2018 Book Biogas PDF

Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies 6
Meisam Tabatabaei · Hossein Ghanavati
Editors
Biogas
Fundamentals, Process, and Operation
Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies
Volume 6
Series editors
Vijai Kumar Gupta, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn
University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
Maria G. Tuohy, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland
Galway, Galway, Ireland
This book series provides detailed information on recent developments in biofuels &
bioenergy and related research. The individual volumes highlight all relevant
biofuel production technologies and integrated biorefinery methods, describing the
merits and shortcomings of each, including cost-efficiency. All volumes are written
and edited by international experts, academics and researchers in the respective
research areas.
Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies will appeal to researchers and post-
graduates in the fields of biofuels & bioenergy technology and applications,
offering not only an overview of these specific fields of research, but also a wealth
of detailed information.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11833

Meisam Tabatabaei Hossein Ghanavati
•
Editors
Biogas
Fundamentals, Process, and Operation
123
Editors
Meisam Tabatabaei Hossein Ghanavati
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam) / Agricultural Biotechnology Research
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII)
Institute of Iran (ABRII) Agricultural Research, Education and
Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)
Extension Organization (AREEO) Karaj
Karaj Iran
Iran
ISSN 2363-7609 ISSN 2363-7617 (electronic)

Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies
ISBN 978-3-319-77334-6 ISBN 978-3-319-77335-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77335-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018934902
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

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Preface
This book is about biogas production using anaerobic digestion technology, with an
emphasis on waste utilization/valorization. Biogas is arguably the most commer-
cialized type of biofuel. Nevertheless, there has been a renewed interest in biogas
production from waste-oriented feedstock worldwide and in particular in the
developing countries. A number of parameters including increasing energy
demands and worsening environmental conditions are among the main driving
factors of this surge in interest in biogas. The present book, which is the six book in
the series on Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies, offers a comprehensive refer-
ence guide to biogas production from different waste streams by internationally
recognized experts in the field of biogas production form both academia and
industry. The 18 chapters cover various aspects of anaerobic digestion technology
from the basics, i.e., microbiological aspects to prominent parameters governing
biogas production systems, as well as major principles of their operation, analysis,
process control, and troubleshooting. In addition, major issues affecting biogas
production, including the type of feedstock, pretreatment techniques, production
systems, design and fabrication of biogas plants, as well as biogas purification and
upgrading technologies are comprehensively reviewed and discussed. Providing
in-depth and cutting-edge information on central developments in the field, ‘Biogas:
Fundamentals, Process, and Operation’ also addresses the application of advanced
environmental and energy evaluation tools including life cycle assessment (LCA),
exergy, techno-economics, and modeling techniques. The book is intended for all
researchers, practitioners and students who are interested in the current trends and
future prospects of biogas production technologies.
It is expected that the present volume on biogas would assist both the scientific
and industrial communities in further developing this industry worldwide. We are
thankful to authors of all the chapters for their efficient cooperation and also for
their readiness in revising the manuscripts. We also would like to extend our
appreciation to the reviewers who in spite of their busy schedule assisted us by
v
vi Preface
evaluating the manuscripts and provided their critical comments to improve the
manuscripts. We sincerely thank Dr. Vijai Kumar Gupta and Dr. Maria G. Tuohy
and the team of Springer Nature for their cooperation and efforts in producing this
book.
Karaj, Iran Meisam Tabatabaei

Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam) /
Hossein Ghanavati
Contents
1 Waste Management Strategies; the State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Alireza Ghasemi Ghodrat, Meisam Tabatabaei, Mortaza Aghbashlo
and Solange I. Mussatto
2 Feedstocks for Biogas Production: Biogas and Electricity
Generation Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Johannes W. A. Langeveld and Eric C. Peterson
3 Biogas Plants: Design and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Luca Talia
4 Biogas Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Elena Valijanian, Meisam Tabatabaei, Mortaza Aghbashlo,
Alawi Sulaiman and Yusuf Chisti
5 Biogas Production: Mechanical and Thermal Pre-treatment
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Ing. Dieter Jürgen Korz
6 Prominent Parameters in Biogas Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Meisam Tabatabaei, Elena Valijanian, Mortaza Aghbashlo,
Hossein Ghanavati, Alawi Sulaiman and Minato Wakisaka
7 Biogas Production: Microbiological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Gerianne Robles, Ramkumar B. Nair, Sabine Kleinsteuber,
Marcell Nikolausz and Ilona Sárvári Horváth
8 Biogas Production Systems: Operation, Process Control,
and Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Hossein Ghanavati
9 Analytical Methods in Biogas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Peyman Mahmoodi, Sara Farmanbordar and Keikhosro Karimi
vii
viii Contents
10 Biogas Purification and Upgrading Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

María Rosario Rodero, Roxana Ángeles, David Marín, Israel Díaz,
Alexandre Colzi, Esther Posadas, Raquel Lebrero and Raúl Muñoz
11 Biorefineries: Focusing on a Closed Cycle Approach
with Biogas as the Final Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Benyamin Khoshnevisan and Irini Angelidaki
12 Waste Management Strategies: Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Benyamin Khoshnevisan, Shahin Rafiee and Meisam Tabatabaei
13 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biogas Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Marzieh Shafiei
14 Exergy-Based Performance Assessment of Biogas Plants:
Application of Advanced Exergy and Exergoeconomic Analyses
for Evaluating Biogas Upgrading Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Hojat Ansarinasab and Mehdi Mehrpooya
15 Advanced Soft Computing Techniques in Biogas
Production Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fatemeh Almasi, Salman Soltanian, Soleiman Hosseinpour,
Mortaza Aghbashlo and Meisam Tabatabaei
16 New “Omics” Technologies and Biogas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Gholamreza Salehi Jouzani and Reza Sharafi
17 Small Scale Biogas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Ram Chandra Poudel
18 Current State and Future Prospects of Global
Biogas Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Karan Sehgal
Chapter 1
Waste Management Strategies; the State
of the Art
Alireza Ghasemi Ghodrat, Meisam Tabatabaei, Mortaza Aghbashlo

and Solange I. Mussatto
List of Abbreviations
MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
SWM Solid Waste Management
WM Waste Management
MRF Materials Recovery Facility
RDF Refuse-derived Fuel
SRF Solid Recovery Fuel
AD Anaerobic Digestion
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
EU European Union
e-waste Electronic Waste
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
HIPS High impact polystyrene
A. Ghasemi Ghodrat
Biofuels Research Team (BRTeam), Karaj, Iran
A. Ghasemi Ghodrat
Arta Sepehr Kavian Co., Tehran, Iran
M. Tabatabaei (&)
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam) / Agricultural
Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research,
Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
S. I. Mussatto
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical
University of Denmark, Building 220, 2800 Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
M. Aghbashlo (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering of Agricultural Machinery,
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College
of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

M. Tabatabaei and H. Ghanavati (eds.), Biogas, Biofuel and Biorefinery
Technologies 6, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77335-3_1
2 A. Ghasemi Ghodrat et al.
PC Polycarbonates
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
TFS Transfrontier shipment
VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds
C/N ratio Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio
CH4 Methane
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
N2 Nitrogen
H2 Hydrogen
H 2S Hydrogen Sulphide
NH3 Ammonia
VS Volatile Solids
BOD Biological (Biochemical) Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
t Tonne
BMP Biochemical Methane Potential
OM Organic Material
LAC Latin America and Caribbean
1.1 Waste Management; A Conceptual Approach
Maximizing resource (material and energy) recovery and minimizing environ-

mental impacts such as contribution to the global warming are two of the very first
and important objectives in the solid waste management (SWM) sector, which is
considerably developed over the past century (Habib et al. 2013). In fact, the way
solid wastes have been managed over the history of human civilization has faced a
tremendous level of change, shifting from the focus on public cleansing of the cities
to modern waste management strategies. This happened mainly due to the lifestyle
changes and swift industrialization process all around the world, which has led to
the introduction of new materials and the consequent changes in the types and
composition of the generated wastes (Christensen 2011).
It is crucial to note that the definition of the term “waste” is totally subjective and
depends on various factors including time, location, income level, state, and per-
sonal preference (Table 1.1). In another words, culture, climate, religious, ethnic
background, as well as economic abilities could affect what would be defined as
waste. For instance, The European Union (EU) defines waste as “any substance or
object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard.” This is also
supplemented with various examples of items and materials that can be considered
as waste within a long list entitled “European Waste Catalogue” (Christensen
2011). Similarly, the term “management,” based on the Basel Convention, means
1 Waste Management Strategies; the State of the Art 3
Table 1.1 Influential factors on the definition of the term “waste” adopted from Christensen
(2011)
•During scarcity, e.g., war time and embargo, repairing an item

Time may become economical, since buying a new version may be
costly or hard to achieve
•For example, the feasibility of using food wastes for animal

Location feeding in rural vs. urban areas
•Regarding an item's state (price, age, and type of damage), it may

State be repairable
•The higher the income, more food or other stuffs would be likely
Income Level to be discarded
Personal •Waste to an individual may not be regarded as waste to another

Preference individual
collection, transport, and disposal of hazardous wastes or other wastes, including

after-care of disposal sites (UNEP 2014).
As an example of a type of waste and its subsequent relevant issues, electronic
waste (e-waste) would be a good option. E-waste, as one of the rapidly growing
waste pollution problems worldwide, can seriously contaminate the environment
and threaten human health by a variety of toxic substances. Many protocols for this
type of waste have been introduced across countries focusing on management,
disposal, as well as reprocessing and reutilization of these wastes as raw materials.
Overall, developing eco-design devices, proper collection of e-wastes, safe
recovery and recycling of materials, disposal of e-wastes by suitable techniques,
raising awareness of the impacts of e-waste, and forbidding the transfer of used
electronic devices to developing countries are the dominant factors to be considered
to accomplish a successful e-waste management. In spite of that, heavy movements
of hazardous wastes, especially e-wastes into Asia, notably India, China, and
Pakistan have been observed contrary to the instructions set forth by international
protocols, e.g., The Basel Convention (Pariatamby et al. 2015; Kiddee et al. 2013).
Almost 5% of the total waste volume generated globally is contributed by e-wastes
and, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 30–40 million
personal computers are estimated to reach their “end-of-life” each year. This means
that a huge amount of hazardous materials is ready to be added to the environment,
while a variety of valuable materials and minerals can be recovered. There are a
number of companies around the world utilizing proper technologies for recovering
largely ferrous metals, aluminum, copper, circuit boards, as well as plastics,
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), high impact polystyrene (HIPS), polycar-
bonates (PC), and ABS-PC from e-wastes (CP Group 2017).
In the year 2012, approximately 1.3 billion t of MSW were generated globally,
and this figure is expected to rise to approximately 2.2 billion t by the year 2025
(Rajaeifar et al. 2017). Regarding the environmental impacts, soil, water, and
especially air are prone to be enormously influenced by the unsafe disposal of
wastes (Pawłowska 2014). Groundwater pollution at landfills, air quality affected by
gaseous emissions through incineration, as well as metals remained in soil and
crops after the utilization of MSW-oriented compost are some of the examples of
contaminations caused by unsafe SWM. Such consequences have led to the
implementation of much more strict regulations and laws in the waste management
sector to meet the concepts as sustainability (Christensen 2011).
Sustainability, defined as “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,”
(Commission 1987) has environmental, social, and economic dimensions with a
focus on long-term issues. As a matter of fact, this definition states that each gen-
eration has to take the responsibility of their very own-generated problems and try to
solve them with the help of local solutions. To do so, there are quite a few protocols
covering different aspects of waste management including The Basel Convention,
The Montreal Protocol, The Kyoto Protocol, and The Aarhus Convention along with
a number of powerful tools such as LCA introduced to perform feasibility studies.
Moreover, considering the above-mentioned issues as well as the complexity and
high expenses of waste management in the modern days, new strategies and sys-
tems have also been introduced to this sector (Christensen 2011). Among the most
important strategies in SWM throughout the world, considering the waste hierarchy
(Fig. 1.1), 3R—“reduce, reuse, and recovery”—is one-of-a-kind, frequently used
• Disposal including landfilling and mass burning without

Disposal
recovery
• Recovery in terms of material utilization and energy

Energy Recovery
recovery
• Waste substitutes for virgin production of the

Recycle
same material
• For example, cleaning and refilling of

Reuse
returnable bottles for packaging glass
• Waste prevention and

Reduce
cleaner technology
Fig. 1.1 Waste hierarchy adopted from Christensen (2011) and Richards and Taherzadeh (2016)
by the Western world and some parts of the Asia (especially Japan) since early
1980s (Richards and Taherzadeh 2016). MSW through the implementation of a
systematic management can serve as a precious resource for different purposes
(World Energy Council 2013). It is worth mentioning that resource (material and
energy) recovery, as an important step in the waste hierarchy, implies not only the
utilization of waste to produce materials and harvest different forms of energy
carriers, but also the efforts in the context of avoiding environmental impacts from
production of raw materials and simultaneously waste disposal (Christensen 2011).
It is also critical to highlight waste collection as well, which contributes a con-
siderable part of WM expenses (usually about half of the costs of a typical waste
management system). In better words, within a comprehensive WM system, all
factors from the point of waste collection to final disposal have to be considered
(Dubanowitz 2000).
Waste management systems can be divided into six different categories namely
Landfilling, Composting, MRF, AD, Incineration, and RDF/SRF. Each system has
its own characteristics with a wide range of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies
offered around the world. In general, WtE technologies can be defined as any waste
treatment processes that create energy from a waste source in any forms of energy
carrier, i.e., electricity, heat, or transportation fuels (World Energy Council 2013).
Based on a report by World Energy Council, increase in the amount of generated
waste, high costs of energy, growing concerns of environmental issues, and
restricted landfilling capacities are the summarized main drivers for the growth in
WtE market in the past decades (World Energy Council 2013). In 2013, the global
WtE market faced a growth of 5.5% with respect to its preceding year and reached a
value of 25.32 billion USD. Among the various WtE technologies, thermal energy
conversion was at the top and accounted for 88.2% of total market revenue in the
same year (World Energy Council 2016).
It should be highlighted that while a system with a particular technology is
suitable for a region, it may lead to a disaster for another region. Therefore, a
comprehensive investigation on different influential factors including demographic,
meteorological, and social background, as well as industrial zones, water, and
electricity grid availability has to be conducted prior to the decision-making step by
well-educated experts.
1.1.1 Global Status
The degree of industrialization, life style, local climate, and economic development
are the prominent influential factors on MSW generation rates. As a rule of thumb,
the greater the population, the higher the economic development, and the higher the
rate of urbanization, all will lead to a higher rate of municipal solid waste pro-
duction in addition to the change in its composition and treatment technologies
(World Energy Council 2013). In this section, population (in million), total MSWs
generation (in million tons) and MSWs generation per capita (kg person−1 day−1)
as well as changes in the contribution of different MSWs treatment options in

various parts of the world (i.e., The United States of America (USA), EU-27,
Australia, Japan, Iran, Africa, Middle East, East Asia and the pacific region, Eastern
Europe and central Asia, China, as well as Latin America and the Caribbean) have
been graphically presented (Figs. 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10,
and 1.11).
As it can be seen from the above figures, various strategies are applied in
different regions and countries depending on their distinct local conditions. For
example, a 4.7% increase in the amount of incinerated waste (i.e., from 72.02% in
1990 to 76.72% in 2010) was recorded in Japan. On the other hand, the total
generated waste in Japan was decreased by 9.8%, while MSW generation per capita
was also reduced from 1.11 kg person−1 day−1 to 0.97 kg person−1 day−1 over the
same time period. These promising improvements could be attributed to techno-
logical developments along with implementation of appropriate waste management
strategies, laws, and regulations (Rajaeifar et al. 2017).
(a)
Per capita generation (kg/person/day)

309.3 316.5
295.5
MSW generation (million tons) /
300 2.60
282.2
266.3 2.40
249.6 2.15 2.13 250.6 254.1 2.20
250 226.5 237.9 2.05
253.7 2.00
Population (million)
216 2.07 243.5 2.01

205.1 2.00 1.80
200 194.3 1.66 217.3
180.7 1.47 1.74 208.3 1.60
1.47 151.6 1.40
150 1.22 1.34 166.3 1.20
121.1
1.00
100 88.1 127.8
104.4 0.80
0.60
50 0.40
0.20
0 0.00
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013
PopulaƟon (million) Total MSW generaƟon (million tons) Per capita generaƟon (kg/person/day)
(b)
280
260
240
220
Million tons
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2013
MSW recycled (million tons) MSW composted (million tons) MSW combusƟon with energy recovery (million tons)
MSW landfilled (million tons)
Fig. 1.2 a Population (in million), total MSWs generation (in million tons) and MSWs generation
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in the USA (1960–2013). b Changes in the contribution of different
MSWs treatment options in the USA (1960–2013) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission from
Elsevier. Copyright © 2017
(a)
550 2.00
476.96 486.33 493.00 496.75 499.93 499.95
500 1.80
Per capita generation

491.39 494.78 498.96 500.51 502.16
450 481.63 1.60
1.41 1.43 1.43
(kg/person/day)
400 1.38 1.34 1.40
1.30 1.41 1.44
350 1.40 1.40 1.36 1.32 1.20
300 257.35 258.81 251.96
249.98 244.48 1.00
250 225.60
246.11 253.56 259.26 254.97 249.25 0.80
200 241.54
150 0.60
100 0.40
50 0.20
0 0.00
1995 1999 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
(b)
280
260
240
220
Million tons
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
MSW recycled (million tons) MSW composted (million tons) MSW incinerated (million tons) MSW landfilled (million tons) Other
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in the European Union (EU)-27 (1995–2013). b Changes in the
contribution of different MSWs treatment options in the European Union (EU)-27 (1995–2013)
(Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission from Elsevier. Copyright © 2017
(a)
25 23.10 2.25
23 1.92 21.78 22.07
1.89 1.89 2.00

20 1.75
17.07 1.77 1.78 1.77
(kg/person/day)
18 19.15
14.69 1.50
15
11.78 14.95 1.25
13 14.09 14.30
13.22 1.00
10
10.28 0.75
8
5 0.50
3 0.25
0 0.00
1980 1990 2000 2009 2010 2013
(b) 15
14
13
12
11
Million tons
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1980 1990 2000 2009 2010 2013
MSW recycled/composted (million tons) MSW combusƟon with energy recovery (million tons) MSW landfilled (million tons)
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in Australia (1980–2013). b Changes in the contribution of different
MSWs treatment options in Australia (1980–2013) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission from
2.8 South Asia East Asia and the Pacific region

4.3
3 5 3.71
3.28
2 4
0.89 0.65 2.1
0.53 0.41 0.37 0.32 3
1 2
1.4
0.94 0.9 0.64 0.64
0.49 0.41 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.22
0 1
0
MSW generaƟon per capita (kg per person per day)

1.78 Middle East and North Africa Eastern Europe and Central Asia
1.66
1.8 1.81
1.46 2
1.6 1.37 1.37 1.33 1.3 1.69
1.4 1.21 1.18
1.1 1.04 1.28 1.26
1.2 1.01 1.5
0.81 0.74 1.07 1.06 0.99 0.98
1 0.7 0.93 0.89
1 0.82 0.78 0.77 0.74
0.8 0.68
0.6
0.4 0.5
0.2
0 0

Fig. 1.5 MSWs generation per capita in different regions in Asia (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With
permission from Elsevier. Copyright © 2017
(a)
140 1.40
125.57 126.93 127.17 127.53 127.70 127.69 127.77 127.82 127.68 127.60 127.42 128.06
123.61
120 1.20

1.18 1.18 1.16 1.16 1.15
1.11 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.09
100 1.00
(kg/person/day)
1.03 0.99 0.97
80 0.80
54.83 54.20 53.38
60 50.26 52.02 48.11 0.60
45.36
52.22 54.68 54.27 52.72 50.82
40 46.25 0.40
20 0.20
0 0.00
1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
(b) 60
50
Million tons
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
MSW recycled (million tons) MSW incinerated (million tons) with energy recovery
MSW incinerated (million tons) without energy recovery MSW landfilled (million tons)
Other recovery
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in Japan (1990–2010). b Changes in the contribution of different
MSWs treatment options in Japan (1990–2010) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission from
(a)
48.31
50 1.96 46.95 47.68 48.03 2.00

47.85 49.16 49.43 49.75 49.95
45 47.33 48.13 1.80
45.06
40 42.86 1.60

35 1.40
(kg/person/day)
30 1.06 0.99 1.05 1.06 1.04 1.04 1.20
30.65 1.02 1.01 1.01 0.99 0.98 0.98
25 1.00
20 0.80
15 17.44 16.95 17.70 18.21 18.52 18.25 17.67 17.83 18.58 17.94 17.86 17.88 0.60
10 0.40
5 0.20
0 0.00
1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2009 2010 2011 2012
(b)
35
30
Million tons
25
20
15
10
5
0
1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
MSW recycled (million tons) MSW incinerated (million tons) with energy recovery
Other recovery
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in South Korea (1990–2012). b Changes in the contribution of
different MSWs treatment options in South Korea (1990–2012) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With
(a)
1600 0.50
1300.00 1314.32 1325.09 1342.43
1400 1284.67
Per capita generaƟon

1166.69 1356.38 0.40
1200 1303.25 1320.08 1334.65
(kg/person/day)
1240.81 1282.86 0.32 0.32
0.29 0.31
1000 0.25 0.32 0.30
0.31 0.31 0.32
800 0.29
600 0.16 0.24 0.20
400
136.50 148.41 152.15 154.38 157.34 0.10
200 106.71 118.19 134.70 148.57 155.09 155.77
67.67
0 0.00
1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
(b) 180
160
140
Million tons
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
MSW composted (million tons) Other recovery (million tons)
per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in China (1990–2009). b Changes in the contribution of different
MSWs treatment options in China (2001–2009) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission from
2.98 Sub-Saharan Africa

3
2.5 2.23
2
2
1.65
kg
1.5
1.03
0.88
1 0.79
0.65 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.5
0.58 0.53 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.49 0.48 0.45
0.54 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.49 0.48 0.45 0.45
0.5 0.35 0.3 0.3 0.26
0.21
0.14 0.09
0
Seychelles
Niger
South Africa
Nigeria
Botswana
Benin
Congo, Rep.
Gambia
Angola
Senegal
Namibia
Comoros
Cameroon
Mali
Rwanda
Togo
Malawi
Burundi
Swaziland
Chad
Sao Tome and Principe
Gabon
Kenya
Ghana
Sudan
Zimbabwe
Lesotho
Cape Verde
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Cote d'Ivoire
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Eritrea
Uganda
Madagascar
MauriƟus
Ethiopia
Zambia
Mozambique
Mauritania
Burkina Faso
Central African Republic

Fig. 1.9 MSWs generation per capita in the Sub-Saharan Africa (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With
1.2 Waste Management Strategies
Generally, MSW technologies are divided into two main categories, namely,
mechanical and biological treatment, and thermal treatment. Each one of them is
also classified into some subcategories as presented in Fig. 1.12.
1.2.1 Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)
MRF, as a critical and vital step in MSWM strategies, consists of three main stages
of separation, processing, and storing, aimed at maximizing the quantity of the
processed recyclables. It also targets consistent production of clean products from
heterogeneous materials containing some levels of contamination with the highest
possible revenue in the market. From environmental point of view, material
recovery from waste within such contexts substantially offsets the environmental
burdens attributed with resource extraction. Based on a study, it is estimated that
every t of MSW is responsible for the extraction of about 71 t of upstream materials
(Zaman 2016). MRF separates and processes the accepted materials through dif-
ferent operational units and, at the end, stores them as raw materials for remanu-
facturing and reprocessing in the future (Dubanowitz 2000; Kessler Consulting Inc
2009). In fact, it is the primary systematic and technological step in a particular
MSWM strategy and can be considered as the feed supplier of the other waste
management systems, e.g., incinerator. Figure 1.13 illustrates the sequence of
developing an MRF facility for separating MSW as feedstock.
The choice between manual and mechanical separation techniques is an
important issue in the operation of such facilities. With regard to the high labour
Bolivia 0.49
Guatemala 0.61
Colombia 0.62
Ecuador 0.71
Peru 0.75
Cuba 0.81
Venezuela 0.86
Costa Rica 0.88
El Salvador 0.89 Latin America & the Caribbean
Paraguay 0.94
Mexico 0.94
HaiƟ 1
Brazil 1
Uruguay 1.03
Nicaragua 1.1
Dominican Republic 1.1
ArgenƟna 1.15
Panama 1.22
Dominica 1.24
Chile 1.25
Suriname 1.36
Honduras 1.45
Jamaica 1.5
Grenada 2.71
Belize 2.87
Bahamas, The 3.25
St. Lucia 4.35
Barbados 4.75
Guyana 5.33
St. KiƩs and Nevis 5.45
AnƟgua and Barbuda 5.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
kg
Fig. 1.10 MSWs generation per capita in LAC region (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission
from Elsevier. Copyright © 2017
costs, the amount of rejected materials, processing rates, adjustability and flexibility
to new waste streams, the level of health and safety risks, and separating
difficult-to-detect materials (e.g. PVC and PET), automated processing is a much
more cost effective choice. However, given the potential of manual sorting in
producing higher quality material recovery, automated sorting is usually accom-
panied with manual sorting in some units. The types of entering materials, the final
quality, the inputs and outputs of each subsystem, and the distinguishing
(a)
60 55.51 1.00
55 0.89

50 44.34
49.45 0.80
45
(kg/person/day)
40 0.75
35 0.60
0.64
30
25 0.40
20 16.01 15.65
15 10.37
10 0.20
5
0 0.00
2002 2007 2014
Urban PopulaƟon (million) Total MSW generaƟon (million tons) Per capita generaƟon (kg/person/day)
(b) 17
16
15
14
13
Million tons
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2002 2007 2014
MSW recycled (million tons) MSW composted (million tons)

MSW combusƟon with energy recovery (million tons) MSW landfilled (million tons)
MSWAD (million tons)
Fig. 1.11 a Population (in million), total MSWs generation (in million tons) and MSWs
generation per capita (kg person−1 day−1) in Iran (2002–2014). b Changes in the contribution of
different MSWs treatment options in Iran (2002–2014) (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). With permission
from Elsevier. Copyright © 2017
MRF
RDF/SRF
Mechanical and
Biological Treatment
Composting
Landfill
Technologies
AD
MSW
Biogas Plant
Direct Combustion Gasification

Thermal Treatment
Indirect Combustion Pyrolysis
Plasama Gasification
Fig. 1.12 MSW technologies

Evaluation of the Development and

markets and gathering of data
Conceptual design
economics of necessary for the
operation design
Procurement of Detailed engineering

Siting design
equipment design of system
Processing of
Construction Marketing
materials
Fig. 1.13 The sequence of developing an MRF facility for MSW as feedstock adopted from
Dubanowitz and Themelis (2000)
characteristics of the desired products are the major considerations before designing
such unit operations. Overall, an automated MRF may consists of many unit
operations with each equipped with various high-tech equipment. These equipment
can be any of the followings: (1) Conveyor System; (2) Ferrous Metals Separation;
(3) Screening; (4) Air Classification; (5) Non-ferrous Metal Separation; (6) “Detect
and Route” Systems, which itself consists of Glass Separation, Plastic Separation,
and Paper and Carton Separation; (7) Size Reduction; as well as (8) Compactors
and Balers (Dubanowitz 2000).
As an influential factor in designing MRFs, the condition of the input materials
will significantly affect the configuration of the processing line. This means that the
inflow materials’ condition, or the manner by which wastes are collected, will
determine the costs and resource utilization of the MRF, as well as its building
layout and equipment. In general, MSW can be collected and introduced in four
different ways as presented in Fig. 1.14.
Among the critical considerations in developing an MRF unit is to conduct a
preliminary investigation on the current recycled materials market and the financial
status in a region of interest. This means that a basic requirement for planning new
facilities, or for evaluating existing ones, is the simulation of their technical and
economic performance (Cimpan et al. 2016). A well-designed MRF unit can cut the
municipality’s expenses to an acceptable extent by separating the wastes in one
stage. Based on a report, the city of Los Angeles faced a 140% increase in the
amount of collected waste due to the shift from two-stream to single-stream
• Waste has not been segregated; Collection in single

Mixed refuse collection/Mixed waste
compartment vehicles with no source separation of recyclables
• Collection of refuse and recyclables in different colored bags in

Single stream/Co-collection single compartment vehicles; materials are received in a single
stream with fiber and commingled containers combined
• Collection of commingled recyclables in vehicles with two

compartments or separate vehicles, typically fiber (newspaper,
Dual stream/Recyclables collection magazines and catalogs, mixed paper, cardboard, etc.) and
commingled containers (plastic, glass, metal, and sometimes
aseptic containers)
• Recyclables separated by type at the point of collection;

primary purpose of the MRF is removing contaminants and
Source separated/Wet-dry collection
preparing the materials for marketing, often by baling,
flattening, or crushing
Fig. 1.14 Four different ways of MSW collection before entering MRF adopted from Dubanowitz
and Themelis (2000), Kessler Consulting Inc (2009)
collection scheme in which a highly automated MRF was used. This was followed
by a 25% reduction in the collection expenses. In general, by increasing the level of
automation, higher speed of operation, lower costs, and higher quality of recovery
could be achieved (Dubanowitz 2000).
The extent to which each country recycles its generated wastes depends on
various factors including legislations, availability of finance, technological avail-
ability, cultural habit-building practices, etc. Among the top 10 recycling countries
around the world, the highest rate of recycling belongs to Austria, where 63% of all
waste is diverted from landfills. The other following 8 countries are Germany with
62%, Taiwan with 60%, Singapore with 59%, Belgium with 58%, South Korea
with 49%, United Kingdom with 39%, Italy with 36%, and France with 35%. The
last country is the United States of America which, in the year 2014, produced
about 25% of the world’s generated waste while only recycled 34% of this huge
quantity of wastes (World Bank 2010; Aid 2015; General Kinematics 2016). From
another point of view, the higher the landfill tipping fees, the higher the chance of
recycling becoming economically feasible as a waste management practice. For
instance, between 1985 and 1992, the national average landfill tipping fee increased
by more than 500% in the northeaster region of the United States. This substantial
increase together with an increased reliance on costly and contentious waste
exportation made recycling as an economical and proven approach for waste
management (Dubanowitz 2000). Nowadays, the use of systems featuring a variety
of equipment, from screens, to optical sorters, to cutting-edge electrical solutions
are the state-of-the-art technologies to meet the highest quality standards. It should
also be noted that an MRF facility can be designed extremely automated, but, as
mentioned earlier, the higher the automation, the higher the capital cost as well
(Advancedmrf 2017; CPG Group 2017).
1.2.2 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF)—Solid Recovery

Fuel (SRF)
In order to mitigate the devastating consequences of landfilling along with an

efficient utilization of the energy contained in waste, RDF and, its new version, i.e.,
SRF, have been introduced as strategy in MSWM scenarios to be used in power
plants, cement kilns, and other combustion plants. The creation of RDF dates back
to the time of the energy crisis in the 1970s. In spite of the different definitions
offered for RDF and SRF across different countries, based on Italian decrees
(Ragazzi and Rada 2012), the RDF and SRF are defined as follows (Rotter 2011;
Ragazzi and Rada 2012):
RDF is fuel derived from municipal solid waste through treatments aimed to the elimination
of substances hazardous for combustion and to guarantee an adequate lower heating value
(LHV), and to comply with the technical norms for its characterization.
SRF is the solid fuel prepared (means processed, homogenized and up-graded to a quality
that can be traded amongst producers and users) from non- hazardous waste to be utilized
for energy recovery in incineration or co- incineration plants and meeting the classification
and specification requirements laid down in CEN/TS 15359.
In fact, the two fuels are termed based on their characteristics. Nowadays, the
terminology RDF is known as unspecified waste after a basic processing to increase
the calorific value and usually refers to the segregated, high calorific fraction of
MSW, commercial or industrial wastes (Rotter 2011). SRF, as newer terminology,
refers to non-hazardous waste, utilized for energy recovery, and is more homoge-
neous as well as less contaminated than the generic RDF (Garg et al. 2007).
Figure 1.15 shows different unit operations in an RDF production plant.
Based on a classification by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), RDF is divided into seven categories, depending on the type of processing
and not based on chemical or physical parameters (Rotter 2011). As an important
advantage, RDF/SRF can be shipped, under transfrontier shipment
(TFS) regulations, across countries as an energy carrier (Clarity Environmental
2017). This type of energy carrier can be co-combusted in cement kilns plants, in
which up to 40% of their firing thermal capacity can be provided using high
calorific waste fuels, co-combusted in coal fired boilers (lignite or hard coal), or
mono-combusted in RDF-fired boilers (grate firing or fluidized bed technology)
with the aim of district heating or steam and electricity for industries (Rotter 2011).
Biodrying - physical Magnetic separation -

Screening
drying eddy current separation
Ballistic separation Air classification Aeroherds
Automatic picking with Size reduction -

NIR identification palletizing
Fig. 1.15 Various unit operations in RDF production. Adopted from Christensen (2011)
1.2.3 Landfill
Landfilling, i.e., dedicated use of land for disposing waste in an engineered facility,
is still the predominant and widespread concept for the MSWM of the waste
generated by about 7.5 billion of the global population. This prevalence is mainly
due to its being the most cost-efficient method of waste disposal, it does not mean
that this technology is associated with low environmental risks though. In fact,
water, soil, and particularly air are prone to be contaminated by the deposition of
wastes in landfills. More to this, a great deal of concern is about its long-term
negative impacts on the future generations, since the decomposition of organic
materials (OM) under anaerobic conditions takes place at a low rate. Therefore, an
appropriate design, considering the type of waste that has to be landfilled together
with various standards, conditions, and regulations, should be implemented
(Christensen 2011; Pawłowska 2014; Richards and Taherzadeh 2016).
It would be wise to implement a resource recovery facility, moving toward a
more sustainable society, even if landfilling is the only option (Richards and
Taherzadeh 2016). By constructing and implementing an engineered collection
system along with the utilization of complex bio-chemical conversion processes
(including different phases like Initial Adjustment, Transition Phase, Acid Phase,
Methane Fermentation, and Maturation Phase), biogas, as an energy carrier, can
also be harvested from landfills directly (World Energy Council 2013). Typical
major biogas composition in a landfill site is: CH4: 47.7; H2O: 20; H2S: 2.4; and
CO2: 29.6 (Fehr 2010).
Technologies related to landfilling can be categorized into five distinct types,

namely, aerobic, semi-aerobic, hybrid, anaerobic, and landfill as deposit of inert
waste. More in-detail explanations about each type of landfilling technology, as an
approach to minimize the impacts of landfills on the atmosphere and the environ-
ment, can be found in Pawłowska (2014). The aim of the complex system of
interrelated components and sub-systems of a landfill is to break down and stabilize
disposed wastes over a long period of time. Each of these types of landfills can to
some extent address different concerns including disease vectors such as flies,
mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, and other pests, as well as groundwater contami-
nation because of leachate production (Dhamija 2006).
Each of the above landfill types may be considered for a region based on its local
conditions; however, among them, the semi-aerobic bioreactor (known as Fukuoka
method due to its first implementation in the city of Fukuoka in Japan in 1975) is
one of the best choices in designing a landfill with low capital and operational costs,
while meeting the regulations and expectations. Low degree of technical demand,
machines, devices, and ease of operation and maintenance, decrease in the load of
waste water contamination by quick drainage of waste water, contribution to the
prevention of Global Warming by control of the discharge of methane gas, early
stabilization of landfill ground by promoting waste bio-degradation, wider alter-
natives of material for construction, and lower cost of construction are the other
advantageous of Fukuoka landfilling method (Global Environment Center
Foundation 2006; Fukuoka Municipal Government 2010).
Nowadays, developing sustainable techniques and technologies to enhance the
stabilization of landfills and to harvest energy from landfills are the major objectives
of modern landfilling. For instance, landfill reclamation, a treatment operation and
perhaps the most sustainable manner in operating a landfill, has been utilized in a
few regions. Many other practices may also be applied in landfilling to achieved the
aforementioned objectives (Krook et al. 2012; Ritzkowski and Stegmann 2012;
Pawłowska 2014; Townsend et al. 2015; Wolfsberger et al. 2016).
1.2.4 Compost
Composting, the biological decomposition of organic matter under aerobic condi-

tions, is an excellent and valuable waste management technology. In recent years,
composting of MSW has received much attention as a way of ameliorating the
soil’s physicochemical properties and improving the biological responses of culti-
vated lands. Eradicating several food-borne diseases (caused by bacteria, viruses,
and parasites), providing nutrients for crop production, avoiding methane produc-
tion and its release to the atmosphere, conserving moisture in soil, improving soil
conditions for better crop growth, producing a product that can improve plant
growth, reducing runoff and erosion, as well as minimizing landfilling or inciner-
ation of waste are the other common benefits of composting practiced by both with
the developing and developed countries (Epstein 2011; Srivastava et al. 2016).
There are eight influential factors in composting operation viz. turning fre-
quency, temperature, C/N ratio, moisture content, electrical conductivity, aeration,
pH, and particle size. More to this, oxygen and moisture, as the two prominent
operational parameters, together with temperature and nutrients, especially carbon
and nitrogen, affect the rate of decomposition of the organic matter during com-
posting and are required to be maintained at an optimum level. It has been proved
that these operational factors are interconnected. For instance, turning frequency
affects total nitrogen, pH, moisture content, carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio, dry
matter, total carbon, and temperature of composting piles, and, as another example,
the higher the O2 concentration, the lower the concentration of organic acids in the
compost leading to a rapid decomposition of the acids. More in-detail information
can be found in numerous literatures (Epstein 2011; Onwosi et al. 2017).
Various technologies have been introduced for composting organic materials.
There may also be different classifications, among which the concise generic
classification tabulated in Table 1.2 is widely approved. In order to choose the most
appropriate system, many factors should be considered, that is, economics and cost,
Table 1.2 The generic classification of composting technologies and systems. Adopted from
Epstein (2011)
Static Passively Relies on convective air to provide oxygen and to
Systems Aerated achieve favorable temperatures and stabilization; uses
Windrows perforated pipes open to the atmosphere; feedstock with
a bulking agent is piled over the pipes; not an approved
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
method for pathogen reduction for the use of sewage
sludge or biosolids; used as a low-cost technology by
farmers for composting animal wastes
Forced Aeration Originally developed using negative air, i.e., suction,
—Static Pile leading to reduction in odors by sucking the air through
pipes (negative aeration) and filtering the air into a
biofilter; currently utilized using positive air, i.e.,
forcing the air through the pile, leading to head loss
reduction and unrequired external biofilter as the
advantages; availability of numerous configuration, e.g.,
totally open/enclosed
Bin/Container/ Principally applied to small facilities; can be very
Bag/Tunnel effective in odor control; usually ventilated and are
horizontal; different in the way these are loaded,
unloaded, and ventilated; mostly used for relatively low
volumes of feedstock and where the location is sensitive
to odors; require a mixing and final preparation of the
product through screening or other techniques
Silo/Vertical Principal problems were excessive compaction, poor
Reactors aeration, and difficulty in extracting the material;
currently are not being built and many have been
discontinued
(continued)
Table 1.2 (continued)

Turned/ Windrow Essentially operated outdoors; uses turning system
Agitated where the machine straddles the windrow and agitates
Systems the material; attributed with a great deal of emissions;
odors can be a significant problem; major advantages
are large volume of material it can handle and excellent
quality of mixing and pulverizing the material; varies in
width and height depending on the equipment used;
windrows are 1.5–2.7 m (5–9 feet) high and 2.7–6.1 m
(9–20 feet) wide with spaces considered in between for
the turning machine; aeration is provided primarily
through convective airflow; turning not only provides
mixing, but also improves porosity and breaks up the
particles
Drum/Kiln Have been used in many facilities in the Europe, but to a
very limited extent in the United States; uses elongated
drums to mix the solid waste and biosolids; mixture is
then composted in an agitated bin system; limited
temperatures are obtained as well as limited biological
degradation of the feedstock; retention time in the drum
varies with the technology; stabilization of the compost
may be needed; the drum does not lead to complete
composting; retention in drums is usually from 24 h to 7
d, depending on manufacturer specifications; additional
composting and curing are usually done in aerated bays
or windrows
Agitated Bed Numerous variations of the agitated bed; horizontal
systems using turning machines, paddles, or other
turning devices; principally used in the United States for
composting biosolids; all are enclosed
location, amount of materials to be handled, type of feedstock, as well as state,

country, or local regulations (Epstein 2011).
Sewage sludge, biosolids, septage or night soil, manure, animal mortalities, food
waste, yard waste, MSW, industrial wastes, and military wastes are the different
types of feedstocks in composting. Numerous factors such as feedstock source and
ratio used, toxic compounds, the composting design, maturation length, and pro-
cedure adopted during the process of composting are the determinative factors in
the quality of the compost obtained from MSW (Epstein 2011; Srivastava et al.
2016).
It has been observed that odours or gas emissions, lack of uniformity of compost
maturity index, leachate generation, and subsequent concerns about potential dis-
eases, bioaerosols, or impacts of chemicals, raised by citizens, are the most
important operational obstacles facing composting operations. With this in mind,
the major focus has been shifted from the utilization of compost and its importance
in horticulture, erosion control, plant pathology management, and other uses to
emissions and their control over the past decades. In another word, composting has
evolved into a more sophisticated technology with environmental and public health
aspects as the main focus. More specifically, odour management, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) reduction, and bioaerosols management are the technological
points with greater emphasis (Epstein 2011).
Currently, state-of-the-art bioreactor (biological air treatment) design, new
indices for determining compost maturity, developing the means to harness heat
from composting process as bioenergy, modelling of gas compounds removal and
microbial structure analysis, developing technologies related to odour treatment/
control (use of additives), use of inexpensive pre-treatment processes and geneti-
cally modified strains as microbial inoculum, as well as moving toward more
cost-effective and efficient processes are the cutting-edge research fields and
developments (Onwosi et al. 2017).
1.2.5 Biogas
Biogas, the product of the complex biochemical decomposition of organic materials,

mainly consisting of 60–70% methane (CH4), 30–40% carbon dioxide (CO2),
together with the other gases, i.e., nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), ammonia (NH3), as well as water vapour. It is produced through an AD
process by consortia of bacteria and archaea. In another word, it is a complex
microbial process occurring naturally in oxygen-free environments and is considered
as one of the most efficient methods for conversion of biomass to CH4. The process
may be divided into four steps viz. hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
methanogenesis. A wide range of materials including agricultural wastes, MSW,
food waste, industrial waste and wastewater, as well as crops may be considered as
feedstock for the AD process (Rapport et al. 2008, 2012; Ullah Khan et al. 2017).
Each of the above materials has their own potentials for biogas, or more
specifically biomethane, production. Volatile solids (VS) content, biological (bio-
chemical) oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), C/N ratio, and
presence of inhibitory substances are among the most important feedstock param-
eters to be considered. Not only do the feedstock characteristics affect the perfor-
mance of AD processes, but also do many factors including reactor design and
operational conditions, either by process enhancement or inhibition. Biogas pro-
duction potential should also be investigated through one or some of the various
methods as a crucial step in designing a biogas plant (Jingura and Kamusoko 2017).
These methods are broadly divided into two categories namely experimental and
theoretical methods. More in-detail information regarding the subcategories of the
methods used can be found in Table 1.3.
Many design options have been proposed for AD systems including wet, dry,
thermophilic, mesophilic, batch, continuous, single-stage, and multi-stage config-
urations. However, the process itself is divided into two general categories viz. wet
and dry, or, in another word, the AD process is applied to feedstocks ranging from
highly liquefied to the ones with high solid contents (e.g., MSW). Likewise, the AD
system can also be divided into batch or continuous and single-stage process or
Table 1.3 Different methods for determination of biomethane potential of feedstock*
Method type Description Advantages Disadvantages
Experimental BMP Test Conventional • Mixing an organic feedstock with an • Easy to use • Time wasting
method (Biochemical inoculum in distinct operational • Inexpensive • Resource consuming
Methane conditions as the general principle • Repeatable
Potential) • Physically quantify the gas produced
by manometric or volumetric method
• The biogas composition is determined
by GC
• Various technical approaches and
experimental sets, e.g., Specific
Methanogenic Activities (SMA) test,
Anaerobic Biogasification Potential
(ABP) test, are used
• Influential parameters temperature; pH;
inoculum; substrate/inoculum ratio (S/
I); particle size; stirring intensity;
headspace flushing
Automatic • Automatic Methane Potential Test • Uses less labour • Require sound systems
1 Waste Management Strategies; the State of the Art
System (AMPTS) was developed by • The equipment is inexpensive

the Bioprocess Control Sweden • Provides high quality and adequate
Company quantity of data
• Utilizes the basic principle of the
conventional BMP test
• Methane production is directly
measured on-line by means of liquid
displacement and buoyancy method
• A new version developed is called
Biogas Activity Monitoring (BAM)
• Influential parameters temperature; pH;
inoculum; substrate/inoculum ratio
(S/I); particle size; stirring intensity;
headspace flushing
(continued)
21
22
Spectroscopy The Envital • Recently introduced as a rapid assay • Rapid • Still in early stages of development
Kit based on fluorescence • High-through put characterisation of • Needs more time for validation
• The Envital® kit is capable of more than 32 samples
estimating anaerobic biodegradability simultaneously in 48 h
of sewage sludge in early stages of • Quickly answers operational
development requests
• Results are ready in 48 h
• Uses a fluorescent redox indicator
Near-infrared • Useful tool for quantitative prediction • Rapid • Machines are too expensive
of compounds in pharmaceutical, food • Chemical-free • Calibration is less accurate than wet
and agricultural industries • Easy to use (once calibrations have chemistry
• Recently emerged as a simple and been developed) • Small calibration sizes can lead to
cheap alternative to several laboratory • Non-destructive overconfidence
methods for the quantification of BMP • Measurements outside the range of
• Is used in conjunction with calibration samples are invalid
sophisticated chemometrics
Fourier • Suitable for in-line determination of • Relatively fast and simple to use • A single sample requires background
Transform volatile fatty acids (VFA), alkalinity, • Sensitive and requires small amount scans and many scans due to
Mid-infrared COD, and TOC of sample variations in the spectra caused by
• Requires the interpretation of the • Non-destructive method environmental factors surrounding the
obtained spectra which is more difficult • Universal method: the instrument FT-IR spectrophotometer
with NIR spectroscopy due to and software readily available and • May require standardization, extensive
overlapping overtones and can be utilised for routine analysis data collection and skills in
combination bands • Multiple sample analysis: can test chemometric analysis of spectra
• FTIR-photoacoustic spectroscopy samples in the form of liquid, gas,
(FTIR-PAS) is the modified version powder, solid or film
• Creates a thermal wave from the • Relatively cheap as compared with
vibration of molecules as a result of the many other methods
infrared and the sample interface • Provides qualitative as well as
quantitative data
(continued)
A. Ghasemi Ghodrat et al.
Theoretical Chemical composition • Applicable in cases where elemental • Rapid • The accuracy of each method
method composition of the substrate is • Cheap presumes complete degradation of
unknown • Useful in cases where access to OM, yet the actual digestibility is
• Can be done economically within a • Laboratory facilities is restricted usually 27-76%
short period of time • The BMP is over-estimated
• A more rapid and cheaper method than • Several inhibitions may occur during
the BMP test the digestion process, and are not
Chemical oxygen demand • COD indirectly measures the amount of considered in these methods
organic matter • Requires a lot of measurements which
• Can be applied to estimate the CH4 time consuming and costly
yield of biomass
• Based on the assumption that 1 mol of
methane requires 2 mol of oxygen to
oxidize carbon to carbon-dioxide and
water
Elemental composition • Applied to calculate theoretical BMP
• Consists of different formulas, e.g., the
Buswell formula—based on the
assumption that OM (e.g., CnHaOb) is

completely degraded to CH4 and CO2,
the modified Dulong formula—based
on energy value of the feedstock that is
estimated from its elemental
composition
*Source Jingura and Kamusoko (2017)
23
Fig. 1.16 Various AD methods adopted from Richards and Taherzadeh (2016)
two/multistage processes (Richards and Taherzadeh 2016; Rapport et al. 2012).

There are numerous companies around the world (European at the top) providing
technologies, equipment, and services to the biogas sector. An up-to-date list of
these active companies can be found in the report published by Energietechnik et al.
(2016). Figure 1.16 presents a holistic overview of the current biogas production
methods in the world.
1.2.6 Combustion; Direct and Indirect
Incineration, waste combustion with the goal of disposing waste fractions that
cannot be recycled or reused, has been practiced and developed over more than a
hundred years. The main objective has evolved from reducing waste volumes and
hygienic problems to state-of-the-art waste-to-energy plants accompanied by
extensive processes and emission control systems. A key factor in determining the
feasibility of generating energy from waste is its heating value, which is expressed
as lower and higher heating values (Christensen 2011; Richards and Taherzadeh
2016). A thorough review upon various methods in determining the heating values
can be found in Christensen 2011. Table 1.4 shows different routes of waste
combustion with their in-detail specifications.
Additionally, an important issue in case of incineration is the public perception
about the technologies used which has to be taken into account. This perception is
significantly different among various countries around the world, i.e., people in
Table 1.4 A general overview of thermal treatments, i.e., direct and indirect combustion technologies*
Thermal Treatment Reactor/process Description Advantages Disadvantages
type
Direct combustion Stoker/Grate • Conventional mass burn incinerator –
Furnace • Many different designs
• Keeps a fuel bed on top of a grate while letting
primary air pass through the grate from beneath
• Appropriate for waste by use of a sloping
reciprocating grate
• Typically, a grate can consist of 2–4 modules in a
series and 1–2 modules in parallel
• 1 MW/m2 is the usual order of specific heat rate
released from the grate; normally, about 60% of the
total combustion air is supplied as primary air through
the grate
• Accompanied by Flue Gas–Cleaning System
including particle precipitation, CO control, scrubbers
for HCl and SO2 removal, NOx removal
Fluidized Bed • Consists of a bed of sand (or similar inert material) at – –
(FB) the bottom of the combustion chamber
• Two main categories: (1) bubbling fluidized bed (or
simply fluidized bed)—in the order of 20 MWth is the

preferred choice for moderately sized boilers,
(2) circulating fluidized bed
• No moving parts and, therefore, lower investment cost
• Higher running operational cost due to the need for
fresh sand and a more homogeneously crushed fuel
Rotary Kiln • Consists of a layered burning of the waste in a rotating – –
cylinder
• The energy efficiency may not exceed 80%
• The possibility of being joined with a moving grate
(moving grate as the ignition part and the rotary kiln
as the burning out section)
• More maintenance is required
(continued)
25
26
• Rarely used for new MSW incineration plants with

high heating value wastes
• Common for burning waste with special
characteristics, e.g. hazardous/chemical waste where
confinement of the waste matters or for low heating
value waste such as animal waste/carcasses; may be
utilized in gasification
Indirect Gasification Fixed Beds • Generally used for lower throughputs resulting from • Recovering chemical energy in the waste • Relatively homogeneous fuels
combustion (Downdraft, difficulties in having a large diameter without causing as hydrogen and/or other chemical are required
Updraft, and the gases to be channeled feedstocks rather than converting this • Troubles with slagging, tar
Slagging Fixed • Based on the direction of the gas flow mostly consists energy into hot flue gases production, and contaminants in
Beds) of two kinds: updraft (in the opposite direction to the • Generally better energy efficiency; lower the produced gas are common
solid material) or downdraft (in the same direction to possibility of corrosion • Complicated to be controlled
the solid material) • Less need for flue gas cleaning: better (despite the theoretical
• Downdraft system is more complex, requires more quality and smaller volumes of flue gas possibility)
control, leads to high quality produced gas, and is • Influential in CO2 capture • Numerous waste related
devoid of damaging the gas turbine • Potentially lower emissions of dioxins pyrolysis and gasification
• Updraft gasifier handles a greater variation in the • Better quality of solid residues technologies only applicable to
feedstock quality well (e.g., heat content and moisture • Utilized in high-temperature processes specific fuel types in small scale
content), produces a gas with rather high amounts of • Low fuel load in gasification units; • Unable to compete with modern
tars, as a stand-alone unit has a high energy efficiency potentially lower costs waste regarding overall energy
• Slagging fixed beds operate at high temperatures for conversion efficiencies
inorganic material—the material is melted and forms
a molten solution (is often quenched before further
treatment)—as a disadvantage, lime and coke are
required to be added to the gasifier not only to control
the viscosity of the smelt but also to ensure full
reduction conditions in the lower section while
keeping the temperature sufficiently high—Nippon
Steel and JFE are the two main suppliers
Fluidized Beds • Having a rapid and effective heat and mass transfer
(Bubbling and within them that distributes the fuel and increases
Circulating) mixing
• The fuel must be pretreated
• A bed material (usually sand) is required
A. Ghasemi Ghodrat et al.
(continued)
• Depending on the velocity of the gas divided into
circulating and bubbling
• Ebrara, Kabelco, and Hitachi Zosen are suppliers of
bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers for treating waste
Plasma Plasma • It is generated at temperatures exceeding 2000 °C and
Gasification is generally created by an electric arc
• Dissociation of gas molecules starts at about 2000 °C
and subsequently at temperatures above 3000 °C,
they become ionized by lose of electrons
• All tars will be eliminated
• Alter NRG, Gasplasma® (Advanced Plasma Power,
Swindon, UK), Plasco (Plasco Energy Group, Kanata,
ON, Canada), and CHO Power (Europlasma,
Oudenaarde, Belgium) are companies currently
working with plasma in small-scale waste gasifiers
(not yet been used commercially on a large scale)
Pyrolysis Slow Pyrolysis • Low heating rate of the solid material
• The residence time of the solids is in the order of
hours
• Mild treatment and low entrainment of material into
the gas phase are guaranteed
• Low temperature (around 500 °C), thereby requiring a

longer residence time and giving a solid char with a
higher amount of oxygen and hydrogen
• Lower energy demand
• Less violent reaction during gas devolatilization
• More carbon-rich char and less tars in the gas phase
result by applying higher temperatures (above 700 °
C)
Fast (Flash) • To produce bio-oil at approximately 510 °C with a
Pyrolysis proper feeding rate
• To explore the secondary cracking of tar at longer
residence times
• Induces the presence of waxy materials in the liquid
products
• The higher the temperature, the lower the liquid yield
• Currently no large-scale plant is in operation
*Source Klein (2002), Christensen (2011), Bosmans et al. (2013), Chen et al. (2015), Richards and Taherzadeh (2016)
27
some countries consider incineration plants as a safe and clean waste treatment
technology reducing fossil fuel consumptions, while others might think of these
plants as major contributors to air pollution, climate change, and public health
threats.
Pyrolysis oil and gas, the possibility of recycling the solid materials (i.e., char
and metals) after separation are the opportunities offered by pyrolysis. Likewise,
production of a clean synthesis gas that can be used in gas turbines or gas engines is
the main opportunity offered by gasification. Other advantages include possibly
lower emission levels, further reduction in the formation of possible toxic sub-
stances (such as dioxins and furans) due the possibility of applying high temper-
atures and the presence of a high degree of vitrification (slagging), possibility of
using the inert produced materials in construction or roads.
On both direct and indirect combustion techniques, research activities aiming at
optimizing the processes involved are in progress, especially with a focus on
environmental concerns. In case of gasification, it has been used together with ash
melting with the goal of achieving very low emissions and increasing the use of
solid waste. In the same way, coupling industrial pyrolysis facilities with gasifi-
cation and combustion stage equipped with gas scrubbing devices are the current
state-of-the-art developments (Chen et al. 2015; Panepinto and Zanetti 2017;
Richards and Taherzadeh 2016).
1.3 Feasibility Study
Nowadays, MSWM systems consist of various options including materials col-

lection, MRF, composting, combustion, and landfilling, that is, they are highly
integrated (Dubanowitz 2000). In order for having an efficient systematic MSWM,
a thorough investigation upon various on-going systems, conditions, and policies of
the targeted area has to be implemented. This investigation has to cover the col-
lection system (inspection on the overall efficiency of the current system mainly
from economical point of view), waste producing sources, demographic and
meteorological profiles, social influential parameters, hygienic conditions, water
availability (surface and groundwater), electricity distribution and grid accessibility,
physical, chemical, and heating value analysis, as well as on-going and future
regulations.
More specifically, a given investigation should include an inspection on:
• the collection system to possibly implement new strategies for a more eco-
nomical system together with lower negative environmental impacts;
• waste producing systems to specify an appropriate fee for every particular
producer regarding its type of waste and also targeting illegal producers espe-
cially in developing or undeveloped countries;
• demographic and meteorological profiles including immigration rate, precipi-

tation profile, sunny days, wind roses, temperature profile, and the climate for
future considerations;
• social influential parameters including acceptability of new technologies among
the people or the level of their knowledge about waste management in general
for future considerations;
• hygienic conditions including the amount of health-care or hospital waste and
the number of centers;
• surface and ground water accessibility for if a particular place is suitable for a
particular waste management system;
• electricity distribution and the grid accessibility for selling the possible gener-
ated electricity in the future;
• physical, chemical, and heating value analysis of whole generated waste as the
most important factor in determining the best scenario;
• on-going and future regulations for the chosen technologies whether or not there
is a discrepancy between the regulations and the chosen systems.
In case of MSW standards, there are a few standards, among which ASTMs are
more acceptable across countries. Some of these standards are ASTM D4979-12 for
physical description screening analysis in waste, D5231-92(2016) for determination
of the composition of unprocessed MSW, and D5681-16a for waste and waste
management. The complete list of ASTM standards in waste management can be
found in ASTM (2017).
In the following subsections, two of the most important must-do investigations,
i.e., LCA and financial feasibility, will shortly be discussed.
1.3.1 LCA
Grown to be a major tool to evaluate the environmental performance of products

and services, LCA is now utilized for economic analysis of all kinds of activities,
from cradle-to-grave, i.e., from resource extraction, manufacturing, transport,
wholesale and retail, to use and end-of-life management. Covering approximately
all the environmental stressors that contribute to all the problems facing mankind,
from resource depletion, climate change, smog formation, acidification, eutrophi-
cation, to noise, ecological toxicity, biodiversity loss, and human health (e.g.,
cancer) as well as non-cancer effects makes this analysis invaluable for decision
makers (Hauschild et al. 2018).
Moreover, considering various distinct policies, regulations, and social as well as
economic circumstances across countries, LCA is a vital and critical tool to estimate
and compare the environmental impacts of waste management strategies (Jeswani
and Azapagic 2016). For instance, based on a comparative LCA of five different
MSWM scenarios in Iran by Rajaeifar et al (2015), landfilling combined with
composting, a conventional but fading MSW management practice in Iran, was the
worst scenario; however, the combination of AD with incineration was suggested as

the most environmentally-friendly procedure (Rajaeifar et al. 2015).
1.3.2 Financial Feasibility
Financial feasibility, as an important and critical step in accessing the practicality of

a proposed project, has to be conducted in order to find an in-detail cash flow in the
project. As it is depicted in Fig. 1.17, many factors from two major costs subcat-
egories, that is, investment and operational costs, have to be analysed carefully. In
case of conducting the analysis, a few software have been developed, among which
COMFAR III EXPERT is among the most promising ones.
In fact, COMFAR III EXPERT (Computer Model for Feasibility Analysis and
Reporting) is a tool that has been developed by United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO), based on the experience, recommendations,
comments, and needs of more than 7000 users in 160 countries to solve industrial
problems, investment analysis, etc. Since its release, the software has been
upgraded yearly to meet the technical developments as well as users’ requests
(UNIDO 2002).
Equipment and devices
Construction costs
Land use and other
costs
Investment Costs
Preparation funds
Loan interest Raw materials

Plant power
Risk management consumption
Costs
Staff salaries
Operational Costs Depreciation loss

Fly and handling
Maintenance charge
Bottom ash processing
Environmental
expenses
Leachate treatment
Additional
expenditure Environmental
monitoring
Fig. 1.17 The cost structure of WtE plants (Zhao et al. 2016). With permission from Elsevier.
Copyright © 2017
1.4 Conclusions
Over the past century, the term “waste management” has taken a growing level of
attention mainly due to the lifestyle changes and swift industrialization process all
around the world. From economic and environmental points of view, waste, as a
subjective definition, has become a valuable source of various materials, while
would be a curse considering especially its negative environmental impacts. In
order to have an optimal and efficient management system, building a scenario is a
critical step. Within a scenario, various strategies could be applied to the whole
system, i.e., a better and optimized collection system along with an efficient WtE
system. WtE systems must be chosen by carrying out a thorough investigation of
the local conditions of a targeted region. A system with a particular technology may
be suitable for a region, while it may lead to a disaster for another region.
Ultimately, the scenario can help a wide range of audience, from governments and
companies to non-governmental organizations such as environmental protection
agencies, to set their long-term objectives logically.
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Chapter 2
Feedstocks for Biogas Production:
Biogas and Electricity Generation
Potentials
Johannes W. A. Langeveld and Eric C. Peterson
2.1 Introduction
The development of bioenergy offers major possibilities for the reduction of

Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and fossil fuel dependency. Agricultural and
industrial biomass residues have been identified as promising feedstocks that bring
fewer risks with respect to competition for food and/or affecting natural resources.
The amount of residues available for energy production, the way in which they
should be converted, and the organisation of emerging bioenergy chains remain
subjects of debate. On the other hand, the land area needed for economic and
sustainable production of bioenergy crops has been discussed while no final con-
clusion as to their potential has been reached. Given the favourable perspective of
the conversion of biomass residues and other organic materials into bioenergy, it
comes as no surprise that the production of biogas is constantly growing. The
number of biogas installations currently exceeds 35 million, mostly comprised of
household installations in Asian countries like China and India. Larger farm
digesters are mostly found in industrial countries in the Europe and North America
(Langeveld et al. 2016).
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) can convert dry as well as wet feedstocks from a
range of sources. Feedstocks used in AD range from crops residues including stalks,
leaves, roots, seeds and seed shells, to urban and animal wastes. Agro-industrial
plants such as sugar refineries and palm oil extraction plants also generate sus-
tainable sources of residues and are regarded as promising for waste valorisation
platforms such as AD. The main product of AD, biogas, can be stored before it is
J. W. A. Langeveld (&)
Wageningen, Biomass Research, Costerweg 1D, 6702 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
E. C. Peterson
Universidad Icesi, Calle 18#, 122-135 Cali, Colombia

