CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science History Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science History
Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Chapter 1 of CBSE Class 10 History deals with many of the issues visualised by
Sorrieu and will look at the diverse processes through which nation-states and
nationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe. The topics covered in this
chapter are Rise of Nationalism in Europe, French Revolution, Nationalism and
Imperialism. CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of
Nationalism in Europe are prepared by our subject matter experts. By going through
these notes, students can get a good grip and a clear insight into all the essential
concepts. These CBSE notes will help students to understand the chapter in a better
way. It works as the best revision resource during board exams.
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Frédéric Sorrieu vision of World
Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, in 1848 prepared a series of four prints visualising his
dream of a world made up of democratic and Social Republics.
1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train and
offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass it. The torch of Enlightenment
was carried by a female figure in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in
the other.
2. On the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist
institutions.
3. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identified through their flags and national costume.
4. The procession was led by the United States and Switzerland, followed by France
and Germany. Following the German people are the people of Austria, the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
5. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They
have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of the world.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought huge
changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was
the emergence of the nation-state.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

1. In 1789 Nationalism came with French Revolution and the political and constitutional
changes led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French
citizens. Various measures and practices were introduced such as the ideas of la
patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen). A new French flag, the tricolour
was to replace the former one.
2. Democracy destroyed in France by Napoleon and the Civil Code of 1804 known as
Napoleonic Code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality
before the law and secured the right to property.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose
rulers had their autonomous territories.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
The Aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent politically and socially. The
majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. Industrialisation began in
England in the second half of the eighteenth century. New social groups came into being: a
working-class population and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen,
professionals.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

1. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. The right to vote
and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. Men without
property and all women were excluded from political rights.
2. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and
joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and
reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
A New Conservatism after 1815

1. In 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed in monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and
that the family should be preserved.
2. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of
feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
3. In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and
Austria met in Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
4. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power and France lost the territories it had
annexed under Napoleon.
5. The major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new
conservative order, was freedom of the press.
The Revolutionaries
1. In 1815, secret societies were formed in many European states to train

revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Revolutionary opposed monarchical forms,
fight for liberty and freedom.
2. The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, founded two
more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles.
3. Secondly, he founded Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded
young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

In July 1830, Bourbon Kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed
a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution sparked
an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom
of the Netherlands. In 1821, Greeks struggled for independence.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories
and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

sentiment. Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
Russian language was imposed everywhere and in 1831 an armed rebellion against
Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
Europe faced economic hardships in the 1830s. The first half of the nineteenth century saw
an enormous increase in population all over Europe. The rise of food prices or a year of
bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country. In 1848, food shortages and
widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.
The Revolution of the Liberals
In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway. Men and women
of the liberal middle class demanded creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles
– a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
A large number of political associations came together in Frankfurt to vote for an all-
German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to
take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
The Constitution drafted for German nation was headed by a monarchy, subject to a
Parliament. The Crown was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia but he rejected
it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The Middle Class dominated
the Parliament and a large number of women participated in liberal movement.
Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and took part in
political meetings and demonstrations, but they were still denied suffrage rights during the
election of the Assembly.
In the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to
introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus,
serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in
Russia.
The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

