Reaction and Revolution:

The Growth of Nationalism

QFocus Questions: What were the major ideas associated with conservatism, liberalism, and
nationalism, and what role did each ideology play in Europe between 1800 and 1850? What were the
causes of the revolutions of 1848, and why did these revolutions fail?

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change in the nineteenth century as it led the JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
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world. Another major force forBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
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nationalism, which transformed the political JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
map of Europe in the nineteenth century. JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
JayBailey JayvBailey JayTo reestablish peace and
The Conservative Order stability in Europe, he considered it necessary to
After the defeat of Napoleon, European restore the legitimate monarchs who would
rulers moved to restore much of the old order. preserve traditional institutions. This had
This was the goal of the great powers---Great already been done in France with the
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia--when they restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and in a
met at the Congress of Vienna in September number of other states, but it did not stop the
great powers from grabbing territory, often
1814 to arrange a final peace settlement after
from the smaller, weaker states.

1
The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the maintain the new status quo they had
beginning of a conservative reaction constructed was the Concert of Europe,
determined to contain the liberal and according to which Great Britain, Russia,
nationalist forces unleashed by the French Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to
Revolution. Metternich and his kind were meet periodically in conferences to take steps
representatives of the ideology known as that would maintain the peace in Europe.
conservatism. Most conservatives favored Eventually, the great powers adopted a
obedience to political authority, believed that principle of intervention, asserting that they
organized religion was crucial to social order, had the right to send armies into countries
hated revolutionary upheavals, and were where there were revolutions to restore
unwilling to accept either the liberal demands legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations Forces for Change
generated by the French revolutionary era. Between 1815 and 1830, conservative
After 1815, the political philosophy of governments throughout Europe worked to
conservatism was supported by hereditary maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for
monarchs, government bureaucracies, change---liberalism and nationalism--were also
landowning aristocracies, and revived at work. Liberalism owed much to the
churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and
conservative forces were dominant after 1815. the American and French Revolutions at the
One method used by the great powers to end of that century; it was based on the idea

2
that people should be as free from restraint as Hungarians, wanted the right to establish their
possible. Liberals came to hold a common set of own autonomy rather than be subject to a
political beliefs. Chief among them was the German minority in the multinational Austrian
protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of Empire. Nationalism, then, was a threat to the
all people, which included equality before the existing political order. A united Germany, for
law; freedom of assembly, speech, and the example, would upset the balance of power
press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of established at Vienna in 1815. Conservatives
these freedoms should be guaranteed by a feared such change and tried hard to repress
written document, such as the American Bill of nationalism. The conservative order dominated
Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all, much of Europe after 1815, but the forces of
most liberals advocated separation of church liberalism and nationalism, first generated by
and state. Liberals also demanded the right of the French Revolution, continued to grow as
peaceful opposition to the government in and that second great revolution, the Industrial
out of parliament and the making of laws by a Revolution, expanded and brought in new
representative assembly (legislature) elected groups of people who wanted change. In 1848,
by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals these forces for change erupted.
believed in a constitutional monarchy or
constitutional state with limits on the powers of THE RISE OF NATIONALISM
government to prevent despotism and in Like the Industrial Revolution, the
written constitutions that would guarantee
concept of nationalism originated in eighteenth-
these rights. Liberals were not democrats, century Europe, where it was the product of a
however. They thought that the right to vote variety of factors, including the spread of
and hold office should be open only to men of printing and the replacement of Latin with
property. As a political philosophy, liberalism vernacular languages, the secularization of the
was adopted by middle-class men, especially
age, and the experience of the French
industrial middle-class men, who favored voting revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. The French
rights for themselves so that they could share were the first to show what a nation in arms
power with the landowning classes. Nationalism could accomplish, but peoples conquered by
was an even more powerful ideology for change Napoleon soon created their own national
in the nineteenth century. armies. At the beginning of the nineteenth
Nationalism arose out of an awareness century, peoples who had previously focused
of being part of a community that has common their identity on a locality or a region, on loyalty
institutions, traditions, language, and customs. to a monarch or to a particular religious faith,
This community is called a nation, and the now shifted their political allegiance to the idea
primary political loyalty of individuals would be of a nation, based on ethnic, linguistic, or
to the nation. Nationalism did not become a cultural factors. The idea of the nation had
popular force for change until the French explosive consequences: by the end of the first
Revolution. From then on, nationalists came to two decades of the twentieth century, the
believe that each nationality should have its world’s three largest multiethnic states—
own government. Thus, the Germans, who imperial Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the
were not united, wanted national unity in a Ottoman Empire—had all given way to a
German nation-state with one central number of individual nation-states.
government. Subject peoples, such as the

