Vet Clin Exot Anim 9 (2006) 237–267

Common Procedures in Reptiles

and Amphibians
Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM
Animal House of Chicago, Complete Veterinary Care, 2752 West Lawrence Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60625, USA

Reptiles and amphibians continue to be popular as pets in the United

States and throughout the world. It therefore behooves veterinarians inter-
ested in caring for these exotic species to continually gather knowledge con-
cerning both their proper husbandry and the conditions that require medical
and/or surgical intervention. To evaluate these animals properly, veterinarians
need to be able correctly to examine them. Collecting appropriate laboratory
samples to evaluate their health status (based on published hematologic,
biochemical, and other relevant data) is also crucial to this endeavor.
This article covers husbandry, physical examination, and clinical and diag-
nostic techniques in an effort to present guidelines for the evaluation of the
reptile or amphibian patient. Gathering clinical data will aid veterinarians
in arriving at the proper diagnosis, increasing the chances of success with
treatment protocols, and educating the clients in proper nutrition and hus-
bandry for their pets.
The information presented here has been collected from various sources:
personal experience, personal communication with other veterinarians,
texts, journals, bulletins, and the proceedings of past annual meetings of
the Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians (ARAV). This
has been a collaborative effort, and references are provided so that further
reading may be pursued.

Review of basic herpetologic herpetoculture and current advances

Veterinarians and herpetoculturalists generally agree that reptiles and
amphibians have a ‘‘primitive’’ immune system, that several factors appear
to affect the immune system, and that immune system dysfunction is a major

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238 DE LA NAVARRE

problem in many reptile and amphibian pathologic conditions [1–5]. Some

of the various factors affecting the immune system are hydration and nutri-
tional status, sex and seasonal variation, stress, age, and environmental tem-
perature [4]. Therefore, supporting the immune system is one of the most
important aspects of treating an ill reptile or amphibian. Correcting hydra-
tion deficits, poor environmental temperature, and nutritional deficiencies
and minimizing stress through correct husbandry practices are essential to
maintaining these species in captivity.
Reptile and amphibian husbandry may be subdivided into three general
areas, each of which is crucial to the proper maintenance of each species in
captivity. These areas have been discussed elsewhere (for environment, see
Refs. [6–11]; for nutrition, see Refs. [12–14]), but they may be summarized
as follows:
Environment: This includes the cage, temperature, humidity/water, sub-
strate, other cage accessories, number and type of light or lights, pho-
toperiod (number of hours of light and darkness per day), cagemates,
and handling.
Nutrition: Concern for the proper balance of protein, carbohydrates,
fats, fiber, vitamins and minerals, and so on. Ideally, captive reptiles
should be provided with the diet that most closely approximates that
of the animal in the wild.
Sanitation: Proper cage cleaning is vital to minimize the number of path-
ogens present in the environment and lessen environmental stress.

Anamnesis, distribution of educational materials, physical examination,

and handling and restraint of reptiles and amphibians
The goal of this section is to present the basics of reptile and amphibian
patient physical examination, handling, and restraint [15]. The techniques
described should be helpful to veterinarians and veterinary technicians
who are new to exotics, while providing a review for the more experienced
veterinarians and staff.
Emphasis is placed on (1) the method of asking questions so as to obtain
responses that aid in the assessment of the problem and (2) the natural de-
fense mechanisms of the more commonly presented species and how to re-
strain and handle them properly. Much of this information follows the
many presentations and publications of Dr. Teresa Bradley (Belton Animal
Clinic, Belton, Missouri).

Anamnesis/History
General questions and ideas
During the initial contact with clients, the receptionist should encour-
age them to bring in pictures of the environment and any records
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 239

(eg, feeding, weight, shedding) that they may have kept, along with
a fresh fecal sample. If this is not possible, one should have the client
make a sketch of the cage to show heat, light, humidity sources, and
their relative positions to the hide box or boxes, basking site or sites,
water bowl, thermometer, and so on.
One should determine the origin of the animal: wild caught or captive
bred? Which pet store/breeder/show was involved?
Determine the age, sex, species, and breed of the animal or animals.
How long was the animal owned by the current owner? Past owners? Past
history?
Determine the type of collection maintained: number, age, sex, species,
and so on. (Some pathogens and parasites are easily spread from one
species to another with serious consequences; for instance, amoebiasis
in aquatic turtles may be ‘‘relatively’’ benign in that species but can be
fatal when contracted by boas.)
Determine the timing of disease: onset, duration, severity?
Have there been changes in the patient’s diet, environment, or husbandry
in general?
Have there been any recent introductions of new specimens or species
into the collection? Specifically, into the patient’s cage?
Have any efforts or medications been used by the client to correct or treat
the problem?
Determine whether any pesticides or other aerosol sprays or chemicals
have been used in the immediate environment (especially when am-
phibians are involved).
Determine frequency of sheddingdcomplete or partial, evidence of
dysecdysis.
How often is the animal eating, drinking, urinating, and defecating? One
needs to explain the appearance of normal stool, urine, and urates, be-
cause many new owners mistake the production of urates and urine for
feces.

Diet questions
What is the diet? What food is being offered, and what is actually eaten?
How frequently are the animals fed, and how long is food left in the
enclosure?
Are any supplements being offered, such as vitamins or mineralsdnames
and ages?
When the animal is of an ‘‘insect-eating’’ speciesdare insects ‘‘gut-
loaded’’? Are insects dusted before being fed?
Which other prey items are offered live or dead (freshly killed or frozen/
thawed)?
How long are prey items kept with the animal? Is feeding supervised?
When did the animal last eat? Did it eat well? Did it eat readily?
How is water provided? In what manner, and how often is it cleaned?
240 DE LA NAVARRE

Questions about environment: cage and housing

What type of substrate is used? How frequently and by what method is it
cleaned and the cage disinfected?
What is the temperature gradient/range and preferred optimal tempera-
ture zone (POTZ) within the enclosure? Each species has its specific
POTZ that enables normal metabolism and physiologic homeostasis.
What is the humidity range and source of humidity? (The captive envi-
ronment should mimic their natural habitat; for most species, 50%
to 70% will meet these requirements. Species native to desert or rain
forests have different requirements.)
What are the heat and light sources, and how are they arranged to guard
against thermal injury?
How are the heat and light sources placed relative to the thermometers?
Is ‘‘full spectrum’’ lighting used? Does the lighting provide UV A and B
wavelengths?
How old are the lights? How often are they changed? What is the day/
night cycle?
For aquatic species: How is the water cleaned? How often are filters
cleaned/changed? Is any type of water testing done? Is the water
heated?

Distribution of educational materials and discussion

Educational materials and handouts are a vital aspect of properly car-
ing for exotic species. Presenting and discussing them gives the veterinar-
ian and veterinary technician an excellent opportunity to educate the
client and reinforce recommendations made to correct deficiencies deter-
mined. The author’s hospital provides all clients with general handouts
(eg, on husbandry, salmonella) as well as with specific handouts for their
particular species and the disease conditions that their animals may be
experiencing.