Nationalism in Europe moved away after 1848 and Germany and Italy came to be unified
as nation-states. Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for national unification.
The architect of this process was its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, carried out with the
help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor. An
assembly was held to proclaim the new German Empire. The process of nation-building
demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The currency, banking, legal and
judicial system in Germany were modernised.
Italy Unified
Italy was divided into seven states, in the middle of the nineteenth century, and among all
the seven states, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. All the regions
were dominated by different kings. In the 1830's Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society
called Young Italy.
The movement was led by Chief Minister Cavour. In 1859, Sardinia-Piedmont defeated
Austrian forces. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II
was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain
Great Britain was the model of the nation and prior to the eighteenth century there was no
British nation. The nation became powerful as it steadily grew in wealth, importance and
power. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its
influence on Scotland. In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God
Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted.
Visualising the Nation
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries artists represented a country as a person and
nations as female figures. During the French Revolution, female figures portray ideas such
as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. Liberty is represented as a red cap, or the broken
chain, Justice a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalism no longer retained after the last quarter of the nineteenth century. After 1871,
the most tensioned area was called the Balkans a region comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro.
Ottoman Empire made the Balkans region explosive and all through the nineteenth century
they strengthened themselves through modernisation and internal reforms. Due to various
conflicts the Balkan became an area of intense conflict.
During this period, intense rivalry built among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might which led to a series of wars in the region and
finally the First World War.
In 1914, Europe was disastered because of Nationalism, aligned with imperialism. Anti-
imperial movements were developed but they all struggled to form independent nation-
states. But the idea of ‘nation-states’ was accepted as natural and universal.
CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought
against the colonial British Raj. In this chapter, students will get to know the story from the 1920s
and study about the nonCooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. Students will also get to
explore how Congress sought to develop the national movement, how different social groups
participated in the movement, and how nationalism captured the imagination of people. Learn
more about Nationalism in India by exploring CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2. These notes are comprehensive and detailed, yet concise enough to glance through
for exam preparations.
In India, the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement. Due to
colonialism, many different groups shared bonds together, which were forged by the Congress
under Mahatma Gandhi.
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The war created a new economic and political situation in the years after 1919. Income tax
introduced and the prices of custom duties were doubled between 1913 and 1918 which led to a
very difficult life for common people. In 1918-19 crops failed in India, resulting in shortage of food
accompanied by an influenza epidemic. At this stage, a new leader appeared and suggested a
new mode of struggle.
The Idea of Satyagraha
In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa and started the movement
Satyagraha. Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, people can win a battle without non-violence which will unite all
Indians. In 1917, he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against
the oppressive plantation system. In the same year, he organised satyagraha to support the
peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to
organise a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.
The Rowlatt Act
In 1919, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act.
The Act gives the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed
detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. The British government decided to
clamp down on nationalists by witnessing the outrage of the people. On April 10th, police in
Amritsar fired on a peaceful procession, which provoked widespread attacks on banks, post
offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.
On 13th April Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. A large crowd gathered in the Jallianwala
Bagh where a few people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures,
while some came to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked all the exit points and
opened fire on the crowd killing hundreds. After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, people became
furious and
went on strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings. Mahatma Gandhi had
to call off the movement as it was turning into a violent war.
Mahatma Gandhi then took up the Khilafat issue by bringing Hindus and Muslims together. The
First World War ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. In March 1919, a Khilafat Committee
was formed in Bombay. In September 1920, Mahatma Gandhi convinced other leaders of the
need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
Why Non-cooperation?
According to Mahatma Gandhi, British rule was established in India with the cooperation of
Indians. Non-cooperation movement is proposed in stages. It should begin with the surrender of
titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and
legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. After much hurdles and campaigning between
the supporters and opponents of the movement, finally, in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation
Movement was adopted.
Differing Strands within the Movement

In January 1921, the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began. In this movement, various
social groups participated, but the term meant different things to different people.
The Movement in the Towns
Middle-class started the movement and thousands of students, teachers, headmasters left
government-controlled schools and colleges, lawyers gave up their legal practices. In the
economic front, the effects of non-cooperation were more dramatic. The production of Indian
textile mills and handlooms went up when people started boycotting foreign goods. But this
movement slowed down due to a variety of reasons such as Khadi clothes are expensive, less
Indian institutions for students and teachers to choose from, so they went back to government
schools and lawyers joined back government courts.
Rebellion in the Countryside
The Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside where peasants and tribals were
developing in different parts of India. The peasant movement started against talukdars and
landlords who demanded high rents and a variety of other cesses. It demanded reduction of
revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Jawaharlal Nehru in June 1920, started going around the villages in Awadh to understand their
grievances. In October, he along with few others set up the Oudh Kisan Sabha and within a
month 300 branches have been set up. In 1921, the peasant movement was spread and the
houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain boards were
taken over.
In the early 1920s, a militant guerrilla movement started spreading in the Gudem Hills of Andhra
Pradesh. The government started closing down forest areas due to which their livelihood was
affected. Finally, the hill people revolted which was led by Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he
had a variety of special powers.
Swaraj in the Plantations
For plantation workers in Assam, freedom means right to move freely in and out and retaining a
link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859,
plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission. After they
heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers left the plantations and headed
home. But, unfortunately, they never reached their destination and were caught by the police and
brutally beaten up.
Towards Civil Disobedience
In February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn because Mahatma Gandhi felt
that it was turning violent. Some of the leaders wanted to participate in elections to the provincial
councils. Swaraj Party was formed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru. In the late 1920s Indian politics
again shaped because of two factors. The first effect was the worldwide economic depression
and the second effect was the falling agricultural prices. The Statutory Commission was set up to
look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. In 1928,
Simon Commission arrived in India and it was greeted by the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. In
December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the
demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930
would be celebrated as Independence Day.
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement
On 31 January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands.
Among the demands, the most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax which is
consumed by the rich and the poor. The demands needed to be fulfilled by 11 March or else
Congress will start a civil disobedience campaign. The famous salt march was started by
Mahatma Gandhi accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles,
from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April he reached
Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling seawater. This marked
the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The movement spread across the world and salt law was broken in different parts of the country.
Foreign cloth was boycotted, peasants refused to pay revenue and in many places forest law was
violated. In April 1930, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested a month later which led to attack in all structures that symbolised
British rule. By witnessing the horrific situation, Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the movement
and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931. Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to
participate in a Round Table Conference in London. When the conference broke down Mahatma
Gandhi returned to India disappointed and he relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement, for
over a year, it continued, but by 1934 it lost its momentum.
How Participants saw the Movement
The Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. They became
enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. But they were deeply disappointed
when the movement was called off in 1931. So when the movement was restarted in 1932, many
of them refused to participate. The poorer peasants joined a variety of radical movements, often
led by Socialists and Communists.
To organise business interests, the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 was formed. The
industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil
Disobedience Movement when it was first launched. Some of the industrial workers did
participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1930 and 1932 railway workers and dock
workers were on strike.
Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of
women. But, for a long time the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of
authority within the organisation.
The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Dalits addressed as untouchables were not moved by the concept of Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi
used to call them as harijans or the children of God without whom swaraj could not be achieved.
He organised satyagraha for the untouchables but they were keen on a different political solution
to the problems of the community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and
a separate electorate.
Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930,
clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate
electorates for Dalits. The Poona Pact of September 1932, gave the Depressed Classes (later to
be known as the Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, Muslims felt alienated from the
Congress due to which the relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates if Muslims were
assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in
the Muslim-dominated provinces. But, the hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties
Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed
efforts at compromise.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation.
History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making
of nationalism. Finally, in the twentieth century, the identity of India came to be visually
associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image
and in the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.
Rabindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata portrayed as an ascetic figure;
she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began
recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends.
During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed
which had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon,
representing Hindus and Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag, a tricolour (red,
green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-
help.
Conclusion
In the first half of the twentieth century, various groups and classes of Indians came together for
the struggle of independence. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi attempted
to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. In
other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial
rule.
Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World
Globalisation means integration of markets in the global economy, leading to the increased
interconnectedness of national economies. By having an idea of the history of globalisation,
students can precisely understand the causes which led to such social and economic change.
The nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution was one of the significant periods in the history of
globalisation. Social Science History Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World explains how
globalisation has its effect on the world as well as Indian economy. These CBSE notes for Class
10 Social Science History for Chapter 3 help students to get a brief overview of all the concepts.
By referring to these notes, students can recall all the essential topics from the chapter and can
quickly revise the entire section.
The Pre-modern World