3
4
The idea of establishing political boundaries on of national identity, most of the peoples in Asia
the basis of ethnicity, language, or culture had a and Africa lived in multiethnic and
broad appeal throughout Western civilization, multireligious communities and were not yet
but it had unintended consequences. Although ripe for the spirit of nationalism.
the concept provided the basis for a new sense
As we shall see, the first attempts to
of community that was tied to liberal thought
resist European colonial rule were thus often
in the first half of the nineteenth century, it also
based on religious or ethnic identity, rather
gave birth to ethnic tensions and hatred in the
than on the concept of denied nationhood. But
second half of the century that resulted in bitter
the imperialist powers, which at first benefited
disputes and contributed to the competition
from the lack of political cohesion among their
between nation-states that eventually erupted
colonial subjects, eventually reaped what they
into world war. Governments, following the
had sowed. As the colonial peoples became
lead of the radical government in Paris during
familiar with Western concepts of democracy
the French Revolution, took full advantage of
and self-determination, they too began to
the rise of a strong national consciousness and
manifest a sense of common purpose that
transformed war into a demonstration of
helped knit together the different elements in
national honor and commitment. Universal
their societies to oppose colonial regimes and
schooling enabled states to arouse patriotic
create the conditions for the emergence of
enthusiasm and create national unity. Most
future nations. For good or ill, the concept of
soldiers who joyfully went to war in 1914 were
nationalism had now achieved global JayBailey
convinced that their nation’s cause was just.
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Europe, it soon spread to other parts of the JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
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Vietnam, had already developed a strong sense JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey

5
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey peace and stability in Europe, he considered it
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey who would preserve traditional institutions.
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey This had already been done in France with the
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and in a
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey number of other states, but it did not stop the
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey great powers from grabbing territory, often
JayBailey JayBailey JayvBailey JayTo reestablish from the smaller, weaker states.

The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the generated by the French revolutionary era.
beginning of a conservative reaction After 1815, the political philosophy of
determined to contain the liberal and conservatism was supported by hereditary
nationalist forces unleashed by the French monarchs, government bureaucracies,
Revolution. Metternich and his kind were landowning aristocracies, and revived
representatives of the ideology known as churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The
conservatism. Most conservatives favored conservative forces were dominant after 1815.
obedience to political authority, believed that One method used by the great powers to
organized religion was crucial to social order, maintain the new status quo they had
hated revolutionary upheavals, and were constructed was the Concert of Europe,
unwilling to accept either the liberal demands according to which Great Britain, Russia,
for civil liberties and representative Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to
governments or the nationalistic aspirations meet periodically in conferences to take steps

6
that would maintain the peace in Europe. that people should be as free from restraint as
Eventually, the great powers adopted a possible. Liberals came to hold a common set of
principle of intervention, asserting that they political beliefs. Chief among them was the
had the right to send armies into countries protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of
where there were revolutions to restore all people, which included equality before the
legitimate monarchs to their thrones. law; freedom of assembly, speech, and the
press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of
Forces for Change these freedoms should be guaranteed by a
Between 1815 and 1830, conservative written document, such as the American Bill of
governments throughout Europe worked to Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all,
maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for most liberals advocated separation of church
and state. Liberals also demanded the right of
change---liberalism and nationalism--were also
at work. Liberalism owed much to the peaceful opposition to the government in and
Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and out of parliament and the making of laws by a
the American and French Revolutions at the representative assembly (legislature) elected
by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals
end of that century; it was based on the idea
proportions.

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JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayvBailey JayTo reestablish peace and stability
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey in Europe, he considered it necessary to restore
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey the legitimate monarchs who would preserve
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey traditional institutions. This had already been
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey done in France with the restoration of the
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey Bourbon monarchy and in a number of other
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey states, but it did not stop the great powers from
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey grabbing territory, often from the smaller,
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey weaker states.