Physical examination: examples of components

Before handling the animal, one should observe its position, posture,
color or colors, attitude, locomotor skills and abilities, and so on. Substan-
tial time may be spent initially talking with the owner about the animal, clar-
ifying the history, and asking other pertinent questions, all the while
observing the animal and pointing out to the owner the normal and abnor-
mal traits that may be determined from experienced observation alone [15].
Once the actual physical examination begins, the following may be used
as a complete checklist and guide [15]:
Check the entire integument from one end to the other for signs of exter-
nal parasites, wounds (eg, trauma, burns), dysecdysis or abnormal
skin/scales, erythema, petecchia or ecchymotic hemorrhage, and so on.
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 241

Evaluate each extremity, including the tail, for appearance of the skin or
scales, muscles and nails (if present), and the range of motion.
Palpate the coelom to evaluate the internal organs; assess the cavity for
the presence of foreign bodies or masses, distension or pain.
Assessment of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems is achieved by
means of either auscultation or Doppler flow detector. In most reptiles,
auscultation may be aided by the use of a moistened paper towel (to
create an offset and lessen the artifactual noise created as the skin
rubs against the stethoscope diaphragm).
Assessment of hydration status by evaluating skin turgor, the position of
the globe in the orbit, mucous membrane color and wetness, and the
presence and consistency of mucus in the oral cavity should also be
completed at this time.
Evaluate the ears (if present) and the oral cavity for lesions, exudate,
erythema, petecchia, ecchymotic hemorrhage, and the presence of
parasites.
Examine the nares for patency, and perform a thorough ophthalmic
examination.
Assess neurologic status by evaluating movement during observed loco-
motion, withdrawal of limbs to painful stimulus, and presence of plac-
ing and righting reflex.
Finally, after the examination is finished and all the proper questions
have been asked, it is time to take the animal back to an appropriate loca-
tion in the hospital to collect the necessary laboratory samples and measure
the body weight (and compare it with any previously recorded weights).
Body weight measurements should be taken for all animals that come into
the clinic for any reason; this information is then entered into the patient’s
medical record.
One potentially difficult aspect of a physical examination (even in a com-
pliant reptile or amphibian patient) is the simple act of ausculting the animal
to determine normal heart parameters (heart rate and rhythm). In reptiles
and amphibians, it is difficult completely to auscult the cardiac systoli and
diastoli, because of their unique cardiovascular system; however, the respi-
ratory system may be evaluated by auscultation in most species. The heart
rate may be best evaluated using a Doppler flow probe placed directly
over the heart or a major artery. The ultrasonic Doppler flow detector cre-
ates an audible representation of the moving red blood cells, allowing one to
monitor the heart rate with some accuracy. In lizards, the heart is generally
located between the shoulders, cranial to its typical location in mammals. In
chelonians, because sound waves do not pass through bone, the Doppler
probe is best placed in the thoracic inlet and directed toward midline to
pick up cardiac blood flow. The rate of the reptile heartbeat is dependent
on a large number of variables, including body size, respiratory rate, meta-
bolic rate, sensory stimulation, and body temperature [16–19].
242 DE LA NAVARRE

Other unique characteristics seen in reptiles are aspects of their urogenital

anatomy and physiology. Chelonians and some lizards have a urinary blad-
der, which performs water and electrolyte regulation. The cloaca, colon, and
urinary bladder, when present, can reabsorb urinary water, and this may
have effects on the pharmacokinetics of drugs excreted through the urinary
system [4]. The ureters empty into the neck of the bladder in chelonians, and
into the urodeum in lizards. Urine then refluxes from the urodeum into the
bladder in lizards with a bladder, or into the colon in those species without
a bladder. Because urine is refluxed into the bladder or colon, evaluation of
a urine sample as it relates to possible infection or inflammation should be
undertaken with the understanding that the sample is not sterile and has
probably been contaminated or mixed with colonic material. Crocodilians
and chelonians have a single copulatory organ, whereas squamates (lizards
and snakes) have paired hemipenes. The urinary system and genital system
are completely separate.

Handling and restraint of reptiles and amphibians

Only nonvenomous species are addressed here.
One should never assume that because someone owns an animal he or she
knows how to handle it properly. Therefore, only the hospital staff should
be involved in the proper restraint of the animal being examined. Experience
and preparation facilitate the proper handling of most reptile and amphib-
ian patients. For the most part, this is not difficult, although one should
always be prepared for the unexpected [15].

Amphibians
With most amphibians, handling should be kept to a minimum to avoid
stress to the animal and potential injury. First evaluate the animal in the en-
closure, noting appearance, position, posture, color or colors, and so on.
When this is not possible, the patient may be transferred to a clear plastic
container (with or without water, depending on the species). Such containers
allow for the evaluation of many aspects of the animal (primarily external)
without actual handling of the patient. Always use good lighting and mag-
nifying devices to scan the entire amphibian, including transillumination
techniques though the clear plastic. Once the patient has been evaluated
without restraint (while the veterinarian discusses the visual examination
with the client and asks more questions), the patient is ready to be handled
(Fig. 1).
Amphibians produce various secretions (ie, mucus) to protect themselves
against opportunistic pathogens. Disruption of the skin secretions by abra-
sions caused by mishandling or desiccation of the skin may allow other in-
fectious agents to gain entry. When handling amphibians, one should always
use rubber or latex gloves and rinse the gloves to remove the powder or any
other coating on the rubber. When it is difficult to catch the animal, fine
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 243

Fig. 1. Proper handling of amphibians using cleaned, powder-free latex gloves to administer
oral medications. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)

mesh nets may be used. Be careful!dwet amphibians are slippery in rinsed

latex gloves. Large toads, giant salamanders, and hellbenders should have
their heads properly yet gently restrained, because they may bite; though
this is seldom painful, it can be embarrassing. Again, completely survey
the exterior of the animal using magnification and transillumination as
needed. Palpate the entire animal, assessing all aspects from one end to
the other. To evaluate the oral cavity, stimulate the animal to open its
mouth by gently pressing on the jaws at the soft tissue of the commissure.
When this technique is ineffective, a soft, clean rubber spatula may be
used gently to open the mouth to examine the oral pharynx and glottis.
At this point, samples may be collected from the posterior naris and nasal
passage. Using a minitip, culturette samples for cytology and culture may
also be collected from the trachea by passing the small swab through the
glottis. After the physical examination in the room has been completed,
take the animal back to collect the necessary laboratory samples, as well
as to measure the body weight and compare it with previously recorded
weights.

Iguanas and other lizards

Use an appropriately sized towel for each animal. In general, lizards are
easily restrained, though one does have to be careful with larger species that
pose the potential for injury, as well as with smaller specimens that may es-
cape. Small lizards may demonstrate the ‘‘fight or flight’’ response and, if
not properly restrained, may be able to get freedpossibly injuring them-
selves in the process, losing their tail (in species that experience tail autot-
omy), or the worst-case scenario: escaping into the clinic. Several defense
mechanisms may be seen in lizards of all sizes but prove most hazardous
in larger species. Tail whipping is common in several species (particularly
iguanid species and varanid lizards). When a single-holder technique is
used, it is a good idea to keep the tail tucked under an arm or immobilized
244 DE LA NAVARRE