Globalisation refers to an economic system that has emerged since the last 50 years or so. But,
the making of the global world has a long history – of trade, of migration, of people in search of
work, the movement of capital, and much else. From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests and
pilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and spiritual fulfilment, or to escape
persecution. As early as 3000 BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley civilisations
with present-day West Asia.
Silk Routes Link the World
Silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant
parts of the world. Several silk routes have been identified by historians, overland and by sea,
connecting vast regions of Asia, and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa. In exchange of
textile and species from India, precious metals - gold and silver - flowed from Europe to Asia.
Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato
Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. New crops were introduced by
traders and travellers. Ready foodstuff such as noodles travelled west from China to become
spaghetti. Our ancestors were not familiar with common foods such as potatoes, soya,
groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on about five centuries ago. Many
of our common foods came from America’s original inhabitants – the American Indians.
Conquest, Disease and Trade
The Indian Ocean, for centuries before, had known a bustling trade, with goods, people,
knowledge, customs, etc. crisscrossing its waters. The entry of Europeans helped in redirecting
these flows towards Europe. America’s vast lands and abundant crops minerals began to
transform trade and lives everywhere. The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of
America was decisively underway by the mid-sixteenth century.
Europeans' most powerful weapon was not a conventional military weapon, but germs such as
those of smallpox that they carried on their person. It proved to be a deadly killer. Until the
nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe. Until well into the eighteenth
century, China and India were among the world’s richest countries. However, from the fifteenth
century, China is said to have restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. Europe now
emerged as the centre of world trade.
The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