7
The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the maintain the new status quo they had
beginning of a conservative reaction constructed was the Concert of Europe,
determined to contain the liberal and according to which Great Britain, Russia,
nationalist forces unleashed by the French Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to
Revolution. Metternich and his kind were meet periodically in conferences to take steps
representatives of the ideology known as that would maintain the peace in Europe.
conservatism. Most conservatives favored Eventually, the great powers adopted a
obedience to political authority, believed that principle of intervention, asserting that they
organized religion was crucial to social order, had the right to send armies into countries
hated revolutionary upheavals, and were where there were revolutions to restore
unwilling to accept either the liberal demands legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations Forces for Change
generated by the French revolutionary era. Between 1815 and 1830, conservative
After 1815, the political philosophy of governments throughout Europe worked to
conservatism was supported by hereditary maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for
monarchs, government bureaucracies, change---liberalism and nationalism--were also
landowning aristocracies, and revived at work. Liberalism owed much to the
churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and
conservative forces were dominant after 1815. the American and French Revolutions at the
One method used by the great powers to end of that century; it was based on the idea

8
that people should be as free from restraint as JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
possible. Liberals came to hold a common set of JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
political beliefs. Chief among them was the JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
all people, which included equality before the JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
law; freedom of assembly, speech, and the JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
these freedoms should be guaranteed by a JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
written document, such as the American Bill of JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all, JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayvBailey JayTo
most liberals advocated separation of church reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he
and state. Liberals also demanded the right of considered it necessary to restore the
peaceful opposition to the government in and legitimate monarchs who would preserve
out of parliament and the making of laws by a traditional institutions. This had already been
representative assembly (legislature) elected done in France with the restoration of the
by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals Bourbon monarchy and in a number of other
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey states, but it did not stop the great powers from
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey grabbing territory, often from the smaller,
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey weaker states.
JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey

9
The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the the American and French Revolutions at the
beginning of a conservative reaction end of that century; it was based on the idea
determined to contain the liberal and that people should be as free from restraint as
nationalist forces unleashed by the French possible. Liberals came to hold a common set of
Revolution. Metternich and his kind were political beliefs. Chief among them was the
representatives of the ideology known as protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of
conservatism. Most conservatives favored all people, which included equality before the
obedience to political authority, believed that law; freedom of assembly, speech, and the
organized religion was crucial to social order, press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of
hated revolutionary upheavals, and were these freedoms should be guaranteed by a
unwilling to accept either the liberal demands written document, such as the American Bill of
for civil liberties and representative Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all,
governments or the nationalistic aspirations most liberals advocated separation of church
generated by the French revolutionary era. and state. Liberals also demanded the right of
After 1815, the political philosophy of peaceful opposition to the government in and
conservatism was supported by hereditary out of parliament and the making of laws by a
monarchs, government bureaucracies, representative assembly (legislature) elected
landowning aristocracies, and revived by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals
churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
conservative forces were dominant after 1815. JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
One method used by the great powers to JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
maintain the new status quo they had JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
constructed was the Concert of Europe, JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
according to which Great Britain, Russia, JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
meet periodically in conferences to take steps JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
that would maintain the peace in Europe. JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
Eventually, the great powers adopted a JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
principle of intervention, asserting that they JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
had the right to send armies into countries JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
where there were revolutions to restore JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey
legitimate monarchs to their thrones. JayBailey JayBailey JayBailey JayvBailey JayTo
reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he
Forces for Change considered it necessary to restore the
Between 1815 and 1830, conservative legitimate monarchs who would preserve
governments throughout Europe worked to traditional institutions. This had already been
maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for done in France with the restoration of the
change---liberalism and nationalism--were also Bourbon monarchy and in a number of other
at work. Liberalism owed much to the states, but it did not stop the great powers from
Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and grabbing territory, often from the smaller,
weaker states.

10
The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the maintain the new status quo they had
beginning of a conservative reaction constructed was the Concert of Europe,
determined to contain the liberal and according to which Great Britain, Russia,
nationalist forces unleashed by the French Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to
Revolution. Metternich and his kind were meet periodically in conferences to take steps
representatives of the ideology known as that would maintain the peace in Europe.
conservatism. Most conservatives favored Eventually, the great powers adopted a
obedience to political authority, believed that principle of intervention, asserting that they
organized religion was crucial to social order, had the right to send armies into countries
hated revolutionary upheavals, and were where there were revolutions to restore
unwilling to accept either the liberal demands legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations Forces for Change
generated by the French revolutionary era. Between 1815 and 1830, conservative
After 1815, the political philosophy of governments throughout Europe worked to
conservatism was supported by hereditary maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for
monarchs, government bureaucracies, change---liberalism and nationalism--were also
landowning aristocracies, and revived at work. Liberalism owed much to the
churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and
conservative forces were dominant after 1815. the American and French Revolutions at the
One method used by the great powers to end of that century; it was based on the idea