between the holder and the table (or even between the holder’s legs). Always
use a towel that is long enough to surround not only the animal’s body but
also the tail. This helps to keep the animal controlled and immobilized. Un-
wrap areas for evaluation as needed. With two holders, wrap the entire an-
imal and the tail completely in a towel; then, while the animal is properly
restrained by the handler, the examiner may unwrap the section to be exam-
ined. This arrangement keeps the patient under control throughout the ex-
amination, while taking care to avoid injury to any part of the animal
(particularly the tail).
Biting is another response that may be seen as both a defensive and an
aggressive reaction. Proper control of the head, specifically the mouth, is
vital to avoiding possible injuries. The head may be controlled by placing
a hand or hands behind the mandible and around the neck. The holder
must be careful not to damage the large dorsal spines in species where
they are present (eg, adult male iguanas). Using a towel also helps provide
a layer of protection between the handler and the lizard, especially in large
specimens.
Never reach over or in front of the mouth of a lizard that is not properly
restrained: though usually they only feign a bite, there are times when ani-
mals can and will inflict serious injury. Clients should also be carefully in-
structed that they should never come close enough to their pet to risk
injury while it is being examined. To evaluate the oral cavity of lizards, stim-
ulate the animal to open its mouth by gently pressing on the jaws at the soft
tissue of the commissure or by gently pulling down on the tissue below the
mandible. (In some species, this is anatomically called the dewlap.) Slow,
gentle pressure on the dewlap often results in the animal’s slowly opening
its mouth. In lizards and crocodilians, the vagal-vagal response may be
used to help the animal ‘‘relax.’’ The vagal-vagal response occurs when pres-
sure, often digital, is applied to both eyes for a period of time, as long as
a few minutes. It has been shown that some patients respond with a decrease
in heart rate and blood pressure, which often results in their becoming more
sedate [16]. Even after vagal sedation has been accomplished, one should be
vigilant, because the patient may be roused from this state by physical stim-
ulation or noise. When these techniques do not work or do not work com-
pletely, a soft, clean rubber spatula may be used gently to open the mouth to
examine the oral pharynx and glottis.
Although lizards with long or sharp nails can scratch, the nails are not
typically used as a defensive or aggressive mechanism. Nonetheless, ideally
the owner/client should clip all the nails before examination. To avoid any
possible scratches to handlers, the author’s practice commonly provides
a complimentary nail trim to lizards being examined. When handling Old
World chameleons, which are typically most at rest when all four legs and
the tail are securely attached to somethingdpreferably a branchdit may
be beneficial to incorporate a suitably sized perch to allow the animal to
rest during examination. When directly handling these lizards, one should
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 245

allow them to hold onto the handler’s hand with all their feet and the tail
and examine and manipulate one leg at a time while the others remain at-
tached to the handler. In very large lizards that are not cooperating with
the physical examination, the best defense is to control head, body, and
tail. Again, one may restrain the head by holding firmly behind the mandible
and around the neck with the thumb and first finger. To control the front
feet and arms, hold them gently yet securely against the body of the lizard.
To secure the rear legs, if needed, position and grasp them against the tail,
just below the pelvis. The tail should be tucked under the arm or between the
holder and the table or wrapped in the appropriately sized towel (Fig. 2).

Crocodilians
The procedure is the same as that described for lizards; however, more
handlers may be required, depending on the size and strength of specimens
and the procedures to be performed. The head and mouth as well as the tail
should always be controlled. The muscles used to open the jaws are weak
compared with the biting or jaw-closing muscles, so the mouth can often
easily be held closed. It is best for all involved that the mouth of every
examined crocodilian be gently though properly taped closed.

Snakes
Approach all snakes slowly and with respect. Most are amenable to han-
dling; so long as the head and body are properly supported, snakes typically
do not resist. Snakes that are not correctly supported or are restrained too
tightly will struggle. Snakes commonly try to wrap the end of their tails
around the examiner or around the table or other furniture. It is best not
to let this happen, because it is difficult to get them to release: they often
tighten up and can be injured in the untangling process. Some snakes may
strike out (ie, those that are ill, threatened, or in a preshedding or shedding

Fig. 2. Demonstration of ventral approach to the ventral coccygeal vein. Towel used for proper
handling of lizards to support body, control tail, and to avoid injury to all involved. (Ó 2006
Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)
246 DE LA NAVARRE

cycle). It is important to locate the head and immobilize it, holding gently
but firmly just behind the mandible.
To evaluate the oral cavity of snakes, as in lizards, stimulate the animal to
open its mouth by gently pressing on the jaws at the soft tissue of the com-
missure. Gently pulling down on the tissue below the mandible with slight
pressure on this skin often results in the animal’s slowly opening its mouth.
It is usually a good idea to allow movement of the body with only slight re-
sistance, while maintaining control of the head. When a snake is not threat-
ening at all, the head may not require complete restraint for evaluation of
the entire animal. A snake has only one occipital condyle, so dislocation
at this joint occurs more easily in snakes than in other species when the
head is held too firmlydespecially if the snake is fighting to get free.
Concerns about constriction are propagated by bad Hollywood movies,
but this is overrated as a defense mechanism. Snakes constrict when they
are threatened, when they perceive something as a prey item, or when
they feel as if they are not well supported. However, when dealing with
very large snakes, one needs to have the required amount of help to restrain
the animal properly and securely. To properly examine a snake, one needs to
support it well. The snake’s head should be held gently but firmly, depend-
ing on the temperament of the animal. Properly supporting the snake along
its entire body may require multiple handlers. Because the vertebrae extend
along the entire body, the weight of the hanging snake could dislocate ver-
tebrae or cause the snake to fight for balance and support. Hold the head
gently but firmly behind the mandible and move with the movement of
the snake while maintaining control of the head.

Turtles and tortoises

Most tortoises are docile and easy to handle and examine. They do have
the capability to bite quite firmly and can be reluctant to let go once they
bite. They have no teeth, but the beak is made of keratin and can be strong
and sharp. Aquatic chelonians may be more likely to bite and scratch, so
additional care should be exercised with these animals. In certain species, es-
pecially the male aquatic turtles, the nails can be long and produce scratch-
ing. If possible, and with the permission of the owner, these nails may be
clipped before too much handling to avert the risk for scratching.
All turtles and tortoises possess strong legs that can be powerful enough
to pin or pinch fingers between the shell and their legs; along with being
painful, this situation may be quite embarrassing when you cannot free
your digits. Care must be taken, because fingers can be easily trapped or
pulled up against the spurs and sharp, pointed edges of some shells as one
tries to pull out legs for examination, venipuncture, and injections. When
attempting to evaluate the oral cavity, one first needs to extend and restrain
the head. Typically one person gently immobilizes the exposed and extended
forelimbs, either holding them directly or pinning them against the shell of
the animal. The head is then gently exposed and held just behind the
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 247

mandible at about the level of the ears, using the thumb and forefingers. In
the case of more resistant turtles, the author has used a pair of closed hemo-
stats placed under the horny upper beak in the area of the premaxilla and
carefully levered the head out into a position where it may be restrained.
One must be gentle when applying pressure on this premaxilla area, because
the beak can break, especially in unhealthy turtles. Though it will most
likely grow back completely, this is a temporary abnormality that may
bother the turtle and perhaps bother the owner even more.
In certain turtles, and especially the larger tortoises, some form of inject-
able chemical restraint may be required. Trying to mask or box down a turtle
to allow for a complete physical examination may take hours and is typically
not advised. To evaluate the oral cavity of turtles, as in snakes, the animal
may at times be stimulated to open its mouth by gentle pressure on the jaws
at the soft tissue of the commissure. At times, in large enough animals, the
tissue below the mandible may be pulled down with gentle pressure; this of-
ten results in the animal’s slowly opening its mouth. Like lizards, disturbed,
frightened turtles or tortoises will often urinate and sometimes defecate as
one picks them up and examines them. One must always be ready for this
occurrence, both to avoid being the target and to collect possible diagnostic
samples. The best defense while examining turtles and tortoises is to hold
them midway between the front and rear legs. Keep the animal held away
from your body and watch out for urination and defecation. If possible,
clip nails before procedures or examination. As in lizards, do not reach
across or in front of an unrestrained turtle or tortoise. As with all reptiles
and amphibians, sedation or anesthesia may be needed, especially in larger,
stronger animals.