In the nineteenth century, economic, political, social, cultural and technological factors interacted in
complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations. Three flows or movements
were identified by economists.
1. The first is the flow of trade referred largely to trade in goods (e.g., cloth or wheat).
2. The second is the flow of labour – the migration of people in search of employment.
3. The third is the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long
distances.
A World Economy Takes Shape
In the nineteenth-century self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social conflict in
Britain. It happened because of population growth from the late eighteenth century. Corn laws were
imposed which means restriction in the import of corn. The British agriculture was unable to
compete with imports and vast areas of land were left uncultivated. So, thousands of men and
women flocked to the cities or migrated overseas.
In Britain, food prices fell and in the mid-nineteenth century, industrial growth led to higher incomes
and more food imports. In order to fulfil British demand, in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and
Australia, lands were cleared to expand food production. In order to manage linking of railways to
agricultural fields and building homes for people required capital and labour. London helped in
terms of finance and terms of labour people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia in the
nineteenth century.
By 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape, adapting complex changes in labour
movement patterns, capital flows, ecologies and technology. In West Punjab, the British Indian
government built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastes into fertile
agricultural lands to grow wheat and cotton for export. Even the cultivation of cotton, expanded
worldwide to feed British textile mills.
Role of Technology
Some of the important inventions in the field of technology are the railways, steamships, the
telegraph, which transformed the nineteenth-century world. But technological advances were often
the result of larger social, political and economic factors.
For example, colonisation stimulated new investments and improvements in transport: faster
railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaply and quickly from faraway
farms to final markets. Animals were also shipped live from America to Europe till the 1870s. Meat
was considered an expensive luxury beyond the reach of the European poor. To break the earlier
monotony of bread and potatoes, many could now add meat (and butter and eggs) to their diet.
Late nineteenth-century Colonialism
Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late nineteenth century. But, it has a darker side too,
as in many parts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the world
economy meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods. In 1885 the big European powers met in Berlin
to complete the carving up of Africa between them. Britain and France made vast additions to their
overseas territories. Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers. The US also became a
colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some colonies earlier held by Spain.
Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague impacted people’s livelihoods
and the local economy. Africa had abundant land and a relatively small population. In the late
nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to Africa due to its vast resources of land and
minerals.
Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops and minerals
for export to Europe. But there was an unexpected problem – a shortage of labour willing to work
for wages. Inheritance laws were changed and according to the new one only one member of a
family was allowed to inherit land. In the late 1880s, Rinderpest arrived in Africa carried by infected
cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa. The loss
of cattle destroyed African livelihoods.
Indentured Labour Migration from India
Indentured labour illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world. A world of faster
economic growth as well as great misery, higher incomes for some and poverty for others,
technological advances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others. In India, indentured
labourers were hired under contracts and most of them came from the present-day regions of
eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.
Indian indentured migrants main destinations were the Caribbean islands (mainly Trinidad, Guyana
and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji. Indentured workers were also recruited for tea plantations in
Assam. Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a ‘new system of slavery’. In Trinidad
the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a riotous carnival called ‘Hosay’ in which
workers of all races and religions joined.
Similarly, the protest religion of Rastafarianism is also said to reflect social and cultural links with
Indian migrants to the Caribbean. From the 1900s India’s nationalist leaders began opposing the
system of indentured labour migration as abusive and cruel. It was abolished in 1921.
Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad
People need huge capital to grow food and other crops for the world market. So, for the humble
peasant Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars were amongst the many groups of bankers
and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own
funds or those borrowed from European banks.
Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System
Cottons from India were exported to Europe. In Britain, tariffs were imposed on cloth imports.
Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton began to decline. Over the nineteenth century, British
manufacturers flooded the Indian market. By helping Britain balance its deficits, India played a
crucial role in the late-nineteenth-century world economy. Britain’s trade surplus in India also
helped pay the so-called ‘home charges’ that included private remittances home by British officials
and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British officials in India.
The Inter-war Economy
The First World War (1914-18) was fought in Europe, but its impact was felt around the world.
During this period the world experienced widespread economic and political instability and another
catastrophic war.
Wartime Transformations
The First World War was fought between the Allies – Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the
US); and the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey. The war lasted for
more than four years which involved the world’s leading industrial nations. It was considered as the
first modern industrial war which saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons,
etc. on a massive scale. During the war, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods.
Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks as well as the US public, transforming the
US from being an international debtor to an international creditor.
Post-war Recovery
Post-war economic recovery, Britain, the world’s leading economy faced a prolonged crisis.
Industries had developed in India and Japan while Britain was preoccupied in the war. Britain, after
the war, found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in the Indian market and to
compete with Japan internationally. At the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge external
debts. Anxiety and uncertainty about work became an enduring part of the post-war scenario.
Rise of Mass Production and Consumption
The US economy recovered quicker and resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s. Mass
production is one of the important features of the US economy which began in the late nineteenth
century. Henry Ford is a well-known pioneer of mass production, a car manufacturer who
established his car plant in Detroit. The TModel Ford was the world’s first mass-produced car.
Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US and were also copied in Europe in the 1920s.
The demand for refrigerators, washing machines, etc. also boomed, financed once again by loans.
In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas
lender.
The Great Depression
The period of The Great Depression, began around 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s, most parts of
the world experienced catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and trade. The
most affected areas were agricultural regions and communities. Combination of several factors led
to depression. The first factor is agricultural overproduction, second is in the mid-1920s, many
countries financed their investments through loans from the US. The rest of the world is affected by
the withdrawal of US loans in different ways. The US was also severely affected by the depression.
Unfortunately, the US banking system collapsed as thousands of banks went bankrupt and were
forced to close.
India and the Great Depression
Indian trade is immediately affected by depression. The prices of agriculture fell sharply but still, the
colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. In these depression years, India became
an exporter of precious metals, notably gold. Rural India was thus seething with unrest when
Mahatma Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement at the height of the depression in
1931.
Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