36 J. W. A. Langeveld and E. C. Peterson
used to provide heat, electricity, injected into a natural gas grid, and/or utilized in
the chemical industry. This makes it a valuable resource of the bioenergy sector,
whether as a stand-alone energy source or part of an integrated food-, animal feed-
or biofuel production chain. AD can convert high volume, low value, and low
energy-density feedstocks including the organic fraction of municipal solid waste
(MSW), crop and field residues, food industry effluents, processing residues, and
livestock manure. This is achieved in relatively simple and safe installations,
generating a co-product, i.e., digestate, which could be used as biofertilizer to
provide plants with nutrients and to increase the organic fraction of the soil.
Production of bioenergy is projected to increase significantly to reach 108
exajoules (EJ) in 2030. This is twice the current level and it would represent 20% of
the total primary energy supply and 60% of the final renewable energy use (Nakada
et al. 2014). Notwithstanding this potential, development of production capacity
remains below expectations. Feedstock availability, conversion techniques, pro-
duction costs, and financial support are the main subjects of debate (Langeveld et al.
2016).
There is a large variation in composition and quality of the feedstocks offered to
AD managers and owners. In particular, residue streams can vary widely in terms of
dry matter, proteins, and fats contents while other compositional elements may
seriously limit their biogas production potential. This can be a major barrier for
managers who need to make considerable efforts to ensure that the installation is fed
with feedstock of sufficient quality (Langeveld et al. 2010). While it is not realistic
to expect the quality of feedstocks to be always known in advance, it is important to
realise that the viability of the operation may depend on the predictability of biogas
yield potential. For this reason, major efforts are made to ensure better predictability
of biogas yields from feedstocks (Amon et al. 2007a, b). In line with that, an
increasing number of companies are offering biogas yield potential assessments.
The information presented in this chapter outlines the current state of biomass
utilization for AD and biogas production. More specifically, the aim of the chapter
is to encompass biogas activities from differing geographic regions (the Europe,
Africa, North and South Americas, and Asia), with a focus on region-specific
substrates as examples, describing substrate availability, current AD activities, and
future trends. The chapter also summarizes biogas potential of these varied sub-
strates, while considering the emerging trends of using the digested materials as
fertilizer.
2.2 Feedstock Types
To understand the correlation between a given feedstock and its potential biogas
yield, several factors should be considered. Evaluation of physicochemical prop-
erties of feedstocks including moisture content and available organic materials is
necessary to characterize them. For instance, total solids (%TS) refers to the overall
amount of solids available in a sample, while volatile solids (%VS) refers to the
2 Feedstocks for Biogas Production: Biogas and Electricity … 37
organic fraction of %TS available for biogas production, as characterized by

overnight combustion of over dried samples at 550 °C. Finally, fresh matter (FM) is
an important quality, as this represents the actual amount of materials fed into
digesters by operators. Each value has important ramifications, and offers important
considerations for characterizing a given feedstock. In more details, %VS provides
an accurate comparison of feedstocks by allowing normalization of biogas per g VS
while TS is an additional important consideration, as low TS values, such as in
liquid substrates, indicate a highly diluted sample, which results in reduced biogas
per unit fresh matter, whether solids or liquids. It should be noted that systems such
as methane energy value system (MEVS) predict methane yields based on indi-
cators including crude protein, crude fat, cellulose, hemicellulose, and nitrogen
contents (Amon et al. 2007a, b), while a similar, more basic feedstock system is
used for the evaluation of liquid feedstocks. Additional indicators may refer to
nutrient composition expressed as ratios (C/N, C/P, N/P), or trace elements.
In addition to that, additional compositional considerations need to be addressed
as well. For instance, readily hydrolysable feedstocks such as manures and liquid
effluents, as well as solid plant biomass, can contain lignocelluloses, which are
significantly more resistant to microbial hydrolysis necessary for biogas production.
In better words, due to the presence of both cellulose and lignin, digestion of woody
residues are significantly restricted, as the crystalline nature of cellulose and the
presence of lignin result in slow hydrolysis rates, requiring specialized enzymes
(i.e., cellulases and laccases, respectively). Nevertheless, various forms of
pre-treatment can increase lignocellulosic biogas yield potentials. The subsequent
subsections describe both non-lignocellulosic and lignocellulosic feedstocks, their
sources, and how they differ in composition.
2.2.1 Non-lignocellulosic Feedstocks
The global population is projected to increase by one billion people within the next
twelve years, reaching 8 billion in 2025, and 9.6 billion in 2050 (United Nations
2013). An increasing number of people are living in cities, which are also growing
in size, and in fact, more people are now living in cities than in rural areas. This
phenomenon is affecting how food and materials are provided to consumers, and
the way waste is generated. Over the last decades, food production systems have
developed an increased integration between agricultural production and other
economic activities. This has led to an emergence of large scale, complex
agro-industrial chains. Expectations are that this trend will continue during the
coming years (FAO 2013). Residues of large agro-industrial plants are increasingly
targeted by private companies as sources of animal feed, biological compounds
(proteins, fats), biobased products, and nutrients, while effluents and by-products
can eventually be sourced as biogas feedstocks.
Major sources of biogas feedstocks are found in processing units of main food
industries including starch, protein, oil, beverage, meat, and cereal production
Table 2.1 Availability and composition of non-lignocellulosic residues generated by livestock

production systems, urban areas, and food processing units
Residue TS %FM VS %TS Availability References
Liquids
Potato effluent 4 90 5.4 m3/tonne FNR (2010) and
potato Hung et al. (2006)
Palm oil mill 3.1 86 0.7–0.9 m3/tonne Langeveld and
effluent FFB Quist-Wessel
(2014) and Sri
Rahayu et al. (2015)
Slaughtering waste 15 80 500 kg/tonne meat Patinvoh et al. (2017)
and Verheijen et al.
(1996)
Vinasse 1 90 0.85–1.28 m3/ Janke et al. (2015)
tonne sugarcane
Cattle slurry 11 82 7.3 tonne/head/y FNR (2010)
Pig slurry 7 86 1.8 tonne/head/y Matulaitis et al.
(2015)
Coffee wastewater 2.3–5.5 52–76 3.67 m3/tonne raw Syarief et al. (2012),
coffee berries Campos et al. (2014)
and Montenegro et al.
(2014)
TS %FM VS %TS Availability References
Solids
Food residues 20 92 55 kg/person/y Yong et al. (2015)
Chicken manure 40 75 73 kg/head/y FNR (2010)
Cattle manure 25 76 7.3 tonne/head/y FNR (2010)
TS Total Solids, VS Volatile solids, FM Fresh matter
chains and therefore, these industries could potentially serve as large sources of
energy. Typical availability of urban and agro-industrial residues is presented in
Table 2.1, which includes liquid effluents from sources such as potato starch, palm
oil, or coffee processing, while also including solid wastes such as manures and
MSW. It should be noted that it is important to consider TS for effluents which are
extremely low in dry matter.
Food processing waste varies between 250 and 800 kg per tonne of raw food but
shows large variations in composition. Biodegradable urban waste can be as high as
70 kg per person per year; the organic fraction of MSW is biodegradable, which is
sometimes defined as organic waste, or ‘bio-waste’. While MSW in many cases is
landfilled, increasing efforts are made to valorise this potentially valuable feedstock,
which can be used for high quality compost and/or biogas chains. Livestock pro-
vides another source of feedstocks, especially in intensive production systems.
Manure can be liquid (‘slurry’ which is very low in dry matter) or solid containing
straw and bedding materials as well. Animal manure is generally low in solids
(<25%), with the exception of chicken droppings. Availability is generally below
100 tonnes for a farm per year, but it can be higher in case of large-scale farms.
2.2.2 Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
Lignocellulosic feedstocks include a wide range of materials consisting mostly of

sugars (pentoses and hexoses) (60–75%); while the remainder (25%) is lignin plus a
small fraction of proteins and lipids. Importantly, these sugars are present as
polysaccharides, whether cellulose or hemicellulose. Cellulose is comprised of
crystalline glucose, and is thus reluctant against enzymatic hydrolysis. It also
excludes water and provides basic structural support. Hemicellulose consists of
branched polymers of pentose sugars such as xylose and arabinose, acting as glue,
holding together the cellulose fibres. Finally, lignin consists of complex aromatic
polymers that help resist microbial degradation.
Lignocellulosic residues, or plant biomass with an elevated lignin content, come
from a diversity of sources, the majority of which are agricultural or agroindustrial,
and several examples are listed in Table 2.2. For instance, banana and palm oil
agriculture generates large amounts of field residues after harvest (i.e., leftover
banana trees, flowers, leaves), while processing activities like sugar and palm oil
refinement produce large amounts of fibrous lignocellulosic biomass. Other ligno-
cellulosic feedstocks include forestry residues, coffee pulp, and field residues such
as corn stover. Major energy crops for biogas production are mostly maize silage
and grass, which are harvested in summer in the Europe and could be fed into
digesters throughout the year. Use of dedicated crops in other continents is limited.
As mentioned above, several tropical agricultural crops, such as bananas, sugar-
cane, and oil palm, leave significant residues in the field, which are lignocellulosic in
nature. For instance, sugar cane field cropping produces significant amounts of leaves,
as do agricultural activities in banana production. Availability of residues generally
varies between 150 and 500 kg per tonne of raw harvested (food) material. Exceptions
are straw/stover (high availability) and some minor residues. It should be noted that
banana pseudo stems are high in weight but low in dry matter. As a rule, TS content
in lignocellulosic materials can range from moderate (maize, grass) to high (stover,
shells, press cake, bagasse). Most residues are high in cellulose and sometimes
hemicellulose (together making up 40–60% of dry matter). Forest residues and palm
kernel shells are high in lignin, which restricts their degradability (Table 2.2).
While the availability and energy content of these feedstocks mark them as
favorable sources for valorisation, their complex structure, i.e., the interwoven
network of crystalline cellulose, lignin, and associated hemicellulose, is highly
resistant to hydrolysis into available sugars that are required for microbial utiliza-
tion. Typical anaerobic digesters include specialist microorganisms capable of
hydrolysing these materials, but the rate of digestion is reduced as a consequence,
which in turn requires longer retention times and larger digester volumes.
Nevertheless, some techniques can be applied to reduce long retention times,
such as different pre-treatment procedures which can greatly improve hydrolysis
and utilization of these recalcitrant substrates. Pre-treatment techniques may be
mechanical (e.g., milling), chemical (e.g., acid or alkali treatment), or thermal
methods (e.g., steam explosion) in nature, but all in general try to expand the
Table 2.2 Availability and composition of different lignocellulosic residues

Residue C:H:L TS VS Availability Yield References
% % (kg/tonne of (tonne/
FM TS raw product) ha)
Silage maize 16:1:38 35 94 n.a. 30 Mumme et al.
(2011)
Grass silage 31:29:10 50 92 n.a. 70 Cadavid-Rodríguez
and
Bolaños-Valencia
(2016)
Wheat straw 33:22:19 98 93 1000 5.5 Niee Liew et al.
(2012)
Corn stover 34:19:19 93 97 1000 10.0 Niee Liew et al.
(2012) and Li et al.
(2011)
Sugarcane Bagasse 42:22:18 94 97 280 22.4 Kumari and Das
(2015)
Coffee pulp 31:11:23 55 91 550 2.8 Battista et al. (2016)
and Syarief et al.
(2012)
Coffee parchment 18:24:10 n/a n/a 50 0.3 Battista et al. (2016)
and Syarief et al.
(2012)
Forestry residues 42:n/ 50 64 n/a 120 Teghamar et al.
a:44 (2014) and Hoyne
and Thomas (2001)
Oil palm fibre 30:21:24 76 78 130 2.6 Garcia-Nunez et al.
(2016a, b)
Empty Fruit 34:21:22 64 80 220 4.4 Garcia-Nunez et al.
Bunches (2016a, b) and
Zhang et al. (2012)
Palm kernel shells 26:19:48 89 74 45 0.9 Garcia-Nunez et al.
(2016a, b)
Banana leaves 31:8:18 n/a n/a 156 6.2 Santa-Maria et al.
(2013) and Nzila
et al. (2015)
Banana flower 45:8:18 n/a n/a 468 18.7 Santa-Maria et al.
stalks (2013) and Nzila
et al. (2015)
Banana 56:8:18 5 4 1920 76.8 Santa-Maria et al.
pseudostems (2013) and Nzila
et al. (2015)
Banana 56:8:18 92 83 104 76.8 Kalia et al. (2000)
pseudostems
(sun-dried)
C:H:L Cellulose:Hemicellulose:Lignin, TS Total Solids, VS Volatile solids, FM Fresh matter
lignocellulosic matrix, while solubilizing hemicellulose, or to a lesser extent cel-

lulose and lignin. These approaches increase biogas production but have specific
drawbacks, whether high energy costs, or the generation of inhibitory sub-products
such as furfural or hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). Novel pre-treatment methods are
emerging, which focus on ionic liquid or supercritical CO2 to solubilize and collect
lignin, both increasing biogas production while also providing an additional rev-
enue through lignin collection. Regardless of the pre-treatment technique used, this
step is an essential consideration for improved biogas production from lignocel-
lulosic feedstocks.
2.2.3 Co-digestion
Co-digestion is the simultaneous conversion of a mixture of different feedstocks,

e.g., manure and plant biomass. In the past, AD was mostly referred to a single
substrate/single output process but recently, co-digestion has become a standard
technology in agricultural biogas production in many countries.
Four types of anaerobic digesters can be used to treat animal manure (Mathias
2014):
• Continuously Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR);
• Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors;
• Upflow Anaerobic Filter (UAF) digesters; and
• Baffled digesters.
Typically, digester type is to be selected depending on the characteristics of the
major feedstock used, particularly TS. Feedstocks with high TS concentrations and
slurry are mainly treated in CSTRs; while soluble organic wastes are mostly
digested in anaerobic filters, fluidized bed reactors and upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket (UASB) reactors (Mathias 2014).
Co-digestion is often carried out in wet single-step processes (e.g., CSTR).
Substrates are diluted until dry solid content is between 8 and 15%. Wet systems are
particularly useful when digestate is to be applied in the fields without separating
the solid fraction (FNR 2010). Digestion of crops often requires long hydraulic
retention times that may last up to months, and both mesophilic or thermophilic
temperatures can be applied. Advantages of co-digestion include enhanced biogas
yields and GHG reduction, homogenisation, high process stability, odour reduction,
high nutrient recycling (nitrogen, phosphorus), large number of different substrates
can be converted, possibility of integration into wastewater treatment in livestock
production facilities, steady biogas production throughout the season, enhanced
potential income from gate fees and waste treatment, and no ‘indirect’ effects such
as land use change (Langeveld et al. 2016).
2.3 Biogas Yield and Digestate
2.3.1 Biogas Yield
While biogas yield is commonly expressed in cubic metre (m3) of biogas per tonne of
fresh or dry biomass, yields are often determined through biochemical methane
potential (BMP) analysis, which is commonly used as a relative measure of the

strength of sample per g of VS (mL biogas/kg of VS or, alternatively, m3 biogas/tonne
of VS). In another word, BMP normalizes available VS for a given substrate, and thus
indicates the relative richness of a substrate for production of biogas. In brief, a given
sample is added to a small volume of digester sludge, and incubated under mixing for
30 d at 35 °C, while the evolved gas is quantified and reported.
BMP analysis does not, however, account for the ratio of VS to neither TS nor
FM, nor the recalcitrance of the substrate, which affects the required retention time
for digestion. Thus, to calculate the volume of biogas per tonne FM from BMP
values for a given substrate, VS and TS values are required. Therefore, due to the
variable nature of all substrates, both VS and TS determination as well as BMP
analysis are needed to accurately quantify the total available biogas from a given
material for AD.
It should be noted that high variability in BMP values due to low sample size can
reduce their accuracy, which has practical ramifications. This is especially true in
case of manure, one of the most studied substrates for biogas potential, where
differences in operational parameters such as diets, breeds, and management
practices are likely to cause a high variability in BMP values. For instance, Labatut
et al. (2011) found an average BMP value of 243 (±60) m3 biogas/kg VS for 47
dairy manure samples, with values of the individual samples ranging from 127 to
329 m3 biogas/kg VS. Thus, a large number of samples should be used to achieve a
reasonably accurate assessment. Other sources of variability in BMP analysis
include the type of inoculum used (Quintero et al. 2012). Thus, individual analysis
of a given feedstock for biogas applications is highly beneficial, especially for
larger operations.
As mentioned earlier, in practice, yields are often expressed as biogas or pure
methane (CH4), produced per unit of VS, TS, or FM. Thus, the TS and VS values
provided in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 are crucial data that need to accompany biogas yield
data for accurate conversion and comparison with other literature values. Table 2.3
provides yields reported for a large number of residues, showing that biogas yields
can range from 105 to 700 m3 of biogas per tonne of VS, depending on the
composition of the solids.
Generalizing major feedstocks, three VS yield categories can be distinguished:
• low: <300 m3 biogas/tonne VS (lignocellulose, cattle and pig manures)
• modest: 300–500 m3 biogas/tonne VS (chicken manure, MSW, banana stalks)
• high: >500 m3 biogas/tonne VS (palm oil mill effluent—OME, abattoir efflu-
ents, potato starch effluents).
Taking variations in percentage of TS and VS into account, biogas yields can be
calculated per tonne of FM, which is important from a user viewpoint.
Feedstocks can be classified into five categories of FM biogas yield:
• low: <50 m3 biogas per tonne FM (POME and coffee effluents, manure slurries,
food residues)
Table 2.3 Biogas and methane yields of typical feedstocks

Liquid feedstocks m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/m3 References
tonne VS tonne TS effluent
Potato effluent 611 550 22
POME 562 483 15 Langeveld and
Quist-Wessel
(2014)
Abattoir wastewater 700 560 84 Patinvoh et al.
(2017)
Cattle slurry 234* 192* 21* Calculated from
FNR (2010)
Pig slurry 201* 181* 13* Calculated from
FNR (2010)
Solid feedstocks m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/m3
tonne VS tonne TS effluent
Food residues 260 239 48 Yong et al. (2015)
Chicken manure 309* 252* 101* Calculated from
FNR (2010)
Cattle manure 236* 180* 45* Calculated from
FNR (2010)
MSW (biodegradable) 386* 348* 70* Calculated from
FNR (2010)
Lignocellulosic m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/ m3 CH4/m3
feedstocks tonne VS tonne TS effluent
Bagasse 122 119 112 Kumar and Das
(2015)
Pre-treated bagasse 177 172 162 Kumar and Das
(NaOH) (2015)
Forest residues 214 137 103 Teghammar et al.
(2014)
Pre-treated forest 266 170 128 Kabir et al. (2013)
residues (NMMO)
Banana stalks 347 13 0.1 Li et al. (2016)
Banana stalks 236 196 180 Kalia et al. (2000)
(sundried)
Coffee pulp 131 119 66 Ulsido and Li
(2016)
Pre-treated coffee pulp 174 158 88 Battista et al.
(NaOH) (2016)
Wheat straw 282 265 260 Yong et al. (2015)
Corn stover 296 288 268 Amin et al. (2017)
Maize silage 259 396* 139* Li et al. (2015)
Grass silage 344–383 330* 180* McEniry et al.
(2014)
*Methane estimated as 60% of reported biogas yield values
• modest: 50–100 m3 biogas per tonne FM (abattoir wastewater, municipal

sewage sludge, coffee pulp)
• high: 100–200 m3 biogas per tonne FM (chicken manure, lignocellulosic
feedstocks).
It is exceedingly interesting to note the juxtaposition between biogas yields
based on VS and FM. Specifically, it can be seen that while industrial effluents have
the highest yields per VS, due to their dilute nature, FM biogas yields are
exceedingly low. To overcome this, plant operators could reduce effluent dilution,
giving a more concentrated stream that could increase operational biogas yields, or
alternatively reduce digester sizes. It is also interesting to note that while banana
stalks have one of the highest reported biogas production values per VS, biogas
production is almost negligible per FM, due to high water content. However, basic
pre-treatments (e.g., sun-drying) has been shown to dramatically increase biogas
production from this substrate per FM.
While pre-treatment of various lignocellulosic substrates also increases yields,
lignocellulosic substrates show the highest biogas yields per FM due to their high
TS content. However, along with biogas yields, other parameters must also be
considered. Specifically, recalcitrant lignocellulosic feedstocks show slower
hydrolysis rates, requiring longer treatment times, and consequently larger reactor
volumes to achieve comparable biogas production rates compared with more
readily hydrolysable or soluble substrates. Physicochemical properties also need to
be considered, as for instance, phase separation could occur with waste oil or other
lipids. Moreover, waste grease, for example, can also disrupt methanogenesis at
higher loading rates, likely as a result of acidification caused by the introduction of
high-energy substrates (Zhu et al. 2011). Thus, these examples highlight the need
for careful consideration of biogas yields, and the significance of providing
excellent instructions on how to evaluate them.
2.3.2 Fertilizer Production
AD generates liquid and solid fertilizers which are superior to manure and compost
in terms of nutrient availability (Nkoa 2013). In fact, AD process results in the
mineralization of organically-bound nutrients, in particular nitrogen (N) and low-
ering the C/N ratio, which both in turn increase the short-term N delivery (Weiland
2010). In the case of phosphorus (P), some substrates such as manure can fulfil the
P requirements of most crops after digestion, and the nitrogen requirement can
similarly be fulfilled by up to 60–80% with the remaining nitrogen requirement
provided with additional fertilizers (Holm-Nielsen 2009; Liedl et al. 2006). Such
biofertilizers have been used in the cultivation of coffee and corn to reduce costs by
40% (Walter Borges de Oliveira et al. 2011).
Phosphorus is typically sequestered in the solid digestate, while nitrogen is
typically present in the liquid phase (Liedl et al. 2006). Careful process planning is
needed if digestate is to be used as fertilizer. Short hydraulic retention times used to
Table 2.4 Typical Parameter Unit Value range

composition of cattle manure
digestate Total Solids % 1.5–45.7
Volatile Solids % 38.6–75.4
Total N % of DM 3.1–14
Total N % of FM 0.12–1.5
Total NH4þ % Total N 35–81
Total P % of DM 0.2–0.35
Total P % of FM 0.04–0.26
Total K % of DM 0.19–4.3
Total K % of FM 0.12–1.15
pH – 7.3–9.0
Source Adopted from Nkoa (2013)
increase efficiency may result in incomplete digestion, and as a result, the

end-product digestate may have problems with odour emission, toxic organic
compounds, pathogens, and phytotoxicity (Nkoa 2013). However, with thorough
planning and analysis of biodigestate composition, it is very promising that these
materials would represent an excellent source of fertilizer for agricultural use. An
overview of main digestate characteristics is provided in Table 2.4.
It is important to note that there is a wide variation in the characteristics of
anaerobic digestate, depending on the type of biomass inputs (feedstock) used, and
the configuration of the digester. Spectroscopic techniques have recently demon-
strated that anaerobic digestates inherit the chemical attributes of the feedstock from
which they are produced (Nkoa 2013), and thus, biodigestate composition must be
assessed on a case by case basis, evaluating combinations of feedstocks and
digestion installations.
2.4 Biogas Chain Development
Literature on in situ performance of household or farm-scale digesters is limited. An

extensive monitoring program in Germany, following the initiation of bioenergy
supporting policies under the ‘Energie Wende’, however, provides a wealth of key
indicators and other basic performance data for farm-digesters in this country (e.g.,
FNR 2009, 2010).
Table 2.5 provides an overview of typical digesters with capacities varying from
365 to 1100 kW (out of which 180–535 kWel). Most digesters in Germany are
running on a combination of manure (pig, cattle) and crop materials (mostly maize
silage). On a national level, over 40% of feedstocks in Germany consists of manure
while 50% is maize and arable field residues. Reactor volumes vary between 1050
and 3800 m3, out of which two thirds is used for the digestion process (the
remainder is for gas storage). There is a large variation in retention time; systems
with low shares of manure having an average retention time of over 120 d.
Table 2.5 Examples of co-digestion chains (Germany)

Chain Feedstock Reactor Retention CHP size (kW)
(tonne/y) volume (m3) time (d)
Small Total: 7358 Total: 1049 46 180 kWel
Manure: 73% Nett: 903 185 kWth
Crop materials: 27% Total 365 Kw
Medium size Total: 8419 Total: 3225 123 500 kWel
Medium size Total: 10,403 Total: 3800 146 535 kWel
Medium size Total: 23,009 Total: 3180 43 526 kWel
Source FNR (2009)
While the principle of AD has been applied for centuries in many parts of the
world, there still is a lot of room for improvement in the design and operational
management. This may refer to the impact of optimising feedstock loads, digester
design and digester management. A large number of research projects have been
implemented aiming to enhance biogas chain development in the Europe. Main
emphasis is on feedstock analysis, planning of the production process, and eco-
nomic sustainability. In the USA, a growing number of digesters are aiming to
combine multiple feedstocks in the process. Many AD projects that originally
started with manure, have incorporated other substrates in the process at a later
point (Langeveld et al. 2016). The majority of biogas plants in Brazil process
agricultural residues and MSW (Persson and Baxter 2015).
Specific biogas R&D programs have been implemented in the Asian countries
like China and India. The Biogas Development and Training Centre is serving the
east of India, implementing monitoring of biogas installations under the National
Biogas Manure Management Programme (NBMMP). The Biogas Institute of the
Ministry of Agriculture (BIOMA) in China, a part of the Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), focuses on issues like fundamental research on
anaerobic microbiology and design of biogas projects. In Africa, dedicated pro-
grams like the Africa Biogas Partnership Programme (ABPP), a public- private
partnership programme, aim to provide access-to-energy services through the
installation of biogas digesters in partnership with local enterprises, NGOs, and
governments. Apart from manure and crop residues, other potential feedstocks may
include cassava, sugar cane and oil palm residues, as well as urban waste.
At the international level, the International Energy Agency (IEA) is providing a
research and policy development framework for AD of a range of organic feed-
stocks including agricultural residues, energy crops, waste waters, MSW, and
industrial organic wastes. Main interests of IEA Bioenergy Task 37 are biogas
production for heat and power, biogas upgrading to biomethane, utilisation of
biogas and biomethane for electricity grid balancing and production of high quality
digestate that can be used as biofertilizer. Input to this task group is provided by
members from Australia, Europe, Brazil, and Korea.
2.5 Conclusions
Methanogenic AD can convert dry as well as wet feedstocks from a range of

sources into an important renewable energy carrier, i.e., biogas. This chapter has
discussed potential use of a range of feedstocks including MSW, energy crops, field
residues, and industrial residue streams for biogas production. Availability of
wastes and residues is high and has been projected to increase marking them even
more interesting as feedstocks for an emerging biogas industry. Feedstock com-
position is the major determining factor of its biogas potential and decomposition
(hydrolysis) rate. Large variations are found in feedstocks with respect to share of
high-energy compounds (sugars, starch, fats) and recalcitrant (lignocellulosic)
materials. Slow hydrolysis rates have considerable impacts on digester design and
chain performance as they will lead to low biogas yields and high retention times,
and require larger (i.e., more expensive) reactors, pre-treatment techniques could to
some extent address this challenge though. Digestion, especially methanogenesis,
may also be disrupted by large amounts of high-energy substrates such as fats.
Operation of biogas chains shows large differences among different countries
and regions, with feedstock use by-and-large depending on cost and availability of
feedstocks as well as also on customs, level of experience, and background of the
chain under consideration. Manure seems to be the most commonly chosen sub-
strate while there is a large potential for digestion of urban waste and food pro-
cessing residues. In many cases, only a small part of the potential has been currently
realised. An increasing number of companies are offering evaluation of AD feed-
stocks in commercial packages; with the major focus currently placed on their
biogas potential. In the future, an integrated analysis, including performance
evaluation and optimization of feedstocks/digester combinations should be imple-
mented to facilitate enhanced economic performance.
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Chapter 3
Biogas Plants: Design and Fabrication
Luca Talia
BoP Balance of Plant
CAPEX Cost of investment
CSTR Continuous stirred-tank reactor
FIT Feed-In Tariff
HRT Hydraulic retention time
MSW Municipal solid waste
OFMSW Organic fraction municipal solid waste
OLR Organic loading rate
PGY Potential Gas Yield
QD Quantity of dilution
TDS Total dissolved solids
TS Total solid content
TSS Total suspended solids
UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
VS Volatile solids content
3.1 Plant Description
The structure of biogas plants is quite similar but the choices made during the
design of the related details will be the key factors to lead a project to success (or
not).
The typical configuration of a biogas plant consists of the followings areas:
1. Substrate management area (receipt, storage, transportation to feeding, etc.)
2. Feeding and/or pre-treatment area
L. Talia (&)
SEBIGAS s.r.l., Olgiate Olona, Italy

52 L. Talia
Fig. 3.1 Schematic presentation of the processes taking place in a biogas plant [SEBIGAS s.r.l.]
3. Anaerobic digestion area

4. Gas storage, treatment and usage
5. Digestate storage/usage/disposal
Materials flow through the different steps releasing their energy content in the
form of biogas and are then extracted from the digesters, i.e., the digestate which
could be disposed of or used as biofertilizer (Fig. 3.1).
Every step of the process needs to be carefully designed and evaluated, keeping
in mind the final target of the project and it’s constrains. There is a huge quantity of
different possible combinations of equipment, processes, and technics that can be
applied to optimise a given plant and to create a successful project.
The best design is well associated with possessing a sufficient deal of experience
in every single area mentioned above as well as the equipment used in the plant and
moreover, with having an in-depth understanding on different parameters affecting
the process and consequently the overall functionality, performance, and return of
investment.
3.2 Basic Design
For designing an anaerobic digestion plant, it is important to accurately establish the

volume of the digestion (single or multiple digesters) and this in turn could impact
the fluid dynamics and speed of reaction.
The calculation of the volume is generally performed after deciding on the other
configurations and operation conditions of the plant such as process temperature,
number of stages/phases, as well as type of process and technology.
The main technical parameters based on which an anaerobic digester could be
classified include:
• Solids content
The digestion process can be usually divided from wet to dry digestion
accordingly
• Temperature of digestion
Psychrophilic, mesophilic, thermophilic
3 Biogas Plants: Design and Fabrication 53
• Technology
From batch process to continuous process (e.g., plug-flow, CSTR, UASB, lagoon)
• Number of stages/phases
Single stage or double stage/phase
To be able to select the correct application, every biogas plant design should start
from the selection and analysis of the feedstock available and its final usage. In fact,
if the project analysis is initiated by taking into account other factors rather than
feedstock analysis, loss of time and resources would be expected.
3.2.1 Substrate Characteristics
The knowledge required on substrate should not be limited to the time of analyzing
the project, but rather, the best scenario is to have a complete picture of the situation
faced by acquiring the following data:
• Available quantity of feedstock per year; per day and receiving frequency
• Quality of the feedstock in terms of TS, VS, gas yield, N content (TKN), S
content, etc. as well as their potential variations
• Suggested HRT, OLR, and temperature of digestion
This chapter is not dedicated to the analysis of the biological quality aspects of
feedstock, but mainly on the effects that the parameters involved have during the
design phase of a biogas plant project.
Total solid (TS) is a key parameter to be analysed as it could lead to completely
different technology selection and design criteria. For the design of a plant, it is
important to understand not only the initial TS of the substrate, but also its
degradability and accordingly, the final TS after anaerobic digestion. The TS
content inside digesters is strictly related to the final TS calculation, while the
feeding capacity/technics are related to the initial TS.
To calculate the final TS after digestion, it is necessary to evaluate the mass
balance for the substrate considered (Eq. 3.1), therefore:
TS TS VS PGY qbiogas
TS0 ¼ ð3:1Þ
1 TS VS PGY qbiogas
where:
TS′ Final TS concentration of the substrate after anaerobic digestion [%]
TS Initial TS concentration of the substrate [%]
VS Volatile solids concentration referred to TS [%TS]
PGY Potential gas yield [Nm3biogas /tVS]
ρbiogas Specific weight of the biogas calculated as an approximation using the
following formula (Eq. 3.2):
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qbiogas ¼ CCH4 x qCH4 þ ð1 CCH4 Þ x qCO2 ð3:2Þ
where:
CCH4 Percentage of CH4 concentration in biogas
CCO2 Percentage of CO2 concentration in biogas
qCH4 Specific weight of methane
qCO2 Specific weight of carbon dioxide
As mentioned earlier, this value is an approximation because biogas contains
other elements in small quantities (H2S, H2, O2, N, etc.) as well that may slightly
modify the final result.
The TS′ is basically lower than TS as a portion in form of VS is used by the
microbial populations to produce biogas, and therefore the mass removed in form of
biogas has to be removed through the mass balance calculations to determine the TS′.
TS′ concentrations below 2% would normally lead to the choice of a UASB or
Lagoon system depending on the other biological parameters, while higher TS′
concentrations usually leads to the choice of CSTR technology (see paragraph
4.2.4.2) or even dry fermentation. In this chapter, the CSTR technology as the most
common technology for industrial scale biogas plant is mainly analysed and
discussed.
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is the average time materials spend inside a
digester and is calculated in day based on the substrate volume in input and
digestion volume available (Eq. 3.3):
Vnet
HRT ¼ ð3:3Þ
Qsub
where:
Vnet Available net digestion volume of the analysed system
Qsub Volume of daily substrate input of the analysed system
Organic Loading Rate (OLR) represents the amount of volatile solids (kg) fed
into the system analysed for every cubic meter of the available digestion volume
every day. The OLR is therefore measured in kgVS/m3/d as follows (Eq. 3.4):
QVS
OLR ¼ ð3:4Þ
Vnet
where:
QVS Daily quantity of substrate volatile solids in the input of the analysed system
3.2.2 Process Temperature
Temperature of digestion is very important to finalise the design of a plant as a lot

of components and equipment are affected by this parameter. In another word, the
cost of the plant as well as the operation procedures may vary accordingly. In
general, there are three different digestion temperatures:
Psychrophilic process is normally in use in lagoon systems while it is avoided
in CSTR systems as it does not maximise the gas yield from the substrate and it is
not easy to produce a constant quantity of gas out of the substrate either. The
temperature range is usually considered lower than 25 °C, and therefore, there is no
need for heating sources, however, the conversion efficiency of VS to biogas is
lower than the other temperature regimes.
Mesophilic process is generally running smoothly and it does not require any
particular attention for the selection of materials, it requires little thermal energy to
keep the process temperature stable (especially compared with the thermophilic
process). The temperature ranges between 37 and 42 °C.
Thermophilic process is “fast responding” to any modifications in the digestion
parameters, which can lead to a more stressed operation of the plant and higher
attention and effort would be needed to keep the same functionality. It should also
be noted that the lifetime of some equipment (i.e. gasholder, mixers, pumps, etc.)
could be negatively affected by high temperatures and hence, to keep the same
reliability, the quality (and consequently costs) of the materials selected should be
higher. On the other hand, this process usually allows the plants to operate at
shorter HRTs at the same PGY rate due to the faster speed of reaction and therefore,
the total digestion volume of the plant can be reduced.
In thermophilic processes, the speed of hydrolysis is normally 5 times higher the
speed of mesophilic condition (Bouallagui et al. 2004; Converti et al. 1999). As a
counter effect, the process is more affected by ammonia inhibition. Furthermore, the
thermal energy need is sometime not affordable, especially with high moisture
content substrates.
Overall and from the design and fabrication point of view, the main advantage of
using a thermophilic process is the reduction of HRT. The temperature range is
between 50 and 55 °C.
In general, different combinations of temperature regimes could also be used
different in response to the specific case. For instance, a patented procedure by the
Iowa State University (ISU) elaborated on the use of a thermophilic reactor to speed
up the hydrolysis reaction in the first stage while a mesophilic reactor was used in
the second stage to decrease the problems associated with ammonia inhibition and
moreover, to have the possibility of using it as a back-up when encountering
potential biological failures at the first stage (Han and Dague 1997).
The usage of intermediate temperatures between upper mesophilic limit (42 °C)
and lower thermophilic limit (50 °C) could also be advantageous in terms of bal-
ancing the negative effects of inhibition caused by high temperatures and lower
speed of reaction caused by lower temperature regimes.
56 L. Talia
It should be noted that rapid changes of temperature may damage and harm the
microorganism, and therefore, the key issue during the design process regarding the
temperature is not really to take necessary measures to ensure an exact temperature,
but rather to prevent any fast temperature changes during the plant operation. In
better words, if the temperature changes slowly in digesters, the existing microbial
populations have the time required to adapt to the new situation without compro-
mising the efficiency and the gas production.
3.2.3 Energy Outcome Target and Destination
The energy outcome target is basically established by the availability of substrate,

the available size of the engine, the real need (or form) of energy production, and
eventually by the limitations imposed by local authorities or feed-in tariff
(FIT) policy.
As a general rule, the aforesaid feedstock parameters given at the time of the
development of the project must be obviously taken into account, but precaution
must be taken as they might easily change in time.
As the first step of calculation, it is possible to estimate the quantity of biogas
that could be produced per year (Eq. 3.5):
X
n
Qbiogas ¼ Qsubi TSi VSi PGYi ð3:5Þ
i¼1
where:
N Number of substrate used to feed the plant
Qbiogas Quantity of biogas produced in a year [Nm3/y]
Qsub Quantity of material available in a year [t/y]
TS Initial TS concentration [%]
PGY Potential gas yield [Nm3biogas /tVS]
Based on the expected percentage of methane content in biogas (based on the
analysis of the substrate and its composition), it is possible to estimate methane
production (Eq. 3.6):
QCH4 ¼ Qbiogas CCH4 ð3:6Þ
where:
QCH4 Quantity of methane produced in one year [Nm3/y]
CCH4 Concentration of methane expected in the biogas produced [%]
In case the biogas is converted into electricity and thermal power through a
cogeneration system, the electrical power production can be approximated using the
Pe ¼ QCH4 10 ne ð3:7Þ
where:
Pe Electrical energy produced per year [kWh/y]
ne Electrical efficiency of the cogeneration system selected [%]
3.2.4 Digester Technology Classification
Based on the characterisation of the substrate to be treated, the investment capital

availability, the target outcome power, etc., it is possible to select the technology of
digestion that would better suite the need of the project.
Here is a summarized list of the different reactors technology available.
3.2.4.1 Batch Process
Usually identified as sequencing batch reactor (SBR), in this type of application, the
reactor is loaded one time and all digestate/percolate formed during digestion is
recirculated until the end of the cycle (Fig. 3.2).
This type of application has of course the disadvantages of a non-constant
production of gas due to the different speed of reaction during the retention time and
the gas production peaks at around 50% of the retention time.
In order to stabilise the process, it is normally suggested to operate with multiple
reactors in parallel, with staggered cycles.
This process is usually applied for dry fermentation and it is associated with low
operational costs in spite of high energy consumption and maintenance costs.
Fig. 3.2 Left: a single SBR reactor and Right: a multiple SBR reactor system
58 L. Talia
3.2.4.2 Continuous Process
In the continuous process, the substrate is fed constantly (continuously or in small

batches with a defined interval of time), and as a direct consequence, the biogas
production is almost stable.
The digesters can be vertical, horizontal, as well as in single or multiple stages.
Depending on the type of mixing, they can also be further classified.
Plug flow
Thanks to the simplicity of the system and low investment costs, this system is
normally adopted for farm liquid effluent. Concrete tanks, usually without mixing
systems and possibly with internal baffles to differentiate the hydrolysis phase are
used. In plug-flow systems where the solid content of the digestate would be lower
than 10% TS, sedimentation of heavier parts and floatation of lighter parts might
take place leading to heavy maintenance cost for emptying the digesters.
Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
This is the most common type of reactor operating under wet condition. This kind
of reactor is suitable for the digestion of a high variety of substrates from agri-
cultural waste to industrial waste or energy crops.
The reactor normally has a cylindrical shape with mixing system and it can be
operated at different temperatures and OLRs (2–5 kgVS/m3/d, higher ORL have been
used only with some special substrates and after continuous digestion tests) (Fig. 3.3).
The mixing technology used in these reactors is well known and it guarantees a
high efficiency of VSs digestion compared with other systems. On the other hand,
the investment costs for this kind of system is usually higher than the others.
Fig. 3.3 CSTR basic schema [SEBIGAS s.r.l.]

High load reactor

Thanks to the retention of biomass and microbial population inside the reactor, this
kind of process allows a higher efficiency and therefore, can operate at higher OLRs
(8–20 kgVS/m3 d).
These systems are anyway not suitable for the digestion of substrates with high
concentrations of particles i.e., total suspended solid (TSS) due to the tendency to
accumulate the particles in the reactor.
The substrates usually treated are characterised by low level of TSS and high
level of total dissolved solid (TDS) (such as industrial waste water, distillery waste,
etc.).
The following types of reactor belong to this classification:
• Fixed or moving bed reactor
The substrate and microbial population are attached to special supports (fixed or
movable) installed in the reactor allowing the retention of the biomass while the
substrate is recirculated to the supports to increase the contact time with the
microbial biofilm.
• Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
In this system, a blanket of granular sludge is formed and kept in suspension in
the tank. The combined action of the upward flow of the substrate and the
gravity suspends the sludge blanket in the reactor (Fig. 3.4). This reactor is
typically suited for wastewater digestion with low TSS.
• Membrane Reactor (MBR)
This system uses a membrane to physically retain the biomass and microbial
population inside the reactor while also separating the solid/liquid/gas phases.
Thanks to its high separation capacity of and favourable performance in terms of
achievable TSS, these reactors are particularly efficient for treating high pollu-
tant content wastewaters.
Fig. 3.4 A simplified

schematic presentation of a
UASB reactor
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Fig. 3.5 Lagoon typical schema
Covered lagoon
This is the cheapest solution for anaerobic digestion process application (Fig. 3.5).
It is a very simple and low investment cost application, but of course has some
disadvantages like the high tendency for the formation of sedimented layers at the
bottom of the system. This may necessitate emptying the system imposing high
maintenance costs. Other disadvantages include huge area necessary, low efficiency
due to non-controlled temperature of digestion, possible technical problems due to
high volume of gas storage, leakage, etc.
The advantages of the system include possibility of designing a big volume system
at a relatively low investment cost. This systems particularly of interest in case of very
low TS/energy content substrates. Moreover, lagoons are easy to operate.
3.2.5 Solid Content Classification
Another type of classification for the digester technology is based on the solid
content. Accordingly, the digestion process can be divided in two macro-group:
• Dry digestion
• Wet digestion
In wet digestion pumpable substrates are used while in dry digestion stackable
substrates are used. In spite of that, there is no exact division line between these two
types of digestion and it can just be assumed that wet digestion has an upper TS
limit of around 10% while dry digestion has a lower TS limit of around 20%.
3.2.5.1 Dry Digestion
This process was initially used especially for the digestion of municipal solid waste
(MSW) and organic fraction municipal solid waste (OFMSW), but it has also been
used for energy crops digestion.
The advantages is that by having a high %TS inside a digester, the system could
reach higher OLR values (even higher than 10 kgVS/m3/d) which would conse-
quently lead to smaller digestion volumes and lower investment costs. Moreover,
there is no risk of sedimentation or floating layer formation as phase separation does
not occur using a dry substrate.
To move dry materials, it is however necessary to have a strong system requiring

much more maintenance and operation costs. It should also be highlighted that the
absence of water implies a non-dilution of any possible inhibiting substances that
may easily lead to a non-balanced system and acidogenesis phase prevalence.
3.2.5.2 Wet Digestion
Substrates like animal manure or wastewater/sludge do not need any additional

liquid to reach the right TS% required by a wet system while for energy crops or
other materials with TS% higher than 20–25%, it is mandatory to add water or to
recirculate liquid digestate to keep the TS% at a right value in the digester allowing
mixing and pumping of the substrate.
A typical configuration for wet digestion is CSTR digesters that need a good
mixing technology to ensure an efficient contact between the microbial populations
and the substrate.
The advantages are a smooth and economic operation giving stable production
of biogas and simple usage of the plant.
The disadvantages include the possibility of the formation of sedimentation or
floating layer (in case of non-optimised mixing design) which in extreme case may
require emptying the digester. In some cases, it is also necessary to have a better
pre-treatment system compared with dry digestion installations, but of course, the
results would be higher efficiencies and higher specific gas production. An example
is the OFMSW that needs a more accurate removal of plastics and sands before
being introduced into a CSTR system, but the gas yield resulting from the process is
higher than that of an average dry digestion system.
3.2.6 Process Design
After the selection of substrate to be used and the technology to be applied, it is

possible to follow the main steps of biogas plant design as follows:
• Calculation of internal TS of the digester
• Recirculation or dilution
• Calculation of the volume necessary and selection of the type and dimension of
the tanks
It is also important to keep in mind that every project has its own background
and environment, and therefore, it is always important to study the local regulation
regarding anaerobic digestion and in general, all construction regulations and
permits that may affect the selection of the equipment.
3.2.6.1 Internal TS of Digester
The internal TS basically affects the mixing system (i.e., power and type of mixers or
agitation system to be applied) and the possibility of sedimentation or phase separation.
62 L. Talia
In general, lower TS values are easier to mix, but phase separation, formation of
floating layer and sedimentation are also more likely. On the contrary, higher TS
values are more difficult to mix, but materials remain more homogeneous.
In some cases such as organic wastes, chicken manure, etc., it is essential to have
a low TS at the entrance of the digester by allowing as much sedimentation as
possible in the pre-treatment to avoid the introduction of large quantities of sands,
shells and/or other undesired materials into the digester. In all other cases, the TS is
a balance among TS′, and the recirculation and mixing system selected.
3.2.6.2 Recirculation or Dilution
To reach the selected target TS″ (TS inside the digester) the following steps should
be followed (Fig. 3.6):
The quantity of added liquid to dilute (QD) at the beginning of the process (by
recirculation or adding other liquids such as water, etc.) is calculated using the
ðTS0 TS00 Þ
QD ¼ Q0 ð3:8Þ
ðTS00 TSD Þ
where:
QD Quantity of liquid added for dilution
TSD Total solid concentration of the liquid added for dilution
Q′ Quantity of substrate fed into digester
TS′ Calculated TS concentration of the substrate after digestion
TS″ Target TS in digester
Therefore, the total quantity of liquid/solid fed into the digester (Q″) will be (Eq. 3.9):
Fig. 3.6 Flow chart for the calculation of the recirculation or dilution
Q00 ¼ Q0 þ QD ð3:9Þ
3.2.6.3 Calculation of Digestion Volume
The total digestion volume is defined by the HRT and OLR. Every substrate,
depending on the digestion temperature and eventually on the pre-treatment
applied, has its optimum retention time. Usually based on the findings of a batch
test (that calculates the PGY), it is possible to predict the HRT of a given substrate.
OLR is estimated based on different biological parameters and represents the loading
stress value of the digester, therefore, in general it is possible to force the OLR to higher
values if the substrate is easy to digest by the microbial populations, while it should be
kept at a lower level if the digestion process of recalcitrant substrates is intended.
Therefore, VHRT [m3] and VOLR [m3] can be computed as follows (Eqs. 3.10 and
3.11):
VHRT ¼ Q00 HRT ð3:10Þ
Qsub 1000 TS VS
VOLR ¼ ð3:11Þ
OLR
where:
VHRT [m3] Net volume of digestion in accordance with target HRT
VOLR [m3] Net volume of digestion in accordance with target OLR
Q″ [m3/d] Total daily volume fed into digester including eventual dilution
Qsub [t/d] Total quantity of substrate fed into digester daily
TS [%] TS concentration of substrate
VS [%] VS concentration of substrate
OLR [kgVS/m3d] Target OLR for the considered substrate
The optimum total net digestion volume is the maximum value between the
VHRT and VOLR.
In the design or construction phases of every and each biogas plant project, a big
attention is focused on the investment costs. When the final selection on the
digestion volume is made, the focus should not be only on maximising the biogas
production or on the complete decomposition of the biomass, but rather efforts
should be directed towards optimising the different parameters driving the Business
Plan. It is sometimes possible to minimise the investment costs with a lower HRT
and therefore, at the expense of lower specific biogas production and efficiency of
the system, but this solution could be the only chance to have a feasible project.
From the environment point of view, the aim should always be to maximise the
decomposition of the material to minimise the environment impacts of the digestate,
but this also depends on the digestate usage.
64 L. Talia
3.2.6.4 Stages/Phases and Number of Digesters
The total volume necessary for the anaerobic digestion process can be divided in
different tanks (or not) depending on the maximum dimension of 1 tank, the stirring
capacity, the sedimentation expected, the number of stages desired, etc.
The complexity of the anaerobic digestion process lies in the fact that different
phases exist throughout the process that may happen in sequence or simultaneously;
each phase requiring its own optimal operating conditions such as temperature and
pH.
Hydrolysis and acidogenesis are faster and they have higher efficiencies at low
pH and high concentrations of substrate, while methanogenesis is inhibited by low
pH values.
Inside a well-designed reactor, all four reactions can be taking place contributing
to the overall anaerobic digestion process, there are for sure compromises though.
Nevertheless, the concept of fully optimising every single step of digestion,
necessitates separating different stages/phases of the process. Having more than one
digester leads to other advantages as well such as:
• The calculated HRT is statistically more similar to the real one. The digester
(e.g., CSTR) is continuously stirred and the materials inside should be
approximately homogeneous, therefore, when a particle is extracted, its real
retention time follows a normal distribution (“bell curve”), so there is a chance
that a particle exits before or after the calculated HRT time.
In case of an earlier exit, the digestion process could not be finished with a
resulting lack of efficiency of the system and lower biogas production compared
with the potential value, while if the particle exits later, there is almost no
benefit.
Based on this simple concept, it is clear that a double stage gives the possibility
to mediate the normal distribution and reduce the standard deviation of the “bell
curve”.
• There is always a back-up. This means that in case of failure of one of the
digesters, there is the possibility of using the other one to balance the process
and the plant will not completely stop.
Single phase reactors have the all phases working at the same time in the same
environment. This kind of design requires a lower OLRs (usually in the range of
1–4 kgVS/m3 d) in order to ensure a sufficiently high stability of the system.
Double phase reactors allow the optimisation of the four phases of digestion. In
the first step, the best conditions for the hydrolysis and acidogenesis are usually
achieved, i.e., a retention time of 1 to 5 d and OLR of >10 kgVS/m3/d to increase
the speed of the first 2 phases and avoid the start of the followings two.
The rest of the digestion takes place in the second step and the substrate is
treated based on the design HRT.
Double stage reactors is a hybrid solution based on which the plant is designed
with multiple digesters, but the system is not forced to have a clear separation of the
digestion phases. In fact, all four phases happen together in different digesters, but
in different percentages, so that the overall process is more stable and easier to
operate even for non-skilled operators.
The choice of the configuration depends on the costs and benefits, and therefore
it is always a good idea to discuss the different options and associated benefits
during the preliminary design phase.
3.3 Plant Description and General Rules of Good Design
Once the biological and process parameters are established, it is then time to
concentrate on the different areas forming a biogas plant. Biogas plants are usually
non redundant systems as the investment costs target does not allow duplication of
systems, equipment nor area of the plant. Due to this reason, it is more and more
important to achieve an optimum design not only concerning the biological
parameters such as HRT, OLR, and therefore net volume of digestion, but also it is
decisive to have an overall harmonised design that avoid any problems in any areas.
Every step of the process from the receipt of material to the digestate usage and
disposal could potentially be a bottle neck of the plant that may lead to stop of
production.
A biogas plant can be divided into five main areas:
1. Substrate management area (receipt, storage, transportation to feeding, etc.)
2. Feeding and/or pre-treatment area
3. Anaerobic digestion area
4. Gas storage, treatment, and usage
5. Digestate storage/usage/disposal
The followings paragraphs aim at providing a general overview on the different
areas explaining the possible choices and parameters that could influence the
design.
3.3.1 Substrate Management Area
3.3.1.1 Substrate Receipt
It is important to keep into consideration the frequency, quantity, quality variation,

and general variability of the material received to be prepared and ensure minimum
possible energy loss prior to the biogas transformation.
Some substrates, like the energy crops in Europe, are usually received once per
year, therefore, it is very important to be perfectly organised in the receipt, storage,
and conservation technics choice so that the losses are minimised. In other
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countries, such as South East Asia or South America, there is a chance to have
multiple harvests (2–6) per year for certain types of energy crops and this auto-
matically influences the dimension of storage and the frequency of receipt. On the
other side, energy crops collection in Europe is standardised and it is quite common
to have very similar quality from one year to another, however, when harvesting
more than once per year, the quality and characteristics of the materials are strongly
influenced by the weather condition and seasonal changes and therefore, the vari-
ations in the substrate are less predictable, necessitating having a more flexible
design.
A particular section could be dedicated to the wastes usually received 5 to 7 d a
week (e.g., OFMSW or other industrial/food waste), but these wastes may produce
reek and it is therefore suggested to receive them in a close building maintained
slightly under pressure by using external blowers driving the air into odour control
system (e.g., biofilters). The air recycle ratio changes in accordance with the local
regulations, but as a general rules, it should be in the range of 2 to 4 air cycles/h
(meaning that a building with an internal volume of 10,000 m3 would need blowers
with a capacity of 20–40,000 m3/h to keep odour under control). It is usually
suggested to keep separated the area where the operators stand or work continu-
ously and the area where the operators visit just sometimes. In this way, it is
possible to apply different air suction ratio to have 4 recycles/h in the working area
and around 2 recycles/h for odour control.
Some other substrates like liquid or solid manure from animal farms do not even
need any storage as they could be received on a daily base. In this case, the design
should include a buffer area for the daily discharge and feeding into the plant.
3.3.1.2 Storage Area
The storage area is where the biomass to be used is stored for a certain period in
accordance with the collection and receiving periods (which may vary from hours
to 1 years).
The key point for a storage area are:
• To have enough volume to store the materials considering the flexibility and
variation of characteristics of the materials to be used during the life of the plant.
• To keep the quality of the materials as much unchanged as possible to avoid loss
of energy during storage period.
The storage structures in use are vertical silos or horizontal silos. Vertical silos
are suitable for grains, cereals, or liquid products like oil or whey, while horizontal
silos are more suitable for silage biomasses (grass silage, corn silage, energy crops
silage, etc.). The horizontal silos could also be used to store agroindustry
by-products or the other substrates to preserve their characteristics during the
process.
Fig. 3.7 Examples of horizontal silo storage, a constructed on site and b pre-casted silo storage
[Sebigas a division of Exergy S.p.A.]
The horizontal silo storage systems in biogas plant can be constructed in full
from concrete or compacted ground or a combination of both.
The concrete solution is probably more reliable with the highest durability, but it
is also costly to build. The wall can be constructed on site or pre-casted (Fig. 3.7a
and b, respectively), the pre-casted concrete is generally more durable and holds
more favourable acid resistant characteristics and is therefore, recommended if
available on the market. The durability of walls constructed on-site depends on
factors such as skills of the construction company, weather conditions, and concrete
mix quality.
The fully compacted ground solution is associated with a high permeability of
the percolate (liquid coming from silage/stocking procedure) into the ground, and
should therefore be avoided.
It should be noted that a certain amount of percolate is generally generated
through the silage procedure and it is a good practice to collect and eventually use it
in the digester or anyway discharged/treated in accordance with local environmental
rules and regulations.
The silobag is another possible solution for material storage. It is a kind of big
plastic bag with a good resistance against severe weather conditions and that help to
preserve the materials during storage. The costs of the machinery necessary to fill
and empty the bag should be taken into consideration.
The size of the storage area basically depends on two parameters:
The total quantity of biomass to be used in digestion (Qy): is the total expected
quantity of biomasses introduced to the anaerobic process to produce the target
energy per year. Qy can be calculated using the following equation (Eq. 3.12):
QCH4
Qy ¼ ð3:12Þ
PGY CCH4 VS TS ð1 lÞ
where:
PGY Potential Gas Yield [Nm3biogas /tVS]
QCH4 Quantity of methane produced in one year [Nm3CH4 /y]
CCH4 Concentration of methane in the biogas [%CH4]
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µ Lost of VS during conservation process [%]
Duration of the availability (tsub): is the duration in time the stored material is
used in one year. Plants that use only energy crops with one harvest per year are
forced to have a huge storage area to ensure sustainable material supply annually.
On the contrary, plants that use multiple substrates and/or by-products with regular
receipt are less subjected to the need for big storage areas.
Through these two parameters, it is possible to calculate the total volume of
storage necessary (Eq. 3.13):
Qy tsub
Vstorage ¼ SF ð3:13Þ
qsub D365
where:
Vstorage Total volume of storage required [m3]
Qy Yearly quantity of substrate used [t/y]
ρsub Specific weight of the substrate silage [t/m3]
tsub Duration of the availability [days]
D365 Days of full production expected in one year [d/y]
SF Safety factor
The loss during the storage may vary considerably depending on different factors
ranging between 5 and 7% (minimum and non-avoidable) for a good silage up to
30–40% in cases of misapplication of good silage procedures.
The specific weight of the substrate may also vary remarkably depending on the
following non-exhaustive variables:
• Size of harvested material (usually 5–15 mm is the suggested length)
• Moisture content
• Press force during silage operation
• Height of the storage
Concerning the total volume of the storage, a minimum safety factor (suggested
as 10–15%) should be taken into account to compensate for unexpected delays in
the receipt of the subsequent batches of the raw materials, possible variations in the
characteristics of the materials during storage time, etc.
All materials stored in horizontal silos must be covered by plastic lining to
prevent oxygen entrance that may lead to oxidation and VS losses.
The silo storage may have different configurations depending on the available
area or the construction technics (Figs. 3.8 and 3.9):
• Single or multiple
• Closed or open
Fig. 3.8 Single silo storage (left) and multiple silo storage (right)
The width of each silo storage is designed to minimise the surface exposed to
oxygen in the front. Moreover, the more the materials are pressed, the less the
oxygen can penetrate through the surface.
As a general rule, it is suggested to have about 1 m of the front cut per day to
minimise the exposure time of the front material and therefore, the loss of energy.
A silo storage with double side entrance allows a higher flexibility during plant
operation as the “old” material that have been stored can be removed at first while
the “new” materials can also be used thanks to the opposite access to the silo. This
option allows a First in First out (FIFO) logic in the storage operation avoiding long
time storage periods and consequent loss of energy. If a closed configuration is
used, it is possible to increase the volume of the stocked material per square meter
as the end wall allows the materials to be pressed without a slope, but it only allows
a FILO strategy to be implemented.
A normal time limit for the silo storage is one year; two years is also possible but
hardly suggestable.
Every silo storage releases percolate that could be posing pollution risks to soil
and water resources. Therefore, it is strongly suggested to design a collection
system and to send the percolate to the digestion process. It is also important not to
underestimate the quantity of the percolate released in the early phase of the storage
soon after silage operation.
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Fig. 3.9 A closed silo storage with one side entrance (left); an open silo storage with double side
entrance (right)
The percolate usually has a very low pH, and therefore, it is important to take
this information into consideration during the design of the civil construction to
avoid any corrosion problems.
3.3.1.3 Transportation to the Feeding System
Wheel loaders are the most common transportation systems for the material from
the storage area to the feeding system and has an average capacity of 2 tonne per
trip. The distance between the silo storage and the feeding system is also a source of
operational costs and should be considered.
Due to the obvious limited speed of the wheel loader, the longer the distance
between the feeding system and farthest point of the storage, the more
time-consuming the transportation and loading operation will be. The time needed
by the operator to transfer the material from the storage to the feeding area should
be calculated to prevent probable bottlenecks during plant operation.
Cranes are operated manually needing the presence of an operator during

operation or are fully automatic transferring biomass from the storage area based on
a predesigned route and algorithm. Cranes are a good solution when materials are
received on a daily basis and are unloaded in a pit.
3.3.2 Feeding Equipment
The feeding system is the access door for the materials to the anaerobic digestion
plant. There are various systems that can be applied to perform the same operation
and of course there exist different prices and quality levels.
The feeding equipment is very important for the plant as there is no buffer nor
spares in case of failures. It is preferable to design a biogas plant with at least two
possible ways of feeding, a principal feeding system and a secondary system. The
secondary feeding could also be a simpler and cheaper solution, but at least it would
allow the operator to feed the plant in cases of maintenance of the principal system.
3.3.2.1 Liquid Feeding
Buffer tank
Also called receiving pit/tank, it is the tank used to collect and homogenise the
pumpable substrate to be fed into the digesters. It is applicable as a primary feeding
system for liquid manure, some vegetable waste, fruits, juice, etc.
In case of non-pumpable substrates (usually TS values over 10–12% depending
on the substrate and the pump used), there is the possibility to dilute them in the
buffer tank together with liquid fraction of digestate, water or digestate itself to have
a pumpable, mixable, and homogeneous liquid. When the digestate is used, some
gas is formed in the buffer tank which brings about some consequences:
• Gas forming and possible Atex classified area
• Loss of energy with linear relationship with time of contact between digestate
and fresh material
• A higher quantity of recirculation has to be used to reach a favorable TS
• Not reducing the HRT as the digestate is just pumped outside for a while and
pumped back.
While in case of using liquid fraction of digestate, the following consequences
could be expected:
• Some bacteria are recirculated back to the fermentation and it may help the
process
• It is effective on decreasing HRT
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• Increasing inhibitory effects due to concentration of nitrogen, salts, and others

contaminants
• Gas forming and possible Atex classified area.
In case of using water, the following points need to be considered:
• Higher cost of operation if water is not available for free
• Environmental impacts as the water used is mixed with the digestate and
therefore, will then have to follow the same regulations
• Reduction of HRT (but less than using liquid fraction of digestate)
• Reduction of inhibitory effect.
The mixing system used in buffer tanks is very different from those used in
digesters. The buffer tank usually receives materials in batch, in big quantities, and
the scope is to homogenise the liquid and solids in a short time.
Near the charging point, a powerful mixer should be used to move away the
biomass immediately after their introduction into the tank. The suction point of the
pump from the buffer tank has to be kept clean to avoid any sedimentation blocking
the suction pipe. Fast mixers are suitable for the application (see Sect. “3.3.3.4—
Mechanical mixing system”) and the installed power should be in the range of
30–70 W/m3 depending on the characteristics of the materials to be homogenised.
The volume of the buffer tank should be calculated following the same con-
siderations taken for the silo storage. It is important to consider the frequency of
material received, the quantity of material, the total volume fed per day, the number
of feeding cycle, and the availability of operator on site to follow the mixing and
preparation activities.
A safety margin should also be considered when performing the volume cal-
culations in provision of possible modifications in any of the mentioned criteria
affecting the sizing of the tank. It is also suggested to have a minimum of 50 cm
freeboard for open tanks and 20–30 cm freeboard for roof closed tanks.
Depending on the vehicle used to charge the tank, different constructions and
dimension methods can be applied. In case the liquid is introduced with a slurry
tank truck without discharging pumps, an underground solution would be sug-
gested, while if there is the possibility to pump the liquid, an above-ground solution
would be better allowing the installation of suction pumps to feed the digester at
ground level, easing the empty procedure in case of maintenance.
When buffer tanks are used to mix and homogenise solid materials with the liquid
fraction to create a pumpable solution, the level of the tank has to be calculated
considering the maximum discharging height of the wheel loader/tipping trailer.
Direct feeding
The buffer tank can also be directly fed by pumps connected to the farm collection
pit. In this case, it is recommended to include the function of the pumps and the
instruments of the buffer tank in the PLC to check the level and to eventually stop
pumps. Moreover, a remote control for start-stop could also be installed to ease the
charging operation.
3.3.2.2 Solid Feeder
When solid biomass cannot be loaded in the buffer tank due to:
• Quantity
• TS (%)
• Missing recirculation
• Available space
• Operator availability
• Operator skill
• Atex area risk
• etc.
It is then possible to equip the plant with a dedicated solid feeder machine. There
is a wide range of solid feeder types available on the market. These feeders can be
classified according the following main characteristics:
1. Type of container and biomass transporting system
2. Wall and floor material
3. Type of injection system (injecting materials into the digester)
Other than the type of feeder, it is important to identify the volume necessary and
the output capacity to fulfill the digester requirements in terms of daily volume/
weight and in terms of frequency of the cycles.
Type of container biomass transporting system
Walking floor is composed of pushing elements (sliding beams) arranged in
parallel (Fig. 3.10). This system is suitable for transportation of light materials with
low bulk weight. This technology have been used in the trucks’ floor with auto-
matic discharging system as well. A hydraulic unit normally activates the move-
ment of the sliding beams at the required speed and the material is transported by
friction.
Push floor has different carriers, depending on the task. The carriers slide on
steel rails directly positioned at the bottom of the floor (Fig. 3.11). The racks of the
Fig. 3.10 Walking floor system [Huning Anlagenbau GmbH & Co.KG]
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Fig. 3.11 Example of push

floor rack installed in concrete
bunker with lining protection
from corrosion [Huning
Anlagenbau GmbH & Co.
KG]
push floor are moved forward and backward by hydraulic cylinders positioned on
the head or on the tail of the container depending on the discharging system
adopted.
The material is transported in the direction of the exit.
Push-off system consists of a shorts side wall actuated by a hydraulic cylinder,
the wall slides along the floor in the direction of the exit of the system so that the
material is physically pushed forward (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13). This system is a
flexible solution that allows to transport different kinds of material, in particular
heavy material or non-chopped material that might be difficult to transport forward
with other systems.
Chain system is typically used for manure distribution on field trucks. This
system is seldom used for feeding application in biogas plants due to the high
maintenance costs.
Fig. 3.12 A typical solution

of push-off system [Fliegl
Agrartechnik GmbH]
Fig. 3.13 The hydraulic

cylinder and installation that
moves the push-off wall
[Fliegl Agrartechnik GmbH]
Horizontal screws is a method of transportation especially applied for big size

biomass, often not chopped. A typical application is the slaughterhouse waste,
animal carcass, etc.
Vertical mixing screws is based on the Mixer-wagon agricultural machinery
normally used to mix the feeds for livestock and to distribute them along the
feeding trough. The vertical mixing screws could be one or more (usually up to 3
maximum). This system has some disadvantages including have high electrical
consumption (the screws need powerful motors), high maintenance (every screw is
equipped with a gear reducer under the container or a bevel gear reducer just
outside), and high wearing (the material is mixed continuously while transported
towards the exit). One of the biggest advantages is that it is possible to load it with
different layers of substrate while always having a homogeneous outcome material
leading to a stable production with a well-balanced specific yield per ton of
material. Given the high variations in the substrate used in biogas plants, if the
material fed into the digesters is not homogenised, there might be fluctuations in gas
production during the day (Fig. 3.14).
Fig. 3.14 The installation of a vertical mixing screws solid feeder (left) [Sebigas a division of
Exergy S.p.A.] and a single vertical screw feeding system (right) [Trioliet B.V.]
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Direct solid feeding is a very simple system used in cheap construction con-
figuration for underground digesters (“round lagoon”). The system uses an opening
on the side of the digester, under the gas holder, to create an opening wide enough
to have the possibility to push the material inside the digester by means of a wheel
loader. The system allows to have a very low construction costs, but may lead to
higher operation costs as it is sometimes necessary to have an additional external
mixing system operated by a tractor to mix the material at the entrance of the
digester.
Wall and floor material
Different types of materials are used for the construction of solid feeders. The
biomass container can be made of stainless steel, wood (Fig. 3.15), high density
polyethylene (HDPE) (Fig. 3.17), carbon steel (with or without protection)
(Fig. 3.16), concrete, etc.
It is important to plan the real lifetime usage of the plant to identify the correct
materials suiting the duration the plant is supposed to be in use. The choice is made
with reference to biomass characteristics:
• pH or corrosion action
• Wearing capability
• Liquid content and percolate
The costs is of course a key factor influencing the final choice.
Type of injection system (injecting materials into the digester)
After selection of the container, internal transportation system and their respective
construction materials, it is time to analyse the advantages and disadvantages of the
available solutions for the injection system—that is, the way to bring the material
inside the digester.
Fig. 3.15 Wood wall solid

feeder installed on Sebigas a
division of Exergy S.p.A.
plant
Fig. 3.16 Special

polyethylene coating to
protect the carbon steel frame
[Trioliet B.V.]
Fig. 3.17 Feeding system

with HDPE wall to prevent
corrosion [Fliegl
Agrartechnik GmbH]
The following principal injection systems are briefly described:

Screw conveyors are the most common injection system used in connection to
solid feeders (Figs. 3.18 and 3.19). The conveyors can be classified based on screw
diameter, pitch, type of pitch (constant or variable), thickness, construction mate-
rial, internal guiding shaft, external protection, etc. These screws can be easily
inclined and used in different situations. Being a closed system, it has the advan-
tages of preventing powder losses and limiting unpleasant smell, yet it is costly and
especially due to wearing of materials, it may need a high maintenance cost.
Belt conveyors are also quite common in European constructions. They allow
the transportation of non-homogeneous materials and can not be easily blocked due
to the absence of small gaps in the system. They also allow speed adjustment
without facing rotation speed problems. The system also suffer from some disad-
vantages like high wearing and maintenance costs due to the high number of rollers
and bearings, and limited inclination potential to avoid sliding back of the trans-
ported materials. The best application of this system is for waste transportation
rather than energy crops.
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Fig. 3.18 Combination of

horizontal, vertical, and
inclined screw conveyors to
transport the material from a
solid feeder to a digester
Fig. 3.19 Example of an inclined screw conveyor to transport the materials from a solid feeder to
a digester [Sebigas a division of Exergy S.p.A.]
Solid-liquid pumps include a solid and liquid mixing buffer/box prior to the
pumping body. Both lobe and screw pump are available for this solution. The
advantages are a pre-mix of the substrate with the liquid (usually the digestate
directly taken from the digesters), bearing a lower mixing electrical consumption to
homogenise the materials, possibility of swift maintenance, and the possibility to
install it far from the digester. It should be mentioned that the last item could also be
unfavourable as it increases the cost of installation of the pipes and leads to pressure
loss. The disadvantages of this system include, more complex piping system, as
well as more complex software to control the liquid recirculation and liquid level
inside the pump. Figures 3.20 and 3.21 presents example of solid-liquid pumps.
Fig. 3.20 Example of a solid-liquid pump located after the mixing box to send the materials into
the digester [Pumpenfabrik Wangen GmbH]
Fig. 3.21 Example of a

solid-liquid pump in
combination with a grinder
[Vogelsang Italia S.r.l.]
3.3.3 Anaerobic Digestion Area
This area of the plant is the core of the system and, even if apparently simple,
includes small design details that may lead to successful or failed designs and
operations.
Each digester has a volume ranging between 1.000 and 8.000 m3 or more.
Whenever it is necessary to empty such a volume, it takes a long time and the
digestate has to be also temporarily stored in another tank. This operation may not
be possible or may require additional costs for digestate disposal. For these reasons,
it is important to have a reliable design incorporating different critical parts effi-
ciently to maximise the availability of the plant allowing to reach the operation
hours targeted in the original business plan.
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3.3.3.1 Tank Construction
Digester tanks are made of reinforced concrete, carbon steel, stainless steel, or
special coated steel. A digester, to keep an anaerobic process running inside, must
be gas tight over liquid level and liquid tight under liquid level.
In any cases, it is important to carefully consider the underground condition and
to perform a good geotechnical survey as well. This investigation is often under-
estimated (especially in some countries), yet there is a good chance to choose a
more economical solution for the construction of the tank if the full data necessary
for the geotechnical design and soil bearing capacity calculations are available.
In some cases, to bear the load of the digester and its liquid content, it is enough
consolidate the ground or to stabilise it with stones and gravels, while in the
majority of situations, it is necessary to implement more severe solutions such as
piling, jet grouting, underground starting level, etc.
Reinforced concrete can be made on site by using a rebar beam cage or by
using a special formwork without a reinforcing steel, allowing the structure to have
a higher tensile strength (Fig. 3.22). There is also the possibility to install pre-casted
panels and assemble them on site. Concrete constructions present considerable
advantages in terms of flexibility in shape and dimension, possibility to be modified
during construction in case of any modifications in the original design, capable of
withstanding high loads, and being usually cheaper than other types of installation
especially in large diameters. On the other side, highly skilled construction com-
panies are required to ensure that the structure is liquid- and gas-tight. Strict tests
are crucial carefully investigating the tanks as they must last for at least 15 or
20 years under severe environmental conditions. In case of wrong construction
quality, it is important to take counter measures as soon as possible. During the
operation, leaking of the digestate may affect the durability of the rebar embedded
in the concrete due to action of liquid and oxygen, while in the top portion of the
digester, possible gas leakage may lead to early corrosion due to acid gas (H2S and
moisture). Usage of high-grade concrete, right mix of additive, and professional
Fig. 3.22 Concrete casted digester during construction

Fig. 3.23 Glass fused tank

under installation
planning of the pouring are mandatory for successful construction of reinforced

concrete. The cement construction is cheaper compared with other installation, but
it should be kept in mind that repairing costs could be exponentially higher as well.
Steel digesters are installed directly on the concrete basement, which is a key
point for the tightness of the tank (Fig. 3.23). The parts of the tanks are usually
connected with bolts followed by a cement pouring while a sealant on top seals the
connection. The construction methodology can be very different: from welded
metal sheet to bolted panels depending on corrosion and wearing effects. Usually
V4A steel is suitable for H2S contact, but with high concentration of oxygen and
moisture, corrosion may become severe anyway. Coated panels (like glass fused or
similar applications) are more resistant to the corrosion effect. Usually steel tank
cannot be positioned underground as they have a very good resistance to the inside
pressure (the pressure imposed by digestate on the wall), but have little resistance to
the outside one (the pressure imposed by compacted ground on the outside wall of
an empty tank). In case of underground solutions, the bottom rows of panels have to
be oversized to resist to the pressure.
3.3.3.2 Tank Protection
The protection of the wall or roof of the digesters is very important to increase the
durability of the structure during the lifetime of the project. Above the liquid level,
concrete tanks can be coated with special PE membrane. The best option is to pour
the membrane directly with the concrete so that no gas can penetrate between the
protection membrane and wall causing corrosion (Fig. 3.24).
Special epoxy painting has been developed recently to protect the concrete and
has been found promising especially in case of non-wearing material. In case of
wearing material, there could be the need to open the digester after a certain time
(years usually) to restore the original situation.
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Fig. 3.24 PE membrane protection installed during pouring of the concrete to protect the surface
above liquid level
3.3.3.3 Shape and Dimension
The selected net volume of digestion for each tank can be achieved through dif-
ferent shapes and dimensions. The main parameters are diameter, height, freeboard,
thickness of the wall, bottom plate shape, and number of columns (if any).
Each parameter is driven by a mix of technical solutions and decisions. The
diameter is related to the mixing system adopted and the substrate in the digestion.
Lowering the ratio between the height and the diameter of digesters over 0.5–0.6
usually helps with the stratification and therefore, sedimentation and extraction
from the bottom, but can lead to stratification of the digestate. Small diameter
digesters are also easier to be mixed as the thrust of the mixer and distance of
agitation can reach the middle of the tank. In flat digesters (the ratio between height
and diameter in the range of 0.25–0.40), stratification (by energy crops, grass, etc.)
could be avoided, but not all the surface is easily mixed and so it is probable to have
areas with higher sedimentation.
A high digester also presents technical limitations for the installation of mixers,
for example with heights over 10 m, the submersible mixer is not usually installed
properly due to the length of the guiding shaft and the difficulty with lifting and
lowering the mixer. Over 15 m, bottom lateral entrance mixers may face problems
related to the sealing and tightness and special versions should be selected due to
the pressure of the digestate. Vertical mixers installed at the centre of the tank
should have longer shafts without guide at the bottom and therefore, they present
the risk of high vibration and oscillation of the shaft.
The freeboard selection is mainly related to the position of the gas exit and the
material used in digestion. The side exit of gas may reduce the possible freeboard as
the bottom level of gas exit pipe should be at least 20–30 cm higher than the liquid
level to prevent it from going into the gas line. In case when foam formation is
expected, a higher safety factor should be applied and it is suggested to consider the
bottom level of gas exit pipe at least 70 cm higher than the liquid surface.
The bottom plate can be flat or conical. The conical construction is not easy to
build as it is necessary to utilise special tools during pouring. Conical shape allows
the extraction of sedimentation through a pipe positioned at the centre of the cone.
The flat surface is much easier to build and it can be cleaned by a submersible mixer
with proper orientation and level adjustment. Usually conical-shaped digesters are
used only for municipal solid waste or sometimes for poultry manure digestion.
In digesters with gas holders, it is usually necessary to have a central column that
can be built in reinforced concrete, special wood or stainless steel. Reinforced
concrete solution needs a special formwork, but it is a reliable solution while wood
is a solution definitively affected by the quality of the available wood and is
generally not recommended considering the installation environment. Stainless steel
can be utilised, but as described, it is necessary to carefully control that no oxygen
is present in the tank as it might affect the duration of the steel.
In case of digesters with roof, the presence of column depends on the diameter
and design. It is normally enough to have one central column to bear the load of the
roof, but also multiple column solutions can be adopted to decrease the thickness
(and costs) of the roof as far as it provides the possibility to install an agitator at the
centre of the tank.
3.3.3.4 Mechanical Mixing System
The mixing system is a key factor in CSTR technology as it results in the homo-
geneity of digestate inside the tank, but also accounts for the largest electrical
self-consumption proportion. There is no exact formula to calculate the necessary
characteristics of mixers. They can be classified based on speed, power, type, and
installation.
• Speed: fast (shearing effect), slow (kneading effect)
• Power: expressed in kW
• Model: submersible motor, external motor
• Installation: vertical, horizontal, inclined, adjustable, fixed
The TS content and viscosity are the factors that drive the choice between the
fast or slow mixing system, nevertheless, a combination of various systems is a
common practice to enjoy the benefits of both systems. The agitator can operate
continuously or intermittently with stirring interval that has to be set-up case by
case based on the practice and experience during the operation of the plant. In the
first period after start-up, it is usually a common practice to have longer and
prolonged intervals of stirring times, while only after a certain period of stabili-
sation of the plant, it is possible to optimise the electrical self-consumption.
Submersible motor mixers are often used for waste water treatment applica-
tions and the design has been adapted for biogas applications. The motor can be
84 L. Talia
Fig. 3.25 Submersible mixer

installed in concrete tank
digester
either electrical or hydraulic, with gear reduction or with speed adjustment through
motor winding design. The housing of the motor should be tight, as well as the
electrical cable, with special attention to the gas side passage. The cooling of the
motor is performed by the stirred liquid itself, therefore, in case of a wrong design,
it is easy to reach a loop effect that could immediately lead to motor stop. If the
mixer is too fast for the viscosity of the material and does not create enough flow
through to cool down the motor housing, the motor temperature rises leading to
over temperature stops. A slow or fast propeller can be installed to better adapt to
the fluid characteristics. This kind of mixers are usually adjustable in level inside
the tank which brings the big advantages of changing position, inclination and
direction in accordance with the need of the plant. It is also easy to create a
turbulent flow, break the scum (if formed) or floating layer as well as sediment
material. Nevertheless, cavitation is possible, there are also a lot of moving parts
and equipment inside the tank that may lead to difficult or frequent maintenance
need, the motor may need be often extracted depending on the stirring time and
interval. The extraction and replacement can be done through a special opening on
the roof or gas holder, or a portion of the gas holder need to be opened. The guiding
shaft is normally fixed at the wall of the digester so the mixer area of influence is the
volume near the wall and the mixer effect cannot reach the centre of the tank
(Fig. 3.25).
Different kinds of opening for maintenance are available on the market with
different kinds of gas tightness systems. The best situation is to have an opening
that could avoid gas exit during opening thanks to hydraulic sealing system
(Fig. 3.26).
External motor agitators are characterised by a long through shaft that allows
rotation transmission from the motor located outside to propeller located inside the
digester (Fig. 3.27). Also in this configuration, slow speed or fast speed propeller
can be installed to optimise the stirring of the fluid. In case of side entrance shaft
Fig. 3.26 Mixer dome for

easy and safe maintenance of
submersible mixer in gas tight
tanks
Fig. 3.27 Inclined mixer

with external motor during
installation [Sebigas UAC
Co., Ltd.]
and depending on the length, it is possible to install an additional support inside the
tank to guide the shaft. In this case, special attention should be given to the choice
of material and maintenance interval of the support, since it is necessary to empty
the tank for maintenance purpose. The combination of external motor and slow
speed propeller is quite common and gives the advantage of few moving parts
inside the digester, possibility of continuous operation due to low electrical con-
sumption, and prevention of scum formation. The area affected by the thrust and
flow is much higher and allows a better homogenisation of the internal fluids.
In case of digesters with roof, it is possible to install a vertical shaft mixer
positioned in the centre of the tank or anywhere near the centre of the tank
(Fig. 3.28) (which is usually a badly mixed area) along with side entrance or
submersible mixers. The flow direction is downwards below the mixer and upwards
near the wall leading to bottom cleaning effect.
86 L. Talia
Fig. 3.28 Vertical shaft slow

speed agitator installed at the
centre of the digester roof
[Stamo Maskin AB]
3.3.3.5 Access
During the design, it is normally suggested to keep an opening in the digester for
future maintenance. In case of concrete or metal roof digesters, it is suggested to
have a big opening to allow an easier passage of tools or machine in the digester for
cleaning or emptying procedures. When a gas holder is installed on the roof, it is
then enough to have a small passage to ease the entrance and exit of manpower
during construction and installation phases.
3.3.3.6 Digestate—Sludge Transportation and Removal
Sludge and digestate are usually pumpable, and therefore, pumps driven by elec-
trical motors are the most common solution for this purpose. Different parameters
have to be considered for the pump selection:
• TS content
• Viscosity
• Need of specific flow not related to pressure drop
Fig. 3.29 Lobe pump in a

special construction, directly
connected to a grinder on the
suction side [Vogelsang
Italia S.r.l.]
• Installation position
• Maintenance need
• Pumps head
• Fluid temperature
• Running time
• Frequency of start and stop
Centrifugal pumps or positive displacement pumps like lobe (Fig. 3.29) or screw
pumps are commonly used for digestate and sludge transportation.
Centrifugal pumps are suitable for low TS, low viscosity, variable flows in
accordance with pressure loss and different temperatures. The advantages are the
possibility to be installed either inside or outside the tank (submersible or external
pumps), but this kind of pump is usually not the best choice for high head
demanding.
Positive displacement pumps are volumetric pumps and the volume transported
through each rotation and therefore, during each minute at a certain speed of
rotation is always the same. Due to this reason, its application is particularly rec-
ommended when pumped volume needs be counted without instrument and of
course with scant precision.
3.3.3.7 Heating System
As mentioned, the stability of the process temperature is a key factor to high

efficiency. The environmental conditions affect both the entrance temperature of the
biomass and the loss of temperature of the digestate in the tank.
88 L. Talia
To keep a stable process temperature, it is necessary to have a heating system

controlled by the plant software. There are two possible ways to provide heat to the
digestate: through internal pipes system or with external heat exchanger.
The internal pipe system is the cheapest solution both from investment and
operational cost points of view. Two or more pipes are installed on the internal wall
of the digester, in the bottom area. The hot water flow is forced to pass inside the
circuit exchanging heat with the digestate around the pipes, the warmed digestate
creates a convection flow keeping a homogeneous temperature in the digester. The
application has to be installed in the presence of a good mixing system in order to
prevent the formation of different temperature layers that may hinder the anaerobic
digestion process.
In order of increase the efficiency, PVC, stainless steel rigid or stainless steel
corrugated pipes can be used. The PVC pipes are cheaper, but need more rounds to
have a good thermal exchange which could be an advantage in case of damage to
one of the pipes. The stainless steel rigid or corrugated pipes are similar in terms of
the corrosion and wearing points of view, but the corrugated pipe has of course a
larger surface per linear length of the pipe which allows for a shorter line. Due to
the corrugated surface, the corrugated pipes have a better heat conductivity and
require a turbulent flow at lower speeds (consequently a lower flow is necessary
from the recirculation pumps).
The external heat exchanger gives the absolute advantages of being cleanable
and accessible for maintenance. The disadvantage is that it is necessary to recir-
culate the digestate in the heat exchanger while the hot water recirculation is also
necessary. This increases the electrical self-consumption of the plant and it is
therefore suggested in case of substrates that may lead to soiling effect or gluing
effect on the surface of internal pipes or with high presence of sands that may have
an early wearing effect.
A good solution to preserve heat and avoid temperature difference in the wall of
the digester is to have insulated tanks. This is almost essential in thermophilic
processes and highly suggested for mesophilic processes as well. The insulation can
be done with different commercial material based on the application (Rockwool,
high density closed cell extruded polystyrene, etc.).
The insulation should be protected from weather; corrugated steel plate can be
installed for this purpose.
The thermal power needed for heat exchanger should be produced on site by the
cogeneration system or by additional dedicated boilers.
3.3.4 Gas Handling
The biogas produced in the digester has to be used for the project purpose with a
flow as stable as possible. To maximise the efficiency, reliability, and availability of
the plant, the gas line should be designed to act as a buffering system to avoid stops.
3.3.4.1 Gas Storage
The biogas production also fluctuates in a certain range and to compensate for such
fluctuations, a gas storage is usually planned.
In case of digesters with roof, the biogas is sent to an external or additional
buffer storage. In case of gasholder mounted on top of the digester, the biogas
produced is automatically stored.
The gasholder can be double or single membrane: single membrane means that
there is only one membrane that store the gas dividing biogas from the atmosphere;
while double membranes have an external membrane kept fully inflate by an air
blower plus an internal membrane that can act like a real buffer for the gas storage
passing from fully empty to fully inflated.
The material of the gas holder membrane can be either double-sided PVC-coated
fiber fabric which are usually UV, microbial, abrasion, and biogas resistant; HDPE
or ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber.
EPDM gas holders are elastic and therefore, characterised by a higher perme-
ability; their duration is also affected by weather, especially by UV and therefore,
are not considered as the best option. Breakage or leakage of this kind of membrane
is frequent causing obvious loss of gas/money, but more importantly, leading to a
high environmental impact that should be avoided especially in renewable energy
production sites.
HDPE is a very common material, easy to weld and with a good permeability
resistance. It is often used for lagoon constructions. It is cheaper, easier to weld on
site and resistant over time. The limitation of HDPE is that it is not strong enough to
be used at “high” pressures (not higher than 2-3 mbar usually).
PCV-coated fabric is the most common material for double membrane gas
holder owing to its high resistance to permeability, strength, and duration over time
(Fig. 3.30). PVC fabric is characterised by strength of the fabric and weight per
square meter. The selection of the textile should be in accordance with the biogas
pressure estimated in the design and presence of special shapes (balcony, etc.) that
may increase the tension of the membrane in their proximity. The achievable
pressure in PVC gas holder is in the range of 3–20 mbar. If there are no special
needs, it is suggested to keep a lower pressure of the gas to prevent tension to the
Fig. 3.30 Example of PVC-coated fabric gasholder installed

90 L. Talia
textile and to increase the lifespan of the gas holder. Under the internal membrane, a
net and belts system is installed to bear the load of the membrane when empty
(belts) and to prevent the membrane to drop into the digestate (net). The net can
also be used as a media for the growth of desulphurising bacteria.
The level of the internal membrane can be measured to provide a visual esti-
mation or a signal to the PLC regarding the quantity of the gas stored in the
membrane. There are many different systems by different commercial suppliers,
from radar to water pressure based systems. If the level of the gas holder is one of
the parameters used to control the engine power and start/stop, the measurement of
the gas holder level should be quite precise and reliable.
The colour is also affecting the operation of the gas holder; a dark colour absorbs
more UV and sunlight and therefore, its durability may be reduced. For the same
reason, dark coloured membranes are subject to pressure variations in response to
variations in weather conditions.
Finally, every storage system should be equipped with safety valves for over
pressure and under pressure that release the gas in case of complete failure of
normal operation.
3.3.4.2 Gas Usage
The biogas can be used for three main different purposes:

• Electrical and thermal power production (Cogeneration system)
• Thermal power production (Boiler)
• Biomethane production (Upgrading)
The most commonly installed system is the Cogeneration as it is a well-known
system already used for electrical power production from natural gas and with a
good after sales service worldwide. There are different suppliers for this kind of
engine (Fig. 3.31). In the selection, it is important to check H2S resistance, %CH4
accepted, efficiency, cost of maintenance including overall maintenance (usually
around 60,000 h of operation), and availability of spare parts and fast emergency
service.
The boiler is usually a simpler system and it is normally important to check the
resistance to H2S.
The upgrading systems are different from each other and a specific analysis
considering the required outcome, the input variability and characteristics of biogas,
the cost of operation and maintenance, and long terms reliability of the supplier
should be performed.
Fig. 3.31 MTU biogas

engine installed in
power-house solution [MSM
Energy Solutions Co., Ltd.]
3.3.4.3 Gas Treatment
Every biogas using system (upgrading, cogeneration unit or boiler) has a minimum
required quality of biogas in terms of pressure, CH4 content, H2S content, moisture,
O2, and others contaminants. There are different systems to meet biogas quality
requirements: water scrubber, activated carbon, biological treatment, etc.
Every situation requires a dedicated study and selection of the system (if
required). There are a lot of commercial products that can meet the requirements of
every project and different systems can be combined to achieve a better result. For
biogas engine, the minimum requirement is usually a chiller to remove the moisture
(with dew point in accordance to the minimum ambient temperature) and a gas
blower to increase the pressure.
3.3.5 Digestate Area
At the end of the process, the digestate should be extracted by the last digester. The
quantity of digestate can be calculated through the following mass balance equation
(Eq. 3.14).
Qdig ¼ RQsubi Qsubi TSi VSi PGYi qbiogas ð3:14Þ
where:
Qdig Daily quantity of digestate produced [t/d]
Qsub Daily quantity of substrate in input [t/d]
VS Volatile solids concentration [%TS]
PGY Potential Gas Yield [Nm3biogas /tVS]
ρbiogas Specific weight of the biogas [t/Nm3]
92 L. Talia
3.3.5.1 Solid/Liquid Separation
The digestate coming out from the digesters may still have a high TS concentration.
Under certain circumstances, it could be economically and technologically viable to
install a solid/liquid separation system. The horizontal or vertical screw press is the
most commonly used. The digestate is pumped into the separation system and it
allows the liquid passing through the screen while the solid goes out from the front
or top of the machine.
The efficiency of this type of equipment highly depends on the quality of the
material: viscosity, size of particle, content of fibres, TS concentration, etc.
A solid/liquid separation system usually allows to remove 1–3% of the digestate
TS from the liquid fraction while producing a solid fraction with 20–25% TS
concentration.
Based on the TS assumption, it is possible to estimate the quantity of liquid and
solid fractions.
TS0 TSL
Qs ¼ Qdig ð3:15Þ
TSS TSL
QL ¼ Qdig Qs ð3:16Þ
where:
QS Quantity of solid fraction
QL Quantity of liquid fraction
TSS TS concentration in the solid fraction
TSL TS concentration in the liquid fraction
Belt-type filter presses, centrifuges and worm separation are other solid/liquid
separation systems used in biogas plants.
The separation of the digestate would be advantageous leading to:
• Reduced liquid quantity and final storage volume
• Have a portion of stackable product
• Reduced floating layer and solidification of surface in the final tank
3.3.5.2 Digestate Storage
The digestate produced is usually stored in final tanks with cylindrical or rectan-
gular shapes. These tanks can be equipped with mixers so that the liquid can be
homogenised before discharging. The agitator can be permanently installed,
removable or tractor-tow driven.
Following the local regulations about odour control and nitrogen loss, the final
storage tanks can be covered with gas-tight membranes or simply with odour
control membranes.
The choice of gas tight cover is subjected to discussion in relation to the feed-
stock used, HRT, OLR, and resulting efficiency of the designed process.
A high efficiency plant usually releases a digestate with less than 2–3%
remaining biogas potential, therefore, under non-anaerobic conditions and lower
temperature of the final storage environment, it is difficult to have big loss in
atmosphere. The gas tight solution is usually non-viable.
The dimension of the storage is defined primarily by the frequency of emptying
the tank. This interval may vary from a couple of days to months (usually 180 d in
Europe). The rainfall expected during such period of time should be added to the
storage volume to prevent early full state of the tank.
3.3.5.3 Digestate Treatment
According to the local regulations, the digestate derived from certain feedstock
cannot be spread on the field (example: slaughterhouse waste, household waste,
OFMSW, restaurant waste, some industrial waste, etc.). Under such circumstances,
an additional WWT should be added to remove N, salt, TS content and the other
contaminants until reaching the quality required for sewerage or river discharge.
References
Bouallagui H, Haouari O, Touhami Y, Cheikh BR, Marouani L, Hamdi M (2004) Effect of

temperature on the performance of an anaerobic tubular reactor treating fruit and vegetable
waste. Process Biochem 39:2143–2148
Converti A, Del Borghi A, Zilli M, Arni S, Del Borghi M (1999) Anaerobic digestion of the
vegetable fraction of municipal refuses: mesophilic versus thermophilic conditions. Bioprocess
Eng 21(4):371–376
Han Y, Dague RR (1997) Laboratory studies on the temperature-phased anaerobic digestion of
domestic wastewater sludge. Wat Env Res 69(6):1139–1143
Chapter 4
Biogas Production Systems
Elena Valijanian, Meisam Tabatabaei, Mortaza Aghbashlo,

Alawi Sulaiman and Yusuf Chisti
4.1 Basics of Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion converts organic waste to biogas, a gas mixture containing

methane and other components. This microbial process is carried out in the absence
of oxygen. The waste feedstock and microbial culture are mixed in a bioreactor, or
anaerobic digester, to achieve the desired conversion. Digester feedstock may be
wet (water-rich), or dry (solids-rich). A wet digestion process typically uses a
pumpable aqueous slurry containing 15% (w/w) dry solids as feedstock. In
contrast, the dry feedstocks are sufficiently dry to be “stackable”. A digester may be
operated continuously, that is with continuous input and removal of material.
Alternatively, a batch operation may be used in which the digester is fed and
harvested periodically.
E. Valijanian M. Tabatabaei
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam) / Agricultural
Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research,
M. Aghbashlo
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture
and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
A. Sulaiman (&)
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Y. Chisti (&)
School of Engineering, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

96 E. Valijanian et al.
Anaerobic digestion involves multiple steps with different groups of microor-

ganisms contributing to the different steps. Initially, the complex biopolymers
(carbohydrates, proteins) and other large molecules (fats) are broken down to
simpler molecules (sugars, fatty acids, amino acids) in a hydrolysis step. The
products of the hydrolysis are used by bacteria known as acidogens in an acido-
genesis step to produce volatile fatty acids (VFA) and alcohols. Other byproducts
include sulfide, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The next step is acetogenesis during
which VFAs and alcohols are converted by acetogenic bacteria (or acetogens) to
hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The final step is methanogenesis, or the conversion
of hydrogen, acetic acid (one of the VFAs), carbon dioxide and water to methane
and carbon dioxide. The bacteria involved are known as methanogens.
Methanogenesis is the slowest step, or the rate limiting step, of the entire anaerobic
digestion process. Methanogens are pH-sensitive and inhibited by acidic pH. Too
rapid a buildup of VFAs can lower the reactor pH sufficiently to inactivate the
methanogens and stop biogas generation. This “souring” of the digester must be
avoided for stable operation. Other toxic substances and inhibitors in the feed may
adversely impact anaerobic digestion.
Depending on the digester, either a single or multiple types of feedstocks may be
processed. Different feedstocks may have to be blended to obtain a composition
suitable for biogas production. Feedstock may be subjected to various pretreatments
(e.g. size reduction) to facilitate subsequent digestion. The digestion process may be
mesophilic or thermophilic. Mesophilic digester typically operate in the temperature
range of 30–42 °C. A higher temperature range (50–60 °C) is generally used for
thermophilic digestion. Mesophilic and thermophilic digestion rely on different
groups of microorganisms. If the waste being digested is from human (e.g.
municipal wastewater) and animal sources (e.g. manure, slaughterhouse waste), the
use of thermophilic digestion is preferable as it is more effective in killing patho-
gens. Dewatered solid residue, or digestate, of a thermophilic digester may be
applied to land directly as compost for crop production with no risk of spreading
parasites and diseases. Thermophilic digestion is rapid, but more expensive and
harder to control.
A digester is one component of the process for producing biogas from waste.
This chapter is focused on the different kinds of bioreactors, or digesters, used in
anaerobic digestions. The effectiveness of digestion is influenced by prior steps.
Prior to digestion, there may be other feedstock preparation and blending steps.
Similarly, following digestion, the crude biogas may have to be cleaned, or
upgraded, usually for onsite combustion to produce heat or electricity. In addition,
the liquid effluent from the digester needs to be suitably managed (Tricase and
Lombardi 2012). Typically, the solids are dewatered and used as compost and soil
conditioners. The liquid effluent may be used for irrigation. Irrespective of the
digestion system, the biogas product typically consists of methane (50–80% by
volume), carbon dioxide (20–50% by volume) and trace levels of nitrogen,
hydrogen sulfide and water (Tricase and Lombardi 2012).
A great variety of organic feedstocks may be potentially anaerobically digested,
but typical feedstocks consist of animal manure, municipal waste and agroindustrial
4 Biogas Production Systems 97
Fig. 4.1 Main organic feedstocks used in biogas production worldwide
waste (Fig. 4.1). Organic sludge of aerobic wastewater treatment processes and
animal manure are among the most widely used feedstocks (Chaiprasert 2011;
Horváth et al. 2016).
The crude biogas produced by an anaerobic digester typically needs to be
upgraded for further use. This generally requires removal of some hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) and, in some cases, removal of carbon dioxide. Biogas used in steam boilers
and internal combustion engines for electricity generation must not contain more
than 200 ppm of the corrosive hydrogen sulfide, although carbon dioxide is
acceptable in many applications. Some H2S reduction processes use biological
desulfurization of the gas to reduce the hydrogen sulfide content. The various
technologies for gas cleaning have been reviewed in the literature (Ryckebosch
et al. 2011; Sun et al. 2015).
As the demand for gas fluctuates, on site storage is typically necessary (Al Seadi
et al. 2008). Low pressure (<140 mbar) storage is typical. For this purpose, a
floating top holder integrated with the digester may be used. Other commonly used
options are gas-tight polymer membrane (e.g. polyester fabric covered with poly-
ethylene or chlorosulfonated polyethylene) domes and spheres (Fig. 4.2) located on
top of the digester or separate from it. Membranes vary in thickness from 0.5 to
2.5 mm. Such membranes are weatherproof, resistant to hydrogen sulfide and
ultraviolet light, and withstand the local temperatures (Voicu et al. 2015). A vent
with a biogas flare is provided in case excess gas needs to be released (Hijazi et al.
2016).
Fig. 4.2 A biogas storage dome made of polymer membranes. Courtesy Atmove Biomethane
Solutions, Vienna, Austria
4.2 Anaerobic Digesters
Important considerations in selection and operation of anaerobic digesters are the

following: installation and operational costs; the necessary residence time, or
hydraulic retention times (HRT) of the waste in the digester; the amount of waste to
be processed; the organic loading, or strength of the waste, and dry solids content;
the nature of the waste, in particular the relative ratios of nitrogen and carbon;
whether a wet digestion (dry matter content 15%), dry digestion (dry matter
content >15%), or a combination of the two is to be used (Tricase and Lombardi
2012); the mixing requirements and the method of achieving mixing (Budzianowski
2016); and heating requirements depending on whether the process is mesophilic or
thermophilic (Tricase and Lombardi 2012).
All process choices have associated advantages and drawbacks. For example, the
digestate of a dry system is easier to dewater whereas a wet process produces a lot
of liquid effluent to be disposed. A dry digestion process typically requires a larger
inoculum, longer retention time and is prone to be unstable compared to a wet
digestion process (Budzianowski 2016).
Anaerobic digestion may consist of a single-stage operation, or a two-stage
process. Single stage operation is less efficient, but most commonly used (Ke et al.
2005) because of its simplicity. In a single-stage digester, all the different reactions
(i.e. hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, methanogenesis) occur within a single
vessel operated at a given set of conditions that are not ideal for any of the multiple
reactions that occur. Single-stage digesters typically require longer hydraulic
retention times on account of the long doubling time of the methanogens.
Therefore, a conventional single-stage digester is typically larger and consequently
takes more energy to mix and heat (Lehtomäki et al. 2008; Budzianowski 2016)
compared to a two-stage digester.
A two-stage digester effectively separates the methanogenesis steps from the rest
of the treatment process. The first reaction chamber is optimized to maximize
hydrolysis and production of volatile fatty acids whereas the second chamber is
optimized for methane production. Therefore, a two-stage digestion is more effi-
cient overall compared to a single-stage process (Nair et al. 2005; Ahamed et al.
2015).
4.2.1 Conventional Anaerobic Bioreactors
4.2.1.1 Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor
Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR) is one of the simplest systems used for
producing biogas. ASBRs are used mostly for treating wastewaters of diverse
sources including effluents of food processing facilities, slaughterhouses, animal
farms and pharmaceutical industries (Zaiat et al. 2001). The reactor consists of a
single vessel. At the end of a batch operation, the vessel is partly drained and then
filled to the initial volume with fresh organics-loaded wastewater (Fig. 4.3). This
fill-and-draw operation is repeated at intervals (Mao et al. 2015). The residual
sludge from a previous batch becomes the inoculum for the next batch. This design
is suitable if the volume to be processed is relatively small. The operation can be
adjusted for different strengths of waste (Zupančič and Jemec 2010). An ASBR
operation is shown in Fig. 4.3.
Both mesophilic and thermophilic ASBRs are used. The processing capacity
depends on the number of feeding-retention-emptying cycles that can be accom-
modated in a given period (Dague 1993). ASBRs tend to be simple and easy to
operate with little attention (Dutta et al. 2014). An activated sludge aerated
Fig. 4.3 An anaerobic sequencing batch reactor operation: a an inoculum-containing digester is

filled with wastewater; b digestion occurs during the retention time of the batch; c the sludge is
allowed to settle by gravity; d the treated water is decanted while the sludge is left behind as
inoculum for the next batch
operation is readily combined with the ASBR. For example, once the vessel is filled
with fresh wastewater, it may be aerated to oxidize the waste in an activated sludge
type of operation. At some point, the aerated operation would switch to anaerobic
operation to produce biogas. Once gas production declines to a low level, the
reactor is partly emptied and the entire process sequence is repeated.
Improved mixing during anaerobic operation enhances performance (Maurina
et al. 2014). Ideally, prior to emptying the digester, a quiescent period is used to
settle some of the microbial biosolids for preferential retention in the digester so
that a rich inoculum is available to the next batch (Fig. 4.3). In practice this can be
difficult because gas bubbles entrapped within microbial solids make sedimentation
difficult.
4.2.1.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Continuous flow stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) are perhaps the most commonly
used reactor configurations in production of biogas. They are attractive because of
the simplicity of their design compared to many other types of biogas digesters.
Typically, CSTRs are used to process slurries with total solids content of 5–10%
(Browne et al. 2013). Slurries of animal manure and organic industrial wastes are
treated using CSTRs. The reactor consists of a rectangular or cylindrical tank with
one or more mechanical stirrers (Fig. 4.4) (Mao et al. 2015). CSTRs are generally
low-cost and easy to operate. Mechanical mixing assures good contact between the
microorganisms and the waste material. Mixing may be continuous, or intermittent
(Rico et al. 2011). Sufficient mixing is essential to prevent accumulation of large
amounts of VFAs that would result in souring, or acidification, and a consequent
inhibition of biogas production (Liao et al. 2006; Ozgun et al. 2013). Mixing also
affects the formation, structure and metabolic efficacy of microbial flocs (Jiang et al.
2016). Excessive mixing can lead to reduced generation of biogas from VFAs, their
accumulation and reactor souring.
As a drawback, CSTRs have long retention times (Carrillo-Reyes et al. 2016)
and may be more energy intensive than some of the other types of reactors.
Performance of CSTRs is improved by recycling microbial solids, or enhancing
retention of the active biomass. A gravity sedimentation tank located at the exit of
Fig. 4.4 A continuous stirred

tank type of anaerobic
digester
Fig. 4.5 A continuous stirred tank digester with biomass recycle via a gravity sedimentation tank
the CSTR may be used for biomass recycle (Fig. 4.5). Alternatively,
membranes-based retention systems (Wei et al. 2014) and various methods of
immobilizing the biomass, on inert suspended particles, for example, may be used.
Presence of an elevated concentration of the active biomass in the reactor improves
substrate conversion and shortens the required retention time (Wu et al. 2008).
4.2.1.3 Anaerobic Plug-flow Reactor
Anaerobic plug-flow reactors (APFRs) are typically long rectangular channels, with
the flow entering one end and leaving at the distant end. There is relatively little
mixing in the direction of flow. The tanks, or channels, are generally placed above
ground. Both mesophilic and thermophilic operations are used (Kim et al. 2003).
APFRs are commercially used for treating diverse kinds of organic wastes
including slurries of animal manure, distillery wastewater, and the organic fraction
of municipal solid waste (Rajeshwari et al. 2000; Sharma et al. 2000). A plug flow
configuration in principle can provide a gradation of local environmental conditions
to favor different aspects of anaerobic digestions in different parts of the reactor. For
example, hydrolysis may be predominant in the entry zone of the reactor whereas
methanogenesis may be the dominant activity near the exit. Compared to a
single-stage CSTR, plug flow reactors are generally more efficient in converting the
substrate to biogas and are more stable to operate (Mao et al. 2015). Microbial
sludge builds up along the length of the rector due to growth and a high overall
sludge content explains both their better efficiency and stability (Mao et al. 2015).
The APFRs are relatively simple to build and maintain (Lansing et al. 2008). Plug
flow reactors with agitators have been described (Karellas et al. 2010) (Fig. 4.6).
Agitation is used to improve local mixing, while minimizing mixing in the direction
of low.
Fig. 4.6 A plug flow digester with mechanical mixing. Modified from Sharma et al. (2000)
4.2.2 Sludge Retention Reactors
Conversion of waste to biogas is brought about by the active microbial sludge in the
reactor. Therefore, increased retention of the active sludge increases the rate of
waste conversion and shortens the hydraulic retention time of the effluent. Increased
sludge retention also enhances stability of the reactor. Enhancing sludge retention is
the basis of the design of the various kinds of sludge retention reactors that have
been developed. These are discussed in this section.
4.2.2.1 Anaerobic Contact Reactor
Anaerobic contact reactor (ACR) is essentially a fully mixed mechanically stirred

tank with recycle of sludge (Fig. 4.5). The effluent from the tank flows into some
kind of a solid-liquid separator (e.g. gravity sedimentation tank, lamella clarifier,
sludge flotation device) and the recovered solids are returned to the anaerobic
reactor. Because of a high concentration of active microbial biomass, ACRs are
capable of treating high-strength waste with a high concentration of digestible
solids. Wastewaters of food processing industry and pulp and paper mills are some
examples (Capela et al. 2009; Şentürk et al. 2010; Şentürk et al. 2013). Hydraulic
retention times are short (Aslanzadeh et al. 2013) and fluctuations in organic
loading are well tolerated. The ACRs are relatively less susceptible to souring and
other inhibitors (Rajeshwari et al. 2000). They are considered superior to some of
the other types of digesters such as the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. An
organics loading rate of up to 8 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD) m−3 d−1 may
be handled with COD removal efficiencies of 78–95% (Lo and Liao 1986).
Design of the sludge recovery and recycle system can have important conse-
quences on operation of the reactor. For example, the use of high-shear pumps in
returning the recovered sludge could disrupt microbial flocs or sludge granules and
this may negatively impact biogas production (Brockmann and Seyfried 1997;
Ozgun et al. 2013). Stirred digesters coupled to some kind of a membrane-based
cell retention have proved highly effective in biogas production (Wei et al. 2014;
Chen et al. 2016).
4.2.2.2 Up-Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor
An up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor consists of a rectangular or

cylindrical unmixed tank fed with the waste stream near the bottom. Its main
distinguishing feature is a bed of dense granular sludge confined mostly to the
lower zone of the reactor where the wastewater enters (Mao et al. 2015; Reungsang
et al. 2016) (Fig. 4.7). The granular sludge is kept suspended by the up flow of
wastewater and the rising bubbles of biogas (Jiang et al. 2014). The top of the
reactor may be expanded (see Sect. 4.2.2.3), or otherwise modified, to facilitate
retention of the granular sludge by the action of gravity (Fig. 4.8).
The performance of the reactor depends critically on development and retention
of the granular sludge (Horváth et al. 2016). Granular sludge is formed through
self-immobilization of microorganisms (Schmidt and Ahring 1996), typically in an
environment that is relatively quiescent. A high sludge load improves efficiency
resulting in short hydraulic retention times and high permissible organics loading
rates (Ahmad et al. 2011). Start-up periods can be long because of slow develop-
ment of granular sludge (Schmidt and Ahring 1996). Variations in hydraulic
loadings can be accommodated within narrow limits, as the sludge granules need to
remain suspended without being washed out (Liu and Tay 2004). Both the quality
of the sludge granules formed and the rate of their formation depend on the type of
waste being treated (Bhatti et al. 1995). Wastewater containing a high proportion of
Fig. 4.7 An up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor

Fig. 4.8 An expanded bed

granular sludge blanket
reactor
suspended organic matter is not effectively treated in UASB reactors (Chernicharo

et al. 2009). This limitation may be overcome by using a two-stage digestion
system: an initial stirred-tank reactor to achieve hydrolysis and acid formation
followed by a UASB for methanogenesis (Aslanzadeh et al. 2013; Mao et al. 2015;
Horváth et al. 2016).
UASB reactors with membrane-based retention of sludge granules have been
used, but the membranes also retain nongranulated sludge fines leading to a
degradation of the granular character of the sludge (Ozgun et al. 2013).
A continuous washout of the fine sludge is actually a necessary selection pressure
for stable maintenance of the granular sludge morphology in a UASB.
4.2.2.3 Expanded Granular Sludge Blanket Reactor
The expanded granular sludge blanket (EGSB; Fig. 4.8) reactor is a variation of the
UASB digester. Compared to the conventional UASB, it permits improved mixing
and mass transfer between the sludge granules and the surrounding liquid (Mao
et al. 2015). Compared to the UASB, the zone containing the suspended granular
sludge is taller and narrower, but the top region of the reactor has an expanded
cross-section (Fig. 4.8). A relatively high up-flow velocity (Kato et al. 1994) of the
wastewater can be used as the up-flow is slowed down in the expanded upper zone
sufficiently so that the sludge granules settle by gravity into the narrower part of
the column. If the available flow of wastewater to be treated is insufficient to obtain
the required high up-flow velocity in the narrower column of the reactor, some of
the treated effluent may be recycled to increase the flow rate (Fig. 4.8).
EGSB systems are effective for treating medium and low-strength wastewaters
containing soluble organics and more complex compounds such as lipids (Lettinga
et al. 1997). They are effective at temperatures as low as 10 °C (Chu et al., 2005).
They have a higher throughput compared to UASB systems (Rana et al. 2017) and a
smaller footprint (Van Lier et al. 2015). Their scale-up based on data obtained in the
laboratory is apparently not straightforward because of the scale-dependent differ-
ences in microbial ecology and microcosm physiology (Connelly et al. 2017).
ESGBs with membranes to retain sludge granules have been used (Chen et al.
2016), but actually defeat the purpose of developing a granular sludge morphology
that inevitably degrades if the fines are not allowed to washout.
4.2.2.4 Up-Flow Anaerobic Solid-State Reactor
The up-flow anaerobic solid-state reactor (UASS) is conceptually new (Mumme

et al. 2010). It is intended for treating ground biomass solids such as corn silage and
barley straw. The solids are fed to the bottom of a tall column (Fig. 4.9) and rise
because of their natural buoyancy relative to the liquid (Pohl et al. 2013).
A confining sieve at the top of the column arrests the rise of solids and as more
solids are fed a sort of a floating bed of solids builds up in the column (Fig. 4.9).
Microorganism-containing liquor from a separate digester (an anaerobic filter) is
pumped to the bottom of the column of floating feed solids, rises through the bed
and is recycled to the digester (Fig. 4.9). The biomass in the bed is slowly digested
to biogas. Utility, scalability, operability and stability of UASS systems are barely
known.
4.2.2.5 Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
Anaerobic baffled reactors (ABR) are various kinds of reactor in which an elon-
gated vessel has been partitioned by a number of baffles to produce fully or partly
separated reactor units arranged in series (Mao et al. 2015). The baffles direct the
flow to effectively generate a plug flow system. A five-compartment anaerobic
granular bed baffled reactor is shown in Fig. 4.10 (Zwain et al. 2017).
The different compartments of an ABR may use entirely different principles to
treat the waste for improved production of biogas. For example, Ran et al. (2014)
Fig. 4.9 A up-flow anaerobic solid-state reactor with liquor recirculation via anaerobic filters.
Adapted from Mumme et al. (2010)
Fig. 4.10 A five-compartment granular bed baffled reactor. Based on Zwain et al. (2017)
evaluated a four-compartment ABR for simultaneous production of biogas and

hydrogen from organic waste. The compartments were of an equal size. The first
compartment was designed for hydrogen production by dark fermentation. The
remaining three compartments served as microbial electrolysis cells for methane
production. The ABR was operated with a hydraulic retention time of 24 h and the
COD of the wastewater fed was in the range of 3500–4000 mg/L (Ran et al. 2014).
The gas from the dark fermentation compartment contained 20.7% methane by
volume. The methane levels in the gas from the compartments 2, 3 and 4 were 98.0,
93.6 and 70.1% (Ran et al. 2014). The total COD removal was 98%. Other similar
electrically-enhanced biogas production systems have been described (Moreno

et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2017), but their energetics and practical utility remain
uncertain.
4.2.2.6 Internal Circulation Reactor
An internal circulation (IC) reactor is similar to an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket

reactor, but is generally much taller. A typical internal circulation reactor is shown
in Fig. 4.11. The wastewater is distributed at the bottom of the reactor in a zone that
contains most of the granular microbial sludge. In this zone the wastewater is
intimately contacted with the sludge and much of the biogas production occurs. The
intermediate gas-liquid-solid separator located above the granular sludge zone
(Fig. 4.11) confines most of the granular sludge to the lower part of the reactor and
separates the rising biogas bubbles from the liquid. The gas from the intermediate
separator is collected in up-flow pipes, or risers, and rises rapidly by a gas lift action
(Chisti 1998) to the top of the reactor. The rising gas transports liquid along with it.
At the top, above the second gas-liquid separator, the biogas is separated from the
liquid and leaves the reactor. The gas-free liquid being denser than the gas-liquid
dispersion in the reactor, is transported by gravity to the bottom of the reactor using
a down flow pipe, or downcomer (Fig. 4.11). The reactor zone located above the
intermediate gas-liquid-solid separator is a polishing zone that contains some finer
granular sludge and here the residual organics in the water generate more biogas.
The gas bubble rise to the upper gas-liquid-solid separator where the gas is col-
lected and rises to the top of the reactor through risers (Fig. 4.11). The gas-lift
action causes recirculation of liquid within the reactor between the top and bottom
zones. Internal circulation reactors are used commercially. They have performed
well in COD removal and production of biogas (Tauseef et al. 2013; Mao et al.
2015; Wang et al. 2017). Organics loading rates can be as high as 35 kg COD/m3 d
(Mutombo 2004). These reactors are used to treat wastewater from breweries, the
pulp and paper industry, distilleries, fermentation processes, and the petrochemical
processes (Mutombo 2004; Mao et al. 2015).
4.2.2.7 Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor
Anaerobic fluidized bed reactors (AFBR) are conceptually similar to the expanded
granular sludge blanket reactor (Sect. 4.2.2.3), but instead of granular sludge they
use relatively heavy small inert particles (e.g. fine sand or alumina) supporting a
self-immobilized microbial biofilm (Zhang et al. 2008). The particles are main-
tained in suspension by a constant up-flow of the wastewater (Fig. 4.12) (Mao et al.
2015). Good mixing of the suspended solids and a high relative velocity between
them and the liquid result in good mass transfer of organics to the biofilm. As a
consequence of a high biomass loading and good biodegradation activity,
Fig. 4.11 A BIOPAQ® IC anaerobic internal circulation digester. Courtesy Paques BV, the
Netherlands
the reactors are able to handle a high organics load and better tolerate inhibitory
chemicals (Karadag et al. 2015).
4.2.3 Anaerobic Membrane Reactors
Membrane bioreactors (Fig. 4.13) use water-permeable microporous polymeric or

ceramic membranes mainly to retain active biomass in an anaerobic wastewater
treatment unit (Skouteris et al. 2012; Visvanathan and Abeynayaka 2012; Ozgun
et al. 2013; Horváth et al. 2016). Biomass is retained on the upstream side of the
membrane in contact with the waste material. Treated water free of suspended
solids permeates through the membrane to the other side. Retention of active
microbial biomass greatly enhances COD removal and biogas generation perfor-
mance of membrane bioreactors compared to systems having freely suspended
microbial cells without any retention mechanisms. For example, a membrane
bioreactor with a hydraulic retention time of 1 day achieved a biogas production
rate of 1–2 L/day compared to 0.05–0.12 L/day achieved with a comparable reactor
containing freely suspended cells (Youngsukkasem et al. 2013).
Fig. 4.12 An anaerobic fluidized bed reactor
Fig. 4.13 A digester with an externally installed membrane module to prevent loss of biomass
Much higher concentrations of active biomass may be retained in a membrane

bioreactor compared to a granular sludge UASB system, for example. This
increases the efficiency of the reactors (Kanai et al. 2010) and a high organics
loading can be used (Umaiyakunjaram and Shanmugam 2016) on account of the
high concentration of the active biomass. Retention times can be short. Membranes
also ease separation of biogas (Bakonyi et al. 2014). The flow rate through the
reactor can be varied without concern for biomass washout.
Membranes are generally supplied in the form of easily replaceable modules.
Membrane modules may be placed within a reactor vessel, or in an external cir-
culation loop (Fig. 4.13). Membranes have an associated capital expense and
require periodic replacement. Membranes are susceptible to fouling, or adsorption
of material within pores and on the surface, resulting in a reduced rate of perme-
ation. Fouling is often associated with proteins (Youngsukkasem et al. 2013), lipids
and surfactants that may be present in the wastewater. Adding granular activated
carbon and other solid adsorbents to wastewater to remove the fouling compounds
has been suggested as a means of reducing membrane fouling (Skouteris et al.
2015). Prior to use, membrane modules should always be experimentally tested in
the laboratory for operability with a given wastewater. Anaerobic membrane
bioreactors have been further reviewed in the literature (Skouteris et al. 2012;
Ozgun et al. 2013).
4.2.4 Anaerobic Biofilm Reactors
Biofilms are microbial consortia attached to a support material. The support surface
is often inert and may be fixed or suspended. Anaerobic microbial biofilms can
effectively digest organic material to produce biogas (Karadag et al. 2015). A large
mass of immobilized biofilm and mass-transfer promoting movement of liquid
around the film allow biofilm reactors to handle high organics loading and tolerate
well any fluctuations in hydraulic or organics loads (Karadag et al. 2015). Once the
biofilm has developed, startup periods are short compared to the other conventional
anaerobic treatment systems (Patel et al. 1995). The nature of the support material
influences the development of the biofilm (Liu et al. 2017) and its strength of
attachment, or mechanical stability.
Inert solids packed in a column as in a trickle bed bioreactor are examples of
fixed supports (Fig. 4.14). Fixed bed biofilm reactors are also known as anaerobic
filters (Lemmer and Krümpel 2017). The wastewater enters the bottom and rises up
through the packed bed. The packing is generally selected to have a large amount of
interstitial space to reduce resistance to flow of wastewater and the biogas. For
example plastic packing with a specific surface area of 100–200 m2 per m3 may be
used. A biofilm develops on the surfaces of the static packing and provides the
activity necessary for converting the dissolved organics to biogas. Anaerobic filters
tend to be compact. The may be used as stand-alone units, or in series with one of
the other types of digesters to further polish the effluent (Bodkhe 2008; Rajinikanth
Fig. 4.14 An up-flow

anaerobic filter
et al. 2009; Lemmer and Krümpel 2017). Clogging of the filter can be a problem
(Bodkhe 2008). Excess biofilm sloughs off and leaves with the effluent. Moderate
organic loads (e.g. 5–10 kg COD/m3) are generally handled best in anaerobic
filters.
Biofilm may be developed also on inert particles suspended in a liquid (Wang
et al. 2009), as in a fluidized bed system (see Sect. 4.2.2.7). Bioreactors of this type
are known as anaerobic moving biofilm reactors. An example is the anaerobic
fluidized bed reactor (Fig. 4.12). Moving biofilm reactors allow good contact
between the biofilm and wastewater, but retention mechanism may be needed to
prevent washout of the biofilm supporting particles.
Various hybrid anaerobic biofilm reactors have also been developed by combing
the biofilm systems with other types of reactors (Büyükkamaci and Filibeli 2002;
Najafpour et al. 2006).
4.2.5 High-Rate Reactors
High-rate reactors are all those configurations that have somehow been modified to
enhance the rate of degradation of organics, reduce retention time and increase
organics loading and generation of biogas. Enhanced degradation performance may
be achieved by one or more of the following approaches: better retention of the
biomass to maintain a high concentration of active microorganisms in the reactor;
enhanced mixing to improve mass transfer between the wastewater and microbial
solids; improved temperature control; and compartmentalization to provide optimal
conditions for hydrolysis-acidogenesis and the rate-limiting methanogenesis reac-

tions in different compartments (Grobicki and Stuckey 1991; Dahiya and Joseph
2015; Horváth et al. 2016). Digesters mimicking the conditions in the various zones
of the digestive tracts of ruminants are being developed (Zhang et al. 2014).
4.3 Concluding Remarks
Many different configurations and operational schemes have been developed for
anaerobic digesters for use in different applications, as reviewed in this chapter. The
aims generally are to reduce washout of active biomass, shorten the start-up period,
minimize operational instabilities and attempt to better accommodate the inevitable
variations in feed composition. Cost of installation, operation and maintenance are
other factors that substantially affect the economics of biogas production.
Single-stage digesters are most commonly used on account of their simplicity, but
two-stage digesters are more efficient overall. No particular digester type can be
recommended as being universally suitable. The choice in a given scenario must
consider many factors including the following: the nature and strength of the waste
stream; the expense of construction and operation; the availability and skills level of
the local workforce; local climatic conditions, infrastructural support and cost of
energy; and prospects for disposal of the digestate and the effluent. Biogas pro-
duction by anaerobic digestion is a useful method of recovering energy from
organic waste while greatly mitigating the environmental impact of the waste.
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Chapter 5
Biogas Production: Mechanical
and Thermal Pre-treatment
Technologies
Ing. Dieter Jürgen Korz
5.1 Introduction
Huge amounts of organic waste are generated in urban, industrial, and agricultural
areas worldwide. Unfortunately, organic wastes are still usually disposed of in
landfills instead of being utilized for energy production and nutrients recycling. On
the other hand, disposal of these materials in landfills causes very significant
methane emissions and methane is one of the most climate-damaging greenhouse
gases. There is no more doubt that any process/event leading to negative envi-
ronmental impacts such as global warming and climate change must be antagonized
for the sake of the future. The problem of global warming must be resolved
globally, and waste treatment based on recycling and energy recovery could be an
important solution to this crisis.
Solid and liquid organic wastes are generated in many different areas and thus,
have very diverse compositions. Depending on the applied waste management
strategies, the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) could be in a range
of 20–70%. In many countries source separated collection systems for organic
waste are already in place or being implemented. In the case of source separated
organic wastes, the amount of biodegradable organic fraction is high but there
always exist undesired contamination with plastic, glass, metals, stones, sand, etc. It
has been proven that from source separated organic wastes, high-quality organic
fertilizers can be produced, and this is a very efficient way of nutrients recycling.
Organic wastes are also produced within the commercial and industrial areas
mainly in the food and beverage processing industry, in restaurants, canteens, and
supermarkets. These wastes also include a high level of contamination by pack-
aging materials which must be considered in the subsequent waste treatment
processes.
Ing.Dieter Jürgen Korz (&)

Proweps Envirotec GmbH, Rißstraße 19, 88400 Biberach, Germany

118 Ing. Dieter Jürgen Korz
A well proven technology to treat organic wastes in an eco-friendly manner is

anaerobic digestion (AD) for biogas production. The key process step in biogas
production plants is the pre-treatment of the organic wastes because of their inho-
mogeneity and fluctuating compositions. It is vitally important to separate undesired
waste fractions such as plastic, glass, stones, and metals to ensure the greatest possible
extent a trouble free AD process as well as the production of a high-quality fertilizer.
Furthermore, the biodegradable fraction of the organic wastes should be disintegrated
very efficiently to obtain a homogenized feedstock and ensure the highest possible
conversion of the organic materials into biogas in anaerobic digesters.
Besides mechanical treatment of organic wastes which must always be the first
processing step, further treatments have also been developed and are used mainly to
increase biogas production. Such technologies are based on biological or thermal
treatment of the biodegradable organic fraction before AD.
Pre-treatment systems for organic waste must comply with some important
requirements such as:
• Flexibility to treat different types of organic waste
• Substrate homogenization
• Efficient removal of contaminants
• Energy efficiency
• Wear resistance
• High biogas production in anaerobic digesters.
The composition of organic waste originated from different areas (municipal,
industrial, commercial) differs significantly. Many reasons cause such changes in
composition as waste collection strategies, seasonal fluctuations, different packag-
ing material, etc.
The waste composition is the most important criteria for the selection of a
suitable pre-treatment technology. Furthermore, for the selection of the most suit-
able pre-treatment technology, it is important to know which type of AD, i.e., wet
or dry digestion systems is to be used for treating the organic waste.
Wet anaerobic systems are operated at a lower solid concentration and use
pre-treatment systems to remove the undesirable contaminants before the AD
process. The digestate after AD can be used directly as high-quality fertilizer and no
further digestate treatment (post-composting, compost refining, etc.) is normally
necessary. Due to the efficient pre-treatment of organic waste, the biogas production
is high. Wet AD systems are the preferred technologies for treating wet organic
waste such as food leftovers, packaged food, and food waste. Although organic
fraction from MSW can be treated in wet AD systems.
Dry anaerobic systems are operated at higher solid concentrations and use
simpler pre-treatment systems before the AD process. As the efficiency of con-
taminant separation is not sufficient to use the digestate directly as high-quality
fertilizer, additional digestate treatment (i.e., post-composting, compost refining) is
usually required if the input material is contaminated. Dry anaerobic systems are
mainly used if the organic waste includes a high percentage of garden waste but
also to treat the organic fraction of MSW after a mechanical separation process.
5 Biogas Production: Mechanical and Thermal Pre-treatment … 119
This chapter describes the different pre-treatment technologies used in industrial

AD plants for treating different kinds of organic waste. Only systems that are
already in operation in industrial scale plants over a long period and have been
proven to be suitable for organic waste processing are considered and discussed
herein.
5.2 Organic Waste
As mentioned earlier, organic waste is produced in different areas and its compo-
sition varies depending on its origin and the applied waste management strategies.
A good understanding of waste composition is very important to decide on the best
suitable, most efficient, and most economic treatment technology. This section
presents the different types of organic waste that is produced in different areas.
Biowaste is collected by municipalities in cities where food waste is not sepa-
rated from garden waste and both waste fractions are usually collected in a common
biowaste bin. This is a typical collection system used is some countries such as
Germany. Therefore, the biowaste includes a high amount of garden waste espe-
cially during the growing season from spring to autumn. In winter, the amount of
garden waste in biowaste is low and that means that less organic waste is produced
and the organic waste has a higher percentage of food waste and moisture. Due to
these variations in garden and food waste, the moisture content also varies. In
winter, due to the higher amount of food waste, the moisture content of biowaste is
much higher than in other seasons.
It is also important for the design of a treatment plant to consider the fact that
garden waste also includes huge amounts of sand and stones but this waste also
includes plastic and other non-organic contaminations which must be considered in
the plant design.
Many municipalities have separate collection systems for food and for garden
waste. This makes a lot of sense because food waste with its high specific energy
yield content can be processed efficiently in AD plants to produce biogas. While
garden waste due to its high amount of cellulose and lingo-cellulose is more
suitable for aerobic composting. The specific biogas yield of garden waste is much
lower compared with food waste and is therefore, not advisable to treat it in AD
plants.
Food waste has a high moisture content and is also always contaminated
especially with plastics as well as other contaminants as metals, glass, stones etc.
Therefore, an efficient pre-treatment before AD is crucial.
On some occasions, municipal food waste is collected in paper bags with very
low levels of contamination. However, the pre-treatment stage for such type of food
waste is also important because the paper together with the organic part of the food
waste should still be separated from some contaminations prior to treatment in
anaerobic digesters. Paper bags should not be separated as contaminants.
Food waste from restaurants and kitchen typical have a high moisture content
(75–90%) as well as significant amounts of contamination (packaging material,
metals from cutlery, broken plates, cups, and glass). For instance, food waste from
restaurants in China contain a lot of chop sticks besides other contaminants which
should be considered. Another type of food waste is the biomass generated through
vegetable processing in kitchens. Low level of contamination and a low moisture
content are the main characteristics of this waste. The pre-treatment of such kind of
organic waste involves at least an efficient disintegration and homogenization
before the AD process while the possibility of the presence of contaminants in the
bins should not be overlooked.
Packaged food waste including expired food is another stream of food-related
wastes. Such types of organic waste contain mainly plastic and other packaging
material as contaminants. Due to the heterogeneity of organic waste the
pre-treatment process before AD is extremely important.
5.3 Pre-treatment Technologies
Different pre-treatment technologies are available for organic waste processing

prior to an AD process. The present section explains the most widely used and most
experienced pre-treatment technologies.
5.3.1 Mechanical Pre-treatment Systems
5.3.1.1 Separation Hammer Mills
Separation hammer mills are mainly used to treat packaged food waste and food
leftovers from restaurants. The principal function of the separation mills is the
crushing of organic waste using hammers installed on an electrically-driven shaft.
The separation hammer mills are equipped with a screen and a separation system to
remove the packaging material which is mainly the plastic fraction. Figure 5.1
shows a separation hammer mill with charging and discharging systems.
The plastic fraction has a low density and is separated by means of an air suction
out of the separation mill into a screw separator that removes and transfers the
plastics into a container. The separation mill is equipped with a screen with a
defined size of the screen wholes. Crushed biodegradable organic material as well
as crushed contaminants (plastic and glass) with particle sizes smaller than the
screen whole size are separated. This crushed organic material is then used for
further processing in anaerobic systems. Usually process or fresh water is added to
assure an efficient separation of contaminants from the organic material.
Several separation hammer mill systems from different suppliers are available on
the market e.g.:
Fig. 5.1 A typical separation hammer mill. Courtesy Haarslev Industries A/S
(datasheet_Haarslev2.0)
• Wackerbauer
• Haarslev
• Hybag
• Atritor
It needs to be stressed that the separation mills do not separate inert material as
glass or sand. As such contaminants are usually included in the organic waste, it is
normally necessary to install additional equipment to separate inert materials
especially if wet AD systems are used for organic processing.
An example of a separation mill combined with a hydrocyclone to remove inerts
is the co-digestion plant in Innsbruck (Austria). Figures 5.2a and b show the sep-
aration mill and the hydrocylone system in the sewage water treatment plant in
Innsbruck, respectively. The processed biowaste after removal of the plastic and
packaging contamination is then further treated in the hydrocylone system.
At high flow velocities of an organic waste liquid suspension, heavy material is
separated. The heavy fraction separation efficiency of hydrocyclones is good when
the solid content of the organic slurry is below 10%. As biowaste usually has a
higher solid content, a dilution with fresh or process water is required. As men-
tioned earlier, water is usually added directly into the separation mill to adjust the
required solid content.
Fig. 5.2 a Separation hammer mill and b hydrocylone system installed for separation of inerts in
the sewage treatment plant in Innsbruck, Austria. Courtesy DI Reinhard Oberguggenberger (KA
Betriebsinfo)
5.3.1.2 Impact Reactor Combined with a Reject Separation System
This pre-treatment technology combines a waste disintegration based on the impact

technology with a separation system to remove light and heavy contaminants. The
process flow of the two-step pre-treatment technology is shown in Fig. 5.3.
In the impact reactor equipped with a special solid rotor, the organic waste is
disintegrated selectively. Plastic bags are opened but not crushed in small pieces
and the coarse plastic pieces can then easily and efficiently be removed in the reject
separation system by the screening process. The impact technology disintegrates the
biodegradable organic waste fraction very efficiently into small particles. This is
important to ensure a high organic conversion into biogas in the digester.
The disintegration process does not require any water addition and the adjust-
ment of the moisture content for AD is managed in the reject separation system.
Thus, electricity consumption in the impact reactor is minimized. Figure 5.4 shows
an impact reactor installed in an AD plant.
The second and very important part of the pre-treatment is the separation of
biodegradable organic fraction from light and heavy contaminants performed using
reject separation systems (Fig. 5.5).
In the reject separation system, light fraction (plastics, textiles, wood pieces etc.)
is first separated by screening processes. The solid content of the waste slurry is first
adjusted by adding internal process water according to the digestion requirement
and to ensure an optimal separation of biodegradable organic material from
Organic waste
Impact reactor
Process water
Lights Wet screening