Review of clinical and diagnostic techniques in reptiles

Sites for and methods of venipuncture
Amphibians
Blood sampling in amphibians presents unique problems to the veteri-
nary clinician; the most accessible sites are the lingual plexus, ventral mid-
line sinus, and the heart. Unless a blood culture is to be performed on the
sample, it is important to heparinize the syringe in venipuncture attempts
to avoid coagulation of the sample before it is transferred to the appropriate
whole blood tube. When a blood sample is to be obtained for microbial cul-
ture, no anticoagulant should be used to pretreat the syringe, needle, or cap-
illary tube, because this may affect the growth of some organisms. Lithium
heparin is the anticoagulant of choice for pretreating the syringe and for
storage of blood, because it does not affect the values of plasma calcium,
sodium, or ammonia. The use of transillumination, possibly along with re-
quired sedation, makes cardiac puncture easier and reduces the risks associ-
ated with ‘‘blind’’ venipuncture.
248 DE LA NAVARRE

Snakes
Cardiocentesis may be used for blood collection in all snakes. The heart is
the first palpable mass, located approximately one third of the distance from
the head, although its location may vary significantly in certain species.
Often cardiac contractions may be visualized when the snake is placed in
dorsal recumbency. Using one’s index finger and thumb to apply gentle
pressure, one may isolate and stabilize the heart’s exact location between
these fingers. After disinfection of the ventral scutes in this area, one inserts
a 22- or 25-gauge needle attached to either a tuberculin or 3-mL syringe
slowly at a 45 angle into the ventricle; with gentle aspiration, the blood
may be withdrawn. If the aspirant appears transparent, pericardial fluid
has probably been collected. The needle should be withdrawn, and another
puncture may be performed using a new needle and syringe. In larger
snakes, an alternative site for blood collection is the ventral coccygeal
(tail) vein. However, when venipuncture is attempted too close to the
vent, one runs the risk of puncturing either the hemipenes or musk glands.
Other sites have been described but are difficult to access (eg, palatine vein,
orbital plexus).

Lizards
The ventral coccygeal (tail) vein is most commonly used in lizards, al-
though care should be exercised in lizard species that undergo tail autot-
omy. The venipuncture site is approximately one fourth the length of the
tail caudal to the vent. As in snakes, when venipuncture is attempted too
close to the vent, one runs the risk of puncturing either the hemipenes or
musk glands. Care must be taken to use a long enough needle to be able
to reach the ventral vertebral processes. The needle is inserted between
scales at approximately 90 into the midline on the ventral aspect of the
tail until it comes in contact with a ventral vertebral process. Gentle aspi-
ration as the needle is advanced often allows one to collect the sample be-
fore the needle reaches the vertebral process. If the needle reaches the
process, it is slowly withdrawn 1 to 3 mm and gently aspirated to collect
the sample (Fig. 3).
An alternative approach to the ventral coccygeal vein is a lateral one, in
which the needle is inserted from the lateral aspect of the tail between scales
and between the two large muscle bodies in the middle of the crease of the
tail (Fig. 4).
When the ventral tail vein is not productive, the ventral abdominal vein
may be used. It is suspended in a broad ligament 1 to 2 mm within the coe-
lomic cavity on the ventral midline between the umbilical scar and the pelvic
inlet. Again, caution must be exercised, because this ‘‘blind’’ venipuncture
presents the potential for internal or intracoelomic hemorrhage. Less com-
monly used is the brachial plexus, which is immediately caudal to the shoul-
der joint. In diminutive lizards, cardiocentesis with the aid of a Doppler may
be required.
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 249

Fig. 3. Blood collection from a ventral approach to the coccygeal vein. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la
Navarre, DVM.)

Chelonians
The preferred place to collect blood from turtles and tortoises is the jug-
ular vein, because these veins have minimal collateral lymphatic vessels. In
many specimens the right vein is larger. Each jugular vein typically runs per-
pendicular and caudal to the ipsilateral tympanum. Sometimes the jugular
veins may be visualized when digital pressure is placed on the thoracic inlet.
In some chelonians (eg, marine turtles), a postoccipital vein or plexus arises
from the right jugular vein and is located between the occipital protuberance
and the cranial border of the carapace beneath the ligamenta nuchae
(Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Lateral approach to the ventral coccygeal vein in lizards. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Nav-
arre, DVM.)
250 DE LA NAVARRE

Fig. 5. Site for blood collection from the right jugular vein in turtles. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la
Navarre, DVM.)

A brachial vein or plexus is located behind the elbow joint, under the
prominent and palpable tendon of the insertion of the biceps brachii. Access
to both these venipuncture sites is ‘‘blind,’’ and the samples may be contam-
inated with lymph, altering the biochemical parameters. When mixed with
whole blood, lymph dramatically decreases the white cell count, hematocrit,
total solids, sodium, potassium, and chloride values. Chelonians also have
a dorsal midline tail vein that is best approached at the base of the tail. Car-
diocentesis may be performed, but a hole must be created in the plastron
through which a needle may be introduced.

Crocodilians
The most commonly used sites for venipuncture in crocodilians are the
caudal (ventral tail) vein, as in larger lizards, and the supravertebral vein,
located caudal to the occiput on the midline [4].

Collection of other samples for diagnostic testing

Fecal sample collection
Collecting a fecal sample in a reptile or amphibian can be problematic;
most reptiles and amphibians defecate infrequently, especially when they
are ill or anorexic. However, evaluation of the feces for protozoal, amoebic,
nematode, and other parasites should be considered an essential part of the
minimum database. Some species do defecate daily, and a sample may be
collected at the next voiding. In some cases, placing the animal in warm
water shallow enough for it to keep its head out will stimulate defecation. In
sufficiently large patients, a gloved digital cloacal examination is performed,
though not usually in the presence of the owner. This procedure may also
stimulate the production of cloacal contents. If no sample can be passively
collected, then a colonic wash may be performed. The proctodeum, uro-
deum, and coprodeum are distensible, and the goal is to collect fecal mate-
rial, so a large-gauge tube is used. The tube is properly lubricated and
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 251

inserted into the colon area through the vent. In snakes, care must be taken
because the colon is located at the most ventral aspect of the cloaca, and, if
the tube is directed dorsally, it will enter a blind pocket. Sterile saline at
10 mL/kg is typically injected into the colon, and the coelomic cavity is
gently massaged before aspiration of the sample. In some instances, this pro-
cedure stimulates voiding, and a larger sample may be obtained. The sample
should be evaluated by culture and sensitivity (when indicated), fecal flota-
tion for ova, and a direct wet mount for protozoans.