Two decades after the end of the First World War, the Second World War broke out. It was fought
between the Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France,
the Soviet Union and the US). The war continued for six years over land, on sea, in the air. The war
caused an immense amount of economic devastation and social disruption. Post-war
reconstruction was shaped by two crucial influences. The first one is that the US emerged as the
dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world. The second was the
dominance of the Soviet Union.
Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions
Two-key lessons were drawn out from inter-war economic experience. First, mass production
cannot be sustained without mass communication. The second lesson related to a country’s
economic links with the outside world. The Bretton Woods conference established the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations. The
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was
set up to finance postwar reconstruction. The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial
operations in 1947.
The Early Post-war Years
An era of unprecedented growth of trade and incomes was inaugurated by the Bretton Woods for
the Western industrial nations and Japan. During this decade, technology and enterprise were
spread worldwide.
Decolonisation and Independence
After the end of Second World War, large parts of the world were still under European colonial rule.
The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries.
The IMF and the World Bank from the late 1950s shift their attention more towards developing
countries. Most developing countries were not benefited from the fast growth the Western
economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s. They organised as a group – the Group of 77 (or
G-77) – and demanded a new international economic order (NIEO). NIEO meant a system that
would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer
prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goods in developed countries’
markets.
End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’
The US's finance and competitive strength were weakened due to rising costs of its overseas
involvements from the 1960s. In the mid-1970s the international financial system also changed
and the industrial world was also hit by unemployment. MNCs began to shift their production to low-
wage Asian countries. China became attractive destinations for investment by foreign MNCs. In the
last two decades, the world’s economic geography has been transformed as countries such as
India, China and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.
Chapter 4 - The Age of Industrialisation
In Chapter 4 of CBSE Class 10, Social Science History students will learn the history of Britain,
the first industrial nation, and then India, where the pattern of industrial change was conditioned
by colonial rule. The chapter begins with explaining the scenario before the Industrial Revolution
and how it changed over time in terms of labour, setting up of factories, etc. Some of the other
topics explained in the chapter are Industrialisation in the colonies, industrial growth, market for
goods, workers life, etc. In this article we have compiled CBSE Class 10 Social Science History
Notes Chapter 4 - The Age of Industrialisation. All the essential concepts are covered in these
notes, as discussed in the chapter. Students can also download these notes in PDF format.
Before the Industrial Revolution

Proto-industrialisation is referred to the phase which existed even before factories began in
England and Europe. There was large-scale industrial production for an international market not
based on factories. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from Europe moved
to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, requesting them to produce for an
international market. Merchants were restricted to expand their production within towns because
rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. In the
countryside, poor peasants and artisans eagerly agreed so that they could remain in the
countryside and continue to cultivate their small plots. The Proto-industrial system was thus part
of a network of commercial exchanges controlled by merchants.
The Coming Up of the Factory
In the 1730s the earliest factories in England were set up, but only in the late eighteenth century,
the number of factories multiplied. Cotton was the first symbol of the new era and its production
boomed in the late nineteenth century. Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill where costly
machines were set up and all the processes were brought together under one roof and
management.
The Pace of Industrial Change
First: In Britain, the most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. Cotton was the leading
sector in the first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s, followed by iron and steel industry.
Second: The new industries found it difficult to displace traditional industries. Third: The pace of
change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but
they did not remain entirely stagnant either. Fourth: technological changes occurred slowly.
James Watt improved the steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine in
1781. His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured the new model. Steam engines were
not used in any of the other industries until much later in the century.
Hand Labour and Steam Power
There was no shortage of human labour in Victorian Britain. Industrialists had no problem of labour
shortage or high wage costs. Instead of machines industrialists required large capital investment.
The demand for labour was seasonal in many industries. In all such industries where production
fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the
season.
Life of the Workers
The workers' lives were affected by the abundance of labour in the market. To get a job, workers
should have existing networks of friendship and kin relations in a factory. Till the mid-nineteenth
century, it was difficult for workers to find jobs. In the early nineteenth century, wages were
increased. The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology.
Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woollen industry. After the 1840s, building activity intensified
in the cities, opening up greater opportunities of employment. Roads were widened, new railway
stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers laid, rivers
embanked.
Industrialisation in the Colonies

The Age of Indian Textiles
In India, silk and cotton goods dominated the international market in textiles, before the age of
machine industries. A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of
export trade – financing production, carrying goods and supplying exporters. By the 1750s this
network, controlled by Indian merchants, was breaking down. The European companies came into
power – first securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights to trade.
The shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of colonial power.
European companies controlled trade through the new ports and were carried in European ships.
Many old trading houses collapsed, and those who wanted to survive had to operate within a
network shaped by European trading companies.
What Happened to Weavers?
After the 1760s, the consolidation of the East India Company did not initially lead to a decline in
textile exports from India. Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s
and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for
export. After the East India Company established political power, it developed a system of
management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular
supplies of cotton and silk goods. It was established by following a series of steps.
1. By eliminating existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establishing
a more direct control over the weaver.
2. By preventing Company weavers from dealing with other buyers.
The weavers were granted a loan to buy the raw materials once an order was placed. Weavers
who took loans needed to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. Weaving required
the labour of the entire family, with children and women all engaged in different stages of the
process. Earlier, supply merchants had a very close relationship with weavers, but new gomasthas
were outsiders with no social link with the village.
In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers set up looms in other villages where they had
some family relation. In other places, weavers along with the village traders revolted, opposing the
Company and its officials. Over time many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their
workshops and taking to agricultural labour. By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers
faced a new set of problems.
Manchester Comes to India
In 1772, Henry Patullo said that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce since no other
nation produced goods of the same quality. But, unfortunately by the beginning of the nineteenth
century India witnessed a decline of textile exports. In the early nineteenth century, exports of
British cotton goods increased dramatically. At the end of the eighteenth century, import of cotton
piece-goods were restricted into India. In India cotton weavers faced two problems:
1. Their export market collapsed

