually, some type of X-
ray is adopted for these products and only q ualified are permitted to judge result.

2.10.3 VISUAL
INSPECTION:

Surface conditions often indicate weld quality. Some of the more

undesirable common spot, seam and projection weld surface conditions and
19
their effects are listed below;

20
 Table 2.2 SURFACE CONDITIONS OF SPOT WELDS

TYPE CAUSE EFFECT

Deep electrode Improperly dressed Loss of weld strength due
indentation electrode face; lack of to reduction of metal
control of electrode thickness at periphery of
force; high contact weld area bad
Surface fusion resistance.
Scaly or dirty metal; low appearance
Under size welds due to
electrode force; heavy expulsion of
misalignment of molten metal; large
work, high welding cavity in weld zone
current, electrodes extending through to the
improperly dressed. surface increased cost of
removing burrs from
surface of work.
Irregularly shaped weld Misalignment of work in Bad appearance; reduced
electrodes; bad corrosion resistance;
electrode or improper reduced weld strength if
electrode bearing on molten metal is
radius of flange. expelled.
Cracks, deep cavities or Removing electrode force Reduction of fatigue
pin holes before thoroughly strength if weld is in a
quenching weld to a tension member or if
temp well below visible crack of imperfection
red heat; excessive heat extends into periphery
generation resulting in of weld area corrosive in
expulsion of metal recess of cavity

24
3.4 ELECTRODE CHARACTER IS TICS

3.4.1 CHROMIUM ZIRCONIUM

COPPER
Many applications demands Copper to have higher mechanical properties and to
be capable of use at elevated operating temperatures while still retaining the
good conductivity for which it is selected in the first place.

The high-copper alloy family includes Beryllium Coppers, 2% Beryllium Copper,

Chromium Coppers, Zirconium Copper , Chromium Zirconium Copper and
Nickel Silicon Chromium Copper. The Chromium Zirconium Copper is
essentially Chromium Copper alloys which has a small addition of Zirconium.
The addition of Zirconium inhibits chemical reaction of Copper at elevated
temperatures. It also helps to retain the physical properties at elevated
temperatures. Also it marginally increases annealing temperature.

Chromium Zirconium Coppers are used widely in areas where high electrical
and thermal conductivity are required combined with good mechanical
properties. Uses include Resistance Welding Machine Electrodes, Seam Welding
Wheels, Spot Welding Tips, Flash Butt Welding Electrodes, Anvil Contact
Bars, Electrical Switch Gear Contacts & Terminals, Electrode Holders, Cable
Connectors, Current Carrying Arms and Shafts, Circuit Breaker Parts, Heat
Sinks, Short Circuit Rings, MIG welding contact tubes and many other
applications where Copper would normally be the ideal choice for High
Conductivity but is just not Strong enough.

C18150 Chromium Zirconium Copper is used extensively for cap style resistance
welding electrodes. Evidence suggests that it can provide less sticking and
resist deformation longer than its chromium copper counterpart in some
specific situations.
C18150 (Chromium Zirconium Copper)

Chemical
Composition
(%max., unless (1) Cr Zr
Cu
shown as range
or min.)
Min./Max. Rem. .50-1.5 .05-.25
Nominal 98.9 1.0 .10

Table 3.3 Chemical composition of

C18150
(1) Cu value includes Ag. Note: Cu + Sum of Named Elements, 99.7%
min.

Physical Properties Metric

Melting Point - Liquidus 1080 C
Melting Point - Solidus 1070 C
3
Density 8.89 gm/cm @ 20 C
Specific Gravity 8.89
Electrical Conductivity 0.464 Mega Siemens/cm @ 20 C
o
Thermal Conductivity 323.9 W/m · K at 20 C
-6 o
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 16.45 ·10 per C (20-100 C)
Modules of Elasticity in Tension 117200 MPa

Table 3.4 Physical Properties

3.4.2 Typical Uses

Consumer: Pencil-type & Light Soldering Guns: Tips, Rod Extensions

Electrical: Resistance Welding Electrodes

Industrial: Welding Electrodes, Welding Wheels, Tips and Rod Extensions

 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Welding is the joining of metals through coalescence by the use of either heat or pressure or
both. Coalescence is a term that means the joining of two materials to become as one piece. The
basic arc welder components consist of the machine that generates the power, the electrode holder or
wire feed gun, a means of shielding the weld as it forms, and protective equipment for the user.

Power sources vary with the type of welding being performed. A machine may be either DC
or AC, constant current or constant voltage. Selection is made by amount and type of current
required, the power available, and economic factors. Heat and speed can be adjusted by varying the
voltage and current generated. This is necessary since a slower speed is required for thicker metals.
Speed on a wire feed type is controlled by the rate at which the wire is fed.

Typically a machine will have either an electrode holder or a wire feed gun. The type of
welding done with the electrode holder is commonly referred to as “stick welding”. A welding rod
coated with flux is used for this method (Flux is simply a coating on the rod that emits gases to
protect the weld as it forms). The proper term for this type is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).
The wire feed type is often referred to as “MIG welding”, MIG meaning metal inert gas. This is not
exactly a correct, as other processes use wire feed. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) uses a wire that
has a core of flux, gas metal arc welding (GMAW) uses a shielding gas that is emitted from the wire
feed gun.

Shielding of the weld as it forms is very important. The level of impurities directly affects
the strength of the weld. The molten metal is susceptible to impurities such as oxygen and carbon
deposits. A shield of gas covers the weld as it forms, protecting it from the air. Shielding can be
accomplished by either a coating on the wire or welding rod (known as flux), or a gas. Gasses are
released from the flux as it melts with the filler metal, producing a shield. Flux produces slag which
must be chipped off after the weld is completed. There is no slag when shielding gas such as argon
is used. The gas is fed along with the wire through the gun. While this method forms a cleaner weld,
it may not always be convenient since gas cylinders are required.
 The process begins in all types when the wire or rod makes contact with the piece to be
welded. This completes an electric circuit and creates an arc through which the transfer of the metal
from the wire or rod to the piece is facilitated. Spatter occurs during transfer; some of the molten
drops of metal become airborne and cover the piece and surrounding area with small globules that
solidify on cooling. Spatter may be minimized depending on the skill of the operator and the
welding method being used.

There are many types of welding rods and wire compositions. Fluxes and gases vary as the
type of metal to be joined will vary. Typically the weld will always be stronger than the metal it
joins.
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

As a conclusions, the objective can achievable to do the practical welding we must have
skill to do the welding, used the knowledge and understanding of the theories, and also welding
techniques are applied in the practical welding. We were remained to stay alert in
safety while doing a work before and after finish the practice. We also learned how to process
the welding joint meeting and the best angle, concentration, and the movement of the electrode and
the speed of moving the electrode to be used. We were also introduced to the thickness of the
metal and type of the electrode are used are the factor in arc welding process.