Urinalysis
Urinalysis [20] can be a useful, economical, and rapid tool for assessing
the health status of many reptile and amphibian specimens. Because there
are significant differences between reptile and mammalian urine, the inter-
pretation differs as well. In reptiles, uric acid is the principal product of pro-
tein catabolism instead of urea. Precipitates of uric acid are normally passed
as hard concretions. Reptilian kidneys lack loops of Henle, so reptiles con-
sistently produce isosthenuric urine with a specific gravity of 1.005 to 1.010,
regardless of their hydration status. Reptile ureters empty into the cloaca.
Urine is subsequently either stored in the cloaca (snakes do not possess uri-
nary bladders) or refluxed into a bladder (in some lizards and all chelo-
nians). Hence microbiologic culturing of urine, even by cystocentesis, can
lead to erroneous interpretation.
The color of reptile urine varies from transparent to brown, depending on
the diet and the presence of bile pigments. Although renal thresholds for
blood glucose have not been evaluated in reptiles, glucosuria is abnormal
and has been observed in cases of diabetes mellitus. Hyperglycemia has
also been found to be associated with inflammatory diseases of the coelomic
cavity, hepatic lipidosis, and severe wasting in chelonians. Some reports in-
dicate that this can be transient, resolving without insulin therapy, although
it may also indicate a grave prognosis. When evaluating for glucose in the
urine, one must remember that the urine glucose reagent pad may show
false-positive results from contamination with substances such as peroxide
and hypochlorite. False-negative results may occur when the urine is refrig-
erated or contains formaldehyde or vitamin C. Ketones do not appear in the
urine of hyperglycemic, glucosuric chelonians. Although protein may be
present in small amounts in the urine of ‘‘healthy’’ domestic mammals,
healthy chelonians appear to have only trace amounts of protein in the
urine. However, because the protein assay is sensitive to a variety of other
factors, it must be interpreted with care. Contamination with fecal matter,
semen, or egg material could introduce proteinaceous materials into the
urine, producing a false-positive result. Moreover, a high urine pH can
cause a false-positive result by interfering with the buffering mechanism
on the test pad. If all these factors have been taken into consideration
and ruled out, then elevations in urine protein levels may indicate glomeru-
lar damage and plasma protein leakage into the urine.
252 DE LA NAVARRE

Repeated retesting is indicated in such cases; consistently high protein-

uria, along with other signs of kidney disease, points to the need for further
renal evaluation by biochemical testing or biopsies to diagnose the disease
process. Urine pH may be influenced by various factors, including diet, mix-
ture with fecal matter, nutritional status, metabolic or respiratory acidosis,
and perhaps urinary tract infection with urease-producing bacteria. Herbiv-
orous reptiles normally produce alkaline urine with a pH of 7 to 8. Carniv-
orous reptiles typically produce urine with a pH of 6 to 7. Anorexic tortoises
in a state of metabolic acidosis and those emerging from hibernation can
produce acidic urine. Microscopic analysis is one of the most important as-
pects of the urinalysis. The presence of red and white blood cells is abnormal
and may indicate infections of the lower urinary or gastrointestinal tract, or
possibly cystic calculi. The presence of parasites in the urine indicates the
need for treatment using appropriate parasiticides. Urate crystals have
been reported to take many forms and could be confused with cellular casts.
However, when a large number of waxy or other cellular casts are found,
this is a definite sign that further diagnostic testing is indicated, including
plasma biochemical analysis, radiography, and possibly laparoscopy with
renal biopsy.

Transtracheal sample collection

Transtracheal collection of material is indicated for optimal evaluation of
respiratory disease in reptiles. The sample should be evaluated by aerobic
culture and sensitivity testing, direct wet mount, and cytologic examination.
Lung worm (order Rhabditida) can be a serious problem in reptiles, and the
parasite ova may be observed on a wet mount sample.
The lungs of most reptiles are simple, sac-like structures with ridges for
increased gas exchange. They do not have alveoli or bronchioles. Because
they have only a trachea and two main stem bronchi that open into the
lung, many samples collected from the trachea are actually lung washes.
Sedation is infrequently required in debilitated animals. Appropriately
sized sterile feeding or urethral catheters work well. Sterile saline at
5 to 10 mL/kg is instilled into the trachea/lung after passage of the cath-
eter through the glottis. In chelonians and lizards with unilateral pulmo-
nary lesions, the tip of the catheter must be bent to ensure that the
catheter enters the affected lung. Snakes that have one functional lung
may have the catheter passed straight down the trachea into the lung.
After the sterile saline has been instilled into the lung, the patient is
gently rotated to loosen any exudate. Aspiration is then performed, and
harvested material is examined using cytology, parasitology, and bacterial
culture and sensitivity.
Concerning culture and sensitivity, the best way to assure a successful
culture of pathologic micro-organisms is properly to handle the specimens
collected. It is important to contact one’s laboratory to determine its specific
requirements and recommendations for submitting samples.
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 253

Common imaging procedures

Radiography
Radiographs are often indicated as part of a complete work-up and are
an invaluable tool for identifying numerous diseases in reptiles. Radiogra-
phy of specimens may aid in diagnosing ‘‘metabolic bone disease,’’ skeletal
fractures, osteomyelitis, articular gout, soft tissue mineralization, lower re-
spiratory tract disease, foreign bodies, constipation, gravidity, dystocia, coe-
lomic masses, coelomic effusions, hepato- and renomagaly, and cystic
calculi. The exoskeleton of chelonians, the thick dermis of many lizards,
and the strong muscle tone of snakes make it challenging to diagnose these
and other disorders by palpation during physical examination. The settings
for most radiographs are determined on a case-by-case basis. Ideally one
should use the high-detail, rare-earth intensifying screens and compatible
film for reptile and amphibian radiography. Given the increasing popularity
and benefits of digital radiography, the wave of the future, equipment and
techniques are bound to change. However, it is important to develop and
maintain a proper technique chart for quick reference when taking radio-
graphs of reptiles and amphibians.
If possible, one should use a horizontal beam for lateral and craniocau-
dal views, especially in chelonians. To produce a horizontal beam x-ray
exposure, the x-ray tube must have the capacity to be rotated 90 so
that the x-ray beam may be directed horizontally across the table rather
than down toward the table. It is still recommended that the distance be-
tween the x-ray tube and the x-ray cassette (focal film distance) be 40 in,
as is the case for most vertical table top radiographs. Horizontal views
permit organs to stay in their normal positions and prevent artifacts.
This is especially important when imaging lung fields, because reptiles
do not possess a diaphragm to separate the chest cavity from the abdom-
inal viscera. Horizontal viewing allows the visualization of the right and
left lung fields as separate structures. In larger snakes and lizards, num-
bered identification markers should be placed on sections of the body
to determine the exact location of lesions and organs. It is recommended
that the veterinarian maintain a set of normal radiographs for each spe-
cies, which may be easily retrieved and compared with those of diseased
animals.

Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a useful tool in reptile and amphibian medicine.
Because of their bony shells, imaging in chelonians may be performed
only through the flank and axillary areas. The organs in the coelomic cavity
may be visualized and differentiated by their specific ultrasonographic tex-
ture. The ultrasound may then be used to image and guide the biopsy of var-
ious organs, including the liver, spleen, cystic structures, kidneys, and so on.
254 DE LA NAVARRE

As always, it is important to know the normal anatomy of the species when

interpreting the image produced by the ultrasound.

Endoscopy
Endoscopy has proved to be a most useful diagnostic tool in veterinary
medicine. Specifically, in the field of zoologic medicine, the application of
diagnostic endoscopy has shown great promise in a variety of species, and
it has been used extensively in avian medicine and surgery [21]. Flexible
and rigid endoscopes are used for a number of different applications in rep-
tile and amphibian medicine and surgery, such as coelioscopy, pneumo-
scopy, gastroscopy, and direct visual biopsy.