2. Local market shrank and gluted with Manchester imports.
By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of
good quality. Even the raw cotton exports from India increased due to which the price increased.
By the end of the nineteenth century, other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in
India began production, flooding the market with machine-goods.
Factories Come Up
In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay set up and went into production two years later. By 1862
four more mills were set up and around the same time jute mills came up in Bengal. The first jute
mill was set up in 1855 and another one after seven years in 1862. In the 1860s, in north India, the
Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur, and a year later the first cotton mill of Ahmedabad was set up. By
1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.
The Early Entrepreneurs
The history of trade started from the late eighteenth century, when British in India began exporting
opium to China and took tea from China to England. Some of the businessmen who were involved
in these trades had visions of developing industrial enterprises in India. In Bengal, Dwarkanath
Tagore made his fortune in the China trade. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee
Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires in India. Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari
businessman set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917. The opportunities of investments in
industries opened up and many of them set up factories. But due to colonial power, Indians were
barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods, and had to export mostly raw materials
and food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British. Three of the
biggest European Managing Agencies are Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner
& Co. who mobilised capital, set up joint-stock companies and managed them.
Where Did the Workers Come From?
As the factories started expanding, the demand for workers increased. Most of the workers came
from the neighbouring districts in search of work. Over 50 per cent workers in the Bombay cotton
industries in 1911 came from the neighbouring district of Ratnagiri, while the mills of Kanpur got
most of their textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur. As news of
employment spread, workers travelled great distances in the hope of work in the mills.
Even after the demand for workers increased, getting jobs was difficult. The numbers seeking work
were always more than the jobs available. Most of the industrialists employed a jobber, which he
brought from his village, to recruit new workers. Industrialists helped the jobber to settle down and
provided them money in need.
The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies were interested in certain kinds of products such as tea and coffee.
They established tea and coffee plantations and invested in mining, indigo and jute. These
products are used only for export purposes. In the late nineteenth century, Indian businessmen
began setting up industries. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom
weavers in India or exported to China. The pattern of industrialisation was affected by a series of
changes. When the swadeshi movement gained support, nationalists boycotted foreign cloth. From
1906, Indian yarn exports to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills
flooded the Chinese market. Till the end of the First World War, industrial growth was slow. The
war completely changed the whole scenario and Indian mills took advantage of the situation. They
had a vast market to supply war needs: jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots,
horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. The industrial production boomed over the years
and after the war Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.
Small-scale Industries Predominate
Small-scale industries continued to predominate the rest of the country. Only a small proportion of
the total industrial labour force worked in registered factories. The rest worked in small workshops
and household units. Handicrafts production expanded in the twentieth century. In the twentieth
century, handloom cloth production expanded. It happened because of technological changes as
they started adopting new technology which helped them improve production without excessively
pushing up costs.
Certain groups of weavers were in a better position than others to survive the competition with mill
industries. Some of the weavers produced coarse cloth while others wove finer varieties. Weavers
and other craftspeople who continued to expand production through the twentieth century, did not
necessarily prosper. They worked for long hours including all the women and children. But they
were not simply remnants of past times in the age of factories. Their life and labour was integral to
the process of industrialisation.
Market for Goods

When new products are produced advertisements helped people to make products appear
desirable and necessary. They tried to shape the minds of people and create new needs. Today we
are surrounded by advertisements which appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street
walls, television screens. From the very beginning of the industrial age, advertisements played a
part in expanding the markets for products, and in shaping a new consumer culture.
Manchester industrialists put labels on the cloth bundles, to mark the quality. When buyers saw
‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ written in bold on the label, they were expected to feel confident about
buying the cloth. Some of the labels were made with images and were beautifully crafted.
Images of Indian gods and goddesses appeared on these labels. Printing calendars were started
by manufacturers to popularise their products. In these calendars, figures of gods were used to
sell new products. Later, advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of
swadeshi.
Conclusion
The age of industries has meant major technological changes, growth of factories, and the
making of a new industrial labour force. Hand technology and small-scale production remained
an important part of the industrial landscape.
Chapter 5 - Print Culture and the Modern World
CBSE Class 10 Social Science Chapter 5 talks about the development of print, from its
beginnings in East Asia, to its expansion in Europe and in India. It also explains the impact of the
spread of technology and how social lives and cultures changed with the emergence of print.
Class 10 Social Science notes of History for Chapter 5 - Print Culture and the Modern World are
prepared by highly skilled subject matter experts. These CBSE notes help students to prepare
effectively for their Social Science exam. CBSE notes of Class 10 History for Chapter 5
encompass all the basic concepts in an interactive manner, so that students can understand
each topic easily and retain them for a longer time period.
The First Printed Books