Compact
unit
Grit Grit separation
Organic slurry
Anaerobic digester
Digestate dewatering
Fig. 5.3 The flowchart of the impact reactor combined with reject separation system
pre-treatment
Fig. 5.4 Impact reactor

Fig. 5.5 Reject separation system
contaminants. Disintegrated organic material as well as small inert material (glass,

sand, and stones) are subsequently passed through the screen into an aerated grid
separation system. The aeration of the grid separation system reduces the viscosity
of the organic slurry and therefore, the separation efficiency will be improved. The
grid separation system is also equipped with a top skimmer and very small and light
particles as polystyrene pieces are separated. The separation of fine plastic particles
is of great importance when the organic fraction separated from municipal solid
waste is to be treated. The system produces a clean organic slurry that can be used
without further treatment in an anaerobic digester. The supplier of this pre-treatment
technology is Dieffenbacher GmbH.
5.3.1.3 Pulper Technologies
Pre-treatment technologies based on pulper technology are used prior to wet AD

systems. The system consists of several components and prepares a clean,
homogenous, pumpable organic fraction from organic waste that will be then
treated in the digester.
More specifically, using the pulper technology, biowaste is first treated in a
crusher to open plastic bags and reduce the particle size of the organic waste. The
pre-crushed organic waste is then mixed with process water in the pulper to produce
a homogenous waste suspension with a solid content of approx. 10%. Pulpers are
equipped with central mixers to ensure efficient mixing of organic waste with
process water as well as to further reduce the particle size of the organic material. At
the bottom of the pulper, a grit separation chamber is installed where heavy par-
ticles such as glass, stones, metals, bones are collected and can then be easily
removed. This is an important function of the process to prevent these heavy pieces
from being pumped into the AD system. The organic slurry will then pass through a
screen that separates waste components which are not useful in AD process
including plastic, textiles, and wood also known as the light fraction. The cleaned
organic slurry will the subsequently pumped into a buffer tank. As the organic
slurry may still contain inert materials (such as sand, glass splitter, and stones), it is
important to make sure all these materials are removed as they would cause wear in
the plant but also would lead to sedimentation in the digester. Therefore, a
hydrocylone system is used to remove this fine inert material before the organic
slurry is introduced into anaerobic digesters.
Various systems using the pulper technology are available. They differ in the
systems used to separate the contaminants from the biodegradable organic fraction.
For instance, Fig. 5.6 shows the flow chart of a pulper technology combined with a
hydrocylone system used to process organic waste, i.e., BTA-process (biowaste,
food waste) and Fig. 5.7 presents a BTA pre-treatment installation in Austria.
Fig. 5.6 Pulper system

combined with hydrocylone
(BTA-process). Courtesy
BTA-International Co.
(Kübler et al. 2015)
Fig. 5.7 BTA-plant Zell am See, Austria Courtesy BTA-International Co. (Kübler et al. 2015)
In a pre-treatment system developed by Lohse GmbH, a screen drum is used to

remove the light fraction from the organic waste slurry while the inert materials are
also separated by a hydrocylone system. Ecogy pulper technology shown in
Fig. 5.8 is also another technology available on the market. The key difference
between this system and the other pulper systems is that the organic slurry is
thickened after contaminants removal to increase the slurry solid content before the
AD process. Thus, the hydraulic loading and consequently, the energy consumption
of the whole biogas production plant will be reduced.
5.3.1.4 Organics Separation with Press System
Different press technologies are used for pre-treatment of organic waste to separate
its biodegradable fraction from contaminants. The systems that are available on the
market use either the screw press technology or piston press technology. One of the
most advanced systems is the hydraulic press developed many years ago by
VMpress. The owner of this technology is Anaergia offering complete pre-treatment
systems. More specifically, the organic waste is treated in a cylindrical chamber
with a piston that applies a high pressure on the organic waste. The fractioning of
the organic waste is carried out by particle size based on a screen system that is part
Fig. 5.8 Ecogy pulper system. Courtesy Gemidan Ecogi A/S (http://ecogi.dk/en/technology/)
of the press chamber. Biodegradable fraction of the organic waste as well as small
light and heavy waste particles (the light fraction with higher calorific values, e.g.,
plastics, textiles, and cardboard) are separated from bigger waste particles. As the
organic waste is being treated in the press without water addition, the organic
fraction separated has the original solid content. The removal of small contaminants
(plastic and grid) from the organic fraction before AD requires additional pro-
cessing to produce a cleaner organic slurry. Anaergia offers a dynamic cyclone
system to remove small light pieces. An adjustment of the solid content of the
organic fraction for these additional processing steps is then required. Moreover,
this technology requires additional separation systems to remove fine inert material
from the wet organic fraction separated in the press.
Other suppliers of hydraulically operated presses include:
• Finsterwalder Umwelttechnik GmbH
• Putzmeister Solid Pumps GmbH.
The separation process of organics from packaging material with a hydraulically
operated press is identical in all the systems but the applied pressure is different.
The pressure varies from 30 to 250 bar. Systems that are operated at higher pressure
values have a higher organics separation efficiency but on the other, require a higher
investment cost. As disposal costs for rejects from organics processing are high, the
target of the treatment should always be to minimize organic losses and to produce
rejects streams with low water contents.
Screw presses such as those supplied by Bellmer Kufferath are also used to
separate the organic fraction from packaging material after the waste is crushed with
a shredder. The crushed organic waste is then mechanically pressed with a screw.
The pressure-built-up is reached with a conical screw with substantial flight heights.
The liquid fraction is separated with a screw inside the machine and is used directly
for AD. The solid fraction contains mainly the plastic and packaging material.
Another supplier of such type of press technology (known as Biopress) is
Doppstadt. Their systems are mainly applied for packaged food and food leftovers.
As mentioned earlier, it is important to consider additional processing steps before
AD if the waste includes heavy contaminants such as glass, stones, and sand as
some of such heavy material may pass the screen.
5.3.1.5 Crusher Combined with Screening (Pre-treatment

for Dry AD Systems)
Dry AD systems are operated at higher solid contents compared with wet AD
systems. Accordingly, the moisture content of the organic waste treated in digesters
is lower compared with wet AD systems. The main function of the pre-treatment
system is a rough depackaging (opening and removing of plastic bags), size
reduction, and separation of oversized material that is not suitable for AD. Organic
waste is first disintegrated by crushers followed by a classification in different
particle sizes using drum or star screen separators. Figure 5.9 shows a crusher with
two shafts.
Fig. 5.9 Crusher used for managing biowaste. Courtesy ARJES (http://www.arjes.de/de/
produkte/vorzerkleinerer/vz-850/)
The screening process usually separates the organic waste in fractions <60–80
and >60–80 mm. In order to minimize losses of biodegradable organic material in
the oversized fraction, the material is usually crushed and screened again. Fe-metals
can be separated from the organic waste fraction <60–80 mm before the material is
fed into the digesters. Before feeding the crushed organic waste into the digester the
moisture content is adjusted according to the process specific requirements by
adding internal process water separated in a digestate dewatering process. It must be
considered that the organic fraction still includes contaminants as glass, plastic, and
stones which must be removed after AD. Efficient separation of such contaminants
requires a moisture content of ideally <40% and that means that an additional
composting process after AD is usually necessary to reduce the moisture content of
the digestate to the required level. After the composting process, contaminants are
removed by screening (removal of heavy material as glass and stones) and wind
sifting (plastic removal) to produce a compost with the required quality according
to national rules and regulations.
5.3.2 Thermal Pre-treatment Systems
5.3.2.1 Thermal Hydrolysis
Following mechanical treatment which is important to separate contaminants and to

produce a homogenous biomass, the processed organic waste can be further treated
at high temperature to not only increase the biogas production but also to pasteurize
the organic waste. The sanitation of organic waste, i.e., to eliminate pathogenic
microbes such as Salmonella, is an important part of waste processing. AD plants
must comply with the national regulations related to the pasteurization requirements
for both digestate and compost products.
High temperature values should improve the microbial degradation of organic
material and consequently a higher biogas production in the digesters is expected.
In another word, the thermal treatment of organic biomass destroys persistent
structures of the cells and complex molecules and therefore, an optimized microbial
degradation in the digesters is achieved.
The heating of organic waste to high temperature values before AD is not very
common as the technology is very expensive and the expected increase in energy
production in the digester does not usually justify the additional investment.
Furthermore, an efficient pre-treatment of organic waste especially food waste is
usually sufficient to obtain a high conversion rate into biogas and the additional
increase in biogas production because of thermal treatment is not considerable.
Thermal treatment leads to higher organic conversion efficiencies when substrates
such as sewage sludge or agricultural residues (e.g., straw) with high lignocellulosic
contents are used.
Among thermal hydrolysis technologies available the CAMBI thermal hydrol-

ysis process is used in organic waste treatment plants for biowaste. In this system,
following mechanical treatment and before AD, the organic waste is heated up to
165–170 °C and is treated at 6–7 bar for 30 min at this temperature. For heating the
organic waste slurry to the required processing temperature, steam is required. After
thermal treatment, the temperature of the organic slurry is reduced to the AD
temperature. The system is equipped with a heat recovery to minimize the con-
sumption of thermal energy.
The thermal treatment at such high temperatures is advantageous only if organic
waste includes animal byproducts of class 1 or 2 according the European animal
by-products regulation. If animal by-products class 3 (food waste) is to be treated in
AD plants, the pasteurization of the organic waste before AD at 70 °C for 1 h is
sufficient and accepted according the EU requirements unless stated otherwise by
national regulations.
If a thermal treatment at high temperatures is required, a specific economical
evaluation is required. It should also be noted that since renewable energies in many
countries are no longer supported by subsidies and must survive considering the
market conditions, the additional energy production in response to thermal treat-
ment may not justify the respective high investment cost for such a system.
5.3.2.2 Pasteurization of Organic Waste
National and international regulations usually require a pasteurization of organic

waste. The system usually used to address this need is a thermal treatment at a
temperature >70 °C with a minimum hydraulic retention time of 1 h. In the EU, it is
also required to reduce the particle size of the organic waste for pasteurisation
below 12 mm.
Different pasteurization systems working either in batch- or continuous modes
are available on the market. Figure 5.10 shows a continuous food waste pasteur-
ization system.
To achieve a continuous operation, at least three tanks are used while they
alternatively undergo the above-mentioned pasteurization conditions. Pasteurised
organic slurry is then cooled down to the digester process temperature. With a heat
recovery system, extra heat through cooling down the slurry after pasteurisation, is
used to heat up the unpasteurized organic slurry. Based on a continuous operation, a
high heat recovery efficiency is ensured.
If the pre-treatment and pasteurisation of organic waste is carried out before the
AD, then the digestate can be used directly as high-quality fertilizer and additional
processing (post-composting, compost refining) is not required.
Other common methods for pasteurisation of organic waste are:
• Thermophilic digester operation at temperatures of 55–58 °C
• Aerobic post-composting of digestate.
Fig. 5.10 Continuous food waste pasteurization system
Post-composting of digestate requires the addition of structural material (garden

waste) because it is necessary to adjust the characteristics (moisture content, air
porosity) of the organic material for an efficient composting process to ensure
sufficient heat development for pasteurisation.
5.4 Conclusions
Organic waste is very heterogeneous, while its moisture content as well as level of
contamination vary significantly. Thus, pre-treatment before AD is a key process.
Different pre-treatment technologies have been developed and are successfully
installed in many AD plants all over the world. The pre-treatment of organic waste
is the key process step in biogas production plants ensuring:
• Efficient separation of contaminants
• High availability of AD plants
• High biogas yields
• Production of high quality fertilizers.
In any AD application treating organic waste, a mechanical pre-treatment is

installed. Different pre-treatment technologies are available to reduce the size of the
organic waste and to separate the plastic and packaging material from the
biodegradable fraction of the waste. As organic waste almost always includes
contaminations such as glass, metals, stones, and sand; additional systems are also
required to deal with such heavy contaminants of the waste. Thereby, plants are
generally highly flexible to treat all kinds of organic waste without any quality
restrictions.
Pre-treatment systems should be most efficient in terms of organics disintegra-
tion and in terms of the separation of the contaminants. It is very important to avoid
the severe crushing of the contaminants as this makes their separation before or
after AD very difficult. A selective and efficient organics disintegration results in
higher specific biogas yields in the digesters.
Thermal treatment of organic waste at high temperature and pressure values is
more common when treating sewage sludge or agricultural biomass, e.g., straw.
Such types of organic biomass are difficult to degrade anaerobically due to their
rigid structure. On the contrary, food waste only requires a mechanical processing
and can be efficiently converted in AD systems to biogas. Therefore, the additional
biogas production that can be obtained normally does not justify the high invest-
ments for thermal treatment systems for such type of organic waste. The pasteur-
ization of organic waste does not require such high temperatures as a treatment at
70 °C for 1 h is sufficient and accepted according to international regulations.
One of the key targets of AD besides energy production is the recycling of
valuable nutrients back into the natural cycle. But this is only possible if the
fertilizer is of high quality and has lowest possible level of contaminations. Strict
and continuously monitored fertilizer quality requirements have already been
established in many countries around the world. Following the requirements plays a
key role for future development of AD plants. Therefore, an efficient pre-treatment
of organic waste also ensures the production of high quality fertilizers and conse-
quently, additional, expensive digestate processing after AD can be avoided.
Efficient separation of contaminants and preparation of a homogenous organic
waste slurry also prevents process interruptions mainly caused by clogging, sedi-
mentation, floating, wear, and ensures high plant availability. As one of the main
revenues of waste treatment plants is the gate fee for treating waste, a high plant
availability is of greatest significance for the plant economics. Moreover, mini-
mizing costs associated with replacing worn-out parts is also important for the plant
economics.
High biogas yields in anaerobic digesters are achieved if the biodegradable
organic material is well crushed in the pre-treatment and a large surface are for
microbial degradation is achieved.
Finally, it should be stressed out that pre-treatment technologies should be
flexible as organic waste composition due to different reasons is unsteady. Seasonal
fluctuations in waste composition such as changes in the general waste management
strategies must be considered and more importantly, the pre-treatment technology
used should be able to accommodate such variations. This also concerns the type
and amount of contaminants as well as the moisture content of the waste. Plant
operators are also advised to consider using different types of organic waste
available on the market to enhance the plant economics.
References
Haarslev company information: waste food depacker (datasheet_Haarslev2.0)

KA Betriebsinfo: Behandlung von Bioabfällen mit anschließender Co-Vergärung, pp 2108–2112
Kübler H, Muck O, Patzies M, Schulte S, BTA International GmbH L. Winter, Biogas ZEMKA
GmbH (2015) High substrate flexibility and intelligent biogas valorization concept: the biogas
plant ZEMKA in Austria. Presentation BIOGAS 2015, 24. Internationale Jahrestagung und
Fachmesse, p 12, 29 Jan 2015
Gemidan Ecogi A/S Ecogi—Technical Description (available on homepage http://ecogi.dk/en/
technology/)
http://www.arjes.de/de/produkte/vorzerkleinerer/vz-850/
Chapter 6
Prominent Parameters in Biogas
Production Systems
Meisam Tabatabaei, Elena Valijanian, Mortaza Aghbashlo,

Hossein Ghanavati, Alawi Sulaiman and Minato Wakisaka
6.1 Introduction
Anaerobic digestion (AD) process has been investigated comprehensively over the
last decades for both waste/wastewater treatment and renewable energy production in
both the industrial and agricultural sectors (Lindmark et al. 2014). The growth and
activity of anaerobic microorganisms, i.e., the beating heart of the AD, and conse-
quently the efficiency of the process are significantly impacted by some prominent
parameters and therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these parameters are as optimized
as much as possible. These parameters include constant temperature values favoring
microbial growth, pH-value, sufficient nutrient supply (substrate composition and C/
M. Tabatabaei E. Valijanian
Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension
Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
M. Aghbashlo
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
A. Sulaiman (&)
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
M. Wakisaka (&)
Department of Biological Functions and Engineering, Graduate School
of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology,
2-4 Hibikino, Wakamatsu-Ku, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka 808-0196, Japan
H. Ghanavati
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research,

136 M. Tabatabaei et al.
N ratio), mixing intensity, retention time as well as presence and amount of inhibitors
(e.g., ammonia and heavy metals) (Al Seadi et al. 2008). Among the various groups of
anaerobic microorganisms involved in the AD process, methanogenic archaea han-
dling the very last stage of biogas production (BP), are very sensitive to any changes in
their environmental conditions (Voicu et al. 2015). Since these microorganisms are in
fact the rate-limiting factor of the whole BP process, it is essential to carefully monitor
the environmental conditions. In light of that, maintaining these parameters within
their appropriate ranges as far as microbial growth and activity are concerned is key to
achieve long-term stable AD operation (Zhang et al. 2014). This chapter is aimed at
reviewing and discussing the aforementioned parameters.
6.2 Temperature
Temperature is undoubtedly a crucial parameter that could profoundly impact the

AD process (Chen et al. 2016). AD process are performed under psychrophilic
(15 ± 1 °C), mesophilic (37 °C), and thermophilic (55–70 °C) conditions. Among
them, thermophilic condition has been reported to possess the fastest reaction rates
and highest load bearing capacity, consequently, leading to the highest productivity
(Mao et al. 2015). However and despite of the favorable advantages associated with
thermophilic AD, the existing high temperature is believed to intensify ammonia
toxicity which could eventually result in unstable digestion process and in severe
cases its complete inhibition (Weiland 2010). Table 6.1 tabulates the typical
retention times required under different thermal conditions (Al Seadi et al. 2008).
It has been claimed that BP under psychrophilic and mesophilic conditions using
anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBRs) led to comparable methane production
rates, significant methane loss in the permeate under psychrophilic conditions was
observed though (Martinez-Sosa et al. 2011; Trzcinski and Stuckey 2010; Smith
et al. 2013). Moreover, low temperatures corresponded to a slightly higher fouling
rate possibly caused by VFA accumulation and the release of protein-dominated
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (Gao et al. 2014a).
In addition to the AD process, temperature has also been reported to be effective
on microbial population balance and BP through thermal pre-treatment. In a study,
Ennouri et al. (2016) employed thermal pre-treatment prior to the AD of waste
activated sludge (WAS). They argued that sludge thermal pre-treatment at 120 °C
led to the highest biogas yields of 0.42 L/g volatile solid (VS) removed and
Table 6.1 Thermal conditions and their typical retention times

Thermal stage Process temperatures (°C) Minimum retention time (days)
Psychrophilic <20 70–80
Mesophilic 30–42 30–40
Thermophilic 43–55 15–20
*With permission from Al Seadi et al. (2008) Copyright© 2017
6 Prominent Parameters in Biogas Production Systems 137
0.37 L/g VS removed for urban and industrial sludge samples, respectively. They
attributed the positive impacts of thermal pre-treatment to the enhanced growth of
hydrogen-using methanogens (HUMs), and the consequent rapid consumption of
the generated H2 leading to enhanced acetogenesis (Ennouri et al. 2016).
It should be noted that variations in temperature could also adversely affect the
microorganisms involved in the AD process and consequently BP. In line with that,
(Bowen et al. 2014) showed that under-optimal temperature values led to reduced
substrate utilization and VFA production rates. On the contrary, increases in
operating temperatures are generally accompanied with less negative effects prob-
ably owing to the higher ability of microbial community to adapt to such tem-
perature conditions. This was practically confirmed by (Kundu et al. 2014a) who
investigated the recovery of a mesophilic anaerobic reactor after sharply increasing
the operating temperature to 65 °C. They reported that the temperature shock
widely affected the acetoclastic methanogenic populations, which consequently led
to a prompt performance deterioration of the AD system. Nevertheless, they also
observed a gradual recovery of the system and attributed the improvements in BP to
the emergence of thermophilic methanogenic populations under the new tempera-
ture regime (Kundu et al. 2014a). Similar observations were made by (Westerholm
et al. 2017) who looked into thermophilic-to-mesophilic temperature adaptation.
Overall, it should be noted that in a stable AD system, there is a balance among
the different microbial populations contributing to the process and therefore, there is
no accumulation of intermediates, e.g., the end products of a specific population.
Sudden changes such as abrupt variations in temperature, could disturb this balance
jeopardizing the whole microbial structure, FA concentration and consequently BP
process (Kundu et al. 2014a; Kwietniewska and Tys 2014). When deciding on the
temperature choice of an AD system, various factors should be taken into account.
In better words, there is trade-off between the pros and cons of different temperature
regimes, e.g., mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. For instance, increased
process temperatures are in principle associated with increased microbial metabolic
rates, higher degradation rates of organic materials and COD removal as well as
with increased BP potentials. However, higher concentrations of FA and their
potential accumulation in case of any process deficiencies as well as higher sus-
ceptibility to ammonia inhibition are also more probable under thermophilic con-
ditions compared with mesophilic ones (Chen et al. 2008). Hence and as mentioned
earlier, for large-scale BP operations, different factors including ambient conditions,
type of wastes used, as well as the cost and expenses needed to maintain ther-
mophilic conditions should be investigated to ensure the economic viability of the
choice of temperature regime for AD systems (Khan et al. 2016). For instance,
Arikan et al. (2015) concluded that for a 400 m3 digester in Maryland with an
ambient temperature of 13 °C, energy requirements could be decreased to 70% if
the operating temperature would be reduced from 35 to 28 °C.
6.3 pH
Microbial growth in an anaerobic digester and consequently BP are largely

dependent on the pH (Yang et al. 2015). Optimal growth of different microbial
groups involved in the AD process take place under different pH values, e.g.,
acidogens (5.0–6.0) and methanogens (6.5–8.0) (Kundu et al. 2017). This along
with the other existing differences such as different doubling time (growth rate) has
been the driving factor for separating acidogenesis and methanogenesis processes
through the application of two-stage reactor configurations (Chaikasem et al. 2015).
Since the operational pH could directly and significantly affect the whole BP
process, by optimizing each stage in separate reactors, various advantages could be
achieved including reduced VFA accumulation, higher process stability, as well as
higher buffering capacity against loading rate and toxicity (Maspolim et al. 2015). It
should also be noted that drastic declines of pH could lead to irreversible inhibition
of the BP, i.e., the process cannot be recovered even if the pH of the digester is
restored to optimal values (Dareioti et al. 2017). Nevertheless, phases operation or
in another word, conducting different stages of AD in separate reactors imposes a
significantly higher capital and maintenance costs.
If single-phase operation is intended, the favourable pH range to partially meet
the requirements of different microbial groups involved in the AD process would be
6.8–7.4. Fang and Liu (2002) revealed that the relative abundance of microbial
species substantially increased from 6 at pH 4.0–14 at pH 7.0. In general, main-
taining pH in a single-phased anaerobic digester is challenging as due to the high
activity of hydrolytic enzymes, high VFA concentrations are present and if by any
means their uptake is disturbed, pH could easily decline to values at which the
whole BP operation would be at stake (Jiang et al. 2013). In a study, Hernández and
Rodríguez (2013) looked into the impact of low pH values (i.e., 5.0, 5.5, and 6.0)
using an anaerobic batch reactor and claimed that at pH values lower than 6.0,
methane production stood at >1% while hydrogen production was recorded at high
levels showing the prevalence of acid-producing bacteria in the reactor. These
findings are in line with those of Nakasaki et al. (2015) who also recorded a
significantly lower archaeal cell density at low pH values versus bacteria.
Yang et al. (2015) argued that methane yield was increased by more than 7 times
when pH was controlled in comparison with the conditions of pH uncontrolled
group. This reveals the importance of different pH control strategies. Among these
strategies is the application of controlled organic loading rate (OLR) in order to
prevent the accumulation of VFAs, also known as acidification. However, there is
always a trade-off between the benefits achieved by employing high OLRs and the
cost associated to maintain the pH at optimum range for methanogens (Mao et al.
2015). Another strategy is the extraction of propionic acid, e.g., by solvent
extraction (Wang et al. 2009). Nevertheless, economic feasibility of this method at
large-scale industrial operation is in question. Control of pH through the addition of
sodium hydroxide has also been largely investigated (Chandra et al. 2012).
However, the applicability of this method when dealing with industrial scale
digesters is in question. It should also be mentioned that excess sodium ion could
also play the role of an inhibitor of the methanogenesis process, for instance at
concentrations above 3500 mg/L under mesophilic conditions (Chen et al. 2008).
Another technology in which no additives would be required is the pH-dependent
recycling of effluent from an anaerobic filter into the acidification reactor (Lindner
et al. 2015).
Sharp pH variations could also adversely affect some reactor designs and con-
figurations such as AnMBRs. More specifically, serious membrane fouling has been
reported as a result of sludge flocs breakage and the accumulation of fine particles in
the bulk sludge caused by pH shocks (Gao et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2015). In light of
that, phased AnMBRs, in which acidogenesis and methanogenesis processes are
carried out in separate reactors, are highly recommended (Lin et al. 2013).
6.4 Volatile Fatty Acids and Alkalinity
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) are important intermediates generated during the
hydrolysis and acidogenesis stages of the AD process which also hinder the process
if accumulated beyond certain limits. VFAs consist of organic acids such as acetic,
propionic, butyric and valeric acids (Haugen 2014) and are used as substrate for the
acetogenesis and methanogenesis stages to produce the final product of the process,
i.e., methane. VFAs concentration is a good indicator for the evaluation of the
stability of the digestion process. In general, abrupt changes in the environmental
conditions in the digester such as substrate composition, inhibitors overload and/or
temperature instability could result in the inhibition of the microbial population
involved in the process leading to increased concentrations of VFAs to over
1500–2000 mg/L, jeopardizing the BP process (Falk 2012; Labatut and Gooch
2014). In another word, accumulation of these acids in particular propionic acid
could significantly reduce the pH and subsequently, inhibit the methanogenesis
(Jain et al. 2015; Drosg 2013). It has been highlighted in the published literature that
fast biodegradation of organic macromolecules like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
in food and agro-industrial wastes is the main cause of such VFA accumulations and
the resultant reactor imbalances (Jain et al. 2015). It should be mentioned that acetic
acid is the final precursor to methane and therefore, its moderate accumulation is
normal. Overall, the ratio of acetic acid to propionic acid as well as butyric or valeric
acid concentration are acceptable indicator for determination of digester stability, or
conversely, process instability (Drosg 2013; Jain et al. 2015). Argyropoulos (2013)
reported that methane production was inhibited by more than 50% at acetate,
butyrate and propionate concentrations above 13, 15, and 3.5 g/L, respectively.
Different approaches and methods have been presented for VFAs measurement,
such as steam distillation, photometric, colorimetric, chromatographic, and titration
methods as well as infrared spectrometry. While the measurement of individual
VFA is carried out by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) or gas chro-
matography (GC) analysis (Aceves-Lara et al. 2012; Drosg 2013).
In addition to VFAs level, alkalinity or buffering capacity (measured as mg of

CaCO3/L) is also a typical fast indicator for monitoring the digestion process. In the
AD process, there exist two buffering systems contributing to pH stability. One
buffering system concerns the equilibrium between dissolved carbon dioxide and
CO2 3 (pKa = 6.35). At the pH value of 4, this equilibrium is shifted in favor of free
carbon dioxide, while at the pH value of 13, all carbon dioxide is bound as car-
bonate in the system. For monitoring the process, a rise of the carbon dioxide
percentage in the biogas can be an indicator of process disturbance. The other buffer
system concerns the equilibrium between the ammonia and ammonium
(pKa = 9.25), hydrogen sulfide (H2S/HS-/S2−, pKa 7.1 and 13.3), and hydrogen
phosphate (H3 PO4 =H2 PO 4 =HPO4 =PO4 , pKa 2.1, 7.2 and 12.3), responsible for
2 3
preventing weak acidification conditions. Therefore, substrates containing bicar-

bonate buffering capacity and high ammonia content generally maintain the pH
stable around weak alkaline condition, providing the digester with tolerance against
high VFAs values preventing pH drops (Boe and Angelidaki 2006; Falk 2012;
Lahav and Morgan 2004). In spite of the presence of these buffering systems, high
organic loads of easy degradable carbohydrates or introduction of toxic substances
could still disturb pH stability, causing VFAs accumulation (Falk 2012). If the
buffering capability of the system is low, both alkalinity and VFA measurements
are useful indicators to monitor the system whereas under highly buffered condi-
tions, only VFAs measurement is reliable for checking probable process imbalances
(Esteves et al. 2013). One of the best method for measuring carbonate alkalinity is
titrating a diluted sample with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid until a pH of 4.3 is reached
(Effenberger 2008).
The VFA to total alkalinity ratio (VFA/TAC) indicates the quantity of volatile
organic acids to the buffer capacity of carbonate (total alkaline carbonate) in a
digester (Deublein and Steinhauser 2011). In anaerobic digesters working under
appropriate conditions, this ratio is normally in the range of 0.1–0.35 (Esteves et al.
2013). In fact, this ratio amplifies changes related to acidification, because both
parameters are usually correlated, i.e., when VFAs increases, in most cases, alka-
linity decreases (Clemens 2012). Overall, in order to prevent the inhibition of
methane production by VFAs accumulation during the AD process, co-digesting
with other feedstocks or using a two-stage digestion system have been proven to be
effective (Jain et al. 2015).
6.5 Total and Volatile Solids
Different substrates have a vast variation in terms of their moisture and solid
contents and it is important to analyze these parameters for effectively determine a
stable organic loading rate and to consequently achieve a stable and continuous gas
production in the AD process (Falk 2012). Total solid (TS) and VS concentrations
of the substrates under digestion provide useful insights about the biogas yield that
could be potentially produced. Furthermore, mechanical parts such as pipes, cutters,

pumps, and mixers can only work effectively with a certain TS concentration.
The TS of the substrate fed into wet and dry AD systems is generally kept
approximately in the range of 10–15% and 25–40%, respectively (Li 2015).
However, it should be noted that the standard range of TS in wet biogas plants with
agricultural substrate is between 6 and 10% (Wolf 2013). The TS of the waste could
also influence the activity of the microorganisms involved in the AD process
(Krishania et al. 2013). Overall, the TS of organic matter substrate and TS during
the process are two main factors for selecting the type of system and reactor design.
For instance, considering a similar substrate, when TS is between 7 and 9%,
floating dome is considered as the most suitable design while, TS values of 4–15%
and 15–30% could be efficiently digested using CSTR and dry type anaerobic
digesters, respectively (Krishania et al. 2013). Determination of the TS is carried
out by drying the sample in a gravity convection oven at 105 °C overnight (>8 h)
following measuring weight reduction.
It should be highlighted that TS represents the total organic and inorganic
materials in a sample while VS represents the organic compounds content. The
degree of degradation of a given substrate could be determined by comparing the
VS values of the digester’s influent and effluent (Wolf 2013). Determination of VS
is accomplished by burning the 105 °C-dried sample in a muffle furnace at 550 °C
for 2 h, followed by measuring weight reduction (Labatut and Gooch 2014).
Accordingly, TS and VS could be calculated by using the following equations
(Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2):
Dry weight of sample

TSð%Þ ¼ 100 ð6:1Þ
Wet weight of sample
Dry weight of sample Burned weight of sample

VSð% Þ ¼ 100 ð6:2Þ
Dry weight of sample
6.6 Organic Loading Rate (OLR)
OLR is among the most important parameters affecting both microbial populations
during AD as well as reactor performance and BP (Kundu et al. 2017). OLR is the
amount of organic feed, introduced daily to a digester (Drosg 2013; Schnurer and
Jarvis 2010). More specifically, OLR is the quantity of VS fed per working volume
of a digester per day and is expressed as kg VS/m3 digester/d (Esteves et al. 2013).
OLR is calculated using the following equation (Eq. 6.3):
Total daily VS of substrate ðkgÞ

OLR Kg VS m3 digester=d ¼ ð6:3Þ
Total active volume of digester ðm3 Þ
It should be noted that OLR should be adjusted depending on the type of substrate
(Esteves et al. 2013). The critical issue which may be probably faced when increasing
this parameter is the possibility of acidification by overloading a digester with organic
materials leading to decrease or stop of methane production (Drosg 2013; Moriarty
2013). Accordingly, during the start-up of an anaerobic digester, the OLR should be
increased slowly in order to ensure an efficient adaptation of the microorganisms
involved in the AD process. An appropriate OLR in mesophilic CSTR digesters
ranges between 3 and 5 kg VS/m3/d depending on the type of substrate (Drosg
2013), while the microflora is generally inhibited at OLR values exceeding
6.4 kg VS/m3/d (Moriarty 2013). To achieve a successful start-up, it is advisable to
start at an OLR as low as 0.5 kg VS/m3/d; and provided that BP initiates reaching a
constant values after for 4 d, the OLR can then be increased by 0.5 kg VS/m3/d
every two weeks till reaching the target range at which BP is expected to slop up
(“Operational guidelines for Plönninge biogas plant,” n.d.; Wellinger et al. 2013).
Table 6.2 presents optimum OLR and pH range for methane production using
different type of substrates. As mentioned earlier, in principle, OLR reflects the
daily amount of VS introduced into a digester under the continuous operation mode
(Mao et al. 2015). Therefore, BP is expected to increase by increasing OLR.
However, this should not exceed the capacity of the various groups of the microbial
population handling AD. Accordingly, most biogas plants are deliberately operated
at under-optimal organic material loading or in better word, under safer condition,
with an aim to minimize process errors and therefore, they are bound to ignore
existing potentials. It is significant to note that by doubling the OLR, the plant
capacity could be theoretically be doubled as well without needing to build any
Table 6.2 Optimum OLR and pH range for methane production using different type of substrates*
Substrate Reactor type pH range OLR References
Sugar beet Semi-continuous stirred 7.4–7.8 11.2 g VS/ Aboudi et al.
cossettes tank reactor Lreactor d (2015)
Pig
manure
High COD AnMBR >7.4 11.81 kg Yu et al.
wastewater COD kg/ (2016)
VSS/d
Dairy Two stage induced bed 6.8–7.5 32.9 g-COD/ Zhong et al.
waste reactor L/d (2015)
Food Thermophilic and 7.6–8.1 18.5 g VS/d Zamanzadeh
waste mesophilic digester with et al. (2016)
recirculation
Vegetable Completely stirred tank 5.1 ± 0.1 3.0 g Zuo et al.
waste reactor (acidogenesis) (acidogenic VS/L/d (2015)
fixed-bed biofilm reactor)
(methanogenesis) 7.6 ± 0.1
(methanogenic
reactor)
*With permission from Khan et al. (2016). Copyright© 2017
additional digesters (Falk 2012). Above-optimal OLRs or in another words,

introduction of a large volume of organic materials into a digester on a daily basis
may result in unfavourable changes in the digester’s environment which could
eventually inhibit the BP. In fact, extremely high OLRs encourage high hydrolysis
and acidogenesis activities which in turn lead to high VFA production (acetic acid,
propionic acid, butyric acid, and valeric acid (Zhang et al. 2014). Under the cir-
cumstances when methanogenesis activity could not cope with this high VFA
concentration (i.e., VFA uptake be methanogens for methane generation), VFA
accumulation, decreased pH, and consequently irreversible acidification of the
digester would be likely (Palacio-Barco et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2013a). Thereafter,
the maximum endurable OLR needs to be predicted accurately for different cases
(Mao et al. 2015). It should also be noted that the application of thermophilic
conditions and effluent recirculation has been reportedly suggested to address the
overloading inhibition caused by high OLRs (Rincón et al. 2008).
Low OLRs on the other hand could result in starvation of the microbial popu-
lations, low overall performance of the digester, and consequently low BP rate.
Moreover, from the engineering point of view, targeting under-optimal OLRs when
designing digesters will be accompanied by larger reactor investment and opera-
tional costs (Jiang et al. 2012).
OLR could also strongly affect the dynamics of bacterial communities. Rincón
et al. (2008) revealed that at low OLRs, Firmicutes were the predominant bacteria
while at high OLRs, Gammaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and
Deferribacteres were the major bacteria present in the digester. Kundu et al. (2013)
also observed significant changes in dynamics of archaeal community (methano-
gens) tin response to variations in organic loads owing to the different level of
tolerance of different archaea to organic loads shock.
Temporal condition of the reactor could also affect its resistance to organic loads
shocks. In a study on the effect of higher OLRs under mesophilic and thermophilic
conditions during AD of food wastes in stirred tank reactors, Guo et al. (2014)
concluded that the reactor under mesophilic condition showed a comparatively
better performance under the organic loads shock owing to the higher richness and
evenness of the microbial community.
As mentioned earlier, higher OLRs is preferred from the engineering point of
view since less reactor volume would be required to treat a certain volume of waste
stream. The above-mentioned limitations faced by employing high OLRs could be
addressed through using two-stage anaerobic processes as possible inhibition of
methanogenesis by acidification could be efficiently avoided (Khan et al. 2016).
6.7 Hydraulic and Solid Retention Times
Retention time is in fact the time required to complete the digestion of organic
materials introduced into a digester and is directly related to substrate composition
and microbial growth as well as a number of process parameters such as
temperature and OLR (Ekama and Wentzel 2008). The main factors which should
be considered when adjusting retention time, are the composition of the substrate
and the digestion temperature. For example, in the case of cellulose-rich plant
matters, the microbial population needs more time for degradation; and so retention
time should be prolonged to ensure of an efficient hydrolysis (Schnurer and Jarvis
2010).
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) and solid retention time (SRT) are two impor-
tant factors in the design and process control of AD systems. HRT refers to the
average duration the feed material stays inside the digester and is calculated as a
ratio of the active volume of the digester and the daily volume of the feed material
(Eq. 6.4) (Drosg 2013).
Total active volume of digester ðm3 Þ

HRTðdÞ ¼ ð6:4Þ
Total daily feed materials ðm3 Þ
Low HRT values could lead to the wash-out of the active biomass including
methanogens whereas high HRT values could result into low biogas productivity of
the digester. Thus, it is important to make sure that HRT is adjusted at an appro-
priate values for a given substrate fed into the digester (Drosg 2013; Wolf 2013).
SRT is defined as the length of the residence time solids stay in a digester. SRT
is a critical operational parameter because it not only affects the process efficiency,
but also controls the biological characteristics, functionality, as well as stability of
the digester (Eq. 6.5) (Schnurer and Jarvis 2010).
Dry matter in the whole digester ðkgÞ

SRTðdÞ ¼ ð6:5Þ
Dry matter in the digester feed ðkg=dÞ
In many cases, HRT and SRT are equal, but in a digestion tank in which part of
the residues are returned to the process, the SRT value exceed that of the HRT
(Schnurer and Jarvis 2010). If SRT is prolonged beyond optimal values, it could
result in low BP while shorter SRT values could lead to insufficient degradation of
VS and consequently decreased BP (Argyropoulos 2013). Accordingly, some
digester designs have been developed to increase SRT during the AD process (i.e.,
SRTs much higher than HRTs) to prevent biomass loss and to increase BP effi-
ciency. These kinds of reactors include the anaerobic fluidized bed reactors (AFBR)
in which microorganisms are attached to carrier materials, (Kumar et al. 2008), as
well as up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), and expanded granular sludge
bed (EGSB) reactors in which microorganisms are accumulated and aggregated in
clumps. In such digesters, despite the high inflow of substrate, the microorganisms
can be retained in the digestion tank effectively (Schnurer and Jarvis 2010).
High-rate systems are generally run at HRTs less than 5 d and are used for
wastewater treatment. However, in the CSTR systems, the biomass is suspended in
the liquid phase and will be removed together with the slurry; therefore, the SRT is
advisable to be equal to the HRT (usually as long as 10–20 d) in these systems.
This would avoid biomass wash-out and is critical to run the digester efficiently
(Boe and Angelidaki 2006).
HRT is in fact not only associated with the economic aspects of biogas plants but
could also exert determining impacts of the microbial community involved in the
AD process and consequently biogas yield. More specifically and from the eco-
nomical point of view, shorter HRTs are associated with lower volume reactors, i.e.,
less capital and maintenance costs (Stuckey 2012). From the microbial point of
view, short HRTs are in favor of microbial groups of high growth (doubling) rate
and low substrate affinity (Kundu et al. 2017) and could increase the risk of biomass
wash-out which could in turn lead to detoriarated AD and biogas yields
(Kwietniewska and Tys 2014). It has been reported that the adverse impacts of short
HRTs on microbial population are more intensified in stirred tank reactors (STR) in
comparison with other reactor configurations such as AnMBRs and upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) (Kundu et al. 2017). This could be explained by
the fact that there are literally no specific mechanisms in STRs to maintain biomass
in response to extremely short HRTs, unlike the other reactor configurations where
membrane and granules serve as such, respectively.
In general, HRT value could range from a few hours such as 2 h as (Kim et al.
2010) to 30 d as reported by Jeong et al. (2010). Nevertheless, the optimal value of
HRT should be determined case by case by taking into account different parameters
including as feed characteristics, system hydraulics, sludge properties, reactor
design/configuration, etc. (Chen et al. 2016). For instance, in a study using an
integrated anaerobic fluidized-bed MBR, (Gao et al. 2014b) decreased HRT from
8 to 6 h and found that methane productivity increased in response to the change
applied. They attributed this finding to the consequent increase in OLR. On the
contrary when they further decreased HRT, metahne productivity decreased prob-
ably due to VFAs accumulation (Gao et al. 2014b). In a different study, Linke et al.
(2013) compared the operation of 24 full-scale biogas plants in Germany under
different temperature regimes. They stated that at less than 20 °C, longer HRTs
were required to reach a certain level of degradation compared with operation above
35 °C. Therefore, it could be concluded that HRT should be determined based the
operating parameters such as temperature and OLR in a particular digester design/
configuration. As an example, Table 6.3 tabulates the effects of different operational
parameters on BP in AnMBRs including possible suggestions for optimizing BP
(Chen et al. 2016).
6.8 Toxic Compounds
The presence of toxic compounds could severely jeopardize AD process leading to

substantial accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and consequently reductions
in BP or sometimes complete inhibition of the process. These toxic substances
could be introduced into the process with feedstock such as oil, grease, phenols,
paracetamol, caffeine, ibuprofen, triclosan, heavy metals, and volatile aromatics
Table 6.3 The effects of operational factors on BP in AnMBRs and possible suggestions for
optimizing BP*
Factors The effects on BP process Possible suggestions for optimized BP
from AnMBRs
Temperature Thermophilic: – Two phase AnMBRs with
– Faster reaction rates/higher-load thermophilic hydrolysis/
bearing capacity/higher biogas acidogenesis and mesophilic
productivity methanogenesis
– Possible acidification/inhibition of – Avoidance of drastic temperature
BP changes
– Decreased stability and increased
toxicity/poor methanogensis/higher
net energy input and larger
investments
– Difficulty in anaerobic biomass
immobilization/poor sludge settling
characteristics/reduced
methanogenic activities/poor effluent
quality
– Less cooling required/improved
process economics
– Sludge decay with non-adapted
mesophilic sludge/serious
membrane fouling
– Reduced sludge viscosity/a higher
flux/process efficiency/lower shear
rates/lower energy requirement
– A lower permeate viscosity/
increased membrane permeability by
decreasing TMP
– More compact cake layer/higher
cake layer resistance/server fouling
issues/very low long-term flux/
process inefficiency
Mesophilic:
– Better process stability, higher
biomass richness, better permeate
quality but possible low methane
yields and poor biodegradability and
nutrient imbalance
Psychrophilic:
– Enhanced methane solubility/loss of
methane in effluent/lower methane
recovery
– TSS and soluble COD accumulation
and a higher viscosity/increased
filtration resistance/increased fouling
and operational cost
– Enhanced membrane removal and
compensation for the decreased
SMA and bulk sludge removal
(continued)

from AnMBRs
– Energy requirement for operating the
system is lower
– Reduced reaction and hydrolysis
rates/reduced methanogenic activity
Temperature changes:
– Temperature decrease/decreases in
the VFA production rate, the
ammonia concentration, the
substrate utilization rate and the
metabolic rate of the
microorganisms/increased start-up
times/decreasing CH4 and H2 yields
– Temperature increase/increase in pH,
hydrolysis of organic particulates/
increase in methane potential
– Temperature increase/free ammonia
concentration/methanogenic
inhibition
– Temperature fluctuation/stress on
biomass/increase membrane fouling
and operational cost
pH – Extremely low pH value/ – Two phase AnMBR with optimized
acidification and VFA accumulation/ conditions for both acidogenic and
reduced methane yield methanogenic reactor to bring
– Extremely high pH value/increased biogas yield optimization
ammonia toxicity and VFA – Minimize pH shock loading by
inhibition/reduced methane yield neutralizing the feed with chemicals
– pH shocks/dispersion of sludge such as sodium biocarbonate
flocs/the accumulation of colloids,
solutes or biopolymers in the bulk
sludge suspension/deteriorated
membrane performance and BP
potential
HRT – Optimum HRT exists, which ensures – Avoid operation at too high or too
the maximum methane productivity low a HRT
– HRT lower than the optimal value/ – Operate AnMBRs for maximum BP
VFA accumulation/reduced methane at optimal HRT
yield/server fouling
– HRT above the optimal value/
insufficient utilization of biogas
digester component/reduced
methane production
SRT – Long SRT/enhance dominancy of – Long SRT is generally
methanogenesis/enhanced methane recommended for AnMBRs
yield operation
– Long SRT/reduced dissolved – Additional care is required for
methane/higher methane recovery fouling mitigation at long SRT
– Long SRT/reduced sludge disposal
and cost
(continued)

from AnMBRs
– Long SRT/reduced sludge particle
size and release of SMP/membrane
fouling
– Long SRT/cake formation and
consolidation/increased fouling cost
– Long SRT/accumulation of
inorganic solids/inorganic fouling
OLR – Increased OLR/higher metabolic – Operating AnMBR at sustainable
activity of methanogens/increase OLR to maximize the methane yield
biogas yield and methane content in – Thermophilic systems and effluent
the biogas to certain extent recirculation can help relieve
– High OLR/VFA accumulation/ systems from the overloading issues
irreversible acidification/risk of a
deteriorated biogas yield
– High OLR or organic shock loading/
release of tight EPS/SMP and
accumulation of fine particles/serious
membrane fouling
*With permission from Chen et al. (2016). Copyright© 2017
(Haak et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2016) or could be generated during AD process such
as ammonia, VFAs, and hydrogen sulfide (Kwietniewska and Tys 2014). The level
of resistance of the anaerobic microbial communities to toxic compounds varies
depending on different environmental conditions inside a digester (Al Seadi et al.
2008). For instance, ammonia, a product of protein and N-rich compounds
biodegradation, could be toxic at certain concentrations, it also plays an important
role in microbial growth under optimal concentrations though (Yenigün and
Demirel 2013; Whelan et al. 2010). Inhibiting ammonia concentrations for meso-
philic AD range from 2.8 to 8 g/kg and from 2.5 to 4 g/kg for thermophilic pro-
cesses (Poggi-Varaldo et al. 1997; Angelidaki and Ahring 1993; Li 2015).
The toxicity level of some inhibitors varies depending on the pH value of the
digestion environment as well. For instance, both ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
are toxic only when they are in their non-ionized forms (Lay et al. 1997), and the
key factor governing their conversion from non-ionized to ionized forms is pH.
Accordingly, ammonia is considered toxic at pH values exceeding pH 7, while
hydrogen sulfide shows its inhibitory effects at pH values below 7 (Li 2015).
Feedstocks such as slaughterhouse wastewater as well as pig or poultry manures are
rich in nitrogen and could lead to a high level of ammonia production when they
undergo AD. Between the two forms of ammonia, free ammonia, has been shown
to possess higher inhibitory effect on methanogenesis (Westerholm et al. 2011b).
The susceptibility of different methanogenic archaea to increasing ammonia
concentrations is also different. For instance, Niu et al. (2013) observed that at a
total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) as high as 8000 mg/L, hydrogenotrophic
Fig. 6.1 Total ammonia

percentages present in
solution at different
temperatures (20, 35 and
55 °C) and varying
pH values. With permission
from Zhang et al. (2014)
Copyright© 2017
Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus was predominant in the digester while

Methanosarcina was not detected. Accordingly, they argued that acetoclastic
methanogens are more sensitive to ammonia inhibition. Moreover, temperature
could also impact the severity of ammonia inhibition (Rajagopal et al. 2013). More
specifically, ammonia inhibition could be strengthened under thermophilic condi-
tions compared with mesophilic conditions (Kayhanian 1999). This is ascribed to
the fact that an increase in temperature not only generally increases the metabolic
rate of the microorganisms involved in the AD process but also results in increased
concentrations of free ammonia nitrogen (FAN) (Fig. 6.1). The following equation
shows the relationship between FAN concentration and both pH and temperature
(Eq. 6.6) (Rajagopal et al. 2013).
mg mg. .
1 þ 10pH 10ð0:09018 þ TðKelvinÞ 1
2729:92
Ammonia ¼ Ammonium ð6:6Þ
L L
Various strategies have been laid forth in order to minimize ammonia inhibition
such as dilution of substrate, air-stripping, application of materials with ion
exchange capacity or carbon fibre, etc. (Westerholm et al. 2016). As mentioned
earlier, acetoclastic methanogens are more sensitive to ammonia inhibition com-
pared with hydrogenotrophic methanogens. High ammonia concentrations could
gradually lead to a transition from acetoclastic methanogens to hydrogenotrophic
methanogens through the development of syntrophic acetate oxidation
(SAO) bacteria. In fact, SAO bacteria are relatively highly ammonia-tolerant and
compete for the acetate present under a wide range of operating conditions oxi-
dizing it into hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and formate. Subsequently, their products
could be consumed by hydrogenotrophic methanogens for methane generation
(Westerholm et al. 2016). Examples of SAO bacteria are the thermophilic
Thermacetogenium phaeum and Pseudothermotoga lettingae, the thermotolerant
Tepidanaerobacter acetatoxydans and the mesophilic Clostridium ultunense and
Syntrophaceticus schinkii (Westerholm et al. 2016). In light of that, bioaugmen-
tation with these syntrophic co-cultures has also been proposed as a strategy to
improve adaptability to high ammonia concentration under both mesophilic and

thermophilic conditions. Table 6.4 tabulates a number of studies in which the
digesters under investigation were dominated by SAO populations. Analyses of the
recently published genomes of C. ultunense, T. phaeum, S. schinkii and T. aceta-
toxydans could have provided insights into the functional genes that can be related
to the SAO process, and could assist in better understanding of these populations
and their functions within the AD community (Westerholm et al. 2016).
Research findings have also revealed that through acclimatization, microbial
tolerance to inhibitory compounds could be increased. In line with that, Fotidis
et al. (2013) investigated the impacts of increasing concentrations of acetate and
ammonia on methanogenesis under acclimatized and non-acclimatized conditions.
Their results suggested an increased tolerance to increasing concentrations of the
inhibitory compounds investigated when acclimatization was carried out first.
Long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) at concentrations as low as 50 mg/L could also
play an inhibitory role to both acetogens and methanogens during the AD process
(Dasa et al. 2016). Inhibition of some of these microorganisms could directly
adversely affect the degradation of LCFAs themselves too. In better words, ace-
toclastic methanogens are in charge of the degradation of these compounds during
the AD process via the acetate yielding mechanism of b-oxidation and therefore,
their inhibition would lead to further accumulation of LCFAs and consequently
more intensified inhibition (Koster and Cramer 1987). This was also showed earlier
by Hanaki et al. (1981) who argued that during fats digestion under anaerobic
conditions, the first step, i.e., hydrolysis of fats into glycerol and fatty acids pro-
ceeds at a high rate while the second step, i.e., the degradation of LCFAs is
generally hindered owing to the inhibitory nature of these compounds to a large
proportion of the bacteria involved in the AD process (Koster and Cramer 1987).
Liu et al. (2011) claimed that addition of calcium could result in decreased
LCFA-driven inhibition during AD through the formation of calcium stearate.
6.9 C/N Ratio
The availability of nutrients is of critical importance for microbial growth inside

digesters and C/N ratio is indicative of the combination of organic matters. In fact,
an optimized C/N ratio could assist with preventing serious problems during the AD
process such as ammonia inhibition while ensuring a sufficient availability of
nitrogen required for microbial biomass production. In better words, to achieve the
highest degradation rate of organic materials and consequently highest BP potential,
C/N ratio should be constantly managed and monitored (Mao et al. 2015). It should
also be noted that both above- and under-optimal C/N ratios are associated with
adverse effects on methane production rate, and this highlights the significance of
substrate selection. On the other hand, AD is a complex process in which different
groups of microorganisms are involved further emphasizing the importance of
substrate composition (Klimiuk et al. 2015). Regueiro et al. (2014) showed that
Table 6.4 Operating conditions and molecular investigations of anaerobic digesters (laboratory-
or industrial-scale) and batch/enrichment cultures dominated by syntrophic acetate oxidation
(SAO)*
Biological Ammonia Operating Microbial community References
system g NH3-N/ parameters/ investigation
L (g NH+4 - experimental
N/L) set-up
Mesophilic
LS-CF* n/a* 37 °C, pH 7 Quantitative RT-PCR of Shigematsu
Acet: 0.01 g/L mcrA transcripts et al. (2004)
Dilution rate:
0.025/day
IS-CF* 4– 37–38 °C, pH n/a FISH analyses of Karakashev
5.6 g N/L VFA: 1.8–2.7 g/L methanogens et al. (2006)
HRT: 20–25 days
LS-CF 0.6–1.0 37 °C, pH 7.9–8.0 qPCR analyses of Westerholm
(5.5–6.9) VFA: 18–30 g/L methanogens and et al. (2011a)
HRT: 30 days characterised SAOB, and Müller
OLR: 3 g VS/ T-RFLP and clone library et al. (2016)
(L day) analyses of acetogenic
communities (fhs gene),
illumina amplicon
sequencing of bacterial 16S
rRNA genes
Batch n/a 37 °C, pH 7.2–7.4 MAR-FISH with Ito et al.
14
HRT: 30 days C-acetate, RNA-SIP with (2011)
13
OLR 1.5 g COD/ C6-glucose and
13
(L day) C3-propionate to identify
and quantify
acetate-utilising
communities
LS-CF 0.07–0.5 37 °C, pH 6.5–7.8 qPCR analyses of Westerholm
(1.5–11) Acet: <0.1–10, prop: methanogens and et al. (2012)
<0.1–10 characterised SAOB
HRT: 26–57 days
OLR: 0.8–3.6 g
VS/(L day)
LS-CF 0.3–0.5 37 °C, pH 7.9–8.1 qPCR analyses of Karlsson et al.
with/ (3.6) Acet: 0.6–3.5 g/L, methanogens and (2012)
without prop: 0.1–2.2 g/L characterised SAOB
TE* HRT: 30 days
Batch n/a 38 °C, pH 8.1 Polag et al.
Acetate: 0.7 g/L (2013)
IS-CF 0.2–0.5 36–40 °C, pH 7.6– qPCR analyses of Sun et al.
(3.3–4.9) 8.0 VFA: 3–13 g/L methanogens and (2014)
characterised SAOB
IS-CF 0.3–0.4 37–38 °C, pH 7.9 FISH analyses of Fotidis et al.
(2.9–4.6) VFA: 0.6–0.8 g/L methanogens (2014)
(continued)

N/L) set-up
LS-CF 0.2–0.3 35 °C, pH 7.5 Shotgun sequencing, Werner et al.
(4.2–5.2) VFA: 1 g/L DNA-SIP with 13C-acetate (2014)
OLR 2.2 g VS/ and FISH-NanoSIMS
(L day) 16–25% analyses of bacterial
SAO contribution communities
LS-CF 0.4–1.5 37–42 °C, pH 7.9– qPCR analyses of Westerholm
with/ (5.4–5.8) 8.1 Acet: <0.1– methanogens and et al. (2015)
without 3.4 g/L, prop: <0.1– characterised SAOB,
TE 6.3 g/L T-RFLP and/or clone
HRT: 30 days library analyses of bacterial
sOLR: 2.3 g VS/ (16S rRNA), acetogenic
(L day) (fhs gene) and
methanogenic (mcrA gene)
communities
IS-CF 0.4–1.5 37–40 °C, pH 7.7– Illumina amplicon Luo et al.
(2.4–4.2) 8.2 Acet: 0.3–0.5 sequencing of bacterial and (2016)
g/L, prop: 0.005– archaeal 16S rRNA genes
0.02 g/L
HRT: 21–32 days
Thermophilic
Acetate n/a 60 °C, pH 6.5–6.8 Zinder and
enrichment Acet: 3 g/L Koch (1984)
Acetate 60 °C, pH 6.5–6.8 Microscopic examinations Petersen and
chemostat Acet: 0.6 g/L Ahring
(1991)
IS-CF 2.2– 52–55 °C, pH n/a FISH analyses of Karakashev
2.6 g N/L VFA: 0.2–0.8 g/L methanogens et al. (2006)
HRT: 15–25 days
Batch n/a 55 °C, pH–7 Qu et al.
(2009)
Batch n/a 55 °C, pH 6.8–7.8 Hao et al.
Acet: 6 g/L BM (2010)
LS-CF n/a 55 °C, pH 7.2 Clone libraries and Sasaki et al.
Acet: 0.1 g/L, prop: sequencing of bacterial and (2011)
0.07 g/L archaeal 16S rRNA genes
HRT: 4 days
OLR 6.25 gCODcr/
(L day)
Batch n/a 55 °C, initial pH 5.5 qPCR analyses of Hao et al.
Acet: 6 g/L BM methanogenic (16S rRNA) (2012)
and acetogenic (acsB and
fhs genes) communities
(continued)

N/L) set-up
Batch n/a 55 °C, pH > 7.5 ARISA of archaeal and Hao et al.
Acet: 9–12 g/L BM bacterial communities; (2013)
qPCR analyses of
acetogens (acsB and fhs
genes)
LS-CF 0.7–1.0 55 °C, pH 6.7–7.0 FISH analyses and 16S Ho et al.
Acet: 0.07–0.30 g/L rRNA gene (2013)
COD, prop: 0.01– pyrosequencing of
0.14 g/L COD bacterial and methanogenic
HRT: 2–4 days communities
Batch 0.06 (1) 53 °C, pH 7.3 FISH analyses of archaeal Fotidis et al.
Acet: 1 g/L BM community (2013)
Batch 0.09–2.7 55 °C, pH 6.6–8.2 qPCR analyses of Lü et al.
(6–7) Acet: 15 g/L methanogens (2013)
IS-CF 0.2–0.8 48–55 °C, pH 7.7– qPCR analyses of Sun et al.
(2.0–3.2) 8.1 VFA: 1.9–3.8 methanogens and (2014)
g/L characterised SAOB
HRT: 20–101 days
OLR: 2.5–3.5 g
VS/(L day)
IS-CF 0.5 (2.0– 52–55 °C, pH 7.9– FISH analyses of Fotidis et al.
2.4) 8.0 VFA: 0.9–1.8 methanogens (2014)
g/L
LS-CF 0.7–1.0 g 55–65 °C, pH 6.7– 454 pyrosequencing of Ho et al.
NH+4 /L 7.1 Acet: 0.06–2.1 g bacterial and archaeal 16S (2014)
COD/L, prop: 0.04– rRNA genes
0.6 g COD/L
HRT: 2–4 days
Batch TAN 52 °C, pH 7.7 Proteome analyses Mulat et al.
1.8 g/L Acetate: 0.2–6 g/L (2014)
IS-CF 2.2–3.4 50–53 °C, pH 8.0– Illumina amplicon Luo et al.
(0.7–1.5) 8.4 Acet: 0.05–1.6 sequencing of bacterial and (2016)
g/L, prop: 0.01– archaeal 16S rRNA genes
0.2 g/L
HRT: 3–15 days
*With permission from Westerholm et al. (2016). Copyright© 2017
LS-CF laboratory-scale (semi) continuously fed digesters; IS-CF industrial-scale continuously fed
digesters; TE addition of trace element mixture including iron; HRT hydraulic retention time; n/a
not available
substrate composition could exert a solid effect on both the activity and structure of
the microbial communities during AD. They indicated that under stable perfor-
mance of reactors, achieved by providing an optimal C/N ratio, Methanosaeta is the
most dominant methanogenic archaea under mesophilic condition (Regueiro et al.
2014).
In general, at an optimal C/N ration, by increasing the proportion of biodegradable
organic fraction or volatile solids of a substrate, BP will be boosted (Schlegel et al.
2008; Divya et al. 2015). For instance, animal manure in particular of cow origin
because of its low C/N ratio could serve as an ideal candidate for anaerobic
co-digestion with carbon rich substrates such as crops residues. Carbon-rich sub-
strates such as crop silage are also needed and widely used when anaerobically
digesting other feedstocks such as food processing by-products (Linke et al. 2013). In
general, the optimal C/N ratio for AD ranges between 20 and 30, while 25 as most
widely practiced value (Yen and Brune 2007; Zhang et al. 2013b).
Apart from C and N, other macroelements such as phosphorus and sulphur are
also equally vital to ensure maximal growth and activity of the microorganisms
involved in AD. The optimal ratio of these macronutrients, i.e., carbon, nitrogen,
phosphor, and sulphur (C:N:P:S) should be reportedly 600:15:5:1 (Oleszek et al.
2014). Trace or micro elements such as iron, nickel, cobalt, selenium, etc. are also
as important for the microbial growth and BP as the macroelements and should
therefore be taken into serious consideration.
6.10 Mixing and Shear Stress
Mixing and the consequent hydrodynamic shear is an important parameter affecting

mass transfer in anaerobic digesters. Moreover, it also affect the formation, struc-
ture, and metabolism of the microbial populations involved in the AD process
(Jiang et al. 2016). In fact, mixing is essential for homogenizing the influent and
guarantees an efficient contact between the substrates and the microbial biomass.
Regardless of the type of mixing applied, it has been shown that both the mixing
mode and mixing intensity are directly influential on digester’s performance and
biogas yield (Lindmark et al. 2014). Mixing is also important in terms of removal of
metabolic end-products and uniform distribution of heat (temperature) throughout
the digester (Deublein and Steinhauser 2008).
In spite of the importance of mixing, it should be noted that above-optimal
mixing intensities, i.e., high shear stress, could pose serious threats to the survival
of the microorganisms (Deublein and Steinhauser 2008). Among different metha-
nogens, it has been reported that Methanosaetaceae, the main bridging agent in the
aggregates, are the most sensitive group to increased shear (Kundu et al. 2014b). On
the other hand, it also should be noted that beside inefficient contact between
microbes and feed, the absence of proper mixing is accompanied by other adverse
phenomena as well, such as scum formation and uneven distribution of heat
throughout the digester (Divya et al. 2015). Therefore, the impacts of various
mixing regimes and the resultant shear stress on microbial population and BP need
to be thoroughly investigated to ensure efficient contact between the microbes and
the feed while avoiding any harmful effects on the microbial biomass (Lindmark
et al. 2014). For instance, Lebranchu et al. (2017) employed combined experimental
and computational fluid dynamics simulations in order to investigate the impacts of
shear stress and impeller design (i.e., double helical ribbon and classical Rushton
turbine) on BP. Their findings indicated that the double helical ribbon led to 50%
higher methane production rate in comparison with classical Rushton turbine owing
to a significantly faster dispersion of substrate.
In a study, Kundu et al. (2014b) gradually incremented shear force in a hybrid
anaerobic digester by increasing the up-flow velocity from 4 to 10 m/h. They
observed that up-flow velocities as high as up to 6 m/h resulted in improved reactor
performance and biogas yield, but velocities >6 m/h sharply reduced the overall
performance of the digester. These observations could be attributed to the granule
breakage and the wash-out of the active biomass (i.e., bacteria and methanogens)
(Hoffmann et al. 2008). Similar results were obtained in a different study by Jiang
et al. (2016) who also claimed that methane content decreased continuously in
response to increasing shear rate.
6.11 Conclusions
As far as commercial BP is concerned, maximum energy recovery with limited

input in terms of energy, time, labour, etc. is the major target of a successful AD
process. In line with that, preserving the process against any fluctuations in oper-
ating parameters is of crucial importance in order to decrease the risks of process
failure. Variations in these parameters (i.e., temperature, pH, OLR, HRT, toxic
compounds, etc.) can harm the microbial communities involved in the BP process
which consequently lead to poor overall performance of the system. Hence,
in-depth understanding of prominent parameters in BP and characterization of any
detrimental variations in these parameters are undoubtedly necessary. The present
chapter has concisely elaborated on these parameters including their roles in the
process while also presenting some findings reported in the existing literature.
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Chapter 7
Biogas Production: Microbiological
Aspects
Gerianne Robles, Ramkumar B. Nair, Sabine Kleinsteuber,