CT
CT is an excellent, though not always available, means of evaluating
bony lesions. CT scanning produces transverse x-ray slices (tomographs)
of tissue and is particularly sensitive to calcium or air-containing structures.

MRI
MRI is an excellent means of evaluating soft tissue lesions, though like
CT it is not always available. It uses tissues’ magnetic properties and
response to radio wave pulses to produce high-detail images of all tissues
except bone.
With the continuing advancement and popularity of these last two dia-
gnostic modalities in human medicine, both CT and MRI are becoming
increasingly available to veterinarians. The benefits of being able noninva-
sively to evaluate exquisite detail in multiple dimensions are making these
procedures more and more appealing.

Review of therapeutic techniques in reptiles

Sites and techniques for injections and medication administration
Injections may be given intravenously, subcutaneously, intramuscularly,
intracoelomically, intracardiacally, or intraosseously. Intravenous injections
are administered in the sites described for blood collection. Because of the
potential involvement of the renal portal system, some sources recommend
that most injections be administered in the cranial half of the body. One ex-
ception is intracoelomic injections, which are typically given in lizards in the
lateral right caudal quadrant region at a level even with the cranial aspect of
the rear leg. Gentle aspiration of the syringe assures that the needle is not in
any vital organ. In chelonians, the extremities may be used for intramuscu-
lar (IM) injections of small volumes. For larger volumes, the pectoral mus-
cles are the preferred site for IM injection. These large muscles attach the
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 255

front limbs to the plastron. The injection is given by inserting the needle par-
allel to the plastron under the arm. Intracoelomic injections are given in the
flank near the junction of the skin with the shell, just cranial to the rear leg.
Again, gentle aspiration before injection assures that the needle is not in any
vital organ. Intracardiac injections are generally reserved for situations
where no other vascular access is available.
Transdermal administration of some medications has been found to be
useful in amphibians (but not in reptiles). The semipermeable nature of am-
phibian skin allows for the systemic uptake of medications administered
topically. Injectable forms of medications may be locally irritating, and dos-
ing problems can certainly occur in the smaller amphibian patients. Oph-
thalmic drops (that are pH balanced and can be diluted with saline) may
become the most useful transdermal medication in amphibians. Medicated
baths may also be of some use in treating certain amphibian conditions [22].

Sites and techniques for catheter placement

Amphibians
Intravenous catheterization is neither easy nor well tolerated in amphib-
ians. However, because of its semipermeable skin, a dehydrated (or electro-
lyte imbalanced) amphibian may be ‘‘fluid supported’’ by maintenance in
a balanced electrolyte solution, such as Normosol (Abbott Laboratories,
Chicago, Illinois) or ‘‘amphibian Ringer’s solution’’ [22].

Snakes
The jugular veins and the heart are currently the only accepted sites for
catheter placement. The right jugular vein is typically larger that the left
and is thus the best choice for catheterization. Catheter placement requires
that a cut-down incision be made from approximately the fourth to the sev-
enth scute cranial to the heart at the junction of the ventral scutes and the
right lateral body scales. The catheter is introduced cranial to caudal
(Fig. 6).
Cardiac catheterization is used in snakes for short-term (as long as 24
hours) or emergency procedures. The technique is the same as that used
for cardiocentesis. No accessible intraosseous sites exist in snakes.

Lizards
The cephalic veins are the preferred site for intravenous catheterization.
The dorsal (anterior) surface of the antebrachium is prepared for a sterile
procedure: cut-down and dissection of the vein are required in most cases.
The skin incision should extend from the dorsal proximal limit of the ante-
brachium medially to allow the best visualization of the vein [4]. Intraoss-
eous catheters may be placed in most lizards. The author prefers the
proximal tibia. Although insertion of the catheter into the distal femur
has been reported, it is currently recommended that this location be
256 DE LA NAVARRE

Fig. 6. Location for jugular catheter placement in snakes. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Navarre,
DVM.)

avoided, because the stifle joint is invaded and the intercondylar cartilage is
damaged (Fig. 7) [23].
The proximal tibia is easily accessible, and insertion through the cranio-
medial aspect of the bone avoids invasion of the joint capsule and articular
cartilage. Using a spinal needle (size and length determined by the size of the
patient), one drills the needle catheter into the tibia while palpating in the
direction of the bone. The placement may be tested by aspirating and ob-
taining a small flash of blood. When no flash back is observed, a small
amount of saline is injected, and the aspiration is attempted again. If the
catheter is outside the bone, the muscle will swell with the injection of saline.
Ultimately, radiographs may be used to confirm the location of catheter
placement (Fig. 8) [23].

Fig. 7. Materials used and site for intraosseous catheter placement in lizards. (Ó 2006 Byron
J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 257

Fig. 8. Radiograph demonstrating proper proximal tibial position of right intramedullary in-
traosseous catheter and improper/extramedullary catheter placement in lizards. (Ó 2006 Byron
J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)

Chelonians
As in venipuncture, the right jugular vein is the preferred site for catheter
placement in turtles and tortoises, because it is larger than the left in many
species. Animals with thick skin over the jugular vein or those with poor pe-
ripheral blood pressure may require cut-down and dissection to identify and
catheterize the vessel. Discussion is ongoing on the question of whether che-
lonians have marrow-containing long bones [23]. However, it has been
reported that an intraosseous catheter can be placed in the cranial or caudal
aspect of the bony bridgedthe column of bone between the plastron and
carapace [4].

Sites and techniques for fluid therapy

Signs of dehydration in reptiles can be similar to those seen in mam-
mals. Loss of skin elasticity and wrinkled appearance progressing to
sunken eyes, dry, tacky mucous membranes, and so forth: all must be in-
terpreted with an understanding of normal appearances for that particular
species. Packed cell volume and total solids can also be helpful in evaluat-
ing dehydration.
Placing the patient in shallow, warm water usually allows for some ab-
sorption of fluids, moisturizes the skin, and in some instances stimulates def-
ecation. Fluid replacement may be done orally in mildly dehydrated, alert
patients. Subcutaneous fluids are useful in mildly to moderately dehydrated
patients and patients that will not allow oral access. More rapid routes of
fluid delivery for patients with severe dehydration or shock-type situations
are intracoelomic and intravenous ones. With repeated administration of in-
tracoelomic fluids, it is important to aspirate, not only to ensure the needle is
not in a vital organ but to assess that the previously administered fluids have
been absorbed. Once again, it may be wise to consider soaking amphibian
258 DE LA NAVARRE

patients in a balanced electrolyte solution to help provide proper electrolyte

and oncotic balance [22].

Significance of thermal support

Reptiles are poikilothermic; therefore, thermal support is vital to the op-
timal maintenance of these patients. As mentioned earlier, absence of the
proper POTZ is often one of the underlying causes for illness. Provision
of the POTZ is vital to enable the proper functioning of the immune system,
gastrointestinal system, and, potentially, all body functions. One must know
the POTZ for each individual species to avoid thermal stress. When this in-
formation is not available, most debilitated reptiles will respond to a temper-
ature range of approximately 32.2 C (90 F) until the species-specific
information can be obtained. Properly used radiant heat sources tend to
be best at providing a safe temperature gradient. Incubators may be used,
but they tend to provide a constant temperature, generally adequate only
for short-term maintenance. ‘‘Hot-rock’’–type heat emitters are not recom-
mended, because they can sometimes fail and may thus result in significant
thermal injuries.