China, Japan and Korea developed the earliest kind of print technology, which was a system of
hand printing. Books in China were printed by rubbing paper from AD 594 and both the sides of the
book were folded and stitched. China for a long time was the major producer of printed material.
China started conducting civil service examinations for its bureaucrats and its textbooks were
printed in vast numbers. Print was no longer confined to scholar-officials. Merchants used print
while collecting their trade information. Reading became a part of leisure activity and rich women
started publishing their own poetry and plays. This new reading culture attracted new technology.
In the late 19th century, Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported.
Print in Japan
Hand-printing technology was introduced by Buddhist missionaries from China into Japan around
AD 768-770. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra is the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868,
containing six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations. Printing of visual material led to interesting
publishing practices. In the late 19th century, illustrative collections of paintings depicted an
elegant urban culture and libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed material of
various types – books on women, musical instruments, etc.
Print Comes to Europe

Marco Polo returned to Europe after exploring China and along with him, he brought the
knowledge of woodblock printing and soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe.
Gradually, the demands of books started increasing so booksellers began exporting books to
many different countries. But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the
ever-increasing demand for books. Europe widely started using woodblocks to print textiles,
playing cards, and religious pictures with simple, brief texts. Johann Gutenberg developed the
first-known printing press in the 1430s.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
Gutenberg was an expert in the art of polishing stones and with this knowledge, he adapted
existing technology to design his innovation. The first printed book with the new system was the
Bible. With the adaption of new technology the existing art of producing books by hand was not
entirely displaced. Books printed for the rich left blank space for decoration on the printed page. In
the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most countries of
Europe. The shift from hand printing to mechanical printing led to the print revolution.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact

Print revolution is not only a new way of producing books it transformed the lives of people,
changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with institutions and authorities.
A New Reading Public
The cost of books was reduced due to the print revolution. Markets were flooded with books
reaching out to an ever-growing readership. It created a new culture of reading. Earlier, elites are
only permitted to read books and common people used to hear sacred texts read out. Before the
print revolution, books were expensive. But, the transition was not as simple as books could only
be read by the literate. Printers started publishing popular ballads and folk tales illustrated with
pictures for those who did not read. Oral culture entered print and printed material were orally
transmitted.
Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
Print introduced a new world of debate and discussion. Printed books are not welcomed by
everyone and many were apprehensive of the effects that the wider circulation of books could have
on people’s minds. There was a fear of spreading rebellious and irreligious thoughts. In 1517, the
religious reformer Martin Luther wrote Ninety Five Theses, criticising many of the practices and
rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. His textbook printed copy led to a division within the Church
and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Print and Dissent
In the sixteenth century, Menocchio began to read books available in his locality. He reinterpreted
the message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation that enraged the Roman
Catholic Church. Menocchio was hauled up twice and ultimately executed. From 1558, The Roman
Church began to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books.
The Reading Mania

In most parts of Europe, literacy rates went up, through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Schools and literacy spread in European countries due to which people wanted production of more
books. Other forms of reading mainly based on entertainment began to reach ordinary readers.
Books were of various sizes, serving many different purposes and interests. From the early 18th
century, periodical press developed which combined information related to current affairs with
entertainment. Journals and newspapers carried information related to wars, trade and
developments in other places. Issac Newton discoveries were published which influenced
scientifically-minded readers.
‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Books were considered as a means of spreading progress and enlightenment by the mid-
eighteenth century. According to Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century France
said that ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force
that will sweep despotism away.’ Convinced of the power of print in bringing enlightenment and
destroying the basis of despotism, Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!
Tremble before the virtual writer!’
Print Culture and the French Revolution

Historians argued that print culture created the conditions for the French Revolution. Three types of
arguments were put forward.
1. Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers. Their writings provided a critical
commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau
were read widely; and people saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were questioning,
critical and rational.
2. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. Within this public culture, new ideas of
social revolution came into being.
3. By the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticised
their morality.
Print helps in spreading ideas. They accepted some ideas and rejected others and interpreted
things their way. Print did not directly shape their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking
differently.
The Nineteenth Century