Marcell Nikolausz and Ilona Sárvári Horváth
AD Anaerobic digestion
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CSTR Continuous stirred-tank reactor
DGGE Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
FTHFS Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase
HRT Hydraulic retention time
IA/TA Intermediate alkalinity to total alkalinity
MSW Municipal solid waste
OTU Operational taxonomic unit
OLR Organic loading rate
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
RT-PCR Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
SSU Small-subunit ribosomal RNA
SRT Solid retention time
TRFLP Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism
TAN Total ammonia nitrogen
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
G. Robles R. B. Nair I. Sárvári Horváth (&)

Swedish Centre for Resource Recovery, Unversity of Borås, 501 90 Borås, Sweden
G. Robles
School of Engineering Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology,
124 La Trobe Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
S. Kleinsteuber M. Nikolausz
Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre
for Environmental Research—UFZ, Permoserstr 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
Present Address:
R. B. Nair
Mycorena AB, Holtermansgatan 1, 411 29 Gothenburg, Sweden

164 G. Robles et al.
UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket

VS/TS Volatile solids/total solids
VFA Volatile fatty acids
7.1 Introduction
While the world population keeps increasing, the generation of waste is also
multiplying in similitude with it, posing serious threat to both health and the
environment. With increasing concerns over climate change and high energy
consumption, there is an increased demand for the renewable fuel alternatives such
as bioethanol and biogas (Wang et al. 2013; Wan et al. 2011). Energy crops, being
an easily accessible biomass for bioenergy, are popular substrates for
industrial-scale production of bioethanol and biogas; however they are now facing
the food versus fuel dispute (Salehian and Karimi 2013; Nair et al. 2017).
Therefore, alternative feedstocks must be utilized for a sustainable bioenergy
generation. In light of these issues, the idea of processing low-value organic waste
materials into more value-added final end products is becoming more and more
attractive with ongoing advances in resource recovery technologies.
The process of anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic waste is well established,
with a large proportion of associated research and development studies based in
‘bioenergy-developed’ countries such as ones in Europe and the USA. The aim of
this process is the production of a methane rich biogas through biological decom-
position of organic matter, in an oxygen-free environment. The produced biogas can
be used for power and heat production, or can be upgraded and used as vehicle fuel
in the transport sector. AD can be considered as a low-cost environmental friendly
waste management process, since it reduces the emission of greenhouse gases
(GHGs); meanwhile it reduces and stabilizes the wastes. One of the major benefits of
AD is its versatility to handle a wide range of organic substrates. So far, mainly
household wastes, food waste, sewage sludge, agricultural residues, manure and
energy crops are being used. In addition, the by-product of AD, the ‘digestate
residue’, can be further utilized as a fertilizer on the agricultural land.
In general, AD of organic material requires the combined activity of several
different groups of microorganisms with different metabolic capabilities (Gerardi
2003). The conversion of organic material to methane involves four main steps:
Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis, Acetogenesis and Methanogenesis. AD can serve as a
process to produce either high value but low volume products (intermediary
products within the anaerobic degradation chain) or high volume but low value
products (end products, like biomethane and biofertilizer), or both in a biorefinery
system. Many types of microorganisms and biochemical pathways are involved and
consequently a large number of intermediate bioproducts are formed (Agler et al.
2011). This also led to a current expanded application of this process for the
production of value added chemicals through mixed culture biotechnologies.
7 Biogas Production: Microbiological Aspects 165
In this chapter the parameters affecting the performance of AD processes will be

discussed, together with a brief description of the current AD technologies. Since
the degradation of organic material requires a synchronized action of different
groups of microorganisms, this chapter will also present recent developments in
molecular biology techniques providing us a valuable tool for improved under-
standing of this complex microbial system.
7.2 Organic-Waste Recycling: Comparison of Treatment

Processes
A number of different treatment processes currently exist for the management of

organic waste; some more technologically advanced than the others, and some more
established in certain countries where the policy and legislation pushes for certain
environmental targets. The four alternative processes explored in this section are the
systems which are currently applied worldwide, i.e. Landfilling, Aerobic
Composting, Incineration and Anaerobic Digestion. A comparison of the advan-
tages and disadvantages of each process is outlined in Table 7.1.
Landfilling involves the collection and dumping of waste into designated areas
of land. Landfilling of organic waste is the most undesirable management method
due to its high land requirement as well as a number of environmental concerns,
including the leachate production, threatening groundwater health, as well as the
potential breakdown of organics into harmful greenhouse gases such as methane
and carbon dioxide that are released into the atmosphere (Khalid et al. 2011; Cecchi
2011). However, fugitive gas emissions can be avoided with appropriate landfill
management in place. Nevertheless, apart from being a convenient disposal option,
landfilling provides less valuable products than the other alternative management
options.
Composting is a highly implemented management process applied to organic
waste, diverting organics from landfill and converting it to a stabilized product with
increased value in the agronomic industry (Tognetti et al. 2011). Within the US, the
USEPA reports approximately 31 million tonnes of garden waste (commonly called
yard trimmings) are generated annually, and approximately 60% was recycled for
composting in 2013 (Ge et al. 2016). However, if aerobic conditions are not
managed perfectly this technology can also lead to methane emissions.
Incineration (also known as combustion or oxidation) is regarded as a thermal
treatment process converting waste materials into energy carriers, which can then be
used to generate electricity and heat along with by-products, like ash (inorganics)
and flue gas. One concern is the large amounts of gaseous pollutants such as dioxins
and heavy particulate metals which are produced during the process. However,
certain feedstock, such as food waste, tend to have a high moisture content, making
it undesirable for conserving energy via incineration processes. On the other hand,
the higher water content makes it a perfect feedstock for anaerobic digestion
(Owens and Chynoweth 1993).
Table 7.1 Comparison of treatment processes for the management of organic waste
Management Advantages Disadvantages
technologies
Landfilling • Convenient disposal option • Has high negative impacts on the
environment with accumulation of
wastes linked to groundwater
leaching and fugitive gas emissions
Aerobic • Has a low capital cost and produces • Compost does not have high
composting stabilized product with high commercial value compared to other
agronomic value by-products of alternative
management technologies
• Can lead to unwanted methane
emissions if oxic conditions are not
perfectly managed
• Energy consuming process
(consumes 30–35 kWh per ton of
input waste) (Hartmann and Ahring
2006)
Incineration • Generates heat and steam that drives • Cannot be used to treat wet organic
turbine to produce electricity wastes
• Produces large amounts of ash and
flue gas which may contain
pollutants such as particulate matter,
heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulfur
dioxide, and hydrochloric acid
• Chlorinated compounds found in
organic fraction of municipal solid
waste can contribute to the
formation of hydrogen chloride and
products of incomplete combustion
(Hartmann and Ahring 2006)
• Bottom ash must be disposed-off as
a ‘hazardous’ waste
Anaerobic • Produces high quality biogas (an • Has a high capital cost
digestion alternative energy source) and
digestate (organic fertilizer)
• Energy producing process,
(produces 100–150 kWh per tonne
of input waste) (Hartmann and
Ahring 2006)
Anaerobic digestion optimizes the natural process taking place in any oxygen
free environments, such as lake sediments, marshes, landfills, for the increased
recovery of high quality biogas. It is performed under anoxic conditions (in absence
of oxygen) where different groups of microorganisms break down complex organic
materials. The chosen feedstock is widely varied and can include energy crops,
agricultural residues, municipal solid waste (MSW), organic waste and wastewater
from industries. The final product of anaerobic digestion is biogas, typically with
mainly 50–75% methane and 25–50% carbon dioxide content, as well as a high
quality digestate, which can be applied as a soil fertilizer or conditioner (Soccol

2011; Ahring 2003). The produced biogas can then be utilized to produce elec-
tricity, or can be upgraded to methane and used as vehicle fuel.
7.3 Biochemistry of Anaerobic Digestion
The biochemical decomposition process can be seen as a synergistic process carried

out by various array of microorganisms, which can however, generally be divided
into four main stages; Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis, Acetogenesis, and Methanogenesis
(Fig. 7.1) (Liu et al. 2012).
In the very first step, complex organics undergo hydrolysis by the action of
extracellular enzymes, produced by hydrolytic bacteria, resulting in simple soluble
molecules viz., amino acids from proteins, long-chain fatty acids from lipids, and
simple sugars from complex carbohydrates (Li et al. 2011). Hydrolysis can occur
relatively fast if the substrates are easily degradable and enough physical contact
between the enzymes and the substrate is provided (Taherzadeh and Karimi 2008).
However, substrates with more recalcitrant structure require longer time, and the
degradation is usually not complete (Deublein and Steinhauser 2008; Nair et al.
2015). Hence, for substrates with complex structure, such as lignocelluloses, which
Fig. 7.1 Methane production process involving steps: 1—Hydrolysis and Acidogenesis;
2—Acetogenesis and Syntrophy; 3—Methanogenesis. Adapted from Schnürer (2016)
are barely accessible to the enzymes, the hydrolysis step is often considered as the
rate-limiting step (Taherzadeh and Karimi 2008; Vavilin et al. 1996).
The smaller molecules produced will then be further converted to short chain
volatile fatty acids (VFAs), alcohols, carbon dioxide and hydrogen in the acido-
genesis step. The partial pressure of the hydrogen regulates the expected products in
this step. In general, the most favorable pathway of primary fermentative bacteria is
the production of acetate via pyruvate with production of hydrogen. Hence, in a
well-balanced process, with low partial pressure of hydrogen, the main products are
acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. However, if the environmental conditions
are not optimal, more intermediates, such as other volatile fatty acids and alcohols,
are formed at high partial pressure of hydrogen. These products are more reduced
than the products generated under optimal conditions, hence need to be further
modified before they can be converted into biogas (Schnürer and Jarvis 2009;
Schink 1997).
In the next stage, the acetogenesis step, obligatory hydrogen producing bacteria
convert VFAs longer than two carbon atoms and alcohols longer than one carbon
atom, further to acetate, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide (Schink 1997; Bryant 1979).
At standard conditions, the reactions accomplished by acetogenic microorganisms
are not exergonic. Here, low partial pressures of hydrogen (lower than 10−5 bar) are
needed for the reactions to be energetically feasible. The syntrophic association
occurring between the hydrogen-producing bacteria and methane-producing ar-
chaea in the next methanogenic step can preserve the partial pressure of hydrogen
within the range suitable for the growth of the acetogenic microorganisms (Schink
1997).
In the final stage of AD, various groups of methanogens consume the acetate
(acetoclastic methanogens, Eq. 7.1), hydrogen and carbon dioxide (hy-
drogenotrophic methanogens, Eq. 7.2) and methyl alcohol and methyl amines
(methylotrophic methanogens, Eq. 7.3, or H2-dependent methylotrophic pathway
of Methanomassillicoccales, Eq 7.4), and convert these intermediate products into
methane.
4CH3 COOH ! 4CH4 þ 4CO2 ð7:1Þ
CO2 þ 4H2 ! CH4 þ 2H2 O ð7:2Þ
4CH3 OH ! 3CH4 þ CO2 þ 2H2 O ð7:3Þ
CH3 OH þ H2 ! CH4 þ H2 O ð7:4Þ
The theoretical or maximum methane yield of a substrate can be calculated

(Eq. 7.5) from the elemental composition of the substrate CcHhOxNnSs, there 22.4
used as the molar volume of any ideal gas (Yang et al. 2004).
22:4ðc2 þ h8 x4 38n s4Þ

YCH4 ¼ ð7:5Þ
12c þ h þ 16x þ 14n þ 16s
The methane yield obtained in practice; however, rarely achieves more than 60%
of the calculated theoretical yield since the substrate can contain other compounds
which are resistant to the degradation, such as lignin, or compounds with slower
degradation rate, such as cellulose, hemicellulose or proteins (Yang et al. 2004).
Biogas produced is often used on-site at the biogas plants or fed into the public
gas grid after upgrading. It can also be applied as a vehicle fuel; however such
applications requires the biogas to be processed and upgraded to high quality
methane (Weiland 2003). Furthermore, the digested residue, which exits the
digester, is a nutrient rich and highly stabilized fertilizer. Thus anaerobic digestion
implements high end recycling technology through the generation of biogas and
digestate residue, with limited odour issues in contrast to the aerobic composting.
7.4 Process Performance: General Scheme and Factors

Affecting
Commercial feasibility of AD is heavily reliant on its process stability as well as its

ability to handle a largely diverse heterogeneous feedstock (Kayhanian 1999).
Different factors including pH, temperature, mixing rate, organic loading rate and
retention time, micro- and macro-nutrient availability play a crucial role for the
performance of the digestion process. Table 7.2 summarizes the process parameters
identified as being the most vital for digester performance and that are indicators for
the digester lifetime (Crolla 2012). Therefore, to preserve high process efficiency,
these parameters should be effectively controlled and kept within the optimum
range (Ward et al. 2008). However, the feedstock structure and characteristics also
have a significant impact on the performance of the digestion.
Table 7.2 Conditions required for a stabilized anaerobic digester. Adapted from Crolla et al.
(2012)
Parameter Optimal range
Alkalinity 1500–4000 mg CaCO3/L
pH 6.8–7.2
VS/TS (volatile solids/total solids) >45%
TAN (total ammonia nitrogen) <1500 mg/L
C:N:P (carbon-nitrogen-phosphorous ratio) 100–120:5:1
C:N (carbon-nitrogen ratio) 20–30
IA/TA (intermediate alkalinity to total alkalinity) 0.1–0.2 (<0.4)
7.4.1 Organic Loading Rate (OLR) and Hydraulic or Solid

Retention Time (HRT or SRT)
The organic loading rate (OLR) is the amount of volatile solids that are loaded to a
unit of volume of the digester under a unit of time. Providing different feedstock
will lead to a better nutritional balance resulting in an improved microbial diversity,
with a stable and robust system capable of resisting and tolerating certain fluctu-
ations in the process conditions as a consequence.
In case of systems treating solid waste, OLR is expressed as kgVS m−3 d−1.
Hence the organic loading rate may be calculated using the following equation
(Eq. 7.6), where OLR = organic loading rate (kg VS substrate/m3 digester/day),
S = fresh substrate added daily (kg/day), VS = VS content of substrate (%VS of
substrate), V = volume of bioreactor (m3)
S:VS
OLR ¼ ð7:6Þ
V:100
Accordingly, for liquid feedstock OLR is measured based on the amount of

chemical oxygen demand (COD) added, thus expressed as kgCOD m−3 d−1
(Vandevivere et al. 2003). In general, lower OLRs are applied during the start-up
period of a process, while a balanced and well-functioning process can handle
higher OLRs. The biological performance of the AD system is very sensitive to the
amounts of loading as well as to waste composition (Zuo et al. 2013; Sharma et al.
1999). Since the hydrolysis and acidogenic fermentation steps usually perform
faster, overloading the digester normally leads to the accumulation of VFAs or
other inhibitors, which may finally terminate the methane production (Bouallagui
et al. 2004; Mata-Alvarez et al. 2000). On the other hand, under-loaded systems, i.e.
running the digester at low OLRs, are not economically feasible, since the capacity
of the digester is not entirely utilized.
Another important parameter that controls the rate of bioconversion is the
retention time. The retention time is usually expressed as hydraulic retention time
(HRT) representing the estimated time while the liquid sludge is present in the
digester (Eq. 7.7):
V
HRT ¼ ð7:7Þ
Q
where V is the reactor volume (m3) and Q is the flow rate of fresh substrate (m3/day).
The retention time can also be expressed as solid retention time
(SRT) considering the time that microorganisms/solids spend in the digester
(Appels et al. 2008). HRT and SRT are equal in many cases when continuous
stirred tank reactors (CSTR) are employed, but for process configurations in which
part of the residues are recirculated back to the process, SRT gets longer than HRT.
SRT can be also prolonged compared to HRT in high-rate processes; such as
upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor (Bal and Dhagat 2001), fluidized
bed reactors (Moharram et al. 2016) and anaerobic expanded bed reactors (Kato
et al. 1994), where the microorganisms form granules or are attached to certain
carrier material, whereby retained in the system for longer residence time.
Longer SRT also enables the viable biomass to be adapted to the inhibiting sub-
stances such as ammonia, sulfides, and others that might otherwise be toxic at high
concentrations (Schnürer and Jarvis 2010). Shorter retention times are normally
favorable to increase the efficiency of the process and reduce the system costs
(Chandra et al. 2012). However, there must always be a balance between OLR and
HRT in order to optimize digestion efficiency. Therefore, at higher OLRs, retention
times should be sufficiently long, providing the microorganisms with enough time
to degrade the substrate (Demirer and Chen 2005). In industrial sewage sludge,
where the feedstock has a low total solid content, recirculation of the thickened
sludge including the biomass would allow longer retention time for the microor-
ganisms to degrade the organic matter (Schnürer and Jarvis 2010).
7.4.2 Operating Temperature
There are three main operating temperatures for the AD process; psychrophilic
(optimum at 10 °C), mesophilic (optimum at 37 °C), or thermophilic (optimum
above 50 °C) (Kabir et al. 2015a). Temperature is a critical factor in AD process as
it affects the activity of the microorganisms in the digester. Hydrolytic and acido-
genic bacteria are not much sensitive to temperature changes, generally due to
functional redundancy as well as higher diversity of bacterial communities. On the
other hand, the acetogenic and methanogenic processes are significantly influenced
by changes in the temperature. The generation time for methanogenic archaea
ranges from about 3 days at 35 °C to 50 days at 10 °C.
Lower temperatures are known to result in slower microbial growth and substrate
utilization, resulting in a decreased biogas production; however high temperatures
can also be associated with decreased biogas yield due to the increased concentration
(only the ammonia dissolved in the liquid inhibits AD) of free ammonia, which may
inhibit the gas production (Khalid et al. 2011). Moreover, at higher temperature the
digester might suffer from VFA accumulation easier, affecting the overall digestion
performance. When operating temperature of around 35–37 °C is considered to be
appropriate, any change from mesophilic to thermophilic will slow down the biogas
production rate; but it will increase again as the necessary shift in microbial popu-
lations occur (Khalid et al. 2011). The optimal growth temperature for most
methanogenic archaea is between 30 and 40 °C, with a few genera growing best
between 50 and 60 °C (Table 7.3). Therefore, the changes in the operational tem-
perature range also result in changes in dominant species.
In general, mesophilic processes can be seen as more established due to their
robustness and stability, but tend to have a slower start-up phase. Due to a greater
diversity of the microorganisms at this range of temperature, the process is more
Table 7.3 Optimal growth temperature for methanogenic archaea. Adapted from Gerardi (2003)
Genus Temperature range (°C)
Methanobacterium 37–45
Methanobrevibacter 37–40
Methanosphaera 35–40
Methanothermus 83–88
Methanococcus 35–40
65–91
Methanocorpusculum 30–40
Methanoculleus 35–40
Methanogenium 20–40
Methanoplanus 30–40
Methanospirillum 35–40
Methanococcoides 30–35
Methanohalobium 50–55
Methanohalophilus 35–45
Methanolobus 35–40
Methanosarcina 30–40
50–55
Methanotrix 35–50
robust and balanced, thus handling fluctuations better (Zhao and Kugel 1996;
Levén et al. 2007). On the other hand, thermophilic conditions result in a more
rapid conversion of organic acids (Ge et al. 2016). The benefits of a higher tem-
perature (thermophilic) system also mean higher bioconversion rates with shorter
retention times and smaller reactor volumes resulting in an end ‘digestate’ product
typically pathogen free and of higher quality (Li et al. 2011).
7.4.3 Volatile Fatty Acids, pH and Alkalinity
The concentration of volatile fatty acids is determined by their production and

consumption rates, the loading rate and the characteristics of feedstock
(Karthikeyan and Visvanathan 2012). VFAs can accumulate in a system when
methanogens cannot keep up with the rate of breakdown in the earlier degradation
stages, causing a drop in the pH and alkalinity, which in turn will inhibit metha-
nogens, and finally resulting in system failure (Yang et al. 2015). Hence accu-
mulation of VFAs can occur if the digester is overloaded, especially when the
substrate is easily digestible. Generally it is estimated that to have a stable process
the concentration of volatile fatty acids, particularly acetic acid, should be below
2 g/L (Jain and Mattiasson 1998). Methane is not the only product of AD, as carbon
dioxide is also produced and through the degradation of urea, proteins and amino
acids ammonia is also released. Carbon dioxide and ammonia result in the pro-
duction of carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and ammonium ions (Eqs. 7.8 and 7.9):
CO2 þ H2 O $ H2 CO3 $ H þ þ HCO þ

3 $ 2H þ CO3
2
ð7:8Þ
NH3 þ H þ $ NH4þ ð7:9Þ
Buffering capacity or alkalinity is referred to the equilibrium between carbon

dioxide and bicarbonate, with ammonia as the major cation, which cause a sig-
nificant resistance to pH changes. In order to preserve optimum pH in the digester,
it is vital to have a high and stable alkalinity. The major buffering capacity in
anaerobic digesters is connected to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3 ), with a pKa
value of 6.3, and the main acids are VFAs, with an aggregate pKa around 4.8 (Boe
and Angelidaki 2006). From bicarbonate and ammonium ions ammonium bicar-
bonate is formed, which then can react with VFAs forming salts (Eq. 7.10):
NH4 HCO3 þ RCOOH ! RCOONH4 þ H þ þ HCO

3 ð7:10Þ
The higher the bicarbonate concentration in the digester medium, the greater the
alkalinity and hence the resistance to changes in pH (Alvarez et al. 2006). However,
a sudden change in pH can occur, for instance, if the system is overloaded when the
feed rate is increased significantly. Since the methanogens grow slower than the
fermentative bacteria, VFA accumulation will result in a pH drop. In a research
study, Khanal (2008) states that the VFA to alkalinity ratio is an indication of
imbalance in the system, where this value is 0.4 in a healthy system and a ratio of
0.8 will result in process failure. In general, the optimal pH for methanogenesis is
between 6.8 and 7.2, while for hydrolysis a pH of 5.5 and for acidogenesis a pH of
6.5 are considered more suitable (Khalid et al. 2011).
7.4.4 Nutritional Requirements
As for any biological processes, where microorganisms are involved, both macro-
and micronutrients should be provided for the microbial community in a
well-balanced manner to be able to achieve a stable and efficient biogas production
process. It is reported that in an ideal AD system the nutrients should be found in
excess in the digester as even small shortage of any of them may inhibit the process
(Chan 2003). Therefore, in the case of feedstock nutrient deficiencies, supple-
mentary nutrients must be added to stimulate the digestion process. Fundamental
macronutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) are
necessary for microbial growth. Organic carbon is the primary source of energy and
the basic building block of the cell material. Nitrogen and phosphorus are used in
the protein and nucleic acid synthesis. For optimal gas production the C/N ratio has
been suggested to be set between 15:1 and 25:1 (Esposito et al. 2012). The required
amount of phosphorus is 6–7 times less than that of nitrogen. Other essential
macronutrients are potassium (used in cellular transport and cation balancing) and
sulfur (required in numerous enzymes). Among micronutrients iron (Fe), nickel
(Ni), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W) are the most important ones,
since they are necessary co-factors for the unique enzyme systems of anaerobic
microorganisms (Zandvoort et al. 2006); thus the presence of several trace metals is
obligatory for methane production (Oleszkiewicz and Sharma 1990). Nickel con-
stitutes, for example, the active centre of acetate formation enzymes and H2-con-
suming hydrogenases (nickel-containing coenzymes F420 and F430 are important
hydrogen-carriers). Cobalt plays an important role in the transfer of methyl-groups
by the coenzyme cobalamin, so it is essential for all methanogenic pathways.
However, the correct concentrations and proportions of the required trace metals
should be determined individually in each case because that depends on the com-
position of the microbial community and the substrate, as well as the bioavailability
of the micronutrients (Jagadabhi 2011).
7.4.4.1 C/N Ratio and Ammonia Inhibition
Nitrogen is necessary for the growth of the microorganisms. On the one hand,
nitrogen deficiency can result in insufficient consumption of the carbon source,
resulting in a reduced microbial growth and finally leading to a decrease in the
biogas production (Resch et al. 2011). Furthermore, free ammonia or ammonium
ions are produced by the breakdown of nitrogenous matter in the digester, com-
monly present in the form of proteins and urea (Chandra et al. 2012). Around
60–80% of total nitrogen (from proteins and other organic compounds) are con-
verted to ammonia-N during AD (Karthikeyan and Visvanathan 2012). An esti-
mation of the amount of ammonia that is generated during the degradation of a
substrate can be calculated using the following equation (Tchobanoglous et al.
1993) based on stoichiometric relationships (Eq. 7.11):
4a b 2c þ 3d 4a þ b 2c 3d 4a b þ 2c þ 3d
Ca Hb Oc Nd þ H2 O ! CH4 þ CO2 þ dNH3
4 8 8
ð7:11Þ
A healthy system will have a concentration of around 200 mg/L to support

anaerobic growth of the bacteria. Concentrations of ammonia-N over 1500 mg/L
will cause moderate inhibition, while concentrations greater than 3000 mg/L will
cause 100% inhibition of methanogenesis (Gerardi 2003). However, in some cases
this value can be exceeded by systematic adaptation of the microbial community to
higher nitrogen levels (Dai et al. 2016). The free ammonia is a main source of
inhibition as it can diffuse into the cell causing proton imbalance (Klass 1984). The
chemical equilibrium between ammonium and free ammonia depends on the
temperature and pH. As the temperature or the pH increases, this equilibrium would
shift toward free NH3 resulting in inhibition (Klass 1984; Chen et al. 2008).
Nevertheless, the effects of ammonia inhibition can be moderated by dilution with

water in extreme ammonia overloads, or altering feedstock to adjust C/N ratio in
slighter overloads (Kayhanian 1999).
7.5 Process Configurations: Substrates and Operations
The biodegradability of different organic waste fractions is highly defined by their

characteristics and chemical composition, i.e. the amount of lipids, proteins, and
carbohydrates those including cellulose, hemicelluloses, as well as lignin
(Hartmann and Ahring 2006). Optimally, the substrates need to have a composition
that meets the nutritional requirements of the microorganisms involved in the
degradation process.
As it was discussed earlier, the expected theoretical methane potential can be
calculated (Eq. 3.5 in Chap. 3). Applying general chemical formula for carbohy-
drates (C6H10O5), proteins (C5H7O2N), and lipids (C57H104O6) will give 0.42, 0.50,
and 1.01 m3 CH4 kg−1 volatile solids, respectively (Møller et al. 2004a, b).
Although the methane yield of proteins and lipids is higher than that of the other
components, they often cause inhibition in the digestion process due to the accu-
mulation of ammonia or fatty acids. Moreover, studies have reported that the rate of
hydrolysis for fat-rich components is slower compared to less fatty wastes; since the
lipids can be adsorbed onto the surface of other components interrupting the
hydrolysis process by reducing the accessibility for the hydrolytic enzymes (Neves
et al. 2008). Similarly, the composition of the waste also determines the C/N ratio
present in the waste. A high C/N ratio can cause nitrogen deficiency, while the
degradation of waste with a very low C/N ratio can results in ammonia inhibition
followed by process failure (Hartmann and Ahring 2006).
Apart from the composition, the degradability of a substrate may also depend on
the particle size, the collection method, weather and seasonal fluctuations, and also
the cultural habits of the community that the waste is collected from. Regarding the
particle size, a smaller particle size offers a larger accessible surface area for
enzymatic attacks, hence an enhanced biodegradability (Hartmann and Ahring
2006; Hajji and Rhachi 2013). Table 7.4 summarizes the methane potential
reported in the literature for some organic waste fractions.
7.5.1 Pretreatment for Enhanced Yield
Pretreatments are usually applied for two different reasons: (1) making the material
mechanically easier to handle or (2) altering the structure of the material to make it
more digestible. Regarding the first option, waste fractions that are composed of a
wide variety of components of different sizes and shapes (like municipal solid
waste), must undergo pretreatment to obtain a reasonably uniform final product,
Table 7.4 The methane potential of organic waste fractions. Adapted from Kabir et al. (2015b)
Waste types Methane yield Reference
(m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Industrial and commercial waste
Expired food 0.47–1.10 Braun et al. (2003)
Sludge from 0.40–0.47 -do-
distilleries
Potato waste 0.69–0.89 -do-
Molasses 0.31 Angelidaki and Ellegaard (2003)
Edible-oil sludge 1.10 Braun et al. (2003)
Municipal and industrial
Household waste 0.40–0.50 Angelidaki and Ellegaard (2003)
Garden waste 0.10–0.20 -do-
Paper 0.08–0.37 Owens and Chynoweth (1993)
Market waste 0.90 Braun et al. (2003)
Municipal solid waste 0.20–0.22 Chynoweth et al. (1993)
Banana peel 0.27–0.32 Gunaseelan (2004)
Citrus waste 0.43–0.73 -do-
Vegetable waste 0.19–0.40 -do-
Animal and slaughterhouse waste
Animal fat 1.00 Braun et al. (2003)
Stomach and gut 0.4–0.46 Ahring et al. (1992)
contents
Rumen content 0.35 Braun et al. (2003)
Blood 0.65 -do-
Agricultural waste
Cow manure 0.15–0.30 Angelidaki and Ellegaard (2003)
Swine manure 0.30–0.51 Møller et al. (2004), Ahring et al.
(1992)
Poultry manure 0.30 Ahring et al. (1992)
Straw and other plant 0.15–0.36 Møller et al. (2004), Angelidaki and
residues Ellegaard (2003)
Green plant, crops, 0.18–0.28 Angelidaki and Ellegaard (2003)
grain
Sugarcane 0.23–0.30 Chynoweth et al. (1993)
Sorghum 0.26–0.39 -do-
which has a greater density than the original form. Inert materials such as sand,
clay, glass, or floating materials like plastics also need to be removed. Shredders,
crushers, or millers are often used to carry out the size reduction process.
In the case of waste fractions with complex recalcitrant structure, the application
of suitable pretreatment methods aiming to enhance the accessibility of the enzymes
to the biomass is needed (Taherzadeh and Karimi 2008; Nair et al. 2016). A proper
pretreatment can increase the methane yield by improving the hydrolysis rate and
different pretreatment methods such as mechanical, chemical, biological, or

physicochemical methods, are reported in the literature. Pretreatment processes
leading to significant improvements in methane yields for lignocelluloses, such as
woody biomass and straw (Kabir et al. 2015c; Teghammar et al. 2012; Aslanzadeh
et al. 2014), paper residues (Teghammar et al. 2010), citrus waste (Forgács et al.
2012) as well as keratin rich waste fractions (Kabir et al. 2013; Forgács et al. 2013)
are reported in various research studies.
7.5.2 Co-digestion for Improved Process Efficiency
Co-digestion is the simultaneous digestion of more than one substrate with com-
plementary characteristics and has become popular as the digestion of several
materials can give higher methane yields than those expected when single materials
are treated individually (Weiland 2003; Pagés-Díaz et al. 2011, 2015). Some of the
reasons linked with the enhancement are related to the combinations of substrates
that result in a positive interaction within the system, influencing C/N ratio and
reactor stability, balancing buffer capacity, supplementing nutrients, or reducing
negative effects of toxic or inhibitory compounds.
7.5.3 Operational Methods and Reactor Designs
The design of any anaerobic digester has to address three fundamental requirements
such as: capable to continuously handle a high organic loading rate; to have a short
hydraulic retention time in order to have smaller reactor volume; and to produce a
high volume of high quality biogas (Ward et al. 2008). There are several different
types of digesters, which are used in the industry including batch, continuous
one-stage system, or continuous two-stage/multi-stage systems. Additional con-
figurations, such as the anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR), upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor, tubular reactor, plug-flow systems and
anaerobic filters also exist (Bouallagui et al. 2005). These reactors can be compared
based on the biological and technical performance and characteristics. Table 7.5
summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of a number of different types of
digesters:
Batch reactors are quick, require inexpensive equipment, and are the simplest to
operate since they are fed with feedstock and left for a longer period before being
emptied (Khalid et al. 2011). The methane production is generally the highest at the
beginning and decreases toward the end of the process as the substrate is being
utilized.
Continuous systems are fed continuously, while the digestate residue is dis-
charged at the same rate, allowing a steady state to occur, leading to a constant gas
production rate. However, this type of operation is only possible for substrates,
Table 7.5 Comparison of digester types. Adapted from Korres et al. (2013)
Reactor Disadvantages Advantages
configurations
One-stage • Longer retention time • Less technical therefore simple
system • Potential failure due to foam and design
scum formation
Two-stage • Complex design • Increase in biomass digestion
system • Higher capital and maintenance cost due to recirculation
• Solid portion of feedstock to be • Constant feed flow rate to
removed in second stage second methanogenic stage
• A more robust system therefore
less susceptible to failure
Dry digestion • Waste handling is more complex and • Higher solids loading and
therefore more costly biomass retention
• Feed material must be structure with • Feed is more controlled
high solid content • Simpler pretreatment
• More difficult mixing
Wet digestion • Formation of scum when crops are • Higher water volume results in
digested dilution of inhibitors
• High water and energy requirement
• Short-circuiting may occur
• Sensitive to shock loads
Batch • Larger tank volume • No required pumping or mixing
operation • Overall lower biogas yield • Low capital cost
• Low process and mechanical
requirements
Continuous • Higher potention for acidification and • Simple design and operation
operation VFA accumulation to occur • Low capital cost
• Higher biomass retention
High-rate • Long start-up phase • More control over feeding
systems • Channeling can occur at low feed rate • Low capital cost
which can be pumped for continuous feeding. Otherwise, a semi-continuous pro-

cess is applied with a discrete amount of feed several times a day. The two com-
monly used reactor types are: continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTR, using
mechanical agitation or effluent or biogas recirculation for mixing), and plug-flow
reactors (PFR, where the content of the reactor is pushed along a horizontal reactor).
PFRs are usually used in dry digestion processes treating substrates with high solid
content (Patinvoh et al. 2017), while CSTRs are applied in wet digestion systems.
The choice of wet or dry digestion technology depends on the total solid content
(TS) of the material treated. Wet systems are designed for processing dilute organic
slurry with a TS content of maximum 10–15%. Substrates having TS higher than
15% are usually diluted with fresh or recirculated process water, or will be
co-digested with co-substrates of lower TS content. Wet anaerobic digestion sys-
tems have been successfully applied to treat various ranges of low solid materials,
including sewage sludge and food industrial effluents.
On the other hand, in solid-state fermentation processes, also called dry diges-
tion, the substrates used have high solid content (25–40% TS), hence a funda-
mentally different technical approach regarding the waste handling and treatment is
needed (Verma 2002). Due to the high viscosity in the dry digestion systems, heat
and nutrient transfer is not as efficient as it is in wet processes, hence mixing is very
important to prevent local overloading and acidification (Luning et al. 2003;
Wellinger et al. 1993). However, conventional mechanical mixers are not appro-
priate for solid-state processes; instead, recirculation of the waste or re-injection of
the produced biogas is usually used in these kinds of reactors to solve the mixing
problems (Luning et al. 2003).
Furthermore, the CSTR design is often applied in single stage systems, there the
reactor operates, favoring both acidogenic and methanogenic microorganisms.
These types of systems are simple to operate and have lower capital and operating
costs, making them attractive for a wide range of applications during the last
decades (Vandevivere et al. 2003; Kelleher 2007).
However, the conversion of organic matter to biogas is performed through a
sequence of biochemical reactions, which do not necessarily have the same optimal
environmental conditions. Two- and multi-stage systems have therefore been
developed providing optimal conditions for the different groups of microorganisms
involved in the degradation process, which in turn leads to higher reaction rates and
consequently, a higher biogas yield (Ghosh et al. 2000). In two-stage reactors,
hydrolysis/acidification and acetogenesis/methanogenesis are separated. Therefore,
the first phase can operate at lower pH, which is more favorable for the growth of
hydrolytic and acidogenic microorganisms; whereas the second step is optimized to
favor the growth of methane forming microorganisms (Ince 1998). The rate limiting
factor in the second stage is typically the rate of microbial growth (Chaudhary
2008) since methane producing archaea have longer generation times, and therefore
longer biomass retention times are needed in this second phase, which in turn
enhances the biogas yield (Verma 2002). These kinds of digesters usually have a
more stable performance than single-stage digesters, since they do not suffer from
the process disturbances caused by for example the changes in the pH or by
ammonia accumulation (Chaudhary 2008; Joshua et al. 2012). An even better phase
separation option can be provided in multi-stage reactors, which can offer process
control and optimization for each conversion step, leading to increased methane
production (Griffin 2012).
7.6 Assessment of the Microbial Community Structure
Although biogas production via anaerobic digestion of organic matter has a long
tradition, the whole process was considered as a black box system by process
engineers for a long while and the detailed understanding of the microbiome behind
the process has been ignored. It was mainly due to the fact that classical micro-
biological techniques based on cultivation and pure culture studies provided limited
information about the diversity, community composition and physiological function

of the major key players. Obtaining and handling anaerobic pure cultures have been
further challenges in microbiology. The introduction of molecular techniques
offered detailed insights into the diversity and dynamics of microbial communities
involved in the biogas process in a similar manner as they caused a paradigm shift
in microbial ecology studies of natural systems. Investigating the microbiology of
the biogas process is still a challenge due to the enormous diversity, but also offers
the beauty of exploring novel taxa, new pathways, interesting syntrophic interac-
tions, and also new concepts regarding evolutionary mechanisms. The following
chapter describes the exploration of the microbiome in anaerobic digesters by the
application of molecular biology techniques.
7.6.1 Classical Molecular Biology Techniques
The standard approach of cultivation-independent analysis of complex microbial

communities usually involves the isolation of nucleic acids from environmental
samples, followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of a phylo-
genetic marker gene, which is in most cases the 16S rRNA gene. This gene encodes
the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA and is highly conserved among Bacteria
and Archaea. It contains highly conserved regions as ideal targets for primer
development, as well as variable regions allowing phylogenetic classification.
Although the design of perfectly matching universal primers remains an unsolved
problem and preferential amplification cannot be ruled out (Sipos et al. 2007), the
frequently used domain-specific primers have been thoroughly tested (Klindworth
et al. 2013) and can give a broad overview of the microbial diversity of the biogas
process. PCR followed by cloning and sequencing provides a first estimation of the
diversity of Bacteria and Archaea in biogas reactors. In a pioneer study, Godon and
co-workers investigated the microbial community structure of a fluidized-bed
reactor fed with vinasses by cloning and sequencing of SSU rRNA gene PCR
products (Godon et al. 1997). The predominant bacterial operational taxonomic
units (OTUs) were affiliated to low-GC Gram-positive bacteria, Cytophaga-
Flexibacter-Bacteroides group, and Proteobacteria. The most dominant Archaea
OTUs were very similar to the already known methanogenic species
Methanosarcina barkeri, Methanosarcina frisius, and Methanobacterium formici-
cum. As another example, McHugh et al. (2006) investigated the microbial com-
munity dynamics during the treatment of sucrose and VFA-based artificial
wastewater under mesophilic and psychrophilic conditions by the cloning and
sequencing approach. A distinct dominance shift from acetoclastic to hydro-
genotrophic methanogens in response to a decrease in the operation temperature
was observed in both reactors. The majority of the clones were closely related to the
Bacillus–Lactobacillus–Streptococcus group in the sucrose-fed reactor, while
sequences affiliated to Bacteroides and Deltaproteobacteria were dominant in the

VFA-fed reactor. A major drawback of the cloning and sequencing approach is that
due to the time and cost demand the sample throughput is very low and the method
is not suitable for reactor monitoring, only for snapshot analysis (Talbot et al.
2008).
Molecular fingerprinting methods have been developed for the fast comparison
of PCR products of numerous samples by providing profiles or patterns describing
the diversity of amplified DNA sequences. These techniques have enabled a fast
comparison of numerous samples and thus the study of temporal and spatial shifts
in microbial community structure. Studies of biogas reactors were performed by
denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) (Liu et al. 2009), single-strand
conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis (Leclerc et al. 2004) and terminal
restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) profiling (Ziganshin et al.
2011), to mention a few examples. However, adding taxonomic information to the
community patterns is complicated (Nikolausz et al. 2005) and usually requires the
establishment of supporting clone libraries. A detailed review on the application of
classical 16S rRNA gene-based methods for the investigation of anaerobic biore-
actors can be found elsewhere (Talbot et al. 2008).
The analysis of functional genes instead of rRNA genes is an alternative
approach, which allows the targeted investigation of distinct functional guilds. The
mcrA gene encoding the alpha-subunit of methyl coenzyme M reductase is the most
widely used molecular marker for the assessment of the biogas process, targeting
the methanogens (Lueders et al. 2001; Luton et al. 2002). An advantage of the mcrA
gene approach is that it strictly targets methanogens whereas Archaea
domain-specific 16S rRNA gene primers also amplify DNA from
non-methanogenic Archaea. A further advantage is that transcripts of functional
genes represent the actual metabolic activity of microorganisms due to the short
half-life of mRNA. Therefore, RNA-based assessment of the methanogenic com-
munity provides more reliable information on the active members of a community
(Munk et al. 2012; Lv et al. 2014; Nikolausz et al. 2013; Wintsche et al. 2016).
Amplicons of mcrA genes or their transcripts can be further analysed by the
cloning and sequencing approach. Nettmann et al. (2008) investigated the metha-
nogenic community structure of an agricultural biogas plant supplied with cattle
manure and maize silage under mesophilic conditions. Methanomicrobiales,
Methanosarcinales and Methanobacteriales were the major orders and hydro-
genotrophic methanogenesis was the presumed major pathway of methane forma-
tion. Rastogi et al. (2008) compared the methanogenic communities during summer
and winter seasons in a biogas reactor running on cattle dung without temperature
control. The summer clone library was more diverse with sequences affiliated to
Methanomicrobiales (41.7%), Methanosarcinales (30%), and Methanobacteriales
(19%), while the winter clone library was dominated by Methanomicrobiales
(98.6% of all clones).
Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code (amino acids with multiple codons)
the primer design is challenging and requires the involvement of degenerate
positions. PCR amplification of a single template with such primers may result in
multiple bands in DGGE and SSCP patterns after gel separation, making the
adaptation of molecular fingerprinting techniques for the functional genes to be
more complicated. Thus, only few attempts have been made for methanogenic
communities in biogas reactors (e.g. PCR-SSCP Munk et al. 2010). Since terminal
restriction fragment (T-RF) length is not influenced by the degenerate primer
positions, T-RFLP fingerprinting targeting the mcrA gene was successfully applied
by many studies, which analysed the methanogenic communities in bioreactors
digesting various substrates including energy crops and agricultural wastes
(Ziganshin et al. 2016a; Leite et al. 2015; Mulat et al. 2015; Lucas et al. 2015; Popp
2015; Zhang et al. 2014) to mention few examples. Due to the relatively low
diversity of methanogens it was possible to develop a T-RFLP approach based on
an improved primer set (Steinberg and Regan 2008) and a database facilitating the
fast identification of methanogens, thus avoiding the need of cloning and
sequencing (Bühligen et al. 2016).
Microorganisms involved in reductive acetogenesis or syntrophic acetate oxi-
dation employing the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway can be targeted by the fhs gene
encoding the formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (FTHFS). The development of
suitable primers is challenging because of specificity issues (Westerholm et al.
2011; Gagen et al. 2010). The fhs gene diversity in anaerobic digesters has been less
frequently studied compared to the mcrA gene, but few investigations already
revealed the diversity in a mesophilic laboratory-scale biogas reactor (Westerholm
et al. 2011) and gene abundance by qPCR in natural and engineered environments
(Xu et al. 2009) as well as homoacetogenic activity during acidification in a ther-
mophilic anaerobic digester (Akuzawa et al. 2011).
Genes encoding [FeFe] hydrogenases (hydA) can also be used as specific
biomarkers of some groups of H2-producing bacteria (Vignais et al. 2001; Huang
et al. 2010). The activities of hydrogen-producing bacteria together with the active
methanogens (RNA-based mcrA gene approach) were investigated in a study of
various reactor systems during the reduction of the hydraulic retention time
(Ziganshin et al. 2016b).
7.6.2 Next Generation Amplicon Sequencing
The major drawbacks of the classical PCR-based techniques are that they have
either high throughput but low taxonomic resolution (molecular fingerprinting
techniques) or vice versa (cloning and sequencing). The application of the next
generation high-throughput sequencing technologies addressed this challenge by
providing an unparalleled resolution of the diversity (sequencing depth) at reduced

cost and required time for performing the assays. The increased need for sequencing
was mainly driven by the Human Genome Project. Nevertheless, the biogas
microbiology research also benefitted from the revolution of DNA sequencing.
A detailed overview on the technical details and description of the various
sequencing platforms are beyond the scope of this book chapter. Descriptions of the
technology developments can be found in other related reviews (Goodwin et al.
2016; Rothberg and Leamon 2008).
Next generation amplicon sequencing was used for the detailed description of
the microbial communities of laboratory-scale (Wintsche et al. 2016; Leite et al.
2016; Ziganshin et al. 2013; Poirier et al. 2016; Sträuber et al. 2016; Town et al.
2014; Popp 2017; Sun et al. 2015) and full-scale anaerobic digesters (Lucas
et al. 2015; Werner et al. 2011; Sundberg et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2012; Maus et al.
2017; Sun et al. 2016; Abendroth et al. 2015; De Vrieze et al. 2015; Li et al. 2015).
These investigations revealed a much higher level of diversity compared to the
classical molecular techniques (Werner et al. 2011; Lee et al. 2012) and the
increased sequencing depth provided new insights into the contribution of low
abundant community members during inoculation, enrichment or start-up of the
biogas process (Leite et al. 2016; Ozbayram et al. 2017; Goux et al. 2016). The
major bacterial taxa found by amplicon sequencing in various biogas systems are
summarized in Table 7.6.
The microbial composition of biogas reactors is mainly shaped by the substrate
composition and the process temperature (Ziganshin et al. 2013; Luo et al. 2015),
the hydraulic retention time (Regueiro et al. 2015) and the ammonia level
(Ziganshin et al. 2013; Sun et al. 2015; Sundberg et al. 2013; De Vrieze et al. 2015).
The bacterial community is generally more diverse than the archaeal community.
Due to the lower diversity of the methanogenic communities a high read number
during amplicon sequencing is not required to identify the major key players of the
community. Only few studies focused on the mcrA gene for amplicon sequencing
and high throughput description of the methanogens (e.g. Popp 2017; Ellis et al.
2012; Wilkins et al. 2015). However, the method can be useful to analyse the role
of less abundant methanogens, which cannot be detected by T-RFLP. Such
methanogens below one percent relative abundance may appear and become even
dominant when the reactor conditions change (Leite et al. 2016). Agneessens and
co-workers found an increase of the relative abundance of a Methanobacteriales
affiliated OTU from below 1 to 6.1% after H2 addition to a system digesting sludge
and straw by the application of mcrA gene amplicon sequencing (Agneessens et al.
2017).
Table 7.6 Examples for the application of next generation amplicon sequencing to reveal the
phylogenetic diversity of full-scale biogas reactor communities
Reactor type/ Substrate Sequencing Most abundant Reference
temperature platform bacterial taxa
UASBa Brewery 454 Bacteroidetes, Werner
reactors wastewater pyrosequencing Syntrophobacterales, et al.
(variable) Desulfuromonadales, (2011)
Spirochaetes
One and Municipal 454 Proteobacteria, Lee et al.
two-stage wastewater pyrosequencing Bacteroidetes, (2012)
reactors Firmicutes,
(mesophilic Spirochaetes,
and Chloroflexi
thermophilic)
Mesophilic Energy crops 454 Firmicutes, Lucas
CSTRb (97% maize pyrosequencing Bacteroidetes, et al.
systems silage) Cloacimonetes (2015)
CSTRsb and Energy crops and Illumina MiSeq Firmicutes, Maus
liquid pump/ manure Bacteroidetes, et al.
wet Spirochaetes, (2017)
fermenters Tenericutes
(mesophilic
and
thermophilic)
Various Sewage sludge 454 Actinobacteria, Sundberg
mesophilic (SS), pyrosequencing Proteobacteria, et al.
and co-digestion of Chloroflexi, (2013)
thermophilic various wastes Spirochetes (SS);
CSTRb from Firmicutes
systems slaughterhouses, (co-digestion)
restaurants,
households
Various Various waste Illumina MiSeq Firmicutes, De Vrieze
waste streams Bacteroidetes, et al.
treatment Proteobacteria (2015)
systems
(mesophilic
and
thermophilic)
Small Rye and maize Illumina MiSeq Proteobacteria, Goux
CSTRb farm silages, hay, Bacteroidetes, et al.
reactor straw, green Firmicutes, (2016)
grass, solid meat- Tenericutes
and dairy-cattle
manure
a
Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
b
Continuous stirred tank reactor
7.6.3 Omics Approach
The advances in sequencing technologies made it possible to analyse not just single
genes, but to target all genes or gene transcripts even in complex microbial com-
munities. Metagenomics is a complex investigation approach including high
throughput sequencing and bioinformatics tools to characterize the genetic content
of complex microbial communities (Thomas et al. 2012). In a similar way meta-
transcriptomics is defined as the approach to characterize the gene transcripts of a
complex community by deep sequencing the reverse transcribed RNA isolated from
a complex sample. The above discussed (6.2) single-gene (16S rRNA gene or mcrA
gene) amplicon sequencing approach is also frequently described as metagenomics
in the literature, which is a wrong interpretation and should be avoided, because the
holistic element of “omics” is missing in this approach (Prosser 2015). The omics
approach goes beyond the description of community structure by providing infor-
mation about the potential function (DNA) or its expression (RNA) as it analyses
not just single taxonomic or functional markers but sets of genes or genomic
fragments with the potential to explore metabolic pathways and novel or unex-
pected functions. Another advantage of the omics approach is that it does not
require a prior knowledge for primer design, and completely unknown genes might
be explored. The relative abundance data of genes or taxa are less distorted due to
the lack of PCR-associated biases. However, PCR-based amplicon sequencing
offers a higher coverage of rare taxa, considering the same sequencing depth
(Lebuhn et al. 2014). A detailed review providing practical advice on sample
processing, sequencing technology, assembly, binning, annotation, experimental
design, statistical analysis, data storage, and data sharing can be found elsewhere
(Thomas et al. 2012).
Although the ultimate aim of metagenomics is the complete coverage of all
genes and construction of population genomes (genome-centric metagenomics),
this was not possible for a while in case of very complex communities, and the
reconstruction of complete genomes could be achieved only for low to medium
diversity samples (Tyson et al. 2004). Another problem is that such assembled
individual genomes are most probably chimeras of genetic information derived
from closely related microorganisms. An alternative strategy is to directly analyse
the unassembled sequence data (gene-centric metagenomics) by comparing reads
directly to protein databases without linking phylogenetic information to function
(Jaenicke et al. 2011; Wirth et al. 2012; Li et al. 2013). The first metagenome
studies of biogas systems were performed with samples from a full-scale agricul-
tural biogas plant (Krause et al. 2008; Schlüter et al. 2008). These initial results
suggested main contributions of Methanoculleus to hydrogenotrophic methano-
genesis and the role of Clostridia in hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass.
Wirth and co-workers investigated a laboratory-scale CSTR system fed with
maize silage and pig manure slurry under mesophilic conditions. A metagenomics
approach by using extremely parallel SOLiD™ short-read DNA sequencing was
employed to resolve the functional and taxonomic complexity of the reactor
microbiome. Firmicutes was the predominant bacterial phylum with Clostridia

(36%) and Bacilli (11%) as dominant classes, while the major methanogenic order
was the Methanomicrobiales and the most abundant species was Methanoculleus
marisnigri. Functional genes revealed the importance of hydrogen metabolism by
identification of genes involved in both production and consumption (Wirth et al.
2012). Solli et al. (2014) studied the start-up of four parallel laboratory-scale CSTRs
co-digesting fish waste and cow manure. The most abundant phyla in all reactors
were Firmicutes followed by Bacteroidetes and the candidate phylum
Cloacimonetes (WWE1). The Cloacimonetes increased in relative abundance in all
reactors compared to the original inoculum. The predominant methanogen was
affiliated to the hydrogenotrophic genus Methanoculleus. The acetoclastic genera
Methanosarcina and Methanosaeta were present but their abundance was signifi-
cantly lower. Genes encoding enzymes for methane formation from both CO2/H2
and acetate were present in the reactors. A high number of reads were annotated as
genes involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, which is consistent
with the finding that many species found in biogas reactors are involved in protein
and carbohydrate digestion. Further examples for the application of metagenomics
of the microbiomes of full-scale biogas plants are shown in Table 7.7.
Table 7.7 Examples for the application of whole genome sequencing (metagenomics) to reveal
the phylogenetic diversity and major metabolic pathways of full-scale biogas reactor communities
Reactor type/ Substrate Sequencing Most abundant Reference
temperature platform bacterial taxa
CSTR Maize silage, 454 Clostridiales Krause et al.
(mesophilic) green rye, pyrosequencing (phylum (2008), Schlüter
chicken Firmicutes), et al. (2008),
manure Bacteroidales Kröber et al.
(phylum (2009), Jaenicke
Bacteroidetes), et al. (2011)
Methanomicrobiales
Wastewater High-strength Illumina HiSeq Clostridia, Cai et al. (2016)
treatment wastewater Proteobacteria
plants and sludge
(mesophilic)
Three Maize silage, Illumina MiSeq Firmicutes, Maus et al. (2016)
connected barley, cattle Synergistetes,
identical manure, pig Thermotogae
cylindrical manure
digesters
(thermophilic)
Pilot-scale Sugar beet Ion Torrent Bacteroidetes, Tukacs-Hajos et al.
CSTRs pressed pulp Firmicutes, (2014)
(mesophilic to Proteobacteria
thermophilic)
Agricultural Maize silage, 454 Firmicutes, Güllert et al.
biogas plant cow manure, pyrosequencing Bacteroidetes, (2016)
(mesophilic) chicken Spirochaetes
manure
A recent study aimed to characterize the core microorganisms in manure-based

CSTRs and successfully assembled 157 new genomes from the extended data set
(Treu et al. 2016a). In a similar way, Vanwonterghem et al. managed to assemble
101 population genomes from a metagenome dataset obtained from a
laboratory-scale biogas reactor study (Vanwonterghem et al. 2016). The metabolic
potential analysis of such assembled populations revealed metabolic networks with
a high level of functional redundancy as well as niche specialization. The study of
Frank et al. (2016) is a good example to go beyond a simple description of the
community and its metabolic potential. They investigated a commercial,
ammonia-tolerant biogas reactor fed with slaughterhouse and municipal waste and
reported the discovery and dominance of a novel uncultured phylotype (unFirm_1).
They managed to reconstruct the respective genome, and a quantitative metapro-
teome analysis implied a function in syntrophic acetate oxidation. Although other
cultured syntrophic acetate oxidizing bacteria were also identified in the reactor,
their limited proteomic representation suggested that unFirm_1 plays an important
role in converting acetate to methane in syntrophic interaction with hydro-
genotrophic methanogens.
Metagenome datasets were also analysed for the presence of putative pathogenic
microorganisms, such as Clostridium botulinum and Escherichia coli, to address
controversial discussion about the potential role of biogas plants in spreading of
pathogens (Eikmeyer et al. 2013). Only very few sequences were predicted to
originate from pathogenic clostridial species, and mapping of metagenome reads
revealed that only species that are more or less related to pathogenic ones were
present and known virulence determinants could hardly be detected. Another
interesting opportunity for the utilization of the extended metagenome data is to
discover novel lignocellulose hydrolyses with potential application for the
enhancement of lignocellulose-rich biomass degradation in AD systems (Pandit
et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2016; Yan et al. 2013; Xia et al. 2013). Such gene mining
might be extended by cloning and biochemical characterization of novel genes
assembled from metagenomic data as it was demonstrated recently (Wang et al.
2015).
Metatranscriptome analyses have the advantage that they provide information on
the metabolically active community members. Methodological challenges are
associated with RNA isolation, overrepresentation of ribosomal RNA and the short
half-life of mRNA. The first metatranscriptome analysis of a biogas reactor was
performed by Zakrzewski et al. (2012). Firmicutes was the dominant active bac-
terial phylum followed by Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Synergistetes.
Abundant transcripts were identified to encode enzymes involved in substrate
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetate formation and methanogenesis. Transcripts for
enzymes functioning in methanogenesis were more abundant than it was deduced
from the 16S rRNA sequence tags. This result emphasised that key enzymes of the
methanogenesis are highly expressed, and despite the low relative abundance of
methanogens compared to bacteria, they can be highly active as terminal key
players of the biogas process.
A combined application of metagenomics and metatranscriptomics with

increased sequencing depth on samples from an agricultural production-scale biogas
plant was recently demonstrated (Bremges et al. 2015). Sequencing at least one order
of magnitude deeper than previous studies enabled the mapping of transcripts to
reconstructed genome sequences and hence, the identification of active metabolic
pathways in target organisms. As an example the reconstruction of most genes
involved in the methane metabolism was demonstrated, although not all key gene
transcripts were found by metatranscriptomics. Further studies with the combined
application of metagenomics and metatranscriptomics investigated the anaerobic
digestion of Spirulina microalga at extreme alkaline conditions (Nolla-Ardevol et al.
2015), and the effect of long chain fatty acids (oleate) addition on the microbial
community as well as on the transcriptional responses (Treu et al. 2016b). A deep
metagenome and metatranscriptome analysis was conducted to reveal the differences
in lignocellulose digestion strategies among the microbiomes of an industrial biogas
fermenter, a cow rumen, and elephant gut communities (Güllert et al. 2016). The
relatively lower hydrolysis rates in the biogas plant compared to the animal digestive
systems was partially explained by the lower concentration of cellulolytic glycoside
hydrolase (GH) genes (as number of cellulolytic GH genes per Mbp sequence data).
Moreover, highly transcribed cellulases in the biogas plant samples were four times
more often affiliated with the phylum Firmicutes compared to the Bacteroidetes,
while an equal distribution was observed in the elephant feces sample.
The metaproteome of microbial communities in anaerobic digesters can be
investigated by protein extraction and fractionation followed by chromatographic
separation and tandem mass spectrometric analysis. However, to exploit the
potential of the metaproteomics approach, a more comprehensive biogas-related
database is needed, because current databases are full with hypothetical proteins
with unknown functions. To understand the function and role of these proteins,
currently a supportive metagenome information as scaffold is needed as it was
demonstrated by the study of Hanreich et al. (2012). Similarly, Ortseifen and
co-workers found out during an integrated metagenome and metaproteome analysis
of a biogas plant that public databases yielded insufficient identification rates
compared to a corresponding metagenome database from the same sample
(Ortseifen et al. 2016). The application of metaproteomics for biogas plant samples
was recently reviewed including an overview of the workflow and potential pitfalls
(Heyer et al. 2015).
A recent study used multiple meta-omic approaches (including quantitative
metaproteomics) to characterize an industrial biogas reactor treating food waste at
high temperature and elevated free ammonia levels. Metaproteomics data suggested
acclimatization and activity of a Methanosaeta phylotype even at high ammonia
levels. Moreover, a metabolic scenario was drafted whereby multiple uncultured
syntrophic acetate-oxidizing bacteria are capable of syntrophically oxidizing acetate
as well as longer-chain fatty acids (via the b-oxidation and Wood-Ljundahl
pathways) to hydrogen and carbon dioxide. A recent large-scale metaproteomics
study investigated 35 different industrial biogas plants (Heyer et al. 2016), the
same ones previously assessed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing by
De Vrieze et al. (2015). Similar microbial key players were identified and addi-
tionally the main biomass degradation pathways were elucidated. An important
finding was that high ammonia levels correlated with hydrogenotrophic methano-
gens and bacterial one-carbon metabolism.
These meta-omics studies also unveiled that most of the microorganisms were
still unexplored and only limited functional information could be derived due to
missing reference genome information (Treu et al. 2016a). The next-generation
sequencing technology is still advancing rapidly and a substantial cost reduction per
read can be expected in future, which will further accelerate the application of
omics approaches in the field of biogas microbiology research (Vanwonterghem
et al. 2014). Future studies should go beyond snapshot analyses and need to support
complex experiments carefully designed to answer specific ecological questions
(Prosser 2015). Examples for recent laboratory-scale reactor studies are the
investigation of the effect of bioaugmentation in case of biogas production from
protein-rich substrates (Kovacs et al. 2015), comparison of optimal and acidified
straw digesting systems (Pore et al. 2016), assessment of the effect of long chain
fatty acids pulses (Kougias et al. 2016), and study of the effect of alkaline sludge
pretreatment on the microbiome (Wong et al. 2013).
7.6.4 Importance of Cultivation to Aid and Benefit

from Molecular Biology Techniques
Linking physiological function to molecular datasets by comparing sequences to

closely-related cultured relatives has many shortcomings. Even closely related
microorganisms might have completely different functions and sequencing of 16S
rRNA genes can generally achieve only genus level classification, which further
reduces the predictability of the metabolic function. Moreover, most of the
sequences are only related to unknown species. The gap between the number of
cultivated and well-described microorganisms and the putative microorganisms
described only by DNA sequences is widening in an alarming rate. As a conse-
quence, there is a similar gap between the characterised and hypothetical proteins
identified only by metagenomics (Hugenholtz and Tyson 2008). A good example is
the candidate phylum Cloacimonetes (WWE1), which is often an abundant taxon in
biogas systems (Lucas et al. 2015; Ozbayram et al. 2017; Solli et al. 2014) but it has
no cultivated member so far.
These observations highlight the need for obtaining more key players of the
biogas process in pure culture by applying novel and much more sophisticated
cultivation methods. A very elegant approach was applied recently by Maus et al.
(2016) to study a thermophilic biogas plant by including metagenome and meta-
transcriptome analyses complemented by the cultivation of hydrolytic and
acid-producing bacteria as well as methanogenic archaea. The value of new pure
cultures genomes for the interpretation of metagenome and metatranscriptome data
was also demonstrated. As an example, the up to now only poorly recognized role
of Defluviitoga tunisiensis (also obtained in pure culture by Maus et al. (2016)) in
thermophilic anaerobic digestion of agricultural residues was underlined.
Assembled genome information from metagenome data can also help in the
development of isolation and cultivation strategies as it was demonstrated by the
study of Pope et al. (2011). A dominant bacterial species (WG-1) affiliated to
the family Succinivibrionaceae and implicated in lower methane emissions from
starch-containing diets was isolated from the wallaby gut microbiota. The suc-
cessful cultivation strategy to obtain an axenic culture was devised from the partial
reconstruction of the bacterium’s metabolism from binned metagenome data.
A similar strategy could be applied for the targeted isolation of abundant but so far
not cultivated microorganisms of the complex microbiome in anaerobic digesters.
7.7 Concluding Remarks
AD can be regarded as a dual-purpose technology as it stabilizes the solid biomass

waste and also converts the complex organic material of such waste into biogas,
thus having the ability to convert a waste management issue into a profit option. It is
regarded as one of the most widely implemented biotechnology solutions in the
management of organic waste as it exhibits both economical and energy recovery
benefits (Weiland 2003). This process takes advantage of waste material as feed-
stock which are available all-round the year at low cost, producing high-quality end
products (Tognetti et al. 2011). One metric ton of organic solid waste, if not treated,
has the potential to breakdown and emit 50–110 m3 of carbon dioxide CO2 and 90–
140 m3 of methane into the atmosphere, equivalent to around 400 kWh of power
(Cecchi 2011; Vietitez and Ghosh 1997). Hence, the application of AD technology
is of outmost importance to attain the environmental goals that our society has set
regarding sustainable development. Knowledge on process technology and process
microbiology has expanded rapidly during the recent years. This is mainly due to
the ongoing revolution of the molecular biological techniques and associated data
analysis methods for the assessment of structures, metagenomes and metatran-
scriptomes of microbial communities in biogas plants. Although the continuously
growing databases produced by these metaomics approaches and their correlations
to the reactor parameters revealed many interesting aspects of the biogas process,
which cannot be considered as a black box process anymore, the complex biogas
microbiome is so complex, that its effective management is still a challenge for the
future.
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Chapter 8
Biogas Production Systems: Operation,
Process Control, and Troubleshooting
Hossein Ghanavati
8.1 Introduction
Advanced instrumentation and control tools are keys in enhancing energy pro-
duction and resource recovery during methanogenic anaerobic digestion
(AD) processes. Process monitoring can help to identify instabilities during AD,
react on time before a severe crash happens, re-stabilize crashed plants, give an
overall view of the biogas process, accomplish a successful start-up of a plant,
increase gas production, and control odor-related problems to name but a few.
There are quite a few possible reasons for process instabilities ranging from the
changes in the feedstock and the temperature to the trace metal limitation.
Parameters characterizing the processes and the early indicators representing them
are the possible subdivided categories of the monitoring parameters in industrial
processes.
Control devices to monitor different aspects of the processes are ubiquitous in
industrial plants. Many different parameters are involved in industrial processes, as
the lack of their monitoring will lead to process failure. For example, gas com-
position measurements are one of the required steps in monitoring the processes.
Carbon dioxide and methane concentration, two major components of the biogas,
are measured and monitored by the use of various sensors, including gas analyzers
and infrared absorption. In the case of gas composition monitoring, controlling the
presence of hydrogen sulfide and the explosive character of the biogas are the other
important issues that need to be considered. The pH, volatile fatty acids, alkalinity,
total and volatile solids, solid and hydraulic retention time, organic loading rate,
feeding schedule, mixing and the range of inhibitors, as well as foam and scum are
H. Ghanavati (&)
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII),
Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran

200 H. Ghanavati
the other important issues, having the key roles in controlling the processes. It is
also worth mentioning that the above parameters may be fluctuating in a way that
their troubleshooting must be taken into account. It is crucial to know that many
industrial problems are originated from not only industrial discharges and process
failures, but also equipment malfunction, inadequate maintenance, or design defi-
ciencies. Hence, having an adequate acquaintance with the structure of major
equipment in an industrial plant will help technicians and operators to keep the
plant in a stable condition. In this chapter, major operation and process control
equipment alongside with operational parameters, troubleshooting issues, mostly
from a practical point of view, are thoroughly reviewed and discussed.
8.2 Operation and Controlling Equipment

in Anaerobic Digestion Process
8.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment
Mechanical pretreatment, as a critical unit in industrial biogas plants, may consist of

shredders and pulpers. These equipment are generally used in order to enhance the
(specific) surface area of hard-solid substrates (such as municipal solid wastes—
MSW, waste wood, mixed industrial wastes, bulky refuse, waste tyres, waste papers
and cardboard, etc.) through breaking down and/or crushing, leading to their more
efficient digestion and enhanced AD process. In fact, the larger the particle size, the
lower the amount of methane produced during an AD process, that is, the particle
size is inversely proportional to the maximum substrate utilization rate (Jain et al.
2015). In addition to size reduction, removal of impurities along with lowering the
cost of operation and maintenance, e.g., pumps plugging and blades corrosion, as
well as impurities settlement in digesters are among the other benefits of mechanical
treatment.
Shredders are often equipped with a magnetic separator to remove metal con-
taminations from the inlet stream. Since plastics cannot be removed through
shredding, separating them prior to the process is essential in order to achieve a
reasonably favorable performance of the unit (Hansen et al. 2007). Pulpers
(equipped with hydrocyclones) are basically used for the dissolution and defiber-
ation of fermentable organic matters contained in mixed MSW for subsequent
biogas production. Pulpers are also important for the efficient separation of
non-fermentable “heavy” (e.g., bones, stones, glass, batteries, metal objects, etc.)
and “light” impurities (e.g., textile, wood, plastics, foil, etc.) through a rake located
at the top of the pulper (for light fraction) and a sluice located at the bottom of the
pulper followed by a classifying screw for dewatering and collection of the heavy
fraction (Fig. 8.1) (BTA international 2017). A perforated plate is also located at
the outlet in order for the organic suspension to be withdrawn. Overall, an easily
manageable and pumpable organic suspension including (literally) only pure fer-
mentable components of the waste stream is the main output of this unit operation.
8 Biogas Production Systems: Operation, Process Control … 201
Fig. 8.1 Schematic view of a pulper and its hydrocyclone part together with the waste streams
Figure 8.1 shows a schematic presentation of a pulper and its hydrocyclone part
together with the streams of waste.
8.2.2 Temperature Control
Temperature is one of the most important and must-be controlled parameters, which
plays a crucial role in the anaerobic process stability. There are three general ranges
of temperature each favoring a specific type of microorganisms including (1) psy-
chrophilic: about 10–20 °C, (2) mesophilic: about 35–40 °C (3), and thermophilic:
about 50–55 °C (Jain et al. 2015). There are a couple of factors, which contribute to
heat generation or transfer in a digester including process reaction, mixing
(impellers), as well as heat exchangers (hot water or steam). When scaling up
digesters from laboratory scale to industrial scale, controlling the temperature at a
desired level becomes more difficult, since the ratio of the surface area of the
digester to its volume will become smaller. It should be noted that this ratio is an
important parameter in determining the speed of cooling by heat exchangers in
industrial digesters as well. As a result, a very accurate and effective design of heat
exchangers is needed to hold the temperature of digesters at a desired level. An
internal loop (warm water) of heat exchanger used for heating digesters is shown in
Fig. 8.2.
202 H. Ghanavati
Fig. 8.2 Internal loop (warm water) for heating the digester
The mixing process itself can also generate heat. Usually, 10–30% of the heat
required for the AD process could be contributed by mixing. In cases where sys-
tems are overheated, e.g., in hot regions of the world, alternative mixing such as
bubble column or air-lift loop would be a better option in order to avoid extra heat
generation by conventional mixing. Naturally-occurring evaporation can also exert
a cooling effect. Nevertheless, if there is still surplus heat in the system, different
types of heat exchangers namely cooling coil, vessel wall, cooling baffles, external
loop, etc. could be used.
Based on field experiences, the optimum temperature for mesophilic digesters
(42 °C) can be achieved if a fluid temperature range of 65–70 °C is maintained in
heat exchangers. An applicable parameter, which plays a critical role in determining
how well a heat exchanger has been designed, is the Stanton Number. It is
described as the ratio of the heat transfer capacity through coils to the convection
capacity in cooling water. Figure 8.3 illustrates the different ranges of this number
along with their interpretations. Equation 8.1 also shows the relation through which
one may derive the number. Although implementing a heat exchanger in an
industrial digester will have such advantages as greater design freedom and faster
heat transfer, there will also be such challenges as cold shocks, shear stress in the
pump, and oxygen and substrate depletion (in an external loop exchanger).
Stanton Number
0.1 10
1
Transfer is the boƩleneck Transfer is the boƩleneck
Ideal TCW, out TBroth

TCW, out TCW, in
ConvecƟon Capacity << Transfer Capacity
ConvecƟon Capacity >> Transfer
Capacity Cooling Area >> Flow of C.W.
Overcapacity of C.W. Flow Coil is too long
Fig. 8.3 Different ranges of Stanton number along with their interpretations
U At
StHeat ¼ ð8:1Þ
qcw Cp £cw
There are a couple of devices used for monitoring the process temperature
including liquid thermometers, bimetal thermometers, pressure on liquid or gas
expansion bulbs, thermistors, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), infrared
detectors, and crystal window tape. In order for having a stable temperature in
biogas digesters, it is crucial to continuously control the temperature with the help
of accurate temperature control devices (Clemens 2013). Each control device is
made for a unique application. For instance, the RTD is typically used on lower,
ambient-range temperatures, while gas- and liquid-filled temperature sensors and
thermistors are frequently used for equipment-protection and cooling systems. In
digesters, mostly with the help of proportional integral derivative (PID) controllers,
the temperature is monitored by controlling a shunt valve that regulates the flow of
heating water (“Operational guidelines for Plönninge biogas plant,” n.d.). In biogas
production processes, controlling the temperature is much more important than the
other operational parameters considering the presence of microorganisms, each with
their own working temperature range (Esteves et al. 2013). Hence, operators have to
periodically calibrate the instruments using a standard and accurate temperature
measuring device. In conclusion, controlling the temperature in an industrial scale
process is one of the most important and difficult tasks, while it should be noted that
adding more heat is easier than removing it from the unit (Atiemo-Obeng and
Calabrese 2004). Thus, controlling the temperature, as an operational parameter, is
a crucial step in making a stable industrial process.
From the troubleshooting perspective, if the temperature of the slurry under
digestion drops, the inlet and outlet pressure of the exchangers and warming
system pumps, the health of the thermometer devices, as well as temperature
profile in the digester should primarily be checked out. Regarding the origin of
problem, opening and cleaning the heat exchangers, measures to mitigate line
plugging, or implementation of an increase in the mixing procedure of the
digesters may be taken into account. If the slurry temperature increases, it may
be ascribed to the improper operation of temperature controller, in which the wise
prescription is repairing or replacing the controller. Additionally, it would be wise
to check the CHP heat exchanger setting, the health of the warming pipes in the
digesters by checking the make-up water, and the accumulation of solid materials
at around the sensing device. Furthermore, checking the manual to regulate the
setting, closing the valve of the damaged pipe, and opening and cleaning the
device, respectively, should be considered. As another worth-mentioning point,
in order to prevent any occurrence of deterioration in warming system pipes,
aliphatic polyamine should be added 20–30 L per megawatt (MW) of plant
capacity to circulating water annually.
204 H. Ghanavati
8.2.3 Pressure Control
Many instruments have been introduced, for both static fluids and a moving
streams, to control and monitor the pressure (Potter and Voss 1975). In an industrial
biogas plant, it is crucial to continuously control the pressure for produced biogas.
The digesters gas pressure can be measured using both digital and analog pressure
gauges. The pressure/vacuum relief valve (safety valve), which is a must-control
device and mounted on top of the digester, reacts to the exceedance level of the
biogas pressure as well as possible vacuum conditions, leading to a guaranteed safe
operation (Fig. 8.4). As another application of pressure measuring, slurry level can
be determined using specific liquid gauge pressure devices, which is capable of
determining tiny fluctuations.
In terms of pressure control and monitoring, the following components are
commonly used, while should precisely be tuned:
Fig. 8.4 A typical mechanical-based pressure control safety valve

• Check valve, to prevent higher pressure gas to come back to the digester;
• Pressure regulator, to maintain a constant pressure at the point of use (such as
engine);
• Pressure/vacuum relief valve, to prevent digester structural damages due to a
pressure build-up or vacuum condition;
• Manometer, to monitor and control the pressure at collection and storage
systems, along the transfer pipes, as well as the inlet and outlet points in units
(e.g., scrubber and chiller) (Marx et al. 2010).
8.2.4 Pumps Management
Transferring feedstock into the digesters is one of the primary roles of pumps in an
industrial biogas plant. As an important central unit, almost all biomass tanks are
connected to pump room, mainly consisting of valves, pumps, and different
transmitters. In order for the operators to have an easy access to the control system
close to the working area, there is also a small control room in the pump room
(Water and Engines 2014). Some of the most important components of the pump
room can be seen in Fig. 8.5.
Designing a pump to transmit a specified amount of fluid over a given distance
directly relates to the design of the pipelines, as one may use a large-diameter pipe
with a small pressure drop, which involves a higher capital cost with lower running
costs, or a smaller-diameter pipe with a greater pressure drop, which involves a
Biomass Pump • Transport the biomass.
• Delivers cold water to the last biomass heat exchanger before going to the digesters or during
Cold Water Pump the recirculation.
Compressor Unit • Distributes compressed air to the process components such as automatic valves.
Technical Water • Process components or processes needing waterare supplied from here.
Arrangement
Auto - and Manual • The automatic valves are controled by the system. these will open or close depending on the
pumpway which is to be used.
Valves • The manual valves are normally for maintaining the components such as biomass pumps.
• This includes level-, temperature-, pressure-, and flow transmitters. They display their values
Transmitters in the control system and are used by the automatic system.
Fig. 8.5 Some of the most important components of the pump room. Adopted from Water and
Engines (2014)
206 H. Ghanavati
lower capital cost with higher running costs due to the need for more pumps
(Abdel-Aal 2016). Figure 8.6 shows the most influential parameters in selection of
a pump while Fig. 8.7 presents pump classifications.
Practically, horsepower of a pump can be calculated using the following
relationship (Eqs. 8.2 and 8.3) (Abdel-Aal 2016).
H:l:Q P:Q
Hydraulic Horsepower ðHPÞ ¼ ¼ ð8:2Þ
3960 1714
HP ðhydraulicÞ
Brake HP ðactualÞ ¼ ð8:3Þ
a
Where
H is the head in ft;
l is the specific gravity;
Q is the flow rate (gpm);
P is the gauge pressure in lb/in2;
a is the pump efficiency; 60% is used for centrifugal pumps.
In spite of the fact that there are various types of pumps in industrial processes,
it is common to use piston and centrifugal pumps in industrial biogas plants.
Pump
Capacity/Size
(the flow rate
to be
pumped)
Physical and
Chemical Type of
Properties of Power Supply
the Fluid Influential
Parameters
in Selection
of a Pump
Operating Type of Flow

Conditions Distribution
Fig. 8.6 Influential parameters in selection of a pump. Adopted from Abdel-Aal (2016)
Pumps Classification
Positive-displacement Pumps Dynamics/Momentum-change

(PDPs) Pumps
Reciprocating Rotary Rotary Special Design
Centrifugal or Jet Pump and

Piston/Plunger Single Rotor Multiple Rototrs
Radial Exit Flow Ejector
Electromagnetic
Diaphragm Sliding Vane Gear Axial Flow Pumps for liquid
Metals
Mixed Flow Fluid-Actuated:

Flexible Tube or
Lobe (Between Radial Gas Lift or
Lining
and Axial) Hydraulic Ram
Screw Screw
Peristaltic (Wave Circumferential

Contraction) Piston
Fig. 8.7 Classification of pumps. Adopted from Potter and Voss (1975)
Piston pumps are usually used for pumping viscous sludge into digesters while
centrifugal ones are used for the recirculation of the sludge. Alongside these two
common types, progressive cavity and diaphragm pumps are also used to some
extent in such industrial processes (Marx et al. 2010).
8.2.5 Mixers and Mixing Management
Uniform concentration, a particular scale of segregation (e.g. particle size, drop

size, or striation thickness), and providing a required rate of mixing are the three
possible objectives of a good mixing (Kresta et al. 2015). An adequate mass transfer
and sufficient contact time between substrate and bacteria need to be guaranteed by
a precise design of the reactor. While doing so, a good mixing design can also
reduce the digester content, avoid the settlement of such more dense materials as
inert ones at the bottom of the digester, and also the formation of floating layer at
the top of it. It is necessary to adjust the rate of mixing accurately in different
operational circumstances, as this rate will directly affect the quality of the process,
especially when there are some sensitive agents like microorganisms, play a key
role in it (Esteves et al. 2013).
208 H. Ghanavati
Different types of mixers that may be used in an industrial biogas production

plant are flow accelerators, turbulence generators, and hybrid mixers (Liebetrau and
Jacobi 2016). Small propellers running at a relatively high speed (300 rpm and
above), a low ratio of thrust and power, lower energy efficiency in comparison to
the other ones, and being prone to recirculation behavior are the major character-
istics of the turbulent generators, which make them less applicable for industrial
biogas plants. Large and low-speed (30–50 rpm) propellers, high volume flow, very
high thrust, very low power consumption, energy-efficient, and being able to make
an adequate turbulence are the major characteristics of flow accelerators, which are
widely used in industrial biogas plants. Good energy efficiency, impressive depth of
penetration, and a low tendency in recirculation accompanying with the beneficial
features of turbulent generators and flow accelerators make hybrid mixers a good
option for the industrial purposes (Liebetrau and Jacobi 2016). The common
structure of mixers in industrial biogas plants is a top mixer with two impellers at
different levels with a controllable speed. Specially designed rotor blades at the top
of the mixer will prevent the formation of floating hard layers in the digester
(Esteves et al. 2013).
Based on field experiences, in some of the industrial biogas digesters, the
digester itself consists of two upper-mounted mixers alongside with another
lower-mounted one, which should be used periodically (e.g., weekly). The mixers
should be implemented vertically or, at most, with an angle of 45° with respect to
the wall. The longer the propeller, the higher the power of the mixer, for instance,
90 and 140 cm propeller in diameter will lead to a 3000 and 4000 N, respectively.
Mixing must be scheduled based on process conditions and features to reach the
optimum and desirable outcomes. For instance, in a digester equipped with three
mixers, mixing is applied by two of the mixers in a circulation choice of manner. In
this case, the schedule is in a way that mixing is performed for a period of 20 min/h.
Overall, appropriate mixing—as a vital tool—will result in a better quality of the
following features:
(1) Eliminating any concentration and temperature gradients, (2) improving the
AD process by the creation of a sufficient contact between microorganisms and
substrates throughout the digester, (3) preventing stratification, (4) reducing the
build-up of scum in the digester, (5) promoting the release of biogas, (6) enhancing
the heat transfer, and (7) creating uniform and homogenized fluid.
In terms of inhibition, strong mixing causes a disruption in syntrophic and
methanogenic bacteria, which, could ultimately lead to the inhibition of syntrophic
oxidation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs). It has been observed that mixing intensity
has an effect on process inhibition and recovery from organic overload. Intensive
mixing during high overload will result in acidification and process failure, i.e.,
successful digestion will be achieved by low mixing intensity. It should be noted
that continuous mixing does not take place in such processes, as it will lead to a
reduction in biogas production.
8.2.6 Gas Composition Monitoring
Two main components of biogas are CH4 and CO2. The ratio of these two major
components is stable in a digester except for the occurrence of any imbalance in the
biogas production process. The optimal composition for biogas is 100% methane,
which seems to be far away from practical approaches (Esteves et al. 2013). In
another word, higher concentrations of methane in biogas will lead to a better
combustion, cleaner emissions, and a higher output power. In order for controlling
the biogas composition, it is better to monitor it by using a continuous gas analyzer,
while it is possible to use a portable biogas analyzer as well. This system could be
accompanied by a controllable air pump, which finally leads to the implementation
of bio-desulfurization by the present sulfur oxidizing bacteria (SOB). More
specifically, desulfurization is carried out by a control loop, in which if the gas
analyzer detects a deviation from the safe range of oxygen concentration in the gas
phase, it will order the air pump to blow into the digester making the digester’s
environment favorable (i.e., by controlling the oxygen concentration) to the par-
ticular bacteria. The importance of frequent gas composition analyzing is that an
exceedance of 6% v/v in oxygen concentration in the digester will lead to a higher
risk of explosion, as well as an inhibition in the methanogenic and other anaerobic
bacteria. In addition, an oxygen concentration below 1% v/v causes an increase in
the H2S concentration.
Biogas analyzers measure CH4, CO2, H2S and O2, by sampling from the digester
discharge pipe every 30 min, and then the concentration for each gas is logged,
displayed, and transferred. Operators use the data to make sure about the process
preventing any possible shutdown or financial losses. Figure 8.8 shows the sche-
matic presentation and the actual view of an automated industrial gas analyzer
together with a desulfurization system (AwiFLEX, n.d.).
Fig. 8.8 Schematic presentation and the actual view of an automated industrial gas analyzer
together with a desulfurization system. Courtesy of AwiFLEX
210 H. Ghanavati
8.2.7 Digester Covers
Digester cover should be able to keep the digester gas in and prevent air penetration
into the digester, preventing the possibility of an explosive condition and gases and
odor vitalization. There are two common types of digester covers, i.e., fixed and
flexible. Limiting the downward movement of the digester cover as well as pro-
tecting the internal equipment from damage, corbels play a key role as another
essential part of the flexible covers in digesters (Marx et al. 2010). The flexible
covers usually consist of two membrane layers, between which air is continuously
pumped. The outer membrane will protect the inner one from different risks of
damage, e.g., negative sun radiation effects and rupture. In addition to this, pumping
air aims to hold the digester at an inflated shape. In terms of pressure, 4–8 cm of
water pressure is the usual pressure range of the gas available on the weight of the
gasholder per unit area. Approximately, 50% of the total daily gas production is
considered as the volume of the gas cover (Vindis et al. 2014). Fixed holding covers,
consists of a concrete dome on top of the digester itself. Long life of utilization (over
20 years) and being devoid of costlier mild steel gas holder which is susceptible to
corrosion, are the prominent characteristics of fixed gas holders (Jain et al. 2015).
Figure 8.9 shows a flexible gas holder in an industrial biogas plant.
8.2.8 Visual Control
Visual controls are the easiest and most cost-effective way to ensure the safety of
workers and industrial processes, improve the overall efficiency of the processes, as
well as save time and money. Visual controls can be either a single tag on a pipe or a
mounted glass along a pipeline or on a vessel (Carmichael, n.d.). As mentioned above,
Fig. 8.9 Flexible cover digester

Fig. 8.10 Digester-mounted glass. Courtesy of PROGECO S.r.l
pressure, level, and temperature gauges are also among the most prominent visual
controls mounted on must-control devices in the field. It is the common of many
industries to use different types of visual controls. Figure 8.10 shows a biogas sight
glass equipped with wiper, and water spray system. This kind of sight glass is
specifically designed for installation in digester tanks used in biogas production with
an innovative expanding gasket that conforms to irregularities in the cement walls and
ports used in digester tank construction, creating a gas-tight seal. With the help of
sight glasses, operators set mixing devices at optimum positions and investigate the
overall condition in the digester, e.g., the possibility of scum or foam creation. The
equipped wiper will also help to wipe out any vapor on the glass for a clear vision.
The intensity of the installed illumination system near glass may also be adjusted by
the operators to the desirable extent. Additionally, the camera makes recording
particular circumstances in the digester possible for the future investigation.
8.3 Bioprocess Operational Parameters

and Troubleshooting
AD is a complex biochemical process in which methane rich biogas produced from

organic material. The microbial community in the AD process, such as methano-
gens, are quite sensitive to environmental conditions and different elements within
the digester. This part focuses on general information about the desired range of
important parameters and their troubleshooting in AD process in order to secure a
stable and efficient process.
212 H. Ghanavati
Moreover, inhibitors are also reviewed and discussed. Inhibitors, as the major
obstacles in running an AD process, may be divided into two categories namely the
ones which already present in the substrate (organic or inorganic compounds in the
feedstock), and the end-products which are resulted from microbial reactions during
a part of AD process. The former consists of many compounds such as high salt
loads, antibiotics, long chain fatty acids (LCFA), heavy metals, or other toxic
organic substances, while the latter, which are the most common inhibitors, may be
VFA, LCFA, ammonia, sulfide, etc. (Boe 2006).
8.3.1 pH
Among many important bioprocess parameters in a biogas production plant, pH is

one of the must-control ones. The optimal pH ranges of the hydrolysis and aci-
dogenesis stages are 5.0–6.0 and 5.5–6.5, respectively, whereas the ideal pH range
for methanogenic bacteria is 6.8–7.2. In terms of inhibitory effects, the lower the
pH, the lower the activity of Methanogens, which will lead to the accumulation of
VFAs and subsequently a sour medium. A sour digester can be fixed by the addition
of some alkaline chemical materials to the digester (Table 8.1). The key point in
adding the materials is that they should be added slowly to avoid inhibition of
bacterial activity. Moreover, in the utilization of pH adjusting chemicals, all the
safety considerations should be implemented by operators.
8.3.2 Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity (EC), as an estimation of salt content, is determined by

measuring the content of dissolved solutes in aqueous extracts of organic solid
products by an EC meter. The importance of EC is rooted in the accumulative
inhibitory effect of metal and non-metal ionic contents in the biogas processes, due
to digesters wastewater recirculation, entrance of highly contented salt feeds, or the
Table 8.1 Common chemicals used to adjust pH in biogas digesters (Marx et al. 2010)
Chemical name Formula Common name
Calcium oxide CaO Unslaked or quicklime
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Slaked or hydrated lime
Anhydrous ammonia NH3 Agricultural fertilizer
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH Liquid ammonia
Sodium carbonate NaCO3 Soda ash
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda)
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Lye or caustic soda
addition of excessive amounts of alkaline materials. The maximum possible amount

of EC could be 25–30 dS/m. In order to eliminate the effect of salinity and its
subsequent inhibition, dilution with water with a low EC or even fresh water is
recommended as the best practical way. This procedure may also lead to some
negative impacts such as the reduction of organic dry matter (ODM) and buffering
capacity, but, in the long and controlled run, the biogas process will be stabilized.
8.3.3 Volatile Fatty Acids, Alkalinity, and the Respective

Ratio
The levels of VFAs and total alkalinity (TAK) or buffering capacity are two of the
typical fast indicators for monitoring the digestion process. As intermediates and
potential inhibitory compounds, VFAs, i.e., acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric acids,
etc., are produced during the hydrolysis and acidogenesis stages of AD process.
VFAs are then utilized as substrate for the acetogenesis and methanogenesis stages
to produce methane. The substrates containing bicarbonate buffering capacity and
high ammonia content, keep the pH stable around weak alkaline condition, and the
digester can tolerate high value of VFA and prevent pH drops (Boe 2006; Falk
2011; Lahav and Morgan 2004). In spite of the presence of such buffering systems,
high organic loads of easy degradable carbohydrates and/or introduction of toxic
substances could disturb pH stability, and cause accumulation of VFA (Falk 2011).
The VFA/TAK ratio reveals the quantity of volatile organic acids to the buffer
capacity of carbonate (total alkaline carbonate) in a digester (Deublein and
Steinhauser, n.d.).
Based on field experiences in AD plants running on organic fraction of
municipal solid waste (OFMSW), the VFA and alkalinity should be in ranges
between 7200–12,000 and 12,000–20,000 mg/L, respectively. Accordingly, the
VFA/TAK ratio is normally in the range of 0.2–0.6. During start-up, the VFA,
alkalinity, and, subsequently, their ratio, are a little different, commonly ranged
<4000, 10,000–15,000 mg/L, and 0.3–0.5, respectively.
With a change in the environmental conditions such as substrate types, fast
biodegradability, inhibitory effects due to substrate overload, digesters sludge and
bacterial biomass removal, and temperature instability, the concentrations of VFAs
may increase.
If the ratio of VFA/TAK increases, the following measures could be take:
(1) lowering or stopping feeding rate, (2) addition of a secondary sludge or external
microbial seed, (3) lowering sludge removal rate, (4) enhancing mixing time,
(5) checking digester temperature (6) addition of alkaline materials.
In order to prevent the inhibition of methane production by VFAs accumulation
during the AD process, co-digestion or two/three-stage digestion systems have been
proven to be effective (Jain et al. 2015).
214 H. Ghanavati
8.3.4 Ammonia
Ammonia, which is a significant factor affecting the process stability, mainly comes
from the degradation of protein wastes. Its toxicity goes up at high pH and high
temperature values because of the higher concentration of free ammonia generated
under such conditions. Considering the effects of ammonia, the higher the con-
centration, the lower the methanogenic activity. Methanogens have a higher sen-
sitivity towards ammonia in comparison with the other types of anaerobic
microorganisms existing in anaerobic digesters. Regarding different pH values and
the need for achieving temperature acclimation, a wide range of inhibitory con-
centrations of ammonia exists. This range of ammonia must be from 1 to 4 g/L for
mesophilic AD processes (also till 6 g/L in appropriate pH values) and from 1 to
2.5 g/L for thermophilic AD processes.
There are three possible actions to reduce NH3 inhibition, i.e., (1) reducing the
input of N‐rich substrates (e.g., slaughter house substrates, rape, clover, poultry
manure), (2) adding substrates with high C/N ratio, (3) Add Fe3+ (Fe(OH)3), and
(4) adding clay minerals (Clemens 2013). Other procedures may be as follows: pH
reduction; co-digestion with other compounds; addition of Ca2+ and Na+ rich
bentonite (Boe 2006); air stripping and chemical precipitation (Kabdasli et al.
2000); biomass retention enhancement; dilution (Chen et al. 2008); microorganisms
immobilization with different types of inert material (clay, activated carbon, or
zeolite) (Hansen et al. 1998); addition of ionic exchangers or adsorbents; addition of
activated carbon (because of its indirect impact on reducing the inhibition of
ammonia); and the addition of antagonistic cations such as Mg2+ or Ca2+ as process
stabilizers (Boe 2006). Nevertheless, the general prescriptions for ammonia toxicity
are liquid dilution, solid recycling, and a possible reduction in the amount of
entering ammonia-rich feed.
8.3.5 Sulfur Compounds
Sulfate and sulfur compounds, also present in protein wastes, affect both acetogenic
and methanogenic organisms because of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) being
metabolically versatile. With lower concentrations of sulfate, there would be a
competition between sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogenic archaea for
hydrogen and acetate. Likewise, with higher concentrations of sulfate, there would
also be a competition between SRB and acetogenic bacteria for propionate and
butyrate. Sulfide has inhibitory effects in the AD process at even low concentration
as 0.003–0.006 M total sulfur or 0.002–0.003 M H2S (O’Flaherty et al. 1998). In
general, sulfate reduction inhibition can be divided into two stages: the competition
for common organic and inorganic substrates by SRB suppresses methane pro-
duction and the toxicity of sulfide to anaerobic bacteria (Harada et al. 1994).
Dissolved sulfate can be removed through various processes including: diluting

the wastewater stream (undesirable approach due to higher total volume of
wastewater required to be treated), reducing the input of S‐rich substrates (e.g.,
slaughter house substrates as well as paper and leather industry wastewater), pre-
cipitation using iron salts, and an anaerobic treatment system coupled with a sulfide
removal step over the whole process. The techniques used for sulfide removal may
be categorized into physico-chemical techniques (stripping), chemical reactions
(coagulation, oxidation, precipitation), or biological conversions (partial oxidation
to elemental sulfur (Chen et al. 2008; Li 2015). Nevertheless, the general pre-
scriptions for sulfide inhibitory effects are liquid dilution, precipitation using iron
salts, and controlled rate of feeding.
8.3.6 Heavy Metals
As one of the major causes of digester upset or failure, heavy metals such as cobalt,
copper, iron, nickel, and zinc, are potential inhibitory compounds in AD processes
(Sanchez et al. 1996). Heavy metals can pose serious threat, i.e., toxicity, at their
high concentrations, while some of them, e.g., nickle and copper, at low concen-
trations (below 10–4 M), are vital for enzymatic activity of anaerobic bacteria. The
toxicity is applied to the process by replacing naturally occurring metals in enzyme
prosthetic groups, inactivating enzymatic system, or, in another word, through the
disruption of enzyme function and structure (Chen et al. 2008). An important point
that is worth mentioning is that heavy metals, unlike many other toxic substances,
are not biodegradable and have the possibility to reach toxic concentrations swiftly
(Sterritt and Lester 1980). It is worth mentioning that heavy metals originate from
organics accompanied by impurities such as batteries, electronic devices, and
hazardous or industrial wastes. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of some
heavy metals are shown in Table 8.2.
The methods for the reduction of heavy metal inhibitory effects are modification
in the separation of impurities, liquid dilution, precipitation using sulfur and iron
compounds (but pH should be controlled above 7).
Table 8.2 Heavy metals and Heavy metal Minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/L)
their inhibitory concentration
to the AD process Cr *300
Fe 1750 (carbonate)
Ni *300
Cu *300
Zn *400
Cd *600
Pb *340
216 H. Ghanavati
8.3.7 Long-Chain Fatty Acids
LCFAs are produced through the degradation of lipids and are absorbed on the
bacterial cell wall limiting the transportation of essential nutrients. For instance,
18-C LCFA such as oleic and linoleic acid, have inhibitory effects even at con-
centrations as low as 1.5 g/L. Likewise, hydrogenotrophic methanogens are pro-
gressively negatively affected by these compounds in the following order: linoleic
acid (18:2) > oleic acid (18:1) > stearic acid (18:0). Dilution of LCFAs, i.e., adding
new substrate free of LCFAs, can be considered as a useful method in order to give
the microorganism the opportunity to recover (Boe 2006; Templer et al. 2006).
8.3.8 Organics
In order to have an efficient biogas production process, it is essential to control

many parameters such as organic loading rate (OLR). OLR is defined as the amount
of organic feed, introduced daily into the digester. In another word, OLR is the
quantity of volatile solids fed per working volume of digester per day and is
expressed as kg VS/m3 digester/d. An optimum OLR value can be different
depending on the type of substrate (Esteves et al. 2013). An overload of organic
materials in the digester will lead to a possible acidification and, as a result, a
reduction in methane production. During start-up, the OLR should be slowly
increased, commonly starting at an OLR of 0.5 kg VS/m3/d, till reaching the desire
range to ensure the adaptation of microorganisms and a perfect biogas production
process. Monitoring sludge pumping volume and the amount of volatile solids in
the feed sludge have been suggested as the first steps in troubleshooting
OLR-related problem. If the VFA/TAK ration increases to 0.3, the addition of a
secondary sludge (if available) is recommended. In a mesophilic continuously
stirred tank reactor (CSTR), the appropriate range of ORL is 3–5 kg VS/m3/d with
regard to the type of substrate. It has been observed that the inhibitory effect of
ORL for microbial populations is when it exceeds 6.4 kg VS/m3/d (Moriarty 2013).
Additionally, to minimize the process errors, many biogas plants operate under low
organic material loadings, therefore ignoring potentials for higher biogas produc-
tion rates (Falk 2011). If any problem occurs during operation by excessive loading
rates, the main remedy is to reduce or stop loading. In addition to this, providing
longer mixing time and controlling temperature might be applicable.
8.3.9 Foam and Scum
Excessive chemicals addition during start-up or a sour condition in a digester can

cause foaming. Additionally, biological foam can also be generated in the digesters.
Brown colored foam is typically associated with having more biomass in the tank
than necessary for the influent waste load. In order to fix the problem, increasing
chemical feeding together with adequate mixing, while monitoring the other
parameters, i.e., volatile acids, alkalinity, pH, and gas production, are suggested.
Moreover, performing a cleaning procedure including all gas lines, gas meters,
manometer lines, check valves, pressure/vacuum relief valves, and any other gas
handling equipment that was affected by the foaming event, is recommended.
In digesters, scum baffle in used to prevent the production of a scum layer on the
top of the liquid. Scum may be produced in response to a reduction in the digester’s
temperature, an insufficient mixing, the presence of light and fibrous feeding sub-
strates, and a low TS value (below 4%) in the digester (the ease of the presence of
light undigested materials at the surface of the digester in comparison with high TS).
Some of disadvantages associated with scum formation include losing the digester
capacity, blocking the liquid and even gas pipes, the reduction of biogas released
from liquid, as well as scum penetration into the inner cover layer (Fig. 8.11).
Mixing enhancement, putting the impeller at the surface, digester liquid recircula-
tion, and oil addition (70 L/d/MW) directly into the digester could be used as
methods for scum troubleshooting.
Fig. 8.11 Scum formation and its penetration into the inner cover layer of the digester
218 H. Ghanavati
8.4 Conclusions
As two of the most important parts of the AD systems playing key roles in
enhancing the energy production and resource recovery from raw materials,
advanced instrumentation and control tools should always be considered.
Operational and controlling equipment including mechanical pretreatment (shred-
ders and pulpers), temperature and pressure controllers, pumps, mixers, gas com-
position analyzers, as well as common types of visual controls were briefly
reviewed in the this chapter. Likewise, some of the bioprocess operational
parameters and their respective troubleshooting strategies were also investigated.
These include pH, EC, VFAs, alkalinity, ammonia, sulfate and sulfur compounds,
heavy metals, LCFAs, organics, as well as foam and scum. In terms of trou-
bleshooting, many of the procedures or solutions presented are based on the
author’s field experiences, making the chapter of practical benefit to both the sci-
entific and industrial communities.
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London
Atiemo-Obeng VA, Calabrese RV (2004) Rotor-stator mixing devices, handbook of industrial
mixing science and practice. Wiley, Hoboken. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471451452
AwiFLEX (n.d.) Biogas analysers control desulphurisation [WWW Document]. URL http://www.
awite.com/products/gasanalyse.html
Boe K (2006) Online monitoring and control of the biogas process. Environment. Technical
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safety, knowledge transfer, and OSHA’s NEP
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Clemens J (2013) How to optimize the biogas process according to process control monitoring
data in biogas plants. Bonn, Germany
Deublein D, Steinhauser A (n.d.) Biogas from waste and renewable resources: an introduction, 2nd
edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
Esteves S, Miltner M, Puchas K (2013) Monitoring review and guide: for the optimization of
anaerobic digestion and biomethane plants. Full report. Intelligent Energy Europe Programme.
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2015.07.091
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leachate by magnesium ammonium phosphate precipitation and air stripping. Water Sci
Technol 41:237–240
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companion to the handbook of industrial mixing. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1017/
CBO9781107415324.004
Lahav O, Morgan BE (2004) Titration methodologies for monitoring of anaerobic digestion in
developing countries—a review. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 79:1331–1341. https://doi.org/
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Chapter 9
Analytical Methods in Biogas
Production
Peyman Mahmoodi, Sara Farmanbordar and Keikhosro Karimi
9.1 Analysis of Total Solid (TS) and Volatile Solid (VS)
Biomass samples subjected to anaerobic digestion for biogas production contain

different amounts of moisture, whereas the biogas yield is directly proportional to
the dry matters available in the samples. The biogas yield and the results of
chemical analyses of samples are generally reported on the basis of dry weight.
Total solid (TS) is the amount of solid remaining after heating the biomass sample.
TS analysis is rather simple and requires ordinary equipment, a balance and an
oven, available in most laboratories. The amount of sample typically required is
only 0.25–1 g for solid samples, 1–2.5 g for slurry samples, and 5 mL for liquor
samples (should be filtered using a 0.2 µm pore size filter prior to TS analysis)
(Sluiter et al. 2008). To be accurate enough, each sample should be run at least in
duplicates. A certain amount of the biomass sample should be placed inside a dry
aluminum dish and oven dried at 105 °C for at least 4 h. After cooling in a des-
iccator, the final weight will be measured. TS is calculated as follows (Eq. 9.1)
(Sluiter et al. 2008):
weight of dried sample with dish weight of dish

Total solid ð%Þ ¼ 100 ð9:1Þ
weight of initial sample ðwithout dishÞ
Volatile solids (VS) is the amount of organic solids in a biomass sample. For
determining the amount of VS, an aluminum dish containing a biomass sample
P. Mahmoodi S. Farmanbordar K. Karimi (&)

Department of Chemical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology,
Isfahan, Iran
K. Karimi
Industrial Biotechnology Group, Research Institute for Biotechnology
and Bioengineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

222 P. Mahmoodi et al.
(which has been pre-dried in an oven at 105 °C for 4 h), is placed in a (electric)
furnace at 550 °C for 30 min. Then, the sample is weighed after cooling in a
desiccator and the VS is calculated according to the following equation (Eq. 9.2)
(Sluiter et al. 2008):
weight of dried sample with dish weight of ash with dish

Volatile solidsð%Þ ¼ 100
weight of initial sample ðwithout dishÞ
ð9:2Þ
Before cooling in the desiccator, the desiccator absorbent should be freshened by

heating, so that the adsorption of water would be avoided, since the hot biomass is
highly susceptible to absorbing water from air.
9.2 Determination of Structural Carbohydrates

and Lignin in Lignocellulosic Biomass
Carbohydrates are either structural or non-structural. Prior to the analysis of lignin

and carbohydrates contained in lignocellulosic materials, non-structural carbohy-
drates must be removed using water and ethanol extraction (Karimi and Taherzadeh
2016a, b). Organic materials, non-structural carbohydrates, and nitrogen compo-
nents can be dissolved in water. Components such as waxes and chlorophylls can
be dissolved in ethanol. A certain quantity of biomass is placed in a filtering
crucible and then, the filtering crucible is placed in a Soxhlet extractor system.
Water extraction is carried out for 24 h, by circulation for 4–5 times per hour.
Subsequently, the remaining solids dried in an oven at 105 °C for 4 h will be
weighed. Moreover, the remaining solids will be subjected to ethanol extraction.
Determination of structural carbohydrates and lignin in lignocellulosic biomass
is carried out according to the NREL method (Sluiter et al. 2008). According to the
method, the hydrocarbon polymers are converted into monomeric sugars using acid
hydrolysis. The percentage of the polymeric components in the biomass will then
be determined using the analysis of the monomeric sugars. Briefly, a glass bottle
with blue screw cap containing 0.3 g biomass (based on TS) and 3 mL 72% (w/w)
sulfuric acid is placed in a water bath at 30 °C for 60 min. The content of the glass
bottle are mixed by a Teflon stir rod every 5–10 min. After 60 min of hydrolysis,
84 mL deionized water is added to the sample so that the acid concentration reaches
4% (w/w). The glass bottle (with the blue screw cap closed) will then be autoclaved
at 121 °C for 1 h. After cooling, the content of the glass bottle is filtered using an
ash-less filter paper. The solid phase, separated from the liquid phase, must be
washed with water to achieve a neutral pH. The remaining solids are placed in an
oven at 105 °C for 4 h for determining the ash and acid insoluble lignin (AIL). The
weight of the remaining solids after cooling in a desiccator will also be recorded.
Then, the remaining solids are placed in an electric furnace at 575 °C for 24 h
9 Analytical Methods in Biogas Production 223
(Sluiter et al. 2008). The ash and AIL are calculated according to the following
equations (Eqs. 9.3 and 9.4, respectively):
weight of sample þ crucible ðafter furnaceÞ weight of crucible

Ashð%Þ ¼ 100
0:3g TS
ð9:3Þ
weight of sample ðafter ovenÞ weight of sample ðafter furnaceÞ weight of protein of sample
AILð%Þ ¼
0:3g TS
ð9:4Þ
The liquid phase passed through an ash-less filter paper is used for determining
the amount of acid soluble lignin (ASL) using UV-Vis spectroscopy at a specific
wavelength such as 320 nm for corn stover and 240 nm for bagasse (Sluiter 2008).
The ASL is calculated according to the following equation (Eqs. 9.5 and 9.6):
UVabs 87ðmLÞ Dilution

ASLð%Þ ¼ 100 ð9:5Þ
0:3 g TS e
volume of sample þ volume of diluting solvent

Dilution ¼ ð9:6Þ
volume of sample
where e is the absorptivity of biomass at specific wavelength, which is specific for

each substrate such as 30 L/g cm for corn stover and 15 L/g cm for bagasse.
Total amount of lignin is calculated according to the following equation
(Eq. 9.7):
ligninð%Þ ¼ ASLð%Þ þ AILð%Þ ð9:7Þ
For calculating sugar percentage, the pH of the liquor is increased to about 6

with calcium carbonate. After centrifugation, liquor is analyzed using a high per-
formance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with a refractive index
(RI) detector for determining sugars concentration following acid hydrolysis.
Glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, and galactose are detected on an Aminex
HPX-87P column at 80 °C with an eluent of deionized water (0.6 mL/min) Sugar
concentration could be calculated according to Eq. 9.8:
mg concentration of sugar ðfrom HPLC Þðmg/mLÞ dilution factor
concentration of sugar ¼
mL Rðaverage recovery of specific sugarÞ ð%Þ=100
ð9:8Þ
The calculation of sugar percentage can be done according to the following

equation (Eq. 9.9):
1g
concentration of sugar 87ðmL) 1000 mg
Sugar ð%Þ ¼ 100 ð9:9Þ
0:3 g TS
9.3 Elemental Analysis (CHNSO Analysis)
Theoretical biogas production can be calculated based on carbon, hydrogen,

nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen (CHNSO) content analysis by an elemental analyzer.
Elemental analyzer, coupled with a flame photometric detector (FPD), is operated
by combusting a sample at high temperatures in the presence of oxygen. High
temperature is used for the thermal decomposition of sample and the separation of
CHNS elements. At these conditions, CHNS elements in the presence of oxygen are
converted into CO2, H2O, NO2, and SO3 gases, respectively. The resultant gases,
carried with a helium flow to a layer filled with copper, are measured by a gas
chromatography (GC) equipped with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD).
Whereas, the resultant gases for trace sulfur determination through water trap are
measured using the FPD. For oxygen determination, the elemental analyzer is
operated at the pyrolysis mode. The reactor, which contains nickel coated carbon, is
operated at 1060 °C. The oxygen in the sample that is combined with the carbon is
converted into carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is then detected by the GC
with a TCD detector.
9.4 Analysis of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test procedure is based on the chemical
decomposition of organic and inorganic pollutants. The COD test is analyzed based
on two methods: titrimetric method and colorimetric method. In the titrimetric
method, a reflux apparatus equipped with a 500 or 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and a
condenser, is used. 20 mL sample, 30 mL concentrated sulfuric acid, and 10 mL
0.25 N potassium dichromate are poured inside the Erlenmeyer flask. Then, 0.2–
0.5 g mercuric sulfate is added to remove the nitrite and chloride interference.
Silver sulfate is used as a catalyst. The reflux apparatus is heated at 150 °C for 2 h.
After cooling to room temperature, the sample volume is increased to 100 mL with
distilled water. The excess potassium dichromate is titrated with ferrous ammonium
sulfate (FAS) by 2–3 drops ferroin indicator solution (Federation and Association
2005). All these steps are also carried out for 20 mL distilled water as a control
sample. The COD based on mg/L is calculated according to the following equation
(Eq. 9.10) (Federation and Association 2005):
mg ðmL FAS used for control sample mL FAS used for sampleÞ molarity of FAS 8000
COD ¼
L mL sample
ð9:10Þ
9.5 Volatile Fatty Acid Determination by High

Performance Liquid Chromatography
When digesters are supplemented by extra amounts of substrate, called overloading,

the yield of produced methane is decreased or the process may be stopped. The
accumulation of volatile fatty acid (VFA) interferes with the performance balance
of the microorganisms involved in the decomposition of the organic materials and
methane product (methanogens). The high concentration of VFA decreases pH,
resulting in the inhibition of the methanogens. Therefore, the analysis of VFA
inside the digestion is important (Lossie and Pütz 2008). Although total VFA can be
measured by titration, accurate analysis of VFA is carried out by HPLC (Zeppa
et al. 2001). HPLC pumps a liquid sample in a solvent, known as the mobile-phase,
at high pressure through a pack column. The column has the ability to separate
components that are in the sample mixture. These components are detected using a
RI detector. The concentration of the components is calculated based on a cali-
bration curve, obtained according to the concentrations and peak areas of pure
components. Analysis of the organic acids, the ethanolic and butanolic fermentation
metabolites is carried out by HPLC with RI or UV detectors. An example of
suitable columns is Aminex HPX-87H that operates at 60 °C with 0.005 M sulfuric
acid as mobile-phase (0.6 mL/min). Besides VFA, all monomeric carbohydrates
can also be analyzed by HPLC. An example of suitable column for measurement of
sugar mixtures, including glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose and galactose, is
Aminex HPX-87P column, operated at 80 °C with an eluent of deionized water
(0.6 mL/min).
9.6 Methods for Determining Methane Potential
Biochemical methane potential (BMP) is a measure of the substrate’s potential to

generate methane gas. BMP test provides a criterion representing the biodegradable
fraction contained in a given substrate which can be anaerobically converted into
methane. The results of the BMP test can be used as a means of comparison in
terms of potential of biogas production among various substrate. BMP can be
measured using both theoretical and experimental techniques. Experimental data,
obtained using the BMP test, can be used to optimize the design and operation of an
anaerobic digester (Moody et al. 2009).
9.6.1 Theoretical Biochemical Methane Potential (TBMP)
When some characteristics of a given substrate including COD, elemental composition

(C, H, O, and N), and organic fraction composition (OFC) are known, the methane
productivity of the substrate can be determined by the methods described below.
These methods are applied by assuming that all VS presented in the substrate are
biodegradable. Therefore, it should be considered that TBMP is higher than the real
amount of BMP and it is necessary to adjust this value by using the biodegradability
index obtained from the experimental BMP tests (Nielfa et al. 2015).
9.6.1.1 TBMP Based on Elemental Compositional Analysis
Various organic fractions including VFAs, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates have
individual TBMP which can normally be calculated from Buswell equations
(Eqs. 9.11 and 9.12) regardless of the degradability of the materials (Symons and
Buswell 1933; Møller et al. 2004).

a b n a b n a b
Cn Ha Ob Nc þ n H2 O ! þ CO2 þ þ CH4
4 2 2 8 4 2 8 4
ð9:11Þ
ða=2 þ a=8 b=4Þ22:4

TBMP ¼ ð9:12Þ
ð12n þ a þ 16bÞ
When proteins are present in a substrate, NH3 is released and must be considered
for calculating the TBMP according to Boyle equations (Eqs. 9.13 and 9.14) as
follows (Nielfa et al. 2015; Raposo et al. 2011).

a b 3c n a b 3c
Cn Ha Ob Nc þ n þ H2 O ! þ þ CO2
4 2 4 2 8 4 8
ð9:13Þ
n a b 3c
þ þ CH4 þ cNH3
2 8 4 8
22:4ðn=2 þ a=8 b=4 3c=8Þ

TBMP ¼ ð9:14Þ
ð12n þ a þ 16b þ 14cÞ
9.6.1.2 TBMP Based on Organic Fraction Composition (OFC)
TBMP can also be calculated by determining the amounts of several organic

components in a given substrate. If the OFC of a given substrate is known, TBMP
can be estimated as a weighted average of individual TBMP for organic compo-

nents using the following equation (Eq. 9.15):
TBMP ¼ 415ð%CarbohydratesÞ þ 496ð%ProteinsÞ þ 1014ð%LipidsÞ þ 370ð%VFAÞ

ð9:15Þ
Whereas individual TBMPs are derived from the elemental composition method
(Eqs. 9.12 and 9.14) by considering the average formulas for lipids (C57H104O6),
proteins (C5H7O2N), VFA (C2H4O2), and carbohydrates (C6H10O5) (Nielfa et al.
2015; Møller et al. 2004; Raposo et al. 2011).
9.6.1.3 TBMP Based on Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Maximum amount of methane can be calculated according to Eqs. 9.16 ad 9.17

when the COD concentration and VS of substrate are specified.
nCH4 RT
TBMP ¼ ð9:16Þ
PVSadded
COD
nCH4 ¼ ð9:17Þ
64ðg/molÞ
where R is the gas constant, T is the temperature of process, p is atmospheric

pressure (1 atm), and VS (g) is the organic total solid supplemented to the anaerobic
digestion process (Nielfa et al. 2015). TBMP is reported as mL CH4 at standard
temperature and pressure conditions per amount of added VS.
9.6.2 Experimental BMP Test
All previously explained methods calculate the BMP regardless of the degradability
of the materials. As a result, real BMP should be determined using laboratory-based
incubation tests. There are several batch protocols for estimating methane potential
of various substrates. In all these methods, a small amount of substrate is incubated
with an anaerobic inoculum and methane generation is measured by simultaneous
measurement of gas volume and gas composition. Adani et al., Harries et al.,
Owens et al., and Heerenklage introduced protocols for estimating BMP. However,
the basic approach of these methods is the same, while the technical approach is
significantly different (Adani et al. 2001; Harries et al. 2001; Heerenklage and
Stegmann 2001; Owens and Chynoweth 1993). The most widely used methods for
the determination of BMP experimentally are described below.
9.6.2.1 German Standard Procedure (VDI4630)
Batch fermentation can be applied to all solid and liquid organic substrates. This
procedure provides some information about the digestibility and possible biogas
yield of a given substrate. Furthermore, it can offer qualitative information about the
speed of anaerobic degradation and inhibitory effect of materials under investiga-
tion conditions. However, batch fermentation test cannot provide any information
about the process stability in reactors, biogas yield under practical conditions, the
mono-fermentability of the substrate, and the limits of organic loading rate per unit
volume.
• Technical considerations
Glass is the preferred material for the fermentation test apparatus which is in
contact with biogas and sludge. All equipment should be tested to ensure that there
is no leak. Figure 9.1 shows the schematic of the apparatuses used in the batch
fermentation test.
Substrate and sludge are incubated under mesophilic (37 ± 2 °C) or ther-
mophilic (55 ± 1 °C) conditions. A climatic chamber or water bath can be used to
obtain a constant temperature control during the batch process duration. When
water bath is used, it should be noted that the level of water in the bath should
always be higher than the content of the fermentation vessel. Although continuous
mixing is not necessary for batch fermentation, a single mixing per day is sufficient
to prevent the formation of dry and inactive floating layers. A 0.5, 1, and 2 L bottle
can be used as fermentation flask. Larger fermentation flask (10–20 L) may be
better to be used when the substrate is nonhomogeneous.
Seeding sludge, used as inoculum in the fermentation process, should be
untreated digested sludge from a municipal sewage treatment. The seeding sludge
should have a VS content greater than 50% of TS content. The seeding sludge
should be adapted at the fermentation temperature for a week to minimize its own
gas production by means of a hunger phase. Large contaminants should be
(a) (b)
Produced Gas
Produced Gas Mixture
Mixture
Seeding Sludge Seeding Sludge

& Substrate & Substrate
Digital Pressure Gage

Gas Volume Measurement
Fig. 9.1 The schematic representation of some apparatuses used in the batch fermentation process
based on the VDI 4630 protocol, both systems a and b should be placed in a climate chamber at a
desired temperature
separated from the seeding sludge before it use by filtering. The fermentation broth
should contain 1.5–2% w/w of organic mass from the seeding sludge to standardize
the fermentation protocol. For example, 500 mL fermentation batch should contain
7.5–10 g VS from the seeding sludge. There are some limitations to the weight of
substrate and seeding sludge in the fermentation batch. The mass of total organic
solid substrate should not be over 50% organic total solid sludge ðoTSoTSsludge 0 5Þ.
substrate
Total solid content of fermentation batch should be lower than 10% to ensure
adequate mass transfer during fermentation. The gas yield during batch fermenta-
tion from substrate should be more than 80% of the theoretical BMP. A reference
material, which has known biogas potential, should be used as substrate in the batch
fermentation as control test to ensure that the seeding sludge used has an adequate
biological activity. One option is microcrystalline cellulose (with 100% conversion)
leading to 740–750 mL methane/g OTS, according to the elemental composition
analysis method. When 80% of this value has been reached in the control test, it
could be assumed that the biological activity is adequate. All batch fermentation test
including main samples, reference, and zero sample (control sludge) should be
carried out in duplicates or triplicates (Standard 2006).
• Test procedure
The substrate is weighed, added to the fermentation bottle, and mixed with water
if necessary. Then, the bottle is carefully filled with a sufficient amount of
already-adapted seeding sludge. In the following, the crater of the bottles is closed
and sealed. The gas phase in the bottle is purged with nitrogen to prevent aerobic
degradation processes which have negative effects on biogas yield. Regular mixing
(shaking bottles each day during the batch fermentation) should be conducted to
ensure full suspension of the sediments. The quantity and quality of the produced
gas should be measured periodically to make the gas formation perfectly recog-
nizable. At the beginning of the process, it is necessary to perform daily mea-
surements of gas production. When the daily gas production declines, the frequency
of gas measurements can be reduced to once per two or three days. The test is
continued until the daily gas production is lower than 1% the total volume of
produced gas up to that time. The majority of the gas is usually produced within the
first week. Mostly the biological degradations are finished after 20–40 d. Finally,
the pH of the content of the fermentation batch must be determined and recorded
(Standard 2006).
9.6.2.2 Hansen et al. Method
An easy to operate method was modified by Hansen et al. (2004) to estimate the
potential of methane production from solid waste samples generating high amounts of
methane. The procedure is adapted and modified from the existing methods especially
from the one described by Angelidaki and Ahring (1997). The Hansen method was
originally used for 100 samples during a 2-year period (Hansen et al. 2004).
• Technical considerations
An active inoculum should be transferred from a thermophilic biogas plant in
25-L containers. The temperature of the inoculum drops to the ambient temperature
during the delivery process. Therefore, it must be re-adapted to the desired tem-
perature. In this way, the required amount of inoculum is filtered and transferred to
a glass bottle. The headspace of the bottle is purged by N2-gas. Then, the inoculum
should be stored in a 55 °C incubator for 3 d to ensure that the remaining easily
degradable materials still present in the inoculum are removed (Fig. 9.2).
In the biogas production procedure, only 10 g dry matter is used in order to
manage the production in the batch equipment. Therefore, the homogeneity of
substrate is an important factor to ensure a representative sampling. When hetero-
geneous substrates, e.g., municipal solid waste is used, it should be carefully
homogenized by multiple sampling and carefully blending of the substrate. Dilute
solution with 10% DM content is used as substrate. Main tests are carried out in a
2 L glass bottle with a thick rubber septum (Fig. 9.3). The exact volume of the bottle
is measured by weighing the water contained in each bottle. Headspace volume is
calculated by subtracting the volume of added inoculum and substrate (it is assumed
that the density of both inoculum and substrate is 1 g/mL) from the total volume.
All tests are conducted as triplicate batch fermentations to minimize the unfa-
vorable effects of varying quality of the inoculum as well as possible
non-homogeneity of the substrate. A mixture of cellulose and avicel with equal
weight proportions should be used as the control test to ensure that the inoculum
has an adequate biological activity (Hansen et al. 2004).
• Test procedure
An amount of 400 mL of the re-adapted inoculum is added to each batch reactor
while stirring. Then, each reactor is supplied with 100 mL of the substrate con-
taining 10% DM with 80–90% VS. Thereafter, bottles should be sealed and purged
with 80% N2 and 20% CO2 gas to ensure anaerobic conditions in the headspace.
Fig. 9.2 Schematic N2-gas outlet

presentation of the bottle used
for the re-adaptation of Inoculum outlet
inoculum
N2-gas inlet
Inoculum
Fig. 9.3 Illustration of the

glass bottle used as batch
reactor and the pressure lock
syringe
Rubber Septum
Pressure lock Syringe
100 mL Substrate
400 mL Seeding Sludge
Under these conditions, the batch biogas reactor with an anaerobic headspace
contains 2 g VS/100 mL solution. Finally, sealed reactors should be incubated at
55 °C (± 1 °C) for 50 d. The process is carried out over 50 d to ensure that the
biodegradable materials have been completely degraded. During the fermentation
period, all reactors must be regularly shaken and moved around the incubator to
avoid any probable temperature difference in the incubator. The produced biogas is
measured 25–20 times during the procedure. Daily monitoring is necessary in the
first week. Then, it is sufficient to measure once a week. In each monitoring, 200 µL
gas sample is withdrawn from the headspace of the reactors by a pressure lock
syringe through the septum. The pressure lock must be closed when the syringe is
still penetrated into the septum. The usage of the pressure lock syringe makes it
possible to sample with a fixed volume of gas at the actual pressure in the reactor.
The sample should be injected into a GC for measuring the mass of methane. It
should be noted that the volume of sample is lower than (the volume of all samples
taken should be lower than 0.7% of the headspace volume) the headspace in each
reactor, so that sampling does not cause any significant effects on actual headspace
pressure.
Six L biogas can be approximately produced from the amount of substrate added
in each reactor which is higher than the free capacity of the bottles. Therefore, the
produced gas should be regularly released during the experiment to avoid high
pressures and consequent leakages (it is preferred that the pressure is always kept
lower than 2 bar). The pressure can be released by inserting a needle into the
septum of the reactors. The volume of the released gas can be accurately calculated
by measuring the methane content in the headspace of the reactor after and before
the release. Although the highest amounts of methane (80–90%) may be produced
during the first 8–10 days, measurements should be continued for 50 d to ensure
that all organic wastes, which may be slowly degradable, are converted into biogas.
Nevertheless, when theoretical methane potential has been obtained within a short
time, the process can be terminated.
For each run, triplicate blank samples with only water and inoculum should be
included to estimate the amounts of methane produced by the inoculum. At the end
of the experiment, i.e., on day 50, a sample should be taken from each reactor to
measure the VFA and nitrogen contents. These tests will be carried out if the
methane potential is low and inhibition by ammonia or VFA accumulation may
occur. Finally, the accumulated produced methane is shown as a function of the
fermentation time to estimate some parameters including inhibition effect and lag
phase (Hansen et al. 2004).
9.6.2.3 Moller Method
Moller method is another most widely used method described according to the
international standard ISO 11734. The BMP is measured in batch experiments
performed in 1100 mL injectable bottles. Inoculum is obtained from farm-scale
biogas plants and is re-adapted a 3t5 ± 0.5 °C for two weeks before use. The
adaptation is used to ensure that the amount of methane originated from the
inoculum is reduced as much as possible. The inoculum and substrate are added to
the biogas reactors at a certain ratio (ranging from 0.7 to 7). The bottles should be
sealed by butyl rubber stoppers and aluminum crimps. Then, the batch reactors are
flushed with N2 gas and incubated at mesophilic conditions (35 ± 0.5). Each
sample is digested in triplicates. Three reactors containing only the inoculum and
water should be considered as blank test similar to the other protocols. Produced
gas in the blank test must be subtracted from the amount of gas produced in main
samples. Produced gas can be measured either by connecting gas collection bag, or
by monitoring the pressure of the headspace. It should be noted that both methods
are applicable because the difference between their reported results are negligible.
The concentration of CO2 and methane should be determined by GC analysis
(Møller et al. 2004).
9.7 Methods to Measure the Volume of the Produced

Biogas
9.7.1 Liquid Replacement System (LRS)
Biogas volume can be estimated by liquid replacement system (LRS) technics at

intervals. This apparatus is connected to a bioreactor by a needle during each gas
volume measurement interval. There are three types of liquid replacement
gasometer including height and weight type, which are shown in Fig. 9.4. In the
height liquid replacement gasometer, one opened cylinder is reversibly submerged
in an open container of special liquid (Fig. 9.4a).
Headspace of the bioreactor is connected to the top of the cylinder; the produced
gas then flows to the cylinder and replaces the filled liquid. The volume of produced
gas can be determined by measuring the height in the cylinder and the container. In
the weight liquid replacement gasometer type; the produced biogas is injected into
the column of the liquid located on the container. Then, an amount of liquid drained
to the container is weighed and the volume of the produced gas can be estimated
from both the weight and the differences of height in the column (Fig. 9.4b)
(Walker et al. 2009).
(a) p1, v1 p2, v2
h1 h1- h2
h2
(b)
p1, v1 p,v
2 2
Fig. 9.4 The Illustration of the height a and weight b type of the liquid replacement gasometers
Fig. 9.5 The illustration of

the large syringe at intervals
method. The apparatus should
be placed in a climate
chamber at a desired
temperature
Gas Bag
Inoculum &
Substrate
Large Syringe
Stirrer
9.7.2 Large Syringe at Intervals
In this method, a gas bag with injectable septum is connected to a bioreactor. The
volume of the produced gas collected in the plastic bag should be measured by a
large syringe periodically (VDI 2006; Triolo et al. 2011). Figure 9.5 shows the
illustration of this method.
9.7.3 Continuous Liquid Replacement Measurement