Nutritional support
Many reptiles that present for medical care are malnourished, either
because of dietary deficiencies or improper husbandry that has an adverse
effect on the animal’s metabolism. It is generally recommended that nutri-
tional support be provided to any patient that has lost 10% of its body
weight acutely or 20% chronically. Nutritional support may be provided
by a number of means, including syringe or force feeding, orogastric tube
feeding, and pharyngostomy feeding-tube placement. At times the greatest
challenge is opening the mouth. Once it is open, the glottis, which is typi-
cally closed at rest, is located at the base of the tongue in the rostral oral
cavity, making it easy to avoid during orogastric intubation.
When continued nutritional support is required for reptiles with mouths
that are difficult to open, placement of a pharyngostomy tube is recommen-
ded. Tube placement is accomplished in the following manner: The animal is
sedated, and a mosquito hemostat is inserted into the pharynx and pointed
laterally against the wall of the esophagus. The tip of the hemostat is pal-
pated externally, and a small nick incision is made over the tip (Fig. 9).
The tip of the hemostat is then gently, bluntly dissected out through the
hole in the skin. Dissection must be cautious, because too large a hole
will allow reflux of material from the stoma.
A Sovereign red rubber feeding tube (Sherwood Medical, St. Louis, Mis-
souri; size and length dependent on animal size) is then measured and
marked, so as to have the tip end up in the stomach. The hemostat is
used to seize the tip/gastric end of the feeding tube, and the tube is pulled
through the hole into the esophagus and out the mouth (Fig. 10). At this
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 259

Fig. 9. Measurement of proper location of pharyngostomy tube placement in a sedated red

footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria). (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)

point, the blunt/solid tip of the feeding tube is trimmed to open the end, and
the tube is redirected down the esophagus and into the stomach. The tube
is sutured in place using the ‘‘Chinese finger-trap’’ technique (Fig. 11). It is
important to flush the tube after feedings and best to place some sort of cap
to close the exposed end (Fig. 12).
For herbivorous and omnivorous reptiles, Isocal, Sustacal (Mead John-
son Nutrionals, Evansville, Indiana), Ensure, and Osmolite (Ross Labs, Co-
lumbus, Ohio) are appropriate liquid diets. For carnivorous reptiles,
Traumacal (Mead Johnson Nutrionals), Pulmocare (Ross Labs), and Feline
and Canine Clini-Care Liquid (Pet-AG, Elgin, Illinois) are appropriate liq-
uid diets. Care must be exercised when feeding patients that are suffering
from chronic starvation. ‘‘Refeeding syndrome,’’ namely a condition of hy-
pophosphatemia and hypokalemia, is seen in patients fed large amounts of
calorie-rich foods and can be fatal. The phosphorus and potassium move

Fig. 10. Pulling the feeding tube out through the mouth and trimming the tip, then redirecting
down the pharynx and esophagus into the proper premeasured position. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de
la Navarre, DVM.)
260 DE LA NAVARRE

Fig. 11. Proper suturing technique and placement of pharyngostomy feeding tube in turtles.
(Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)

into the cells with glucose and thereby deplete circulating levels, resulting in
rapid weakness and often coma, which may lead ultimately to death. It is
therefore recommended that reptiles that have been chronically starved be
fed 50% of their need calculated on the basis of their real, not ideal, weight.
This regimen is continued for several days, until the patient’s condition im-
proves. The number of calories supplemented is then increased in increments
of 10% to 20% until the recommended level of caloric supplementation for
that size of animal is reached [23].
For excellent current information on feeding carnivorous, omnivorous,
and herbivorous reptiles, please see Ref. [24].

Fig. 12. Technique for securing pharyngostomy tube to carapace: after delivering food or med-
ications, remember to flush tube properly to avoid clogging and cap. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la
Navarre, DVM.)
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 261

Other common procedures and concerns in reptiles and amphibians

Problems with shedding (dysecdysis)
In reptiles and amphibians, skin shedding, or ecdysis, is a dynamic pro-
cess that occurs throughout the life of the animal. As soon as a shedding
cycle is completed and the old skin is shed, a new cycle begins.
Healthy amphibians often ingest their shed skin, so it is not observed in
the environment. A healthy snake sheds its skin in one piece (like an inverted
sock), whereas most lizards normally shed in pieces. Turtles also shed in
pieces: scutes from their carapace and plastron and skin from their neck,
legs, and tail. Although the actual shedding process differs among species,
the physiologic mechanisms involved in causing the shed are similar.
The length of the shedding cycle varies depending on a number of factors,
especially the age and nutritional state of the animal (Fig. 13). Improper
shedding, or dysecdysis, is not itself a primary problem but rather a symp-
tom. In other words, dysecdysis is not a disease but rather a symptom of
a disease. Most often, dysecdysis may be directly associated with problems
of proper management or husbandry. Handling reptiles, especially snakes,
during the shedding cycle may cause damage and dysecdysis. Low environ-
mental temperature or humidity is also a common cause of shedding prob-
lems. Improper nutrition and improper or insufficient cage furniture (eg,
rocks, branches, logs) can also have a significant effect on proper shedding.
Any reptile or amphibian that is having difficulty shedding should be
treated. Usually, the best method of removing the retained skin is to soak
the animal in tepid water. The water should be deep enough to cover the
animal’s body, but obviously not so deep as to pose a danger of drowning.
A soaking animal should never be left unattended. Generally nothing needs
to be added to the water; however, when there is indication of superficial

Fig. 13. Example of retained skin and dysecdysis in a prehensile-tailed skink. (Ó 2006 Byron
J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)
262 DE LA NAVARRE

infection or inflammation, diluted chlorhexadine solution (1 part chlorhex-

adine to 50 parts saline; Nolvasan, Fort Dodge, Iowa) works well. Also, one
may place appropriately sized cloth towels in the soaking solution; as the an-
imal moves over the surface of the towels, it will gently remove the retained
old skin.
Usually, once the retained skin has been removed and the underlying hus-
bandry factors corrected, the shedding problems should resolve and the
shedding should return to normal.
In snakes, one should always make sure that the spectacles, or eye caps,
have come off with the shed. If a spectacle is retained, the eye may become
affected. Retained eye caps can be difficult to remove, and proper care must
be exercised to determine that what is being removed is indeed the retained
eye cap and not a normal structure. Removing a retained spectacle is not
generally a life or death situation, so when one is unfamiliar with the ap-
pearance of a retained eye cap, it is preferable to treat conservatively rather
than attempting to remove something and inducing more damage to the
patient. One may often delay one full shed cycle before taking any action.
Often, treating the eye with sterile ophthalmic lubricants and correcting
the underlying husbandry deficiencies will result in the snake’s shedding the
retained eye caps in the next shed cycle.
If changes in management and husbandry techniques do not rectify the
shedding problems, a thorough medical evaluation should be performed, in-
cluding appropriate laboratory testing. Several medical causes of dysecdysis
exist, including fungal or bacterial skin disease, systemic diseases such as sep-
ticemia, mites, microfilaria, thermal burns, thyroid gland dysfunction, and
old scars. Once the underlying problem has been addressed and resolved,
the skin shedding usually returns to normal within two to four cycles [4].