11
that people should be as free from restraint as Protestant and Catholic. The conservative
possible. Liberals came to hold a common set of forces were dominant after 1815. One method
political beliefs. Chief among them was the used by the great powers to maintain the new
protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of status quo they had constructed was the
all people, which included equality before the Concert of Europe, according to which Great
law; freedom of assembly, speech, and the Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later
press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of France) agreed to meet periodically in
these freedoms should be guaranteed by a conferences to take steps that would maintain
written document, such as the American Bill of the peace in Europe. Eventually, the great
Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all, powers adopted a principle of intervention,
most liberals advocated separation of church asserting that they had the right to send armies
and state. Liberals also demanded the right of into countries where there were revolutions to
peaceful opposition to the government in and restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
out of parliament and the making of laws by a
representative ass conservatism was supported Forces for Change
by hereditary monarchs, government
Between 1815 and 1830, conservative
bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and governments throughout Europe worked to
revived churches, both Protestant and maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for
Catholic. The conservative forces were change---liberalism and nationalism--were also
dominant after 1815. One method used by the
at work. Liberalism owed much to the
great powers to maintain the new status quo Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and
they had constructed was the Concert of the American and French Revolutions at the
Europe, according to which Great Britain, end of that century; it was based conservatism
Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) was supported by hereditary monarchs,
agreed to meet periodically in conferences to
government bureaucracies, landowning
take steps that would maintain the peace in aristocracies, and revived churches, both
Europe. Eventually, the great powers adopted a Protestant and Catholic. The conservative
principle of intervention, asserting that they forces were dominant after 1815. One method
had the right to send armies into countries used by the great powers to maintain the new
where there were revolutions to restore status quo they had constructed was the
legitimate monarchs to their thrones. Concert of Europe, according to which Great
Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later
Forces for Change
France) agreed to meet periodically in
Between 1815 and 1830, conservative conferences to take steps that would maintain
governments throughout Europe worked to the peace in Europe. Eventually, the great
maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for powers adopted a principle of intervention,
change---liberalism and nationalism--were also asserting that they had the right to send armies
at work. Liberalism owed much to the into countries where there were revolutions to
Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
the American and French Revolutions at the
end of that century; it was based conservatism Forces for Change
was supported by hereditary monarchs, Between 1815 and 1830, conservative
government bureaucracies, landowning governments throughout Europe worked to
aristocracies, and revived churches, both maintain the old order. But, powerful forces for

12
change---liberalism and nationalism--were also he considered it necessary to restore the
at work. Liberalism owed much to the legitimate monarchs who would preserve
Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and traditional institutions. This had already been
the American and French Revolutions at the done in France with the restoration of the
end of that century; it was based embly Bourbon monarchy and in a number of other
(legislature) elected by qualified voters. Thus, states, but it did not stop the great powers from
many liberals JayBailey JayBailey JayvBailey grabbing territory, often from the smaller,
JayTo reestablish peace and stability in Europe, weaker states.

The peace arrangements of 1815 were but the beginning of a conservative reaction determined to
contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Metternich and his kind
were representatives of the ideology known as conservatism. Most conservatives favored obedience to
political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary
upheavals, and were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative
governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolutionary era. After 1815, the
political philosophy of conservatism was supported by hereditary monarchs, government
bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches, both Protestant and Catholic. The
conservative forces were dominant after 1815. One method used by the great powers to maintain the
new status quo they had constructed was the Concert of Europe, according to which Great Britain,
Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to meet periodically in conferences to take steps
that would maintain the peace in Europe. Eventually, the great powers adopted a principle of

13
intervention, asserting that they had the right to send armies into countries where there were
revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Forces for Change

Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments throughout Europe worked to maintain the old
order. But, powerful forces for change---liberalism and nationalism--were also at work. Liberalism owed
much to the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and the American and French Revolutions at the
end of that century; it was based on the idea that people should be as free from restraint as possible.
Liberals came to hold a common set of political beliefs. Chief among them was the protection of civil
liberties, or the basic rights of all people, which included equality before the law; freedom of assembly,
speech, and the press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of these freedoms should be guaranteed
by a written document, such as the American Bill of Rights. In addition to religious toleration for all,
most liberals advocated separation of church and state. Liberals also demanded the right of peaceful
opposition to the government in and out of parliament and the making of laws by a representative
assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals

14