Large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers were added to the mass
literacy in Europe during the 19th century.
Children, Women and Workers
From the late 19th century, primary education became compulsory. In 1857, a children’s press was
set up in France devoted to literature for children. Traditional folks tales were gathered by Grimm
Brothers in Germany. Rural folk tales acquired a new form. Women became important as readers
as well as writers. Magazines were published especially dedicated for women, as were manuals
teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping. In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in
England became instruments for educating white-collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class
people.
Further Innovations
Press came to be made out of metal by the late eighteenth century. Printing technology saw a
series of further innovations by the 19th century. During that century, power-driven cylindrical press
was perfected by Richard M, which was particularly used for printing newspapers. The offset was
developed which was capable of printing six colours at a time. By the 20th century, electrically
operated presses accelerated printing operations followed by other series of development.
1. Methods of feeding paper improved
2. The quality of plates became better
3. Automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced
India and the World of Print

Manuscripts Before the Age of Print
India is a country rich in old tradition of handwritten manuscripts – in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as
well as in various vernacular languages. These handwritten manuscripts were copied on palm
leaves or on handmade paper. The production of the manuscript continued well after the
introduction of print. It is considered highly expensive and fragile. In Bengal, students were only
taught to write due to which many became literate without ever actually reading any kinds of
texts.
Print Comes to India
In the mid-sixteenth century, the first printing press came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.
Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam
book was printed by them. The English press grew quite late in India even though the English
East India Company began to import presses from the late seventeenth century. A weekly
magazine named the Bengal Gazette was edited by James Augustus Hickey. Advertisements
were published by Hickey and he also published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior
officials in India. By the close of the eighteenth century, a number of newspapers and journals
appeared in print.
Religious Reform and Public Debates
Religious issues became intense from the early nineteenth century. People started criticizing
existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the arguments of
reformers. Printed tracts and newspapers spread new ideas and shaped the nature of the debate.
New ideas emerged and intense controversies erupted between social and religious reformers
and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical
priesthood and idolatry. In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi. In 1822, two
Persian newspapers published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a
Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, was established. The Deoband Seminary, founded
in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fatwas telling Muslim readers how to conduct
themselves in their everyday lives and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines.
Print encouraged the reading of religious texts, among Hindus, especially in the vernacular
languages. Religious texts reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions,
debates and controversies within and among different religions. Newspapers conveyed news
from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.
New Forms of Publication
New kinds of writing were introduced as more and more people got interested in reading. In
Europe, the novel, a literary firm, was developed to cater to the needs of people which acquired
Indian forms and styles. New literary forms entered the world of reading such as lyrics, short
stories, essays about social and political matters. New visual culture took shape by the end of the
nineteenth century. Cheap calendars were available in the bazaar which can be bought even by the
poor to decorate the walls of their homes or places of work. These prints began shaping popular
ideas about modernity and tradition, religion and politics, and society and culture. Caricatures and
cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political
issues by 1870s.
Women and Print
Women’s reading increased enormously in middle-class homes. Schools were set up in cities for
women. Journals also started carrying writings by women, and explained why women should be
educated. But, Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims
feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances. Social reforms and
novels created a great interest in women’s lives and emotions. In the early twentieth century,
journals, written and edited by women, became extremely popular. In Bengal, an entire area in
central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth
century, a lot of these books were profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs.
Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure time.
Print and the Poor People
Cheap books were bought at markets. Public libraries were set up mostly located in cities and
towns. In the late 19th century, caste discrimination started coming up in many printed tracts and
essays. Factory workers lacked education to write much about their experience. In 1938,
Kashibaba wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to show the links between
caste and class exploitation. In the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate
themselves.
Print and Censorship

Censorship was not a concern under the East India Company. The Calcutta Supreme Court
passed certain regulations to control press freedom and in 1835, Governor-General Bentinck
agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay formulated new rules that restored the earlier
freedom. The freedom of press changed after the revolt of 1857. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act
was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws, which provided the government with extensive
rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. Government started keeping track of
the vernacular newspapers. Nationalist’s newspapers grew in numbers all over India. In 1907,
Punjab revolutionaries were deported, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in
his Kesari which led to his imprisonment in 1908.

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CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science History

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frédéric Sorrieu vision of World

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

was to replace the former one.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

A New Conservatism after 1815

1. In 1815, secret societies were formed in many European states to train

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

The Making of Germany and Italy

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Chapter 1 – The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Visualising the Nation

Nationalism and Imperialism

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The Idea of Satyagraha

The Rowlatt Act

Differing Strands within the Movement

The Movement in the Towns

Rebellion in the Countryside

Swaraj in the Plantations

Towards Civil Disobedience

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

How Participants saw the Movement

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

The Pre-modern World

Silk Routes Link the World

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

Conquest, Disease and Trade

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

Late nineteenth-century Colonialism

Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

Indentured Labour Migration from India

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

The Great Depression

India and the Great Depression

Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions

The Early Post-war Years

Decolonisation and Independence

End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’

Before the Industrial Revolution

The Coming Up of the Factory

The Pace of Industrial Change

Life of the Workers

Industrialisation in the Colonies

What Happened to Weavers?

Manchester Comes to India