Note on salmonellosis
Salmonellosis is one of the most widely recognized reptilian zoonoses.
Salmonella is a genus of bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae, which
also includes such bacteria as Escherichia coli, Shigella, Citrobacter, and
Yersinia. The salmonellae are gram-negative motile rods with peritrichous
flagellae, which do not form cysts or spores. More than 2000 serotypes exist
within the species S enteritidis (eg, S enteritidis serotype java), whereas S typhi,
the causative agent of typhoid fever, and S choleraesuis have only one sero-
type each. They can survive in a wide variety of environmental conditions,
from 8 C to 45 C, at a pH of 4 to 9, and as facultative anaerobes they prefer
oxygen but can live without it. Salmonella may live for 3 months in tap
water, 4 months in pond water, 9 months in soil, and 28 to 30 months in
avian or bovine feces. Transovarian infection is documented in poultry,
and reptile eggs may be infected within the uterus, while passing through
the cloaca, or after being laid in contaminated soil. In reptiles, salmonellae
usually are nonclinical infections; apparently virulent strains have been
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 263

found in clinically healthy animals. The infection rate in reptiles has been
estimated at 83% to 94%, depending on the method of testing, and as
many as five serotypes have been found in one animal. Thus it is currently
believed that most if not all reptiles should be considered carriers of salmo-
nella. It is our obligation as veterinarians to become completely familiar
with the status of salmonella in animals so that we may educate, not alarm,
our clients concerning the potentially significant health risks associated with
keeping reptiles as pets.
There are instances where owners request that their animals be tested for
salmonella. These owners should be informed that even repeated negative
culture results on fecal, cloacal, and water samples from their pets cannot
conclusively identify animals as salmonella-negative, because shedding is
intermittent, and many negative results may be false-negatives. If the owner
insists, special arrangements will need to be made with the laboratory. With
conventional microbiologic techniques, the time required to isolate and con-
firm the identity of Salmonella spp is 72 to 96 hours using the proper media
and environment. Even when all the proper techniques are practiced (eg,
method, quantity), the reliability of culture may be affected by several un-
controllable factors, including temporal and seasonal variation in shedding.
Advances in diagnostic testing have led to the introduction of new technol-
ogies, including ELISA and polymerase chain reaction. It is hoped that
these newer testing methods will improve the true test characteristics of sen-
sitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value
[25].
Using medications to eliminate the salmonella organism from the reptile
patient is difficult, because antibiotics may merely suppress the excretion of
detectable organisms without completely eliminating them. This suppression
of the excretion of the organisms following antibiotic use may last for pe-
riods as long as 8 weeks. Because of the intermittent excretion, it may be dif-
ficult to determine whether treatment has been effective and has eliminated
the carrier state. Furthermore, treatment failure may promote the develop-
ment of drug-resistant strains [4].
Therefore, though we must educate ourselves, staff, and clients about the
importance of salmonella in reptiles and amphibians, our current inability to
resolve salmonella infections means that we must focus our efforts on
prevention.

Aural abscesses in turtles

Aural abscesses in turtles are a commonly observed condition. Affected
turtles typically present with slowly progressive swellings on one or both
sides of the neck, puffiness to both eyes, periodic ocular or nasal discharge
from one or both nares, and decreased appetite and activity (Fig. 14).
On physical examination, the turtles typically appear depressed, weak,
and lethargic, often with significant bilateral or unilateral aural swellings,
264 DE LA NAVARRE

Fig. 14. Location of bilateral aural swellings seen with aural abscesses. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la
Navarre, DVM.)

mild to moderate bilateral blepharoedema, and mild to moderate mucopur-

ulent nasal or ocular discharge or both. Commonly considered differentials
for these clinical signs include bilateral aural abscesses, hypovitaminosis A,
upper/lower respiratory tract disease, other infectious disease, systemic dis-
ease, trauma, and chemical or parasitic inflammation.
Aural abscesses should be treated surgically using appropriate anesthesia.
This gives the surgeon the opportunity to perform thorough debridement of
the tympanic cavity and alleviates the pain associated with the treatment of
the disease process. Typically, the surgical procedure does not take long,
and the author has had success using propofol at 10 mg/kg intravenously
[26,27]. In the author’s experience, propofol provides a quick induction, is
short acting, and produces a level plane of anesthesia with a relatively rapid
rate of recovery and few side effects. Other anesthetics may also be em-
ployed (Fig. 15).
Proper sterile surgical preparation should be employed. This measure is
especially important when it is anticipated that specimens will be collected
for culture and sensitivity. Each veterinarian may have a different surgical
approach to chelonian aural abscesses. The main objective is to effect com-
plete removal of the abscess contents from the tympanic cavity, while avoid-
ing possible damage to the columella (stapes) during debridement and
ensuring that fluids or other materials are not aspirated by the patient dur-
ing or after the procedure [6,8]. The author’s technique involves making
a full-thickness horizontal incision through the entire tympanum, from
the three o’clock position across the center of the tympanum to the nine
o’clock position. A second vertical incision is then made from the 12 o’clock
position down through the center of the tympanum to the six o’clock posi-
tion. Together these two incisions form a cross.
The inflammatory debris may then be gently removed using small ear
loops or forceps. Again, care must be taken not to damage the columella
during the debridement and subsequent flushing. If desired, specimens for
 COMMON PROCEDURES IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 265

Fig. 15. Some of the instruments and equipment used in the surgical technique of bilateral aural
abscesses in turtles. (Ó 2006 Byron J.S. de la Navarre, DVM.)

culture and sensitivity should be collected at this time. Ideally, the author
tries to remove the caseous material in one piece. After removal of all the
grossly visible inflammatory debris, all aspects (especially the caudal extent)
of the tympanic cavity need to be evaluated, because caseous material may
extend quite far, especially in chronic cases.
Once all visible pieces of abscessed material have been removed, the tym-
panic cavity and the eustachian tube need to be gently but liberally lavaged
using an appropriate antimicrobial agent. The author prefers to use diluted
chlorhexadine solution (1 part chlorhexadine to 50 parts saline; Nolvasan,
Fort Dodge, Iowa) [26,27]. Diluted chlorhexadine solution has a wide spec-
trum of antimicrobial activity, is relatively nontoxic to tissue, and maintains
a sustained residual activity. Although use of diluted povidone-iodine (P-I)
solution has been reported, this remains controversial, because in vitro stud-
ies have demonstrated that concentrations in excess of 1% P-I solution kill
fibroblasts. Also, the active antimicrobial ingredient in P-I, free iodine, is in-
activated in the presence of the proteins of serum, which are often present
postoperatively within the tympanic cavity [28].
Throughout the procedure, the oral cavity must be examined frequently
to prevent aspiration, because debris and liquids may be forced or flushed
through the eustachian tube into the oropharynx. While flushing the tym-
panic cavity and eustachian tube, in an effort to avoid such aspiration,
the author typically places the turtle in a head-down position. This measure
allows fluid and debris that enter the oropharynx to exit the mouth by
means of gravity. After thorough flushing, the surgery site may be filled
with an appropriate antibiotic ointment and allowed to heal by secondary
intention. The author prefers to use a triple antibiotic ophthalmic ointment
266 DE LA NAVARRE

(TriOptic-P, Pfizer, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). The veterinarian or client

should continue to lavage and pack the surgical site on a daily basis until
it is healed. The decision to place the patient on systemic antibiotics depends
on the results of physical and laboratory evaluations. Typically, when the
author has started the animal on presurgical systemic antibiotics, these
are continued for a prescribed course of treatment based on the initial phys-
ical examination and laboratory work-up.

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