(CLRS)
In this method, biogas volume is measured by liquid replacement apparatuses

permanently connected to bioreactors. Some of them are described in the VDI4630
method and shown in Fig. 9.1a, b (Standard et al. 2006; Pham et al. 2013).
9.8 Methods to Measure Methane Concentration
9.8.1 Adsorption of CO2 in Alkaline Liquid
Alkaline solutions, including NaOH and KOH solutions, can adsorb CO2 and H2S
gas from the biogas mixture (Lasocki et al. 2015). CO2 adsorption in alkaline liquid
is mostly used to estimate methane concentration in several biomethane potential

tests (Raposo et al. 2011; Triolo et al. 2011; Guwy 2004; Rozzi and Remigi 2004).
Figure 9.6 schematically shows this measurement method. According to the figure, a
scaled cylinder is filled by an acid solution (0.5 M HCl) and is reversibly submerged
in a container containing the same liquid (Fig. 9.6a). A tube connected to a syringe
in inserted into the headspace of the bioreactor while the other end of the tube in
place in the cylinder. At the connection to the bioreactor, there exists a pin which will
be opened when the tube is located at right spots at both end. Then, the produced
biogas will flow to the cylinder and replace an amount of liquid (Fig. 9.6b, c). The
volume of the produced gas (V1 mL) can be measured accordingly. To measure
methane concentration, KOH should be added to the container to increase the pH
(above 9). At this basic condition, CO2 and H2S gas is adsorbed and the volume of
the gas is decreased (V2 mL). Therefore, the measured volume represents CH4
content in the biogas mixture. It should be noted that, the different between the first
and the second volume (V1–V2) shows the CO2 content of the biogas because H2S
concentration is completely negligible in the adsorbed gas (Pham et al. 2013).
9.8.2 Gas Chromatography (GC)
Biogas is a gas mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and hydrogen

sulfide, the main components of biogas are methane and carbon dioxide though.
The analysis of the produced biogas components (methane and carbon dioxide) can
(a) (b)
Acid Solution (pH<2) Acid Solution (pH<2) Biogas digester

(c) (d)
Total produced gas CH4
Base
Acid Solution (pH<2) Base Solution (pH>9)
Fig. 9.6 The schematic presentation of the apparatuses used for measuring methane concentration
in biogas mixture based on the CO2 adsorption method
be carried out by GC, which is an ideal analytical instrument (Andersen et al. 2010;
Kolb 2006). TCD is less sensitive than FID, but TCD is mostly used for the
detection of light compounds (Poole 2003). For the analysis of biogas, GC is
equipped with a packed column and a TCD detector. The carrier gas is nitrogen at a
flow rate of 50 mL/min. The column, injector, and detector temperatures are 40,
100, and 150 °C, respectively. Biogas sample is injected into the GC by a
pressure-lock syringe. Certain volumes of pure methane gas and carbon dioxide gas
are injected into GC to establish calibration curves. For each gas, a calibration curve
is obtained based on the gas volume versus peak area. According to the calibration
curve, the gas volume and the percentage of gas composition are obtained. Biogas
samples are first taken at the beginning of each interval at the environmental
pressure mode (the pressure in the digester is released by inserting a needle in the
septum while the other end of the tube connected to the needle is placed in a water
container to avoid air introduction into the digester). At the end of each interval,
samples are also taken at high pressure mode. The samples are analyzed by GC and
the amount of the produced biogas is calculated according to the following equa-
tions (Eqs. 9.18 and 9.19):
Syringe volumeðlLÞ
Gas volume in the digester ðmLÞ ¼
Sampling volumeðlLÞ
Free volume of the digester ðmLÞ ð9:18Þ
Produced gas volume during one interval ¼ gas volume in the digester at high pressureend of interval
gas volume in the digester at environmental pressurebeginning of interval
ð9:19Þ
For the analysis of the produced biogas from biomass, the produced biogas
volume from the control sample (inoculum and water) should be deduced from the
amount of the produced biogas from the sample. A pure cellulose or Avicel sample
could be used as a control sample for ensuring the activity of the inoculum used.
9.9 Conclusions
Different substrate analyses are required to design and operate anaerobic digestion
systems for efficient biogas production. Some of these analytical methods including
CHNSO elemental analysis and COD analysis are used to estimate the theoretical
biochemical methane potential (TBMP). Using these procedures, the amount of the
produced biogas can be theoretically estimated. It should be noted that the exper-
imental amount of BMP is always lower than that of TBMP. The determination of
BMP via the method described by Hansen et al. is one of the most widely used
methods. In this approach, the methane concentration and the volume of produced
biogas are estimated using gas chromatography (GC). Although GC analysis is
more expensive than the other volumetric methods, it has a significantly higher
accuracy comparatively. It should be considered that the occurrence of experimental
errors including gas leakages and personal errors in addition to systematic errors are
the reason behind the lower accuracy of the other methods compared with GC.
Refrences
Adani F, Calcaterra E. Malagutti L (2001) Preparation of a test for estimating biogas production
from pretreated urban waste. In: Proceeding Sardinia 2001 eight international waste
management and landfill symposium, Cagliari, Italy
Andersen A, Seeley J, Aurandt J (2010) The use of gas chromatography for biogas analysis. In:
APS Ohio Sections Spring Meeting Abstracts
Federation WE, Association APH (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and
wastewater. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington, DC, USA
Guwy A (2004) Equipment used for testing anaerobic biodegradability and activity. Rev Environ
Sci Biotechnol 3(2):131–139
Hansen TL et al (2004) Method for determination of methane potentials of solid organic waste.
Waste Manag 24(4):393–400
Harries C, Cross C, Smith R (2001) Development of a BMP test and application to testing of MSW
samples. In: Proceeding Sardinia 2001 eight international waste management and landfill
symposium, Cagliari, Italy
Heerenklage J, Stegmann R (2001) Comparison of test systems for the determination of the gas
potential from waste. In: Proceeding Sardinia 2001 eight international waste management and
landfill symposium, Cagliari, Italy
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lignocelluloses: composition, imaging, and crystallinity. Biores Technol 200:1008–1018
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treatment by removal of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. Polish J Environ Stud 24(3)
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report: laboratory analysis, titration, FOS/TAC, Brochure of the company Hach-Lange
Møller HB, Sommer SG, Ahring BK (2004) Methane productivity of manure, straw and solid
fractions of manure. Biomass Bioenerg 26(5):485–495
Moody L et al (2009) Use of biochemical methane potential (BMP) assays for predicting and
enhancing anaerobic digester performance. In: Proceedings of the 44th croatian and the 4th
international symposium on Agriculture, Opatija, Croatia, 16–20 February 2009
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co-digestion of organic fraction municipal solid waste and biological sludge. Biotechnol Rep
5:14–21
Owens J, Chynoweth D (1993) Biochemical methane potential of municipal solid waste
(MSW) components. Water Sci Technol 27(2):1–14
Pham C et al (2013) Validation and recommendation of methods to measure biogas production
potential of animal manure. Asian-Australasian J Animal Sci 26(6):864
Poole CF (2003) The essence of chromatography. Elsevier
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evaluation of anaerobic biodegradability using data from an international interlaboratory study.
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conditions: a literature review. Re/Views Environ Sci Bio/Technol 3(2):93–115
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process samples. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL Technical
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Chapter 10
Biogas Purification and Upgrading
Technologies
María Rosario Rodero, Roxana Ángeles, David Marín, Israel Díaz,

Alexandre Colzi, Esther Posadas, Raquel Lebrero and Raúl Muñoz
10.1 The Need for Biogas Upgrading
Apart from a nutrient-rich digestate, the anaerobic digestion of organic matter

(either from energy crops or residues such as the organic fraction of municipal solid
waste or domestic, agroindustrial and livestock wastewaters, etc.) generates a CH4-
rich biogas that can be used as a substitute of natural gas (Muñoz et al. 2015). Both
the flowrate and composition of this renewable energy vector depends on the
oxidation-reduction state and biodegradability of the organic carbon present in the
organic matter and the type of anaerobic digestion process, i.e., closed digester or
open landfill (Jönsson et al. 2003). Thus, biogas from closed digesters exhibits
higher CH4 contents and significantly lower O2 and N2 levels than landfill biogas.
The anaerobic digestion of livestock manure, sewage sludge or municipal organic
waste produces a biogas containing CH4 at 50–70%, CO2 at 30–50%, N2 at <3%,
O2 at <1%, H2S at <10,000 ppmv, NH3 at <100 ppmv, hydrocarbons at <200
mg m−3, H2O at 5–10%, and siloxanes at <40 mg m−3. Likewise, landfill biogas
(extracted using forced ventilation) contains CH4 at 35–65%, CO2 at 15–50%, N2 at
5–40%, H2O at <5%, O2 at <5%, H2 at <3%, CO at <3%, H2S at <100 ppmv, NH3
at <10 ppmv, halogenated hydrocarbons at <200 ppmv Cl−/F−, volatile organic
contaminants at <4500 mg m−3, and siloxanes at <50 mg Si m− 3 (Bailón and
Hinge 2012) (Table 10.1).
Most biogas applications require a minimum level of CH4, which makes CO2 and
N2 the main biogas contaminants due to their high concentrations. In addition, their
presence also lowers the Wobbe index of biogas, a parameter targeted in most
international biomethane regulations (Ryckebosch et al. 2011). O2 is also considered
M. R. Rodero R. Ángeles D. Marín I. Díaz A. Colzi E. Posadas

R. Lebrero R. Muñoz (&)
Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology,
University of Valladolid, Doctor Mergelina S/N, 47011 Valladolid, Spain

Table 10.1 Typical composition of different biogas and natural gas types, and technical specifications of biomethane in France, Germany, and The
240
Netherlands (Persson et al. 2006; Ryckebosch et al. 2011; Bailon and Higen 2012; Yang et al. 2014; Sun et al. 2015; Awe et al. 2017)
Parameter Unit Landfills Biogas North Dutch Upgraded Biogas quality for injection in the natural Possible impact
gas from sea natural gas grid
anaerobic natural gas France Germany The
digestion gas Netherlands
Low High Low High
quality quality quality quality
gas gas gas gas
grid grid
Lower MJ/Nm3 16 23 40 31.6 34.4– 38.52– 30.2–47.2 31.6–38.7 –
heating value 37.8 46.08
kWh/Nm3 4.4 6.5 11 8.8 – – – – – –
MJ/kg 12.3 20.2 47 38 – – – – – –
Density Kg/Nm3 1.3 1.2 0.84 0.8 – – – – – –
Higher MJ/Nm3 18 27 55 43.7 42.48– 48.24– 37.8– 46.1– 43.46– –
Wobbe index 46.8 56.52 46-8 56.5 44.41
CH4 number >130 >135 70 – – – – – –
CH4 vol.% 45 63 87 81 – – – – >80 –
CH4, vol.% 36–65 53–70 – – – – – – – –
variation
Higher vol.% 0 0 12 3.5 – – – – – –
hydrocarbons
H2 vol.% 0–3 0 0 – <6 5 <12 –
(continued)
M. R. Rodero et al.
10
Low High Low High
gas gas gas gas
grid grid
CO vol.% 0 0 0 0 – – – – –
CO2 vol.% 40 47 1.2 1 <2.5 <6 <6 (<10– Decreased calorific
10.3 for value, anti-knock
regional properties of engines,
grid) and corrosion
CO2, vol.% 15–50 30–47 – – – – – – –
variation
N2 vol.% 15 0.2 0.3 14 – – – – Decreased calorific
Biogas Purification and Upgrading Technologies
value, anti-knock
properties of engines,
corrosion
N2, variation vol.% 5–40 – – – – – – – –
O2 vol.% 1 0 0 0 <0.01 <3 <0.5 Corrosion, fooling in
cavern storage,
creation of explosive
mixtures
ppmV – – – – <100 – – – –
mol% – – <0.5 –
O2, variation vol.% 0–5 – – – – – – – – –
(continued)
241
242
Low High Low High
gas gas gas gas
grid grid
H2S ppmv <100 <1000 1.5 – – – – – 5 Corrosion in
compressors, gas
storage tanks, and
engines.
Toxic concentration of
H2S (>5 cm3 m−3)
remain in the biogas
SO2 and SO3 are
formed during to
combustion, which are
more toxic than H2S
and cause corrosion in
the presence of water
H2S, ppmv 0–100 0–1000 1–2 – – – – – – –
variation
Sulphur mg/Nm3 – – – – <100 <30 <45 Corrosion in the
<75 presence of water
NH3 ppmv 5 <100 0 – – – – – 3 Corrosion in the
presence of water
Total mg/Nm3 20–200 0–5 0 – <1 – – <50 Corrosion in
chlorine (as combustion engines
Cl−)
M. R. Rodero et al.
10 Biogas Purification and Upgrading Technologies 243
a biogas impurity above a critical threshold concentration based on its comburent

activity. H2S in combination with O2 and water generates H2SO4, which can corrode
engines, gas storage tanks, pipelines and compressors. The presence of halocarbons
and NH3 can also cause corrosion in pipelines and engines during biogas combustion
(Petersson and Wellinger 2009). Finally, the presence of methylsiloxanes is
attracting increasing attention due to the undesired formation of silicone oxide
deposits during combustion, which can cause abrasion, overheating, and malfunc-
tioning of engines and valves (Abatzoglou and Boivin 2009).
Biogas valorization has traditionally involved the generation of heat and power via
biogas combustion in turbines, micro-turbines or internal combustion engines. Recent
investigations have also highlighted the potential of reformed biogas as substrate in
fuel cells for the combined production of heat and electricity. The use of biogas as
autogas or as a green substitute of natural gas via injection into natural gas grids
requires a more stringent purification compared to its direct combustion in the above
mentioned energy-valorization units (IEA-Bioenergy 2014). Biogas production in
Europe at the end of 2014 was based on >17,000 digesters and accounted for a total
installed capacity of 8339 MWel (equivalent to the electricity generated by eight
1000 MW nuclear reactors) (EBA 2015). According to the latest estimations of the
European Biogas Association, biogas production will increase up to 20 billion Nm3
by 2020 and will represent a significant share of Europe’s natural gas consumption.
The global market of conventional and emerging technologies for biogas
upgrading is nowadays changing as a result of the stricter biogas composition
specifications (Bauer et al. 2013b). Physical/chemical biogas upgrading methods
present a high energy and/or chemical demand, which has triggered the develop-
ment of biotechnologies as alternative biogas upgrading platforms due to their low
operating costs and environmental impacts. In this context, both aerobic and anoxic
biotrickling filtration or microaerobic anaerobic digestion can support biogas
desulfurization as efficiently as activated carbon filtration or chemical precipitation.
Similarly, algal-bacterial photobioreactors can carry out a simultaneous removal of
CO2, H2S, NH3, and VOCs from biogas in a single step-process at low operating
costs and environmental impacts. This book chapter will critically review the state
of the art of the main physical/chemical and biological technologies available
nowadays in the market with a special focus on the removal of CO2, H2S, siloxanes,
halocarbons, O2, and N2.
10.2 Technical Specifications for Upgrading
The specifications of the final application of biogas determine its required com-
position and therefore, the type of upgrading to be applied (Table 10.1).
The selection of the most appropriate biogas upgrading technology involves
factors such as investment and operating costs, recovery and loss of methane, and
removal efficiency for the biogas impurities as described above (Persson 2003; Sun
et al. 2015). Based on the promising potential of the upgraded biogas as a
244 M. R. Rodero et al.
renewable energy for substituting natural gas, manufacturers and countries have set
standards for the utilization of the upgraded biogas as a fuel for stoves and boilers,
engines and gas turbines, gas grid injection, substrate for fuel cells, and use as a
vehicle fuel (Bailon and Hinge 2012).
The use of biogas in boilers for heat generation only requires gas pressurization at
8–25 mbar, as well as the removal of H2S <1000 ppmv and water prior to combustion.
When biogas is to be used in domestic stoves, the concentration of H2S should be <10
ppmv (IEA bioenergy 2000; Bailon and Hinge 2012). H2S concentration in biogas
used for electricity generation in internal combustion engines should be reduced to
200–1000 ppmv along with water in order to avoid the condensation of acid aqueous
solutions in gas lines, which could cause corrosion (Bailon and Hinge 2012). Internal
combustion engines also require levels of NH3 below 32–50 mg m−3, siloxanes
below 5–28 mg m−3, and halocarbons below 65–100 mg m−3 prior to combustion.
The size of the turbine determines the maximum allowed concentrations of H2S
(micro-turbines can tolerance <70,000 ppmv and turbines <10.000 ppmv), siloxanes
(0.03–0.1 ppmv), and halocarbons (200–1500 ppmv Cl−/F−) when biogas is used for
the combined production of heat and electricity on site (Sun et al. 2015; EPRI 2006).
On the other hand, when biogas is to be used as a substitute of gas natural (often
named as biomethane) for vehicle fueling or via injection into natural gas grids for
further use in domestic gas appliances, cogeneration plants or industry, technical
specification are higher than those set by boiler, engines, or turbine manufacturers.
The standards and specifications of biomethane for grid injection are country
specific, with a European draft under development nowadays. Table 10.1 displays
the required biomethane composition in countries like France, Germany, and the
Netherlands. Interestingly, biomethane is divided into high calorific (H) and low
calorific (L) gas based on its Wobbe index, and must contain CH4 concentrations
higher than 80–96%, CO2 contents <2–3%, O2 levels <0.2–1%, H2S <5–15 mg
m−3, NH3 <3–20 mg m−3, and methylsiloxanes <5–10 mg Si m−3 (Persson et al.
2006; Bailon and Hinge 2012). Biogas as a vehicle fuel uses the same engine and
vehicle configuration as natural gas. However, a higher concentration of H2 is
allowed in biomethane for vehicle fueling (0.1 H2%, mol) (Sun et al. 2015).
Finally, fuel cells offer a high flexibility in term of biogas composition due to
their high operating temperatures (up to 1000 °C). However, H2S levels in biogas
used as a substrate in fuel cells must be <5 ppmv and siloxane removal complete to
prevent long-term damage in heat exchangers, catalysts and sensors (Lampe 2006;
Haga et al. 2008).
10.3 Physical/Chemical Biogas Upgrading Technologies
10.3.1 CO2 Removal Technologies
CO2 removal from biogas, which accounts for 25–50% on a volume basis, is
mandatory in order to increase the biogas energetic content and calorific value, to
reduce the transportation costs, and eventually, to partially mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions from biogas production plants.
Physical/chemical technologies for the removal of CO2 from raw biogas are
based on the transfer of this target compound to another gas, liquid or solid phase,
where it may further undergo a chemical reaction. Their current application in real
biogas upgrading plants is way ahead of that of their biological counterparts, mainly
due to their high efficiency and wide field experience (partly coming from the
chemical industry). In this sense, water scrubbing accounts for *41% of the global
biogas upgrading market, followed by chemical scrubbing and pressure swing
adsorption with 22 and 21%, respectively. Other mature technologies such as
organic solvent scrubbing or membrane separation represent 6 and 10% of the
market share, respectively. Finally, cryogenic CO2 separation, still not reliably
commercialized at full scale, accounts for only 0.4% of the upgrading market share
at a global level (Thrän et al. 2014). The main features of these physical/chemical
technologies are discussed below:
Operating Principles CO2 separation by absorption is nowadays the most widely
implemented technology. It is based on the transfer of this compound from the
biogas to a liquid scrubbing solution, which can be water, an organic solvent or a
chemical solution. While the two first rely only on CO2 mass transfer and physical
absorption of the molecule to the scrubbing liquid, a chemical reaction takes place
between the solvent and the absorbed CO2 in the latter. The absorption process
takes place in a packed column with random packing materials such as Pall or
Rasching rings to promote gas-liquid contact and reduce the risk of biomass
growth. Operation under a counter-current configuration is preferred regardless of
the scrubbing configuration.
In the particular case of water scrubbing, the higher aqueous solubility of CO2
compared to that of CH4 allows for the selective removal of CO2 using water as
absorbent. Depending on the application, water scrubbing can be carried out in
single-pass scrubbers with low-quality water or in sequential units of pressurized
CO2 absorption followed by a two-stage stripping process for water (tap quality)
regeneration. The absorption process is usually carried out at high pressures
(6–10 bar) while the amount of water required depends on the operating pressure
and temperature (typically ranging between 0:1 0:2m3water Nm3 biogas ) (Bauer et al.
2013a, b; Persson 2003).
In organic solvent scrubbing, water is substituted by solvents such as methanol
or dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol, with higher affinity for CO2 than water.
While the use of organic solvents allows for lower liquid recycling rates and
reduced plant sizes, a preconditioning step to remove the moisture of the biogas is
required (due to the hygroscopic nature of the solvents). Moreover, cooling and
heating stages are usually implemented to promote CO2 absorption (at low tem-
perature of 20 °C) and its subsequent desorption for organic solvent regeneration
(at *40 °C) (Muñoz et al. 2015).
A further enhanced scrubbing performance is obtained in chemical scrubbing
when a CO2-reactive absorbent is employed, since the reaction of the absorbed CO2
with the chemical reagent results in higher absorption capacities and process
operation at maximum CO2 concentration gradients (Ryckebosch et al. 2011). This
allows for more compact units, lower liquid recycling rates and process operation at
low absorption and stripping pressures (between 1 and 2 bar and 1.5–3 bar,
respectively). Moreover, recovery of the absorbent is accomplished in a desorption
unit equipped with a reboiler, which simplifies the scrubbing unit configuration
(Patterson et al. 2011). Chemicals such as alkanol amines or alkali aqueous solu-
tions (KOH, K2CO3, NaOH, Fe(OH)3 or FeCl3) are frequently used in chemical
scrubbing (Eqs. 10.1–10.3) (Awe et al. 2017; Salihu and Alam 2015).
CO2 þ 2OH ! CO2

3 þ H2 O ð10:1Þ

CO2 þ CO2
3 þ H2 O ! 2HCO3 ð10:2Þ
CO2 þ R NH2 þ H2 O ! R NH3þ þ 2HCO

3 ð10:3Þ
CO2 can be also selectively transferred to a solid phase via adsorption, in a

process so called pressure swing adsorption (PSA). The selected porous adsorbent
must present a high specific surface area, exhibit a linear adsorption isotherm, be
non-hazardous, readily available, and stable under long-term operation. PSA
adsorbents are selective to CO2 molecules due to their lower size compare to that of
CH4 and a higher adsorption affinity. Typical adsorbents meeting these require-
ments are activated carbon, silica gel, activated alumina, zeolite, or polymeric
sorbents (Bauer et al. 2013b; Patterson et al. 2011; Ryckebosch et al. 2011). The
adsorbents are packed in vertical columns, with commonly implemented PSA
systems consisting of 4 stages that take place in 4 interconnected columns operating
in parallel. These stages alternate pressurization and CO2 adsorption at 4–10 bars to
increase CO2 retention inside the pores, and subsequent depressurization and
regeneration of the saturated column by venting to ambient pressure and purging
with upgraded biogas for desorption (Muñoz et al. 2015).
Membrane separation has gained importance in the last decades due to the
advances in nanotechnology, which have resulted in the development of membrane
materials with enhanced selectivity factors, lower costs, easier manufacturing,
higher stability at high operating pressures, and easier scalability. In particular,
polymeric materials such as cellulose acetate are preferred for biogas upgrading
applications (Basu et al. 2010; Muñoz et al. 2015). The selective permeation of CO2
from the raw biogas to a gas or a liquid phase is based on the permeability of the
membrane material, with CO2/CH4 selectivity factors of up to 1000/L. Other biogas
components such as O2, H2O, or H2S might also preferentially permeate over CH4.
Gas-gas membrane systems operate under high pressures (20–40 bars) in
single-pass or multiple stage membrane units, with further recirculation of the
permeates or the retentates to increase the purity of the upgraded biomethane.
Conversely, the operation of the gas-liquid membranes is performed at atmospheric
pressure using CO2-liquid absorbents such as alkanol amines or alkali aqueous
solutions to improve the overall CO2 selectivity (Muñoz et al. 2015).
In addition to these physical/chemical technologies based on mass transfer, the

selective recovery of the biogas components can rely on their different condensation
temperatures as implemented in cryogenic separation. In this sense, the raw biogas
temperature is sequentially decreased at constant pressure (*10 bar) to remove
water, H2S, siloxanes and halogens (−25 °C), liquid CO2 (−55 °C), and the
remaining CO2 in solid phase (−85 °C), obtaining a CH4-enriched stream. Further
cooling to temperatures below −160 °C generates a N2 and O2-free liquefied bio-
methane (Awe et al. 2017; Ryckebosch et al. 2011; Bauer et al. 2013b). However,
despite the satisfactory separation efficiencies achieved and the possibility to obtain
liquid biomethane as a final product, cryogenic separation is still an energy-intensive
emerging technology with few plants under operation at a global scale.
Upgrading Capacities and Pre-treatment Requirements Overall, high CO2 removal
efficiencies and low CH4 losses are achieved in these mature physical/chemical
technologies, with final CO2 recoveries always >95%. An efficient CO2 separation
allows to obtain a biomethane complying with the most stringent quality require-
ments for its final use, which correspond to biomethane injection into natural gas
grids (CH4 concentrations of 80–96% and CO2 <2–3%) (Table 10.2). The highest
CH4 recoveries are reached with chemical scrubbing, although values of up to 99–
99.5% have been recorded for membrane separation when complex designs with
recirculation of both the permeate and retentate are used (Benjaminsson 2006).
Table 10.2 Upgrading capacities, investment costs, and energy use of physical/chemical
technologies for CO2 removal from biogas (adapted from Muñoz et al. (2015) and Awe et al.
(2017))
Technology CH4 Final CH4 Capital costs Energy consumption
loss concentration (€ (Nm3h−1)−1) (kWh Nm−3)a
(%) (%) [Plant capacity
(Nm3 h−1)]
Scrubbing
Water-Scrubbing <2 >96 5500–2500–2000 0.2–0.3
(100–500
! 1000)
Solvent-Scrubbing <2 96–98.5 4500–2000–1500 0.2–0.51
(250–1000
! 1500)
Chemical-Scrubbing 0.1-1.2 >99 3200–1500 0.12–0.15*
(600–1800)
PSA – 96–98 2700-1500 0.25–0.6
[600-2000]
Membrane – 96–98 6000–2500-2000 0.2–0.38
separation (100–400
! 1000)
Cryogenic <2 >97 No data available 0.42–1
separation
a
Only gas compression and liquid pumping requirements are considered
Other compounds can also be removed via physical/chemical technologies from

raw biogas together with CO2, however, biogas pre-treatment for the removal of
some of them prior to CO2 separation is highly recommended in order to avoid
operating problems. For instance, water scrubbing may cope with H2S concentra-
tions of 300–2500 ppmv in the gas phase, although its presence might result in
elemental sulfur accumulation, corrosion or odour nuisance (Muñoz et al. 2015).
The presence of high concentrations of H2S also entails the regeneration of the
organic solvent via steam or inert gas stripping to avoid its degeneration, and might
also trigger amine poisoning in chemical scrubbing. In the particular case of PSA,
H2S and siloxanes are irreversibly adsorbed onto the molecular sieves, reducing the
lifetime of the adsorbent. Therefore, a removal of these compounds together with
moisture is commonly accomplished by activated carbon filters and condensation
prior to PSA upgrading (Bauer et al. 2013b). Finally, whereas conventional
membrane-based upgrading facilitates the permeation of several biogas components
such as O2, H2O, and H2S along with CO2, membrane clogging and deterioration is
triggered by the presence of particles, H2S, H2O, VOCs, NH3, and siloxanes in the
raw biogas, and therefore, their previous removal by condensation and carbon
filtration is highly recommended (Patterson et al. 2011; Bauer et al. 2013b).
Investment and Operating Costs The investment costs of physical/chemical
CO2-upgrading technologies are characterized by the economy of scale, thus the
larger the upgrading plant capacity, the lower the cost per unit of biogas flow treated
(Table 10.2). This is more significant in membrane separation, where the capital
costs rapidly increase when scaling down the process. In general, investment costs of
1500–2000 € (Nm3 h−1)−1 are reported for design flowrates over 1000 Nm3 h−1
regardless of the technology.
Process operating costs for physical absorption mainly derive from the electricity
used for biogas compression and liquid pumping, while in chemical scrubbing,
these costs are moderate (due to the lower operating pressure required) and are
mainly governed by the energy required for solvent regeneration at high temper-
atures (120–150 °C). In this context, the cost of consumables associated with CO2
absorption are marginal, which involves *20–200 L h−1 of water in water
scrubbing; minor organic solvent make-up in organic solvent scrubbing (due to the
low vapor pressures of the absorbents employed); or the supplementation of
3 mg Nm3biogas of amines, antifoam, and water in chemical scrubbing (Muñoz
et al. 2015; Patterson et al. 2011). Main PSA operating costs are also associated
with the electricity requirements for biogas compression and pre-conditioning, with
no costs from water make-up addition or heat for adsorbent regeneration. On the
other hand, membrane replacement (with 5–10 years of lifetime) and biogas
pre-treatment are together with gas compression, the main contributors to the
operating costs in membrane separation. Moreover, while maintenance costs of
absorption and adsorption technologies usually range between 2 and 3% of the
investment costs, this value is slightly higher (3–4%) for membrane-based biogas
upgrading (Muñoz et al. 2015).
10.3.2 H2S Removal Technologies
The concentrations of H2S in biogas are commonly reduced nowadays by physical/

chemical technologies. The most popular physical/chemical technologies are
adsorption onto activated carbon, adsorption using iron oxide or hydroxide,
membrane separation, absorption and in situ precipitation in the digester via iron
salt addition (Pettersson and Wellinger 2009; Muñoz et al. 2015).
Adsorption on Activated Carbon
H2S removal by activated carbon filtration can be carried out either by simple
physical adsorption onto the carbon surface or by catalytic conversion, where H2S
is converted into sulphur and water. The latter mechanism requires a high tem-
perature (50–70 °C) and pressure (7–8 bar), and the addition of 4–6% of air in the
biogas to support the partial oxidation of H2S (Eq. 10.4) (Ryckebosch et al. 2011).
The lifetime of the activated carbon ranges from 4000 to 8000 h depending on the
H2S loading rate applied to the filter (Wellinger et al. 2005), a regeneration or
replacement of the carbon being necessary after carbon saturation.
2H2 S þ O2 ! 2S þ 2H2 O ð10:4Þ
The partial oxidation of H2S to elemental sulphur is supported by the impreg-

nation of the carbon with potassium iodide (KI), permanganate (KMnO4), or zinc
oxide (ZnO) as catalysers. KI and KMnO4 are the most commonly used catalysts
when the biomethane is to be injected into the natural gas grid, while the use of
ZnO is often limited as a result of its high cost (Petersson and Wellinger 2009).
Adsorption Using Iron Oxide or Hydroxide
Process operation is based on the selective adsorption of H2S in adsorbent modules
operated in parallel using an adsorption-regeneration configuration. These modules
contain an organic packing material impregnated with iron oxide (Fe2O3),
hydroxide oxide (Fe(OH)3), or zinc oxide (ZnO) that retain H2S during biogas
circulation (Muñoz et al. 2015; Iovane et al. 2014; Abatzoglou et al. 2009).
The chemical reactions involved in H2S oxidation and adsorbent regeneration
are described by Eqs. 10.5–10.7:
Fe2 O3 þ 3H2 S ! Fe2 S3 þ 3H2 O ð10:5Þ
2FeðOHÞ3 þ 3H2 S ! Fe2 S3 þ 6H2 O ð10:6Þ
2Fe2 S3 þ 3O2 ! 2Fe2 O3 þ 6S ð10:7Þ
The two first reactions are endothermic and need a moderate temperature
between 25 and 50 °C to occur, while the third reaction is exothermic and tem-
perature is not controlled. Adsorption using iron oxide or hydroxide operates at a
biogas residence time ranging from 1 to 15 min and can cope with H2S concen-
trations of up to 100 ppmv (Muñoz et al. 2015; Ryckebosch et al. 2011). This
physical/chemical technology is widely implemented because it is efficient (re-

duction rates of 99% are typically reported) and exhibit moderate operating costs
(Iovane et al. 2014; Rutledge 2005).
Membrane Separation
H2S can be removed from biogas by permeation (along with CO2) through a
semipermeable membrane that retains CH4. Similar to the membrane units for CO2
separation, H2S removal can be carried out at high pressure in gas: gas modules or
at low pressure in gas: liquid modules with a CO2 absorbent on the other side of the
membrane (Iovane et al. 2014). For biogas containing H2S concentrations of 2%,
removal efficiencies of 98% and 58–94% have been reported (Ryckebosch et al.
2011; Iovane et al. 2014). This technology is not suitable for medium-high strength
biogas streams, and the presence of O2 can cause operational problems during
liquid regeneration if water is used as absorbent.
Absorption
Absorption is the most common technology for the removal of H2S in the chemical
industry. This method is based on the mass transfer of H2S from the biogas into a
liquid solvent such as water or organic solvents. One of the most popular processes
is based on the chemical absorption of H2S into a catalytic solution of Fe3+-EDTA,
where the hydrogen sulphide is removed (via oxidation to S) and separated by
sedimentation from the Fe3+-EDTA solution. Then, this solution with the reduced
catalyst is regenerated by oxidation with O2 (Eqs. 10.8–10.9) (Horikawa et al.
2004; Demmink and Beenackers 1998):
2Fe3 þ þ S2 ! 2Fe2 þ þ S ð10:8Þ
2Fe2 þ þ 0:5O2 þ H2 O ! 2Fe3 þ þ 2OH ð10:9Þ
This technology is designed to operate at ambient temperature and pressure,

under low biogas residence time and low liquid/gas ratios. Removals of H2S
between 90 and 100% are typically achieved in this technology (Ryckebosch et al.
2011).
In Situ Precipitation
Addition of Fe2+ or Fe3+ ions in the form of FeSO4, FeCl3, and FeCl2 salts into the
organic feed or directly into the digester represents an efficient mechanism for the
control of H2S concentration in biogas. These ions reacts with the dissolved H2S,
generating the insoluble FeS and/or elemental S following the reactions shown in
Eqs. 10.10–10.11 (Ryckebosch et al. 2011; Muñoz et al. 2015; Pettersson and
Wellinger 2009):
Fe2 þ þ S2 ! FeS ð10:10Þ
2Fe3 þ þ 3S2 ! 2FeS þ S ð10:11Þ

Table 10.3 Advantages and disadvantages of physical/chemical H2S removal technologies

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Adsorption on activated ∙ High removal efficiencies ∙ High temperature is needed for
carbon of H2S carbon regeneration
∙ Short lifetime of the activated
carbon
Adsorption using iron ∙ Removal ∙ Adsorbent regeneration is
oxide or hydroxide efficiencies >99% expensive
∙ Low operating cost ∙ Concentration of H2S to be
treated must be <100 ppmv
∙ Temperature must be controlled
Membrane separation ∙ Can remove CO2 ∙ Concentration of H2S to be
simultaneously treated must be <2%
∙ High H2S removal
efficiencies
Absorption ∙ Water can be used as ∙ Low liquid/biogas ratios needed
solvent
∙ Removal efficiencies
90–100%
∙ Operation at ambient
temperature and pressure
In-situ precipitation ∙ Low investment cost ∙ Not efficient at low
∙ Efficient at high H2S concentrations of H2S
concentrations ∙ H2S in treated biogas
>100–150 ppmv
∙ High operating costs
This method is efficient to reduce H2S concentration in moderate to high strength

biogas, but cannot decrease H2S levels below 100–150 ppmv. While its operation is
simple and the investment costs are low, the widespread use of this technology is
limited by the high operating cost derived from the purchase of the iron salts
(Persson et al. 2006).
Table 10.3 summarizes the main advantages and disadvantages of the physical/
chemical H2S removal technologies discussed in Sect. 10.3.2.
10.3.3 Siloxanes, VOC, and Halocarbons Removal

Technologies
Siloxanes are compounds containing a silicon-oxygen bond (Si–O) that are used in
multiple cleaning products and cosmetics. These products are the source of silox-
anes in biogas from landfills and wastewater treatment plant, which are responsible
for damages to engines, valves, cylinder heads, etc. (Ryckebosch et al. 2011;
Soreanu et al. 2011). The most important siloxane removal technology is adsorp-
tion on activated carbon, which depends on the water content in biogas and is often
combined with a pre-treatment for water removal. The removal efficiency of this
technology can reach 95% (Ryckebosch et al. 2011) and 74–83% (Schweigkofler
and Niessner 2001). This technology is limited by the need of process operation at
high pressure and low moisture contents, and by the technical difficulties associated
with the regeneration of the activated carbon. Siloxane adsorption can also be
conducted on silica gel, which is a granular form of silicon dioxide (SiO2) made
from sodium silicate (Na2O3Si) and commonly used as a desiccant. Silica gel pre-
sents a polar nature that allows the adsorption of siloxanes molecules up to removal
efficiencies of 95% (Ryckebosch et al. 2011). The main disadvantage of this tech-
nology is the need for process operation at high pressure, which increases both
investment and operating costs. Cryogenic separation or cryogenic condensation
of siloxanes can support removal efficiencies of 99.3% when the temperature of
biomethane is decreased to −70 °C and of 25.9% when the temperature of bio-
methane reaches −25 °C (Hagmann et al. 2001). The widespread implementation of
this technology is limited by its high investment and operating costs.
Halogenated compounds and VOCs are typically removed by activated carbon
adsorption in two packed bed columns operated in parallel in a sequential
adsorption-regeneration mode (Ryckebosch et al. 2011; Muñoz et al. 2015).
Regeneration of the activated carbon is performed at 200 °C (Wellinger et al. 2005).
10.3.4 O2 and N2 Removal Technologies
The O2 and N2 present in biogas are not biologically generated during anaerobic
digestion. These gases are typically present at high concentrations in landfill gas
when biogas is collected by vacuum generation as a result of air infiltration. Despite
O2 levels <0.5% in biomethane are admissible, biogas in air is explosive at con-
centrations ranging from 6–12% at biogas methane contents of 60%, depending on
the temperature (Petersson and Wellinger 2009; Bailón and Hinge 2012). On the
other hand, N2 is an inert gas difficult to remove during upgrading, with a limited
impact on the applications of biogas except for a decreased calorific value and CH4
content (Wellinger and Lindberg 2005).
Table 10.4 shows the technologies for both O2 and N2 removal from biogas
along with their main advantages and disadvantages. Pressure swing adsorption
(PSA) is based on the differences in gas adsorption rates to capture these biogas
contaminants at a high pressure in vertical columns packed with absorbents under a
sequence of adsorption, depressurization, desorption, and pressurization.
Membrane separation is based on the selective permeability of O2 and N2 across
membranes under a gas-gas configuration at high pressure. Finally, cryogenic
separation uses temperature difference to separate O2 and N2 from the rest of the
biogas components. Overall, the technologies for the removal of O2 and N2 require
high investment and operating costs, high energy demands, and a complex process
control (Persson et al. 2007; Muñoz et al. 2015; Awe et al. 2017).
Table 10.4 Overview of the advantages and disadvantages of physical/chemical O2 and N2

removal technologies (Wellinger and Lingberg 2005; Ryckebosch 2011; Yang et al. 2014)
Technologies Advantages Disadvantages
PSA ∙ Removes CO2, N2 and O2 ∙ H2S and water removal is needed
∙ Low energy demand before PSA
∙ Low level of emissions ∙ Periodical regeneration of the adsorbent
needed
Membrane ∙ Compact and light in ∙ Relatively low CH4 purity and high
separation weight CH4 losses
∙ Easy operation and ∙ High cost derive from membrane
maintenance purchase
∙ Low energy requirements ∙ Complex maintenance
Cryogenic ∙ Produces CO2 as by ∙ High energy demand
separation product ∙ High capital cost
∙ Removal of multiple
impurities
10.4 Biological Biogas Upgrading Technologies
10.4.1 CO2 Removal Technologies
10.4.1.1 Hydrogenotrophic CO2 Removal (Biological Methanation

of CO2)
Biogas upgrading through biological methanation of CO2 consists of the utilization

of H2 (electron donor) by hydrogenotrophic methanogens to transform CO2 (carbon
source and electron acceptor) into CH4 according to Eq. 10.12 (Rittmann 2015):
4H2 þ CO2 ! CH4 þ 2H2 DG0 ¼ 130:7 kJ mol1 ð10:12Þ
The development of this technology is linked to the shift of electricity produc-

tion from fossil fuels towards renewable sources. Electricity generation from
renewable energies is not coupled to demand, hence biological methanation is an
option to chemically store renewable energy as CH4, by H2 production (via water
electrolysis) and the subsequent upgrading of biogas (Rittmann et al. 2013). This
technological platform, with 17 projects of biogas upgrading currently under
development in Europe (Bailera et al. 2017), is commonly named power-to-gas.
Power-to-gas technologies are not only applied for biogas upgrading but also to
convert different sources of CO2 (or even CO) to CH4. However, biogas upgrading
using a power-to-gas approach exhibits low operating costs and the opportunity to
use the heat from methanation and the O2 produced during electrolysis for
microaerobic removal of H2S. In any cases, the costs of H2 production during
electrolysis govern the overall process costs (Götz et al. 2016).
Fig. 10.1 Main set-ups for the biological conversion of CO2 into CH4. Adapted from Rittmann
(2015)
Biomethanation can be performed in two different configurations (Fig. 10.1).

On one side, in situ upgrading implies the supply of H2 to the anaerobic digester
so that biomethane is directly produced within the digester. On the other side,
ex situ upgrading entails the supply of H2 and biogas to a specific bioreactor,
containing an enriched hydrogenotrophic archaea community, where CO2 con-
version to CH4 takes place. In both upgrading configurations, archaea from the
species Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanoculleus, Methanosaeta,
Methanosarcina, Methanospirilum, and Methanothermobacter have been repeat-
edly found (Bassani et al. 2015; Kougias et al. 2016; Luo and Angelidaki 2013a;
Wang et al. 2013).
The poor solubility of H2 in water (dimensionless Henry’s constant of 52 at 35 °C)
always limits the bioconversion of CO2 to CH4. In this context, a limiting H2
mass transfer as the rate-determining step results in an enhanced biomass formation
with a concomitant reduction in the production of CH4 (Strevett et al. 1995).
Indeed, several bioreactor configurations have been tested to enhance H2 mass
transfer and to maximize CO2 conversion to CH4 using stoichiometric mixtures of H2
and CO2 (80:20 by volume) such as CSTR (Kim et al. 2013), fixed-bed bioreactors
(Lee et al. 2012), bubble columns (Díaz et al. 2015), and biotrickling filters
(Burkhardt et al. 2015).
Ex situ bioreactors devoted to biogas upgrading have been shown to efficiently
1
convert H2 (1.9–97 LH2 L1R d ) and CO2 to CH4 with a final CH4 concentration in
the treated biogas up to 98% (Kougias et al. 2016; Luo and Angelidaki 2012;
Martin et al. 2013; Rachbauer et al. 2016). However, most studies have been carried
out only at lab-scale (0.6–58 L) and those reaching a final CH4 concentration
suitable for biomethane injection in the grid (> 95%) are limited to a load of 7.2
1
LH2 L1
R d . In this context, pressurized bioreactors have been proposed to com-
pensate for the decrease in conversion efficiency at high H2 and biogas load rates
(Seifert et al. 2014). An increase in the pressure of the bioreactor would result in
higher H2 transfer rates mediated by a higher H2 solubility according to Henry’s
Law. Ex situ upgrading by directly contacting H2 and biogas in a bioreactor
independent from the digester presents the benefit of implementing individual
control strategies and advanced bioreactors configurations to increase the H2
mass-transfer coefficient (kLH2 a) in contrast to in situ bioreactors (Rittmann 2015).
In situ upgrading is limited by the fact that anaerobic digesters are not designed
to maximize gas-liquid mass transfer, but to provide optimal organic matter
removal instead. Hence, the H2 gas-liquid mass transfer coefficients (kLH2 a) in
anaerobic digesters are low. Nevertheless, the low CO2 productivity per digester
1
volume results in both lower H2 load (LH2 L1 R d ) and kLH2 a requirements. In this
sense, the adaptation of the ADM1 to in situ H2 injection showed that kLH2 a
of *30 h−1 should be applied for an efficient CO2 bioconversion (Bensmann et al.
2014). The few studies evaluating the performance of a direct supply of H2 to the
anaerobic digester (in situ upgrading) have been performed in CSTR (Bassani et al.
2015; Luo et al. 2012; Luo and Angelidaki 2013a, b; Wang et al. 2013) and UASB
digesters (Bassani et al. 2015) treating manure, sewage sludge or potato-starch
1
wastewater. H2 loading rates between 0.19 and 1.8 LH2 L1 R d have been reported
at lab-scale along with biomethane concentrations of up to 99%. Additionally, the
consumption of CO2 within the digester can induce inhibitory pH increases if the
alkalinity of the organic fed is not properly controlled (Luo et al. 2012).
To summarize, biological methanation of CO2 with H2 produced with excess of
electricity from renewable sources (ex situ upgrading) or through direct production
of biomethane within anaerobic digesters (in situ upgrading) at a low cost, while
storing surplus electricity in the form of CH4, is a promising technology to upgrade
biogas. However, only lab-scale bioreactors tests have been reported so far and
further developments are required to increase the H2 gas-liquid transfer. In this
context, incipient research on pressurized bioreactors and novel configurations that
result in high gas-liquid transfer rates will play a key role in the progress and
commercial application of the biological methanation of CO2.
10.4.1.2 Photosynthetic CO2 Removal
Photosynthetic CO2 removal is based on the bioconversion of CO2 into microalgae

biomass through oxygenic photosynthesis, which is carried out by eukaryotic
microalgae and prokaryotic cyanobacteria (from now on referred as microalgae)
(López et al. 2013; Muñoz et al. 2015). Light-mediated water photolysis is needed
for the redox reduction of CO2, where the electrons are transferred from the water to
CO2. This transportation takes place against an electrochemical gradient and occurs
via a series of reactions that require a source of energy (light) to proceed. Overall,
CO2, water, nutrients, and mineral salts are converted into energy-rich compounds
contained in the microalgal biomass and oxygen (Tredici 2009; Muñoz et al. 2015).
These processes can be simplified as follows (Eq. 10.13):
CO2 þ H2 O þ sunlight ðphotonsÞ þ nutrients

! O2 þ CH1:63 N0:14 O0:43 P0:006 S0:005 þ waste heat ð10:13Þ
CO2 absorption from raw biogas into an aqueous cultivation broth is required
prior removal by microalgal photosynthesis (Posadas et al. 2015). In this context,
the moderate aqueous solubility of CO2 (Henry’s Law constant 0.83 at 20 °C)
supports an efficient mass transfer to the cultivation broth (Sander 1999). The
optimum growth of microalgae requires 1.8 g CO2 g−1 microalgae, and therefore, an
adequate CO2 mass transfer to the cultivation medium is mandatory during pho-
tobioreactor design and operation. Similarly, nutrients supplementation is also
necessary (mainly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S) along with other
trace elements) in order to guarantee a successful CO2 biofixation (Wang et al.
2008; Trobajo et al. 2014). In this context, anaerobic effluents, which are charac-
terized by a high nutrient content (mainly N and P), have emerged as a sustainable
alternative to synthetic culture medium. The use of these effluents as nutrient media
allows the recovery of nutrients from digestates in the form of a valuable
algal-bacterial biomass (Bahr et al. 2014; Posadas et al. 2015) (Table 10.5).
Despite the fact that several microalgae species can support photosynthetic
biogas upgrading, the most commonly reported ones are Chlorella, Arthospira,
Spirulina, and Scenedesmus, which are characterized by their tolerance to high CO2
concentrations and pH values (Muñoz et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2008) (Table 10.5).
In this regard, few authors have isolated microalgae species capable of withstanding
CO2 concentrations of up to 40–60% (Wang et al. 2008). H2S concentrations of
around 100 ppmv have been found to inhibit microalgae-based processes (Kao et al.
2012). However, the fast H2S oxidation to SO42− by the sulphur oxidizing bacteria
(SOB) naturally present in biogas upgrading photobioreactors and/or the high
dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in the cultivation broth (2–25 mg O2 L−1)
avoid any potential inhibitory effects by H2S (Toledo-Cervantes et al. 2016).
Finally, CH4 does not entail any inhibition of microalgae activity at concentrations
ranging from 20 to 80% mainly due to its low aqueous solubility. This low CH4
solubility constitutes an important advantage in terms of biogas upgrading by
scrubbing because it allows the absorption of CO2 and H2S while minimizing CH4
losses (Kao et al. 2012; Posadas et al. 2015).
Parameters such as light availability, temperature, pH, and DO determine the
rates of biological CO2 biofixation by microalgae, assuming that no other limiting
or inhibitory parameters impact on the process once the transfer of CO2 and mixing
are optimized (Posadas et al. 2016). Photosynthesis in most microalgae species gets
saturated at 250 µmol m−2 s−1, which corresponds to 10% and 17% of the
summer and winter peak outdoors light irradiances (2500 and 1200 µmol m−2 s−1,
respectively). Under these conditions, and based on the fact that 10–20% of the
Table 10.5 Experimental studies on photosynthetic biogas upgrading under different configurations of photobioreactors
10
Photobioreactor Input biogas CO2- Output Culture conditions Microalgae population References
design and composition RE biogas
volume (L) (%) (%) composition
(%)
Set of bubbled Real – O2 3.5 Indoors at continuous light Chlorella vulgaris Duosková et al.
columns: 0.4-0.6 biogas = CH4: irradiance of 1000 µmol m−2 s−1/ (2010)
L 38–81 CO2: Cultivation in synthetic medium
19–62
H2S: 0.0–0.2
Set of bubbled Real 73–86 CH4: 86–91 Outdoors (Taiwan 24°09′N 120° Mutant Chlorella sp. strain Kao et al. (2012)
columns of 50 L biogas = CH4: 40′E)/Cultivation in artificial
69 ± 1 seawater
CO2: 20 ± 1
H2S: 0.000–
0.005
Bubble column Real – – Indoors at continuous light Spirulina platensis Sumardiono et al.
of 0.8 L biogas = CH4: irradiance of 18 W (10-15 cm of (2014)

42 the culture)/Cultivation in
CO2: 49 synthetic medium
CO: 2
Others: 7
Enclosed Real 100 O2: 10–24 Indoors at continuous light Spirulina platensis Converti et al.
photobioreactor biogas = CH4: irradiance of 36 µmol m−2 s−1/ (2009)
of 1 L 67–82 CO2: 8– Cultivation in synthetic medium
23
Enclosed tubular Real 10–90 CO2: 0–0 Indoors at light:dark cycles of Scenedesmus obliquus Thiansathit et al.
photobioreactor biogas = CH4: 16 h:8 h at irradiance of (2015)
of 5.3 L 60 80 µmol m−2 s−1/Cultivation in
CO2: 40 synthetic medium
(continued)
257
258
(%)
Enclosed tubular CH4: 58 94– CH4: 50.1– Indoors at continuous light Chlorella vulgaris Mann et al. (2009)
photobioreactor CO2: 42 98 53.3 CO2: irradiance of 35, 60 and
of 0.45 L H2S: 0.05 1.2–2.5 100 µmol m−2 s−1/Cultivation in
O2: 18.2– synthetic medium
23.4
H2S: 0
Algal pond of 15 Real 74–95 CH4: 88–97 Indoor cultivation/Cultivation in Chlorella vulgaris Conde et al.
L with a biolift biogas = CH4: CO2: 2.5– synthetic medium and settled (1993)
absorption unit 55–71 CO2: 11.5 diluted piggery wastewater
inside the pond 44–48 H2S <0.5
H2S: 1
180 L raceway Synthetic 40–98 H2S: 0 Indoors at continuous light Spirulina platensis, Phormidium, Bahr et al. (2014)
interconnected to biogas: N2: O2 <1 irradiance of 80 µmol m−2 s−1/ Oocystis, Microspora
a 0.8 L bubble 69.5 CO2: 30 Cultivation in synthetic medium
column (external H2S: 0.5 and in real diluted centrate
absorption unit)
180 L raceway Synthetic 72–79 CH4: 81 ± 2 Indoors at light:dark cycles of Geitlerinema sp., Limnothrix Posadas et al.
interconnected to biogas: CH4: CO2: 6.8– 16 h:8 h at irradiance of planktonica, Pseudoanabaena (2015)
a 2.5 L bubble 70 CO2: 29.5 8.8 104 ± 25 µmol m−2 s−1/ minima, Stigeoclonium tenue,
column (external H2S: 0.5 H2S: 0 Cultivation in diluted Leptolyngbya benthonica,
absorption unit) O2: anaerobically digested vinasse Planktolyngvya brevicellularis,
0.7 ± 0.2 and diluted raw vinasse Staurosira sp.
N2: 5.9–7.2
180 L raceway 40– O2: 2–20 Indoors at continuous light Posadas et al.
interconnected to 100 irradiance of 75 ± 5 µmol m−2 (2016)
(continued)
M. R. Rodero et al.
10
(%)
a 2.5 L bubble Synthetic s−1/Cultivation in real diluted Microspora sp., Scenedesmus,
column (external biogas: CO2: centrate Synechocysitis aquatilis,
absorption unit) 30 N2: 70 Woronichia sp.
180 L raceway Synthetic 50–95 CH4: 70–94 Outdoors (Valladolid (Spain)- Chlorella sp., Pseudanabaena Posadas et al.
interconnected to biogas: CH4: CO2: 9–25 summer; 41°39′N 4°44′ W)/ sp.,Chloroidium saccharophilum (2017)
a 2.5 L bubble 70 CO2: 29.5 H2S: 0 Cultivation in real centrate
column (external H2S: 0.5 O2: 0.1–2.0
absorption unit) N2: 0.6–5.0
180 L raceway Synthetic 80 H2S: 0 Indoors at light:dark cycles of Chlorella sp., Chloromonas sp., Serejo et al.
interconnected to biogas: CH4: O2: 0.3–3 16 h:8 h at irradiance of Geitlerinema sp., Microspora (2015)
a 2.5 L bubble 70 CO2: 29.5 N2: 6–10 104 ± 25 µmol m−2 s−1/ sp., Pseudanabaena sp.,
column (external H2S: 0.5 Cultivation in diluted Stigeoclonium sp.,
absorption unit) anaerobically digested vinasse Planktolyngbya sp. and others

180 L raceway Synthetic 55 ± 6 N2 (CH4 Indoors at continuous light Phormidium sp., Oocystis, Alcántara et al.
interconnected to biogas: CO2: hypothetical irradiance of 75 µmol m−2 s−1/ Microspora sp. (2015)
a 2.5 L bubble 30 N2: 70 scenario): 87 Cultivation in diluted centrate
column (external
absorption unit)
180 L raceway Synthetic 100 CH4: Indoors at light:dark cycles of Geitlerinema sp., Limmothrix Toledo-Cervantes
interconnected to biogas: CH4: 97.2 ± 0.2 16 h:8 h at irradiance of planktonica, Acutudesmus et al. (2016)
a 2.5 L bubble 70 CO2: 29.5 CO2: 420 ± 105 µmol m−2 s−1/ obliquus, Chlorella vulgaris,
column (external H2S: 0.5 0.4 ± 0.1 Cultivation in real centrate Mychonastes homosphaera,
absorption unit) H2S: 0 Navicula, Phormidium sp.,
O2: Stigeoclonium tenue
0.03 ± 0.04
N2:
259
2.4 ± 0.2
(continued)
260
(%)
180 L raceway Synthetic 95 CH4: Indoors at light:dark cycles of Chlorella minutissima Toledo-Cervantes
interconnected to biogas: CH4: 96.2 ± 0.7 14 h:10 h at irradiance of et al. (2017)
a 2.5 L bubble 70 CO2: 29.5 CO2: 0.1–2 1500 ± 600 µmol m−2 s−1/
column (external H2S: 0.5 H2S: 0 Cultivation in real centrate
absorption unit) O2: 0.1–1
N2: 1–4
75 L raceway Real biogas: 93 O2: 1.2 Indoors at light:dark cycles of Nannochloropsis gaditana Meier et al. (2015)
interconnected to CH4: 72 ± 2 14 h:10 h at irradiance of
a 0.7 L bubble CO2: 28 ± 2 1500 ± 600 µmol m−2 s−1/
column (external Cultivation in synthetic medium
absorption unit)
50 L raceway Real biogas: 89–93 CO2: 2–4.5 Indoors light:dark cycles of Chlorella sorokiniana Meier et al. (2017)
interconnected to CH4: 65 ± 1.5 O2: <1 12 h:12 h at irradiance of 25, 50,
a 0.3 L bubble CO2: 75 and 100 µmol m−2 s−1/
column (external 32.0 ± 1.9 Cultivation in synthetic medium
absorption unit)
M. R. Rodero et al.
total solar irradiation is lost by reflection, the maximum light irradiance that can be
fixed by microalgae ranges from 1 to 7% (depending on the photobioreactor con-
figuration), which limits microalgae productivity to 10–35 g m−2 d−1 (Park et al.
2011). Optimum temperature for microalgae activity ranges from 15 to 30 °C,
despite the fact that some authors have reported successful algae growth at 35 °C
(Muñoz et al. 2015). Although the optimum pH for microalgae ranges from 7 to 8,
values of 9–10 are required to maintain a high CO2 gradient between the gas and
liquid phase (Posadas et al. 2016). Several microalgae species are able to growth at
these high pHs (Toledo-Cervantes et al. 2016). Finally, DO concentrations >
25 mg L−1 can inhibit microalgae activity. In this regard, oxygen removal consti-
tutes an important issue in the design of photobioreactors (Mendoza et al. 2013).
Similar physical/chemical and biological mechanisms to those supporting CO2
removal from flue gases in photobioreactors take place during photosynthetic CO2
removal from biogas. In this regard, photobioreactors are designed to maximize
CO2 absorption, mixing, nutrients supply, light distribution, pH control, and oxygen
removal (Muñoz et al. 2015). The main difference with photobioreactors designed
to treat flue gases is that the CO2-laden gas is bubbled into a sump in open
photobioreactors and discharged to the atmosphere during flue gas treatment, while
enclosed photobioreactors (bubble columns or tubular systems) and raceways with
an additional biogas scrubbing unit are used when biomethane is recovered (López
et al. 2013) (Muñoz et al. 2015) (Table 10.5).
Enclosed photobioreactors are characterized by capital cost investments of
500–3000 € m−2, energy consumptions of 50–100 W m−3, and illuminated area
to volume ratios of 30–70 m−1 (Muñoz et al. 2015). Their design allows a high
light utilization efficiency (4–6%), which results in biomass concentrations of up
to 6 g total suspended solids (TSS) L−1 and biomass productivities of 25–
45 g m−2 d−1 (Acién et al. 2012). CO2 removal efficiencies in a set of bubble
columns accounted for 86%, while a complete CO2 removal has been reported in
enclosed tubular photobioreactors (Table 10.5). Despite the high CO2 removal
efficiency achieved in this photobioreactor configuration, further improvements
should be focused on the reduction of O2 concentration (below 1%) and the increase
in CH4 concentration (> 95%) in the upgraded biogas (Table 10.5; Muñoz et al.
2015). Furthermore, the use of enclosed systems to treat biogas has been mainly
carried out at laboratory scale indoors (Table 10.5). Therefore, a systematic eval-
uation of their performance at pilot scale under outdoors conditions must be
conducted.
Raceways are open photobioreactors characterized by their simplicity in con-
struction and operation, and their lower capital cost investments (2–20 € m−2),
energy requirements (2–10 W m3), and illuminated area to volume ratios (3–
10 m−1) compared to their enclosed counterparts (Tredici 2009; López et al. 2013).
A high microalgae diversity and risk of external contamination with local
microalgae species or predators is expected in high rate algal ponds (HRAPs) due to
their open design (Posadas et al. 2014). The main disadvantage of these photo-
bioreactors is their low light utilization efficiency (2%), which results in low
biomass concentrations in the cultivation broth (0.3–1 gTSS L−1) and low
biomass productivities (5–20 g m−2 d−1) (Tredici 2009; Posadas 2016). Another
limitation is their high water footprint (up to 17.5 L m−2 d−1 in arid areas (Guieysse
et al. 2013)], which can compromise their environmental sustainability. HRAPs
treating biogas have been used via integration with an external absorption unit
(biolift or column) in order to recover and reuse the treated biomethane
(Table 10.5). The interconnection between the HRAP and the absorption column is
carried out by an external liquid recirculation, which minimizes CH4 losses to the
atmosphere ( 2% mass basics) (Toledo-Cervantes et al. 2017). A successful
treatment of anaerobic effluents coupled to photosynthetic biogas upgrading has
been reported at pilot scale under laboratory and outdoors conditions in these
photobioreactors (Table 10.5). Thus, Toledo-Cervantes et al. (2016) found O2
concentrations of 0.03 ± 0.04% in the upgraded biogas, along with CH4 purities of
97.2 ± 0.2%, while minimizing the effluent flowrate and maximizing nutrients
recovery in the harvested biomass. However, the reduction in N2 concentration in
the upgraded biogas, which is continuously stripped out from the recycling algal
broth as a result of the open nature of the HRAPs and its equilibrium with the
atmosphere (14 mg N2 L−1), is mandatory to achieve high CH4 concentrations.
Recently, Posadas et al. (2017) evaluated the performance of this photobioreactor
configuration for the simultaneous treatment of centrate and biogas at pilot scale
under outdoors conditions (Table 10.5). The results showed that at a low alkalinity
in the cultivation broth (inorganic carbon concentration 500 mg L−1), CO2
removal efficiency was highly influenced by the temperature. The maximum CO2
removal efficiencies and CH4 purities recorded in their study were 95 and 94%,
respectively. Nevertheless, further research should be focused on the optimization
of this pilot scale system under outdoors conditions to maintain a year-round CH4
content >95%.
10.4.2 H2S Removal Technologies
10.4.2.1 Microaerobic H2S Removal
A limited amount of oxygen/air can be introduced as a strategy to reduce sulfide

levels in anaerobic reactors (Sousa et al. 2016).
A detailed knowledge of the nature of both biological and chemical oxidation of
sulfide is necessary to understand the effect of oxygen dosage. The most important
bioconversions involved in aerobic sulfide removal are presented in the following
equations (Eqs. 10.14–10.16) (Janssen et al. 1995):
2HS þ O2 ! 2S0 þ 2OH DG ¼ 169:35 kJ mol1 ð10:14Þ

2HS þ 4O2 ! 2SO2

4 þ 2H
þ
DG ¼ 732:58 kJ mol1 ð10:15Þ
2HS þ 2O2 ! S2 O2

3 þ H2 O DG ¼ 387:35 kJ mol1 ð10:16Þ
Microaerobic H2S removal in anaerobic digesters relies on the action of SOB,

which grow lithoautotrophically on H2S while producing elemental sulphur (S0)
instead of sulfate under O2-limited conditions according to Eq. 10.14 (Madigan
et al. 2009). SOB show different morphologies, physiological and ecological
characteristics, and use primarily O2 as the terminal electron acceptor (Tang et al.
2009).
While in situ microaerobic H2S removal has been traditionally used in anaerobic
digesters treating agricultural wastes based on the economic benefits of on-site
biogas exploitation (Muñoz et al. 2015), recent research has extended its application
to anaerobic reactors treating industrial wastewaters (Rodríguez et al. 2012),
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) sludge, cow manure (Jenicek et al. 2008;
Kobayashi et al. 2012) or sewage (Sousa et al. 2016). In this technology, the
headspace of anaerobic digesters acts as a H2S abatement unit where multiple
microaerophilic SOBs such as Acidithiobacillus sp., Arcobacter sp., Sulfuricuvum
sp., Sulfurimonas sp., Thiobacillus sp., Thiofaba sp., and Thiomonas sp. develop
upon a restricted quantity of O2 is provided (Díaz et al. 2011; Kobayashi et al.
2012; Rodríguez et al. 2012). SOB grow over the headspace walls and ceiling of
anaerobic digesters as a result of the lack of any biomass support, superimposed
layers of S0 representing the support material for SOB growth (with a high specific
surface area that facilitates O2 transfer) (Díaz et al. 2011; Kobayashi et al. 2012).
The main advantage of in situ H2S removal is the absence of end-of-pipe units for
desulfurization. Nevertheless, an excessive S0 deposition on the digester’s head-
space would possibly impair the removal performance over time by reducing the
residence time of biogas and, consequently, the O2 transfer rate to the microor-
ganisms. Therefore, a periodical cleaning of the reactor headspace is critical to
maintain the H2S removal efficiency (Krayzelova et al. 2015). Several authors have
observed that the low O2 supply rates required for H2S abatement do not signifi-
cantly compromise the performance of organic matter removal or CH4 productivity
(Díaz et al. 2010; Rodríguez et al. 2012). On the contrary, enhanced organic matter
hydrolysis and methanogenic activity as a result of the suppression of sulfide
toxicity have been reported (Jenicek et al. 2010, 2011).
Several authors have comparatively evaluated the efficiency of air dosing into
the headspace or into the liquid phase of anaerobic digesters (Krayzelova et al.
2015). When applied to the headspace, oxygen will directly react with gas sulfide,
which entails lower quantities of air dosing (Díaz et al. 2011; Ramos et al. 2012). In
this context, dosing lower quantity of air causes lower contamination of biogas by
nitrogen (Krayzelova et al. 2015). On the other hand, when air is overdosed to
assure complete H2S removal, the surplus oxygen can contaminate biogas (Díaz
et al. 2010, 2011) increasing the risk of explosion.
The biogas residence time is a key parameter controlling H2S removal effi-
ciencies (Muñoz et al. 2015). H2S removal efficiencies over 97% are typically met
when operating at biogas residence times over 5 h (Muñoz et al. 2015). In addition,
higher O2 to H2S molar ratios are required to maintain H2S removal efficiencies
over 99%, when decreasing the biogas residence time in the headspace (Muñoz
et al. 2015).
In this context, the O2 (or equivalent air) supply rate can be adjusted to 0.3–3%
of the biogas production rate depending on the H2S concentration and the afore-
mentioned biogas residence time (Muñoz et al. 2015). A variable O2/air dosing is
often required in most digesters in order to minimize the residual O2 in the
upgraded biogas as a result of the variable biogas production rates. Hence, a
residual O2 concentration of 1–1.8% in the biogas can be achieved by controlling
the oxygen reduction potential (ORP) in the anaerobic mixed liquor, while 0.3–
0.5% residual O2 concentrations were recorded when employing biogas production
as the control variable, both operational strategies supporting H2S removal effi-
ciencies larger than 99% (Ramos and Fdz-Polanco 2014).
Dosing air into the anaerobic broth also causes a decrease of the sulfide con-
centration in the liquid phase (Díaz et al. 2011; Krayzelova et al. 2014; van der Zee
et al. 2007; Zhou et al. 2007). However, this decrease is often not larger than 20–
30% (Krayzelova et al. 2014) and cannot explain the large decrease in H2S con-
centration in the biogas (Krayzelova et al. 2015). This implies that most H2S
oxidation takes place in the digester headspace even if air is dosed into the liquid
phase (Krayzelova et al. 2015). Along with the reduction in the H2S levels in
biogas, the decrease in the sulfide concentration in the liquid has the additional
positive effect of decreasing sulfide toxicity towards methanogens. The mass
transfer of oxygen into the liquid phase is intensified in digesters by mixing using
biogas recirculation. However, air dosing into the mixed liquor will increase the
consumption of O2 due to the oxidation of biodegradable organic compounds (Díaz
et al. 2011; Fdz-Polanco et al. 2009).
Finally, a recent economic evaluation of the in situ H2S treatment of 550 m3/h of
biogas in full-scale WWTP sludge digesters showed that the total cost of H2S
removal using a PSA O2 generator (92–98% O2) was lower than process operation
with air or pure O2. The utilization of an oxygen generator entailed the lowest
operational costs (0.82 € kg S−1 or 0.0018 € m−3 of biogas treated) compared to air
and pure O2 supply (1.18 € kg S−1 and 1.72 € kg S−1, respectively) (Díaz et al.
2015).
10.4.2.2 Biotrickling Filtration
Biotrickling filters (BTF) consists of a packed bed column (where biomass growth
occurs as a biofilm) sprayed by a recirculating aqueous phase that contains the
essential nutrients for microbial growth. An efficient H2S and oxygen transport
between the gas and liquid phases, pH and temperature control, nutrient supply, and
a controlled washout of accumulated metabolites are the main advantages of this
biotechnology (Dumont 2015; Muñoz et al. 2015). Biotrickling filtration for H2S
treatment is based on the action of SOB (Gabriel et al. 2013). In aerobic BTF,
lithoautotrophic bacteria can use H2S as the energy source while O2 is used as the
electron acceptor according to Eqs. 10.17 and 10.18:
H2 S þ 0:5O2 ! S þ H2 O ð10:17Þ
þ
H2 S þ 2O2 ! SO2
4 þ 2H ð10:18Þ
The control of the oxygen dosage into the BTF is critical due to both safety
concerns (explosion risks) and to the need to avoid biogas dilution (Lebrero et al.
2016). NO3− or NO2− can also be used in anoxic BTFs as electron acceptor for the
biological oxidation of H2S, which would contribute to a concomitant nitrogen
removal from digestates via denitrification (Li et al. 2016). The stoichiometry of
H2S removal via nitrate or nitrite reduction is described by Eqs. 10.19 and 10.20
(Lebrero et al. 2016; Dumont 2015).
5H2 S þ 2NO
3 ! 5S þ N2 þ 4H2 O þ 2OH

ð10:19Þ
5H2 S þ 8NO
3 ! 5SO4 þ 4N2 þ 4H2 O þ 2H
2 þ
ð10:20Þ
Elemental sulfur might be preferred over sulfate formation in order to avoid

trickling liquid acidification (Fortuny et al. 2008). However, the accumulation of
elemental sulfur under oxygen or nitrate limiting conditions increases the risk of
BTF clogging (Montebello et al. 2012). Indeed, elemental sulfur accumulation is
nowadays considered as the bottleneck limiting the applicability of this biotech-
nology. Several bacterial genera such as Thiothrix, Thiobacillus, Thiomonas,
Acidithiobacillus, and Sulfurimonas are capable of oxidizing H2S under neutral/
basic pH conditions using the CO2 present in biogas as a carbon source (De
Arespacochaga et al. 2014; Maestre et al. 2010). Process operation under acidic pH
conditions do not entail a reduction in the H2S removal capacity as a result of the
development of acidophilic bacterial biofilms of Acidithiobacillus thioxidants,
Acidiphilium sp., and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans able to grow at a pH of 2–4
(Montebello et al. 2013; Syed et al. 2006). Temperature ranges between 28 and 35 °C
are desirable to maximize bacterial activity (Muñoz et al. 2015), 30 °C being the most
typical optimum temperature for anoxic H2S removal (Fernández et al. 2014).
Research studies on BTFs have been performed using HD-Q-PAC, polyurethane
foam, pall rings, and polypropylene carriers as packing materials under anoxic and
aerobic conditions with inlet concentrations in the range 500–10,000 ppmv
(Table 10.6). High removal efficiencies of 80–100% were achieved at biogas res-
idence times ranging from 2 to 79 min. In this regard, biogas residence times below
2 min often result in a significant deterioration in H2S removal efficiency during the
treatment of inlet H2S concentrations of 2000 ppmv due to mass transfer limitations
(Fortuny et al. 2011). Trickling liquid velocity (TLV) regulation may improve the
oxygen gas-liquid mass transfer and influence the gas-liquid fluid dynamics in the
Table 10.6 Experimental studies on H2S biotrickling filtration units under anoxic and aerobic conditions
266
Type process Packing material pH [H2S]inlet Gas residence Elimination H2S-RE References
(ppmv) time (min) capacity (%)
(g H2S m−3
h−1)
Microaerobic Cylindrical polypropylene carrier 2.6 7800 5.9 121.7 100 Zhou et al. (2015)
Aerobic Polypropylene Pall 6.5–7.0 2000–10,000 1.9 56.3–262.7 92.7– López et al. (2016)
rings 100
Aerobic Polypropylene Pall rings 1.7 2107 ± 151 3.8–5.9 54.0 99 Rodríguez et al.
(2014)
Aerobic Stainless steel 2.5 2000–10,000 2.2 160.0–223.0 80–100 Montebello et al.
Pall rings (2014)
Aerobic HD Q-PAC 1.5–2.0 2200–4350 1.3–1.4 169.0 84 De Arespacochaga
et al. (2014)
Aerobic Stainless steel 6.0–6.5 2000 3 52.5 99 Montebello et al.
Pall rings (2012)
Aerobic HD-Q-PAC 6.0–6.5 2000 2-3 55.0–82.0 98 Fortuny et al.
(2011)
Aerobic HD-Q-PAC 6.5–7.0 2000 3 55.6 99 Maestre et al.
(2010)
Anoxic Polypropylene 7.5–8.0 1000 2.0–5.0 54.5 100 Li et al. (2016)
Anoxic Polyurethane foam cubes inserted 7.0 – 30-79 4.3–26.2 99.1 Lebrero et al.
into plastic curls (2016)
Anoxic Polyurethane foam cubes 7.3–7.5 – 2.4–3.4 99.8–130.0 99 Fernández et al.
(2014)
Anoxic Polyurethane foam cubes 7.4–7.5 2000 2.7 60.0 99 Montebello et al.
(2012)
Anoxic Polyester fibre and lava 6.5 500–1500 5–16 177–182 93–96 Soreanu et al.
rocks (2009)
M. R. Rodero et al.
BTF (López et al. 2016). Overall, an increase in the TLV enhances both biomass
and S flushing and the wettability of the biofilm, although in some BTF packed with
lava rocks, a TLV increase might result in a decrease in the mass transfer coeffi-
cients due to media flooding (Kim and Deshusses 2008). O2/H2S ratios of 2–41 and
NO3−/H2S ratios of 0.25–1.6 are recommended for an efficient H2S oxidation in
aerobic and anoxic BTFs, respectively (Muñoz et al. 2015; Li et al. 2016; Soreanu
et al. 2008).
H2S biofiltration exhibits a better environmental performance and lower oper-
ating cost than physical/chemical technologies. Thus, aerobic and anoxic BTFs can
provide a cost-competitive H2S removal at 0.013 and 0.016 € m−3, operating costs
significantly lower than those of chemical precipitation (FeCl3) and chemical
scrubbing (0.024 and 0.30 € m−3, respectively) (Fernández et al. 2014; Tomàs et al.
2009; Miltner et al. 2012). Packing material replacement represents the main cost
during the operation of this biotechnology (up to 44% of the total operating cost)
(Estrada et al. 2012).
10.4.2.3 Photosynthetic H2S Removal
Biogas upgrading in algal–bacterial photobioreactors constitutes a promising

alternative for the simultaneous removal of H2S and CO2 in a single-step process
(Bahr et al. 2014). This biotechnology is based on the oxidation of H2S to sulfate by
SOB using the oxygen photosynthetically produced during CO2 biofixation by
microalgae. This process can be described by Eq. 10.21 (Syed et al. 2006):

H2 S þ CO2 þ nutrients þ O2 ! biomass þ SO2
4 S þ H2 O ð10:21Þ
The excess of oxygen in the cultivation broth mediated by photosynthesis pro-

motes the complete oxidation of H2S to sulfate. A recent study identifying bacteria
from the genus Thioalbus in the algal-bacterial broth supported the biological
nature of H2S oxidation in photobioreactors devoted to biogas upgrading
(Toledo-Cervantes et al. 2016).
The transport of H2S from the biogas to the algal-bacterial broth is necessary
prior to H2S oxidation. This is carried out in an external biogas absorption column
interconnected to the photobioreactor or directly via biogas sparging in the pho-
tobioreactor. The limiting step during photosynthetic biogas upgrading is CO2
removal due to the fact that the H2S aqueous solubility is three times higher than the
aqueous solubility of CO2 according to their Henry’s Law constants (HH2S 2.44
at 20 °C) (Sander 1999) and to the rapid biological H2S oxidation (Muñoz et al.
2015). The fact that H2S and CO2 are acidic gases supports process operation at
high pH values (9–10) in the cultivation broth along with alkaliphilic SOB and high
pH-tolerant microalgae in order to enhance CO2 and H2S mass transfer (Bahr et al.
2014).
The absence of packing material in the biogas scrubbing unit together with the
high O2 concentration prevailing in algal-bacterial photobioreactors during biogas
upgrading (Posadas et al. 2016) will prevent the clogging problems typically
encountered in BTFs due to elemental sulfur accumulation (Lebrero et al. 2016).
H2S removal efficiencies of 100% concomitant with CO2 removals of 80–95% are
typically reported during photosynthetic biogas upgrading (Bahr et al. 2014; Serejo
et al. 2015; Posadas et al. 2015; Toledo-Cervantes et al. 2017; Posadas et al. 2017).
10.4.3 Siloxanes, VOC, and Halocarbons Removal

Technologies
Contrary to the well accepted non-biodegradability of siloxanes, microorganisms

such as Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Fusarium Oxysporium have been recently
shown to degrade octamethylcyclotetraxilosane (D4), hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane
(D3) and dimethylsilanediol (Wasserbauer and Zadák 1990; Accettola et al. 2008).
However, the biological removal of siloxanes has been poorly explored to date.
Accetola et al. (2008) investigated the removal of D3 in a BTF packed with Pall
rings treating an air emission contaminated with D3 at 45 mg m−3 under a gas
residence time of 2.1 min. Removal efficiencies of up to 20% were recorded in this
study. Likewise, Poppat and Dessuses (2008) studied the removal of D4 under
aerobic (air emission) and anaerobic (N2 emission) conditions in a BTF packed with
Cattle bone Porcelite at inlet D4 concentrations of 45 mg m−3. Removal efficiencies
of 50–60% at a gas residence time of 30–40 min were reported under aerobic
conditions, while the maximum D4 removal under anaerobic conditions accounted
for 15% at a residence time of 4 min. Similarly, Li et al. (2014) recorded D4
removal efficiencies of 74% at a residence time of 13.2 min in an aerobic BTF
packed with lava rocks. The high gas residence times required and low siloxane
removal efficiencies typically reported can be explained by the low solubility of
siloxanes in water. In this context, biosurfactant excretion to the recycling liquid
solution by some microorganisms could increase the solubility of siloxanes
(Accetola et al. 2008; Soreanu et al. 2011; Li et al. 2014). Overall, the mass transfer
capacity of conventional bioprocesses has to be significantly improved in order to
make biotechnologies a cost-effective alternative to conventional physical-chemical
technologies (Muñoz et al. 2015).
Finally, halogenated compounds such as methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
dichlorodifluoromethane, carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloroethylene, typically found
in landfill biogas (Rasi et al. 2011), can be biodegraded at trace level concentrations
under aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Lollar et al. 2010; Grostern and Edwards
2006). Similarly, the biodegradability of most VOCs identified in biogas (benzene,
toluene, volatile fatty acids, etc.) has been consistently reported in literature (Muñoz
et al. 2012). Unfortunately, to the best of our knowledge, there is no experimental study
assessing the fate of VOCs and halogenated present in biogas in biological systems.
10.5 Conclusions
Today, physical/chemical methods for biogas purification such as adsorption,

chemical precipitation, water/chemical/organic solvent scrubbing, membrane sep-
aration, or cryogenic separation are mature technologies able to produce a bio-
methane complying with most international regulations for injection into natural gas
networks or use as a vehicle fuel. Unfortunately, the room for technical and eco-
nomic optimization of these technologies is nowadays very limited (except for
membrane or cryogenic separation). The high energy and chemical requirements
restrict the cost-competitive use of biogas as an energy vector in spite of its
environmental benefits. In this regard, biological methods such as photosynthetic
upgrading can support a cost-efficient and simultaneous elimination of CO2 and
H2S, with a concomitant conversion of CO2 into a microalgal biomass for the
production of biofertilizers or high added value products. The storage of the grid
excess renewable electricity as H2 can support the biological reduction of CO2 into
CH4 in chemolitotroph-based bioreactors. On-going R&D projects are up-scaling
these technologies in Spain and Denmark to validate their technical and economic
viability at semi-industrial scale. These projects are addressing key process limi-
tations such as the gas-liquid mass transfer of CO2 and H2 in algal-bacterial pho-
tobioreactors and chemolitotrophs-based bioreactors, respectively. Similarly,
biotrickling filtration and anaerobic digestion under microaerobic conditions are
capable of supporting H2S removals > 99% at much lower operational costs than
activated carbon filtration or in situ chemical precipitation. However, despite the
fact that biological biogas desulfurization technologies have been optimized in the
past decades and are commercially available today, they still suffer from severe
operational problems caused by the accumulation of elemental sulfur in the packing
material or in the digester’s headspace. Finally, lab scale assays have confirmed the
feasibility of the microbial biodegradation of both methyl siloxanes and halocar-
bons from biogas under aerobic and anaerobic conditions; the mass transfer of these
biogas contaminants from the gas phase to the microorganisms has been identified
as a potential process limitation during process implementation in continuous
bioreactors.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by MINECO via the FEDER program
(CTM2015-70442-R and Red Novedar), the European Commission (INCOVER project, this
project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
programme under grant agreement No. 689242), the Regional Government of Castilla y León
(Project VA024U14 and UIC 71) and INIA (RTA2013-00056-C03-02). CONACyT-SENER is
also gratefully acknowledged for the PhD grant of Roxana Ángeles Torres.
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Chapter 11
Biorefineries: Focusing on a Closed
Cycle Approach with Biogas
as the Final Step
Benyamin Khoshnevisan and Irini Angelidaki
11.1 Introduction
The increasing energy demands as a consequence of fast-growing global population

and higher living standards over the last few decades have triggered huge interest in
finding new energy resources. Currently, most chemicals, materials, and energy
carriers originate from fossil resources (Brar et al. 2016). Concerns over the rising
global temperature, the depletion of fossil fuels, and increased environmental pol-
lution, as well as the fluctuations of oil prices have encouraged researchers and
energy policy makers to explore practical solutions for generating bioenergy and
bioproducts with less environmental impacts (Parajuli et al. 2015). Today, about
80% of the global energy demand is supplied through fossil resources and the
global energy demand in 2035 is still projected to rise by 40% with fossil fuels
contributing 75% (Parajuli et al. 2015). Therefore, it is anticipated that sooner or
later there will be no more fossil fuel to extract in an economical fashion and the
world has to adapt to this new paradigm (Sharara et al. 2012).
While it is less complicated to provide future renewable electricity and heat due
to the availability of a variety of renewable alternatives (i.e., wind, solar, hydro,
biomass, and others), major challenges still exist regarding supplying of bio-
chemicals and biofuels. In this context, biomass has a huge potential to play a
pivotal role due to the fact that both biochemicals and biofuels can be extracted
from biomass resources. Biorefineries which are analogous to today’s petroleum
B. Khoshnevisan
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
B. Khoshnevisan I. Angelidaki (&)
Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark,
DK-2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark

278 B. Khoshnevisan and I. Angelidaki
refineries are identified as processing facilities capable of using biomass as feed-

stock to produce fuels, power, and chemicals (Yang and Yu 2013). This chapter
aims at introducing the concept of biorefineries, the necessity of moving towards
biorefineries, their opportunities and challenges, and potential feedstocks which can
be used within the biorefinery concept. Moreover, the benefits of coupling biogas
production with biorefineries are discussed and the problems and challenges are
evaluated.
11.2 Biorefinery: Definitions and Perspectives
The increased awareness on the need to use biomass resources as well as the
growing interest in upgrading more low-quality lignocel-lulosic biomass to valuable
products along with the increased attention to the production of starch for energy
applications led to the establishment of the term “biorefinery” in the 1990s
(Berntsson et al. 2012; Kamm et al. 2006). Among the first definitions presented for
the term “biorefinery”, the term “Green biorefinery” was presented in 1997 in which
biorefinery was referred to as technologies (Soyez et al. 1997). The definition
offered was as follows, “Green biorefineries represent complex (to fully integrated)
systems of sustainable, environmentally, and resource-friendly technologies for the
comprehensive (holistic) material and energetic utilization as well as exploitation of
biological raw materials in the form of green and residue biomass from a targeted
sustainable regional land utilization” (Soyez et al. 1997).
The US Department of Energy considered biorefineries as an overall concept of
a processing plant where a spectrum of valuable products are produced out of
biomass feedstocks (Energy 1997). The American National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) referred to biorefinery as a “facility” that integrates biomass
conversion processes and equipment with the aim of providing fuels, power, and
chemicals from biomass (NREL 2005). In this definition, the biorefineries are
regarded as facilities developed to fulfil today’s petroleum refineries’ functions.
Among the distinctive definitions frequently observed in the literature for the
term “biorefinery” (Berntsson et al. 2012; Demirbas and Demirbas 2010;
Mansoornejad et al. 2010), the most comprehensive one was offered by the IEA
Bioenergy Task 42: ‘‘Biorefining is the sustainable processing of biomass into a
spectrum of marketable products and energy” (Cherubini 2010; Cherubini et al.
2007). This can be considered as the most exhaustive definition because it simul-
taneously aggregates the sustainability issues, the types of feedstocks, broad
spectrum of obtained products, and economic considerations.
The economic aspects of biorefineries are important because it is often difficult
to get positive economy balance, as the production cost of biomass-based fuels is
often high. Therefore, integrating biomaterial and biochemical production (i.e.,
higher-value products) with generation of biofuels (i.e., higher-volume products)
can potentially result in increased overall profitability. Although, in petroleum
refineries, a wide range of processes can be employed, e.g., fluid catalytic cracking,
11 Biorefineries: Focusing on a Closed Cycle Approach with Biogas … 279
thermal cracking, hydrocracking, etc., to produce a large number of valuable

products out of crude oil, only few petroleum refineries employ all available con-
version platforms. Due to the fact that biorefineries are aimed at competing with
today’s petroleum refineries, it is important to reduce the production costs, and
therefore, they should only use the most cost effective conversion technologies to
increase the overall profitability.
Biorefineries are imposing significant environmental impacts since they can
simultaneously reduce our dependence on fossil resources and alleviate the envi-
ronmental pollutions caused by the high consumption of fossil-based fuels.
Generally speaking, biorefineries can be considered as multiple production of
biofuel and biomaterials from various biomass feedstocks with the objectives of
decreased non-renewable energy resources utilization, minimized related environ-
mental impacts, and maximized efficient use of biomass. These objectives can be
met if the following ecological perspectives are taken into consideration (Cherubini
2010; Gravitis and Suzuki 1999):
• Carbon, water and nitrogen cycles of agricultural and forestry plants.
• Technical and economic evaluations of existing and pilot biorefineries.
• Environmental impact evaluations through the whole life cycle of bio-products.
11.3 Types of Biorefineries and Their Classifications
The first serious attempts made at large-scale utilization of biomass-based resources

were made in the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries when the pro-
duction of bio-based products like pulp, paper, guncotton and viscose silk, soluble
cellulose, and furfural was reported (Kamm et al. 2006). The technological and
scientific progress achieved during recent decades resulted in a wide range of
biomass-based fuel and materials in the context of biorefineries. Due to a variety of
distinctive technologies and platforms used in biorefining of biomass feedstocks,
along with a broad spectrum of products and different feedstocks employed, several
schemes have been proposed in the literature (Chambost and Stuart 2007; Huber
2008; van Ree and Annevelink 2007) to classify biorefineries and to make a sys-
tematic arrangement among them (Fig. 11.1).
In one of these systematic arrangements, the biorefineries are classified as
generation-I, generation-II, and generation-III on the basis of the technologies
employed. “Dry milling ethanol plant”, as an example of the first generation, can be
mentioned whose outputs are ethanol, feed co-products, and carbon dioxide. The
second generation category has strived to overcome the intronsic inflexibility of the
first generation using wet milling technology to produce a variety of end products
including starch, high-fructose corn syrup, ethanol, corn oil, plus corn gluten feed,
and meal. The final product of the generation-II biorefineries depends upon
demands, market prices, contract obligations, and management considerations. The
first and the second generations typically use grains as feedstock. The third
Biosyngas-based B.
Lignocellulosic B.
Green
Biorefinery
classification
Forest-based B.
Fig. 11.1 Attempts made to classify biorefineries as observed in the published literature and the
different terms introduced
generation biorefineries are the most advanced aimed at using agricultural or forest
lignocellulosic biomass to produce multiple product streams, for example ethanol,
chemicals, and plastics (Kamm et al. 2006).
However, many more classifications of biorefineries have been defined in the
literature, such as the “lignocellulosic feedstock biorefinery”, “whole crop biore-
finery”, “green biorefineries”, and “biorefinery two platforms concept” (Kamm and
Kamm 2004a, b; Werpy and Petersen 2004). Moreover, Demirbas and Demirbas
(2010) added some new terms to this type of classification such as “oilseed
biorefinery” and “forest biorefinery”. “Lignocellulosic biorefineries” employ
nature-dry biomass such as cellulose-containing biomass and wastes (Table 11.1)
while in “green biorefineries”, nature-wet raw materials including green grass,
alfalfa, clover, or immature cereal are utilized.
The green biorefineries include two main pathways following a wet fractionation
step. The outputs of these two steps are fiber-rich press cake and nutrient-rich green
juice. The former contains cellulose, starch, dyes and pigments, crude drugs, and
other chemicals; and can be used to produce biogas or syngas. The nutrient-rich
green juice undergoes a fermentation process leading to the production of biogas,
amino and organic acids, proteins, enzymes, etc. In the “whole crop biorefinery”,
the feedstock including wheat, rye, triticale, etc., undergo biorefining process and
Table 11.1 Potential products of a lignocellulosic feedstock biorefinery (adapted from Kamm
et al. (2006))
Lignocellulose
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
Glucose Xylose
5- Furfural
Hydroxymethyl
Sulphur-free Solid fuel
Sub-bituminous coal
Fermentation products
furfural
Natural Binder
Plant gum
Chemicals and polymers
Cellulose applications
Xylite
Chemical products
Furan resins
Lubricants
Softener
Nylon
both seeds and straw is employed to produce a wide range of products. Straw can be
treated under a decomposition stage and converted into principle components, i.e.,
lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. Instead of the decomposition process, gasifi-
cation can be employed to produce syngas. In contrast, seeds can be either used in
the grinding phase whose outputs can be binder, adhesive, and cement, or processed
in the starch producing step. The extracted starch under chemical or biotechno-
logical conversion as well as extrusion processes can generate valuable final
products such as methanol, acetate starch, bioplastic, co- and mix-polymerisate.
“Two platforms concept” consists of the sugar platform and the syngas platform.
However, NREL has suggested four different platforms i.e., sugar, thermochemical,
biogas carbon-rich chains, and plant products platforms.
The conversion route is another criterion by which the biorefineries can be
classified into five groups as follows (Demirbas and Demirbas 2010):
• Biosyngas-based
• Pyrolysis-based
• Hydrothermal-upgrading-based
• Fermentation-based
• Oil-plant-based
Efforts have been made to adapt a systematic approach for biorefinery classifi-
cation, since the aforementioned classifications are broad, arbitrary and generic, and
in some cases, heterogeneous. Moreover, currently used classifications can be
combined by linking different technologies. Cherubini et al. (2009) chose five
criteria, i.e., platforms, products, feedstocks, and processes to form five groups,
each one consisting of some sub-categories (Fig. 11.2). Accordingly, they
Energy products Material products Thermochemical

C5 sugars Combustion
Biodiesel Food
Bioethanol Fertilizer Gasification
Biomethane Glycerin Hydrothermal upgrading
C6 sugars Pyrolysis
Supercritical
Oils Biochemical
Products Fermentation
Anaerobic digestion
Biogas Aerobic conversion
Enzymatic processes
Syngas Chemical processes

Platforms Biorefineries Processes Catalytic processes
Pulping
Esterification
Hydrogen Hydrogenation
Hydrolysis
Methanisation
Organic juice Feedstock Steam reforming
Water electrolysis
Water gas shift
Pyrolytic liquid
Dedicated crops Residues Mechanical/physical
Oil crops Extraction
Lignin Lignocellulosic
Sugar crops Fiber separation
Starch crops Oil based Mechanical fractionation
Lignocellulosic crops Pressing / disruption
Organic residues
Electricity & Grasses Pretreatment
Heat Marin biomass Others Separation
Fig. 11.2 Features and subgroups involved in proposed classification approach based on
(Cherubini et al. 2009)
suggested that the biorefineries be classified by listing the main features of the
biorefinery system, drawing a scheme of the features identified, and labeling the
system by quoting the involved number of platforms, products, feedstocks, along
with the processes.
11.4 Barriers and Obstacles to Biorefineries
As discussed earlier, biorefineries are aiming at producing bulk chemicals, bio-

materials, and bio-energies from biomass feedstock for overall improving the
economy of biomass use. In order to implement a commercial biorefinery, all
technical and non-technical barriers should be overcome. Since the products of
biorefineries are derived from biomass, the production cost can be mentioned as the
most important barriers followed by the transportation cost of biomass-based
feedstock. It is worth quoting that, biomass as the feedstock for biorefineries
experiences seasonal changes. These seasonal diversities can lead to the need for
storage facilities causing storage cost to be added to the total production cost. One
important aspect of upscaling biorefineries is the infrastructure required for col-
lection and storage of a large amount of biomass. Such an integrated feedstock
supply system need to be constructed at a sustainable fashion and at a reasonable
cost (Demirbas and Demirbas 2010). It is worth mentioning that by combining
different technologies, based on the pathways shown in Fig. 11.3, for simultaneous
Lignin
Feedstock products
handling
Pretreatment
Gasification /
Pyrolysis Sugar
Enzymatic intermediate
hydrolysis of
Hydrogen products
cellulose
Gas Sugar
Crude oil
refinery
conditioning intermediate
and separation
Multi sugar
fermentation
Synthesis
Fuel products
Ethanol Fermentation
recovery for bioproducts
Steam & power
generation Lignin
residue
Electricity co-product Fuel Ethanol Bioproducts
Fig. 11.3 Block diagram of an integrated biorefinery to use different platforms and produce
different products (Fernando et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2004)
production of bioenergies and biomaterials, the overall production cost can be

reduced and more flexibility in product generation can be offered.
The composition of biomass, undergoing a biorefining process, varies enor-
mously. This can be regarded as a benefit for biorefineries because it enables them
to produce a more diverse spectrum of products, even more than those generated by
petroleum refineries. However, this compositional variation in biomass feedstock
can also result in some disadvantages which need to be overcome. The economic
and sustainable processing of raw materials in such a biorefinery requires advanced
and sophisticated technologies most of which are still at a pre-commercial stage
(Dale and Kim 2006).
Another major non-technical barrier which should be discussed herein is the use of
land for production of biorefineries’ feedstock. The competition between food pro-
duction sector vs. raw materials supply for biorefineries over land and even other
limited resources such as water can be taken into account as a serious limitation
towards developing future biorefineries. This point of view has led to a serious
discussion in scientific communities. While some believe that use of biomass as a
feedstock for biorefineries can create jobs and boost economic growth (Negash and
Swinnen 2013), others insist that it might reduce food availability and increase its
price, thereby posing a real threat to food security, especially in the developing
countries (Janssen and Rutz 2011). On the other hand, both direct and indirect land
use change (LUC) effects cannot be ignored when imposing restrictions on the use of
land. LUC effects refer to change in soil carbon pools caused by human activities
which have huge impacts on the global carbon cycle and can potentially bring about
climate change effects. Moreover, the indirect land use change (ILUC) cannot be
disregarded in this context because it is responsible for global warming effects. When
a piece of land, used for agricultural purposes such as growing food or feed, is now
dedicated to biorefinery purposes, another non-cropland—such as grasslands and
forests—somewhere else should be devoted to agricultural purposes. This transfor-
mation is known as ILUC effects and can neutralize the greenhouse gas savings
resulted from replacing fossil-based fuels with the biofuels generated in biorefineries.
Deforestation, defined as “conversion of forest land to non-forest land” (DeFries
et al. 2007) has been identified as a serious problem originating from emerging
future biorefineries. This is in parallel with LUC effects because deforestation
decreases the carbon sequestration. For example, it has been well-documented that
the production of soybean-based biodiesel in Brazil and Argentina has contributed
to deforestation (Janssen and Rutz 2011). This is due to the fact that the increasing
demands for soybean has brought about the conversion of forest land to soybean
farms (Nepstad et al. 2006). In spite of these on-going debates and concerns, some
reports have shown that simultaneous production of biomass-based products and
forest protection are possible depending on policies adopted (Demirbas 2009;
Ravindranath et al. 2011).
Generally, it can be concluded that although biorefineries can take advantage of
several benefits including energy security, climate change benefits, sustainable
management of wastes, coproduction of valuable biochemicals, and rural economic
development (Brar et al. 2016), there are still drawbacks and challenges which need
to be effectively dealt with. Some of these challenges are summarized in Fig. 11.4.
Production costs and Land use change

Biomass effects and
seasonal availability
transportation costs deforestation
of energy crops
Potential Challenges
Food security of Diversity in
Biorefineries feedstock types
Required extensive High energy and

Financing a new
research and water demands in
technology/process
development some processes
Fig. 11.4 Potential Challenges of the Biorefinery Concept (Brar et al. 2016)
11.5 Feedstock
Petrochemical industry has been playing a pivotal role in the livelihood of mankind
by fulfilling needs for energy, material, and chemicals. In order to replace
fossil-based refineries by biomass-based refineries, our today’s requirements for
energy and non-energy products should be completely met by future biorefineries.
There is a huge potential to supply both bioenergy and biochemicals from
biomass-based feedstock. Taking a look at outputs of today’s refineries. i.e., textile
goods, housing products, transportation products, etc. reveals that most of the
products from the petrochemical industry are derived from 8 to 9 foundation
chemicals (Werpy et al. 2004). Accordingly, the US Department of Energy
(DOE) endeavored to identify twelve building block chemicals that can be pro-
duced from sugars via biological or chemical conversions (Fig. 11.5). Building
block chemicals are molecules with multiple functional groups which can be
transformed into new families of useful molecules (Werpy et al. 2004). This term is
generally used to describe a virtual molecular fragment or a real chemical com-
pound whose molecules possess reactive functional groups (Szmant 1989). They
are employed to show how molecules can be assembled in a bottom-up modular
order, i.e., nano-particle, metal-organic frameworks, organic molecular constructs,
and supra-molecular complexes, ensuring the final compound or a (supra) molec-
ular construct will be generated (Tu and Tirrell 2004). Thirty potential candidates
out of 300 initially evaluated were introduced and by an iterative process based on
the petrochemical model using building blocks, chemical data, known market data,
properties, performance of the potential candidates, and the prior industry
1,4 succinic, fumaric 2,5 furan

Aspartic acid
and malic acids dicarboxylic acid
Glucaric acid Sorbitol
Glutamic acid Selected building Xylitol/arabinitol

block chemicals
Itaconic acid Glycerol
3 hydroxy propionic 3-
Levulinic acid
acid hydroxybutyrolacton
Fig. 11.5 Twelve sugar based building block chemicals (Werpy et al. 2004)
experiences, the top twelve final candidates were chosen. According to the DOE,
our requirements for different chemical products can be met by these building block
chemicals. Moreover, the final candidates are more appropriate than the other
competitors in terms of feedstock costs, estimated processing cost, current market
volumes, and prices. These features make the selected building block chemicals
capable of competing directly against fossil-based chemicals, as well benefiting
from chemical functionality, and improved properties (Werpy et al. 2004).
Conversion pathways, derivatives, and potential applications of some most
important building block chemicals identified in the literature are tabulated in
Table 11.2.
While these building block chemicals can be extracted from various feedstock,
attempts have been made to identify easily fermentable substrates to decrease the
process costs and increase the total profitability. In parallel with decreasing the
process cost, increasing the production level has also been a focus in research.
Some researchers have come to the conclusion that productivity and increases in
yield can be achieved by using engineered microorganisms, minimizing the pro-
duction of undesired by-products, and the use of neutralizing agents (Engel et al.
2008; Jiang et al. 2009; Pachapur et al. 2016; Ye et al. 2013). Moreover, improving
the product recovery step and increasing product purity can also help to achieve
higher product quality and thereby, better prices along with reduction of process
costs (Dan et al. 2010; Misra et al. 2011; Pachapur et al. 2016).
As elaborated earlier, there is a huge potential to fulfil our future requirements
for chemicals and energy through biorefineries. A great deal of feedstock has been
already examined and their advantageous and drawbacks have been discussed.
Forest-based feedstock for biorefinery purposes seem to be appropriate feedstock as
they cover about 32% of the land area but account for 89.3% of the total standing
biomass (Brar et al. 2016). Forest-based biomass is composed of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, and lignin of which cellulose and hemicellulose can be converted to
sucrose, xylose, glucose, galactose, and arabinose. These intermediate products can
be converted to a range of platform chemicals through fermentation pathway
including propanediol, ethanol, lactic acid, ethylene, succinic acid, glycerol, pro-
pane, etc. It is worth mentioning that the commercial production of some of these
platform chemicals seems nonviable at the current state (Danner and Braun 1999).
For example, 1 ton of fermented hexose (glucose or fructose) using the well-studied
organism, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, according to the stoichiometric product yield,
can result in the production of 511 kg ethanol. While, 8 ton of sugarcane biomass is
needed to achieve 1 ton of hexose (Brar et al. 2016).
Animal fat and vegetable oils can also be added to the list of biorefinery feed-
stock because a number of platform chemicals including glycerol, succinic acid,
propionic acid, butanol, and ethanol can be obtained from such feedstock. While
animal fat and vegetable oils have long been evaluated for biodiesel production
purposes, the use of the resulted by-products i.e., platform chemicals with adhe-
sives, paints, lubricants, food additives, and biopolymers applications, can lead to a
biorefinery approach. It is worth quoting that the simultaneous production of bio-
diesel and platform chemicals from animal fat and vegetable oils should be
Table 11.2 Conversion pathways, derivatives, and potential applications of some most important building block chemicals
11
Building blocks Pathways Derivatives/derivatives family Potential application of derivatives

Four Carbon Fermentation THF, BDO, GBL family Solvents, fibers such as lycra
1,4-Diacidsa Chemical process Pyrrolidinone Family Green solvents, water soluble polymers
Straight chain polymers (water treatment)
Branched polymers Fibers (lycra, others)
TBD
2,5-Furan dicarboxylic Enzymatic conversions Diols and Aminations Polyesters and nylons
acida Levulinic and Succinic Acids All uses of succinic
Polyethylene terephthalate analogs and levulinic
Furanoic Polyamines Furanoic polyesters for
bottles, containers, films
Polyamide market for use in new nylons
3-Hydroxypropionic Fermentation 1, 3 propane diol Sorona fiber
acida Acrylate family Contact lenses, diapers
Aspartic acida Chemical process Amine butanediol, amine tetrahydrofuran, amine Amino analogs of C4 1,4 dicarboxylic acids
Fermentation Aspartic anhydride
Enzymatic conversions Polyaspartic
Glucaric acida Chemical process Lactones Solvents
Catalytic oxidation Polyglucaric esters and amides Nylons or different properties
Glutamic acida Chemical process Diols (1,5-propanediol) Monomers for polyesters and polyamides
Fermentation Diacids (1,5-propanediacid)
Aminodiol (5-amino, 1-butanol)
Biorefineries: Focusing on a Closed Cycle Approach with Biogas …
Itaconic acida Chemical process Methyl butanediol, butyrolactone, tetrahydrofuran May confer new useful properties for the BDO,
Fermentation family GBL, and THF family of polymers
Aerobic fungal Pyrrolidinones New polymer opportunity
fermentation Polyitaconic
Levulinic acida Chemical process Methyl tetrahydrofuran Fuel oxygenates, solvents
c- butyrolactone Copolymerization with other monomers for
Acetyl acrylates property enhancement
Acetic-acrylic succinic acids Replacement for bisphenol A used in polycarbonate
287
Diphenolic acid synthesis

(continued)
288
Building blocks Pathways Derivatives/derivatives family Potential application of derivatives

a
3-Hydroxybutyrolactone Chemical process Furans. Analogs of pyrrolidones Solvents
Amino analogs to tetrahydrofuran Amino analogs to lycra fibers
Glycerola Chemical process PLA Analogs PLA with better polymeric properties
Enzymatic conversions Glyceric Acid Polyester fibers with new properties
Propylene glycol Antifreeze, humectant, etc.
1,3-propanediol Sorona fiber
Branched polyesters and polyols Unsaturated Polyurethane
Resins for use in insulation
Sorbitola Chemical process Isosorbide, anhydrosugars PET
Propylene glycol, lactic acid Antifreeze, PLA
Branched polysaccharides Water soluble polymers
Xylitol/arabinitola Chemical process Xylaric and Xylonic acids Antifreeze
Fermentation Arabonic acid and Arabinoic acid Unsaturated polyester resins
Enzymatic Xylaric and Xylonic acids New polymer opportunities
transformation Arabonic acid and Arabinoic acid
Butanolb Fermentation 2-Methyl-2-butanol, 2-butanol As alternative fuel
Butyric acidc Fermentation R)-3-(Boc-amino)-4-(4-bromophenyl)butyric acid Cosmetics
Pharmaceuticals,
As a “natural preservative” in the food industry
Lactic acidd Fermentation Lactate ester Hygroscopic and emulsifying properties, solvents
Polylactic acid (PLA) Biodegradable plastic
Acrylic acid Acrylate polymers, biochemical intermediate
1,2-Propanediol Commodity chemical
Pyruvic acid
a
Werpy et al. (2004) bCooksley et al. (2012) cZhang et al. (2009) dGao et al. (2012)
B. Khoshnevisan and I. Angelidaki
carefully suggested due to the fact that biotechnological progress has led to the
direct production of these platform chemicals with decreased investment costs and
increased total yield.
Microalgae are also considered as another potential feedstock for future biore-
fineries. From one hand, a vast number of researchers have shown that microalgae
species have technical potential to produce lipid or carbohydrate biofuel precursors
taking into account greenhouse gas and land use sustainability metrics, rapid bio-
mass production rates, and high solar conversion efficiencies (Lardon et al. 2009;
Melis 2009; Reijnders 2008; Stephenson et al. 2010). On the other hand, the
economic analysis of algal biofuel production has proven that there is still a long
way before achieving economic algal biofuel production, capable of competing
with petroleum-based fuels (Brar et al. 2016; Sheehan et al. 1998; Williams and
Laurens 2010). Nevertheless, the biorefinery approach has been suggested as a
practical solution to achieve commercially relevant rates of return because it can
result in simultaneous production of algal biofuels and value-added products.
Pigments, vitamins, phytosterols, polysaccharides, organic acids, lipids, and mis-
cellaneous algal compounds are high-value platform chemical which can be
extracted from algae.
Chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins are among the large number of
pigments which can be extracted from algae. They are also rich in vitamin. It has
been well-documented that different combinations and concentrations of vitamin
B12 (cobalamin), vitamin B1 (thiamine), and vitamin B7 (biotin) can be found in
algae (Brar et al. 2016; Croft et al. 2006; Provasoli and Carlucci, 1974). Moreover,
there are several metabolic pathways in distinctive algae species resulting in syn-
thesizing other vitamins, including vitamins A, C, and E (Hirschberg 1999).
Phytosterols known as steroid alcohols are valuable platform chemicals owing to
their medical applications, i.e., potential for lowering total and LDL cholesterol.
They are also employed as therapeutic agents to treat hypercholesterolemia
(Francavilla et al. 2010; Ostlund et al. 2003; St-Onge et al. 2003). Polysaccharides
have been reported as a possible platform for the production of biofuels while they
also have high values in the marketplace in terms of their applications in the food
industry (Brar et al. 2016; Wargacki et al. 2012). Production of succinic and malic
acids, two organic acids listed among the top 15 building block chemicals, from
algae is anticipated to increase progressively in the near future in response to an
additional market size of 25 106 ton per year for succinic acid-derived polymers
(Bozell and Petersen 2010). Algal lipids have high values in the marketplace and
they can be employed for biofuel production, nutritional supplements, and phar-
maceutical applications. Microalgae are capable of bio-synthesizing lipids by
diverting their central metabolic pathways when they are under certain stress
conditions (Brar et al. 2016).
The utilization of agro-industrial waste for energy and biochemical production
has gained lots of interests and the conducted studies have shown a great potential
to revolutionize the chemical industry (Chandra et al. 2012; Octave and Thomas
2009). Agro-industrial wastes are important feedstock within the biorefinery con-
cept since they are produced in huge amounts and a wide spectrum of valuable
platform chemicals can be produced from them. The use of waste as biorefinery
feedstock can decrease the total production cost and increase the total profitability.
However, the challenges, i.e., non-uniformity, social perspectives, technology
issues, collection, storage, and segregation, regarding the use of agro-industrial
waste in biorefineries cannot be ignored. Currently a considerable deal of efforts has
been concentrated on the production of bioethanol, as well as cogeneration of
biofuels and adsorbents.
11.6 Biogas Production and Biorefinery Approach
Energy recovery and more specifically biogas production under anaerobic condi-
tions plays a key role in developing future biorefineries because they contribute to a
more sustainable performance of the whole system under consideration. Energy
recovery in the form of biogas is a way to close the cycle and use the residual
organic matters which have not been recovered. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a
versatile process, by which different types of organic matters are converted into
biogas. On the contrary, many other bioconversion processes have a much narrower
substrate preference, leaving unutilized a large portion of the organic matters.
Therefore, biogas can be seen not only as an effluent purification process, but also
energy producing path. Most of the biorefinery concepts have AD as a part of the
proposed processes. In better words, integrating AD into some current technologies
has been proposed as a practical solution which can simultaneously increase the
total profitability and overcome some challenges involved. For example, biogas
production from pre-hydrolysate under a biorefinery approach has been proposed to
maximize the profitability resulted from the conversion of available sugars in
woods (Safari et al. 2017). Softwood pine for example, due to its lignocellulosic
structure, requires a pretreatment step prior to enzymatic or biological conversion.
After completion of the pretreatment, the solid fraction is filtrated from the
pre-hydrolysate, i.e., the liquid fraction, and undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis for
ethanol fermentation (FazeliNejad et al. 2016; Khoshnevisan et al. 2016; Shafiei
et al. 2015). To make this process economically viable, separate hydrolysis and
co-fermentation (SHCF) or simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation
(SSCF) have long been used to convert pre-hydrolysate to ethanol (Dien et al. 2003;
McMillan et al. 1999). The proposed methods bring about some new challenges
including low ethanol yield, differences in the optimal fermentation conditions of
the involved strains, etc. Accordingly, the integration of ethanol and biogas pro-
duction from softwood has been evaluated and reported as a practical solution to
overcome the aforementioned problems (Safari et al. 2017).
On the other hand, the economic profitability when using biomass in a biore-
finery approach can be improved compared with using it for biogas production
alone. As an example, Santamaría-Fernández et al. (2017) reported that the com-
bination of protein refining and biogas production could be more economically
favorable compared with sole biogas production from green biomass crops.
It should be noted that biogas production has been introduced as an economic

solution for many industries because it can easily contribute to decreasing the costs
associated with energy consumption and wastewater treatment (McKendry 2002;
Schmidt et al. 2013; Wilkie et al. 2000). Nevertheless, recent studies have argued
that the most interesting and impactful contribution of biogas solutions are their
potential for product valorization and material upcycling (Batista et al. 2017;
Begum et al. 2016; Hagman et al. 2017).
11.6.1 Microalgal as Biogas Feedstock
Microalgal feedstock has been widely considered for biofuel and biochemical
production, there are several challenges to overcome though. The high accumula-
tion of lipids in microalgae makes them attractive feedstock for biodiesel produc-
tion. Moreover, different kinds of metabolites including pigments, fatty acids,
proteins, and nutritional supplements for human consumption can be obtained from
microalgae (Ramos-Suárez et al. 2014; Spolaore et al. 2006). Coupling of AD to the
extraction of such metabolites from microalgae has also been examined as a
potential way to improve the economics of the process. It has been shown that
metabolites extraction could function as a pretreatment method for increasing the
biodegradability of microalgal cells (González-Fernández et al. 2011; Mussgnug
et al. 2010). Moreover, it can simultaneously decrease the C/N ratio and thereby,
alleviate potential inhibition of methanogenesis due to increased ammonia levels
(Zhong et al. 2012). The biogas potential from microalgae has been reported in
several publications pioneering by Golueke and Oswald (1959). Table 11.3 tabu-
lates a summary of biogas potential from different microalgae species.
Several challenges have been discussed by researchers as major factors affecting
biogas production from microalgae including high capital cost, low algae produc-
tivity, slow conversion rate, and high sensitivity of AD process (Roy and Das
2015). Low concentration of biomass has been identified as one of the limiting
factors because solid biomass content of most uncontrolled outdoor microalgae
cultures is less than 1 g L−1 (Golueke and Oswald 1959; Stephens et al. 2010).
Concentrating and dewatering of microalgae cultures have been suggested as
practical solutions to the aforementioned problem, they are expensive and
time-consuming procedures though (Harun et al. 2010; Pragya et al. 2013; Stephens
et al. 2013; Ward et al. 2014). Integrating AD process into microalgae production
can potentially offset the energy requirements with respect to the resultant methane
production (Sialve et al. 2009).
The rigid cell wall structure is another problematic issue because it hinders
accessibility of the AD microorganisms to the algal biomass. The increased process
cost makes pretreatment methods as inappropriate approach to break down the
rigid cell wall structure. Ramos-Suárez et al. (2014) integrated AD with amino acid
extraction and reported improved economics of the process. Another dilemma in
AD of microalgae is ammonia inhibition. The significant protein and lipid
Table 11.3 Methane biogas production through anaerobic digestion of different species of
microalgae biomass
Microalgae species C/N Methane yield Loading rate
ratio
Tetraselmis N/A 252 L kg−1 VS 5400 mg VS-1 L-1
Scenedesmus 7.3 291.5-409.3 L 3.85 g VS-1 L-1
kg−1 VS
Chlorella vulgaris N/A 403 L kg−1 VS 2 g VS-1 L-1
Microspora N/A 413 L kg−1 VSalgae N/A
Chlamydomonas N/A 310 L kg−1 VSalgae N/A
Acutodesmus N/A 223 L kg−1 VSalgae N/A
Nannochloropsis oculata N/A 204 L kg−1 VS N/A
Lake Chaohu natural population N/A 295 L kg−1 VS N/A
consortium
Nannochloropsis salina (lipid extracted 4.4 130 L kg−1 VS 2000 mg VS-1 L-1
biomass)
Arthrospira maxima 4.3– 173 L kg−1 VS 500 mg TS-1 L-1
5.33
Phaeodactylum tricornutum N/A 350 L kg−1 COD 1.3 ± 0.4–
5.8 ± 0.9
Scenedesmus obliquus N/A 240 L kg−1 VS 2000 mg VS-1 L-1
Scenedesmus sp. N/A 170 L kg−1 COD 1000 mg COD-1 L-1
Scenedesmus sp. (single stage) N/A 290 L kg−1 VS 18,000 mg VS-1 L-1
Scenedesmus sp. (two stage) N/A 354 L kg−1 VS 18,000 mg VS-1 L-1
Scenedesmus obliquus N/A 287 L kg−1 VS 2000 mg TS-1 L-1
Microcystis sp. N/A 0.070–0.153 L 1500–6000 mg
VS-1
Nanochloropsis oculata N/A 390 L kg−1 VS N/A
concentrations of microalgae lead to the formation of ammonia when these com-

pounds are broken down during the hydrolysis stage. The extraction of protein and
lipid for further use in biochemical industries, or lipid extraction for biofuel pro-
duction purposes can decrease the possibility of ammonia inhibition in the sub-
sequent AD process (Spolaore et al. 2006). Protein and lipid extraction followed by
AD can also help to achieve increased C/N ratios when considering microalgae for
biogas production. Last but not least among the challenges discussed herein is the
high nutrient requirement of microalgae for their mass production (Collet et al.
2011). This requirement, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorous, has been met
by employing huge amounts of chemical fertilizers causing a serious competition
with the agricultural sector (Fenton 2012; Stephenson et al. 2010; Ward et al.
2014).
11.6.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Biogas Production
Lignocellulosic biomass also holds a huge potential for being used as feedstock for
biogas production due to their abundance, availability, and their high carbohydrate
content. Although lignocellulosic materials generally cover two groups of feed-
stock, i.e., energy crops and lignocellulosic residues, this section only deals with the
second generation biomass, i.e., wastes and agricultural residues such as straw and
woody biomass. As presented in Table 11.4, energy crops also have a significant
potential for biogas production but due to their competition with conventional crops
production over water resources and land use, their application as feedstock for AD
will not be discussed herein.
Lignocellulosic materials can be divided into four different groups, i.e., agri-
cultural residues (straw), fruit and vegetable waste, woody residues, and paper
waste. Although being appropriate for AD, the major disadvantage of lignocellu-
losic residuals is their high amount of lignin content, which can be regarded as a
serious obstacle for AD process. In general, those lignocellulosic residues, con-
taining a higher amount of volatile solids and a lower amount of refractory volatile
solids, are more preferable for AD process (Monnet 2003).
Table 11.4 Methane yield of Crop Methane yield

various energy crops
(Deublein and Steinhauser Maize (whole crop) 205–405 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
2011; Kabir et al. 2015) Potatoes 276–400 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Wheat (grain) 384–426 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Oats (grain) 283–492 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Triticale 337–555 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Sorghum 295–372 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Barley 353–658 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Red clover 300–350 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Alfalfa 340–500 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Sunflower 154–400 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Oilseed rape 240–340 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Peas 390 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Ryegrass 390–410 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Fodder beet 420–500 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Nettle 120–420 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Hemp 355–409 (m3 CH4 kg−1 VS)
Grass ensilage 0.6–0.7 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Leaves of sugar beet 0.4–0.8 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Sugar beet 0.4–1.0 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Clover 0.6–0.8 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Diverse kinds of cereals 0.4–0.9 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Barley ensilage 0.75–0.99 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
Rye ensilage 0.57–0.79 (m3 CH4 kg−1 DM)
11.6.3 Wood Residues
It has been well established that biogas production from woody residues is not
economically feasible due to factors affecting the efficiency of the AD process
including low moisture content, high lignin content, cellulose crystallinity, and
degree of association between lignin and carbohydrates (Kabir et al. 2015). Recent
research studies have shown that coupling biomaterial with biomethane production
form woody residues would result in better economic and environmental benefits
(Khoshnevisan et al. 2016; Safari et al. 2017; Shafiei et al. 2011). Biogas pro-
duction from woody residues necessitates a pretreatment step. A large number of
pretreatment steps such as alkaline pretreatment, N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide,
untreated, steam explosion, and fungal treatment have been identified and evalu-
ated. Based on the substrate employed and the pretreatment method conducted,
different methane production rates have been reported (Mirahmadi et al. 2010; Take
et al. 2006; Teghammar et al. 2010).
11.6.4 Agricultural Residues
Agricultural residues are among lignocellulosic materials with significant potential

for biogas and biomaterial production. The straw-based lignocellulosic residues of
agricultural origin can undergo AD and produce huge amounts of biogas. As
elaborated earlier, gas production rates reported in the literature varies depending on
the kinds of cereals used in AD system. The main obstacle using straw-based
lignocellulosic residues for biogas production is the pretreatment step (Rahimi et al.
2018; Khoshnevisan et al. 2017). However, extracting building block chemicals
from straw-based lignocellulosic materials can compensate for the pretreatment
step. Although a large number of studies have been conducted to evaluate different
pretreatment methods, it is difficult to conclude which pretreatment method works
best and produces the highest level of gas. This is due to the fact that most studies
failed to address economic and environmental perspectives. Table 11.5 tabulates
methane potential of various kinds of straw under different pretreatment methods.
11.6.5 Paper Wastes
Paper waste, a lignocellulosic material, has also been a focus for AD. Biological
methane potential of paper waste hugely depends on the type of the paper, i.e., pulp
and paper sludge, paper tube residues, etc. Moreover, the pretreatment method
applied and the inoculum used could influence the specific methane yield. It has
been well-established that the specific methane yield of untreated paper ranges
between 100 and 200 L kg−1 VS (Wellinger et al. 2013). Pretreatment can sig-
nificantly improve AD of paper waste leading to higher specific methane
Table 11.5 Methane potential of different kinds of straw (Odhner et al. 2012; Wellinger et al. 2013)
11
Type of Pretreatment Digestion AD Organic loading Specific methane AD

straw type temperature yield time
(°C)
Wheat Untreated Mesophilic 189 L kg−1 VS
1
Milled Mesophilic 37.5 SI ratio 1:3 275 L kg−1 VS
Steam explosion Mesophilic 37.5 SI1 ratio 1:3 331 L kg−1 VS
Physical pretreatment Mesophilic 37 89 g VS + 2 L water + 2 L 162 L kg−1 VS 60
30 50 mm slurry
Physical pretreatment Mesophilic 37 89 g VS + 2 L water + 2 L 249 L kg−1 VS 60
0.088 mm slurry
Rice Untreated Mesophilic 35 400 ml swage + 1 g straw 54 L kg−1 straw 30
Untreated Psychrophilic 22 12.6 g VS L−1 240 L kg−1 VS 120
Untreated Thermophilic 55 40 ml Inoc. + 0.2 substrate 30 NL kg−1 VS 45
Untreated Mesophilic 35 50 g solid L−1 190 L kg−1 VS 24
Acetic + propionic acids (1:1); solid acid Mesophilic 35 400 ml swage + 1 g straw 213.5 L kg−1 30
ratio (1:20) straw
Phosphate supplementation 155 mg-P Psychrophilic 22 12.6 g VS L−1 250 L kg−1 VS 120
L−1
Grounded 25 mm Mesophilic 35 50 g solid L−1 200 L kg−1 VS 24
Grounded 25 mm 110 °C + NH3 Mesophilic 35 50 g solid L−1 245 L kg−1 VS 24
20 mg g−1
Biorefineries: Focusing on a Closed Cycle Approach with Biogas …
NMMO Thermophilic 55 40 ml Inoc. + 0.2 substrate 212 NL kg−1 VS 45

Physical pretreatment Mesophilic 37 79.4 g VS + 2 L water + 2 241 L kg−1 VS 60
30 50 mm L slurry
Physical pretreatment Mesophilic 37 79.4 g VS + 2 L water + 2 365 L kg−1 VS 60
0.088 mm L slurry
(continued)
295
296
Type of Pretreatment Digestion AD Organic loading Specific methane AD

straw type temperature yield time
(°C)
Corn Untreated Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 153.7 L kg−1 VS 30
NaOH 8% Wt Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 472 L kg−1 VS 30
Ammonia 5% Wt Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 243.5 L kg−1 VS 30
Urea 4% Wt Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 178 L kg−1 VS 30
Pleurotus florida Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 380 L kg−1 VS 30
Pleurotus florida Mesophilic 35 40.25 g VS L−1 404.8 L kg−1 VS 30
300 g ground straw +225 g water
121 °C for 2 h
a
Substrate Inoculum dry matter ratio
B. Khoshnevisan and I. Angelidaki
production. The untreated pulp and paper sludge under mesophilic condition
reportedly produced 190 L CH4 kg−1 VS, while in contrast, a pretreatment with
0.6% NaOH at 37 °C water bath for 6 h increased the specific methane production
by 68.5% (Lin et al. 2009). Simultaneous pretreatment with steam explosion and
sodium hydroxide has shown better results than sole sodium hydroxide when
treating paper tube residues under thermophilic conditions. The specific methane
yield resulted from pretreatment of paper tube residues with steam explosion and
2% NaOH at 220 °C was estimate at 403 L kg−1 VS. Adding 2% H2O2 to the
mentioned pretreatment method increased the specific methane yield by 22%.
Untreated paper tube residues and the one treated with 2% NaOH at 190 °C pro-
duced 222 and 269 L CH4 kg−1 VS, respectively (Teghammar et al. 2010).
11.6.6 Industrial Waste
The high potential of industrial waste for biogas production cannot be ignored.
Biofuel plants and biorefineries are among the distinctive industries where very
large amounts of organic by-products are accumulated. These organic by-products
are appropriate feedstock for the AD process. For example, the silage fractions
remain after bio-ethanol production in grain-processing bio-ethanol plants can
undergo the AD process (Cassidy et al. 2008; Drosg et al. 2008; Rosentrater et al.
2006). Moreover, it has been well established that, cane juice silage is anaerobically
degradable, and so, it is a suitable substrate for AD (Cail and Barford 1985;
Callander and Barford 1983; Russo et al. 1985). In biodiesel plants, the glycerol and
the wastewaters generated along with the oil extraction residual cake can also
undergo the AD process (Wellinger et al. 2013). Nevertheless, the limitations
regarding AD of industrial organic wastes should be neglected. More specifically,
these feedstock can potentially contain a huge amount of undesirable compounds
such as biological, physical or even chemical pollutants. Physical impurities,
pathogens, heavy metals and/or persistent organic compounds found in industrial
organic wastes can neutralize the environmental benefits of AD and pose health
risks to humans and animals. This problem is more critical when the produced
digestate is used as fertilizer (Wellinger et al. 2013).
11.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks
Providing energy and materials through biorefineries has attracted an increasing

deal of interest and this popularity is mainly attributed to the positive sustainability
impacts of biorefineries. In better words, biorefineries are meant to treat biomass
feedstock and deliver a spectrum of products with positive effects while displacing
their fossil-fuel originated counterparts. This approach makes biorefineries capable
of competing with today’s petroleum refineries. While the development of
biorefineries for supplying bioenergy and biomaterials for coming decades seems
promising and the current examples of biorefineries can be found all around the
world, there is still a long way to go before biorefineries can be considered as
comprehensive alternative to petroleum refineries.
To satisfy the future demands for bioenergy and biochemical, a substantial
amount of biomass from agriculture, forestry, and waste need to be dedicated to
biorefineries. From the sustainability point of views, the allocation of the available
biomass resources to different types of biorefineries should be judiciously managed.
Otherwise, it can possess negative ecological impacts, socio-economic conse-
quences, and other environmental burdens. Although a wide range of biomass
feedstock can undergo biorefining process, the selection of feedstock, processing
pathways and final products should be done wisely by following a systematic
approach. For instance, if the biorefineries are meant to supply future block building
chemicals, the top twelve final candidates already identified through an iterative
process based on the petrochemical model using building blocks, chemical data,
known market data, properties, performance of the potential candidates, and the
prior industry experiences, should be considered.
Multi-criteria assessment can also be employed to determine the overall sus-
tainability of biorefineries due to the fact that it can simultaneously combine the
physical, ecological, environmental, and socio-economic considerations. For
instance, when facing a dilemma between two alternatives, e.g., lignocellulosic
versus macroalgae biorefineries for producing specific types of biomaterials and
bioenergies, the question to be answered would be which feedstock could better
satisfy mass and energy balance, economic balance, employment opportunities,
environmental issues, and technical possibilities. The economic aspects of biore-
fineries are also important because it is often difficult to get positive economy
balance, as the production cost of biomass-based fuels is often high. The compe-
tition between food production sector versus raw materials supply for biorefineries
over land and even other limited resources such as water must also be taken into
account as a serious limitation in developing future biorefineries. Direct and indirect
LUC effects should also incorporated into any final decisions.
Finally, the review of already published studies well shows that the integration
of AD units with various biorefinery platforms or even currently-existing biofuel
plants holds a huge potential to produce a positive economic, as well as energy and
mass balance, with lower environmental intensity.
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Chapter 12
Waste Management Strategies: Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach
Benyamin Khoshnevisan, Shahin Rafiee and Meisam Tabatabaei
12.1 Introduction
Increasing world’s population along with vast urbanization have brought about
challenges for waste management systems in terms of waste generation, waste
collection, waste treatment/disposal, waste recycling, as well as recovering energy
from waste (Pharino 2017). It has been reported that the rate of municipal solid
waste (MSW) generation is even faster than the rate of urbanization; 0.64 kg of
MSW generation per person per day in about a few decades ago reached 1.2 kg per
person per day in the year 2012 (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012). It has been
anticipated that by the year 2025, 4.3 billion urban residents in the world will
generate about 1.42 kg MSW per person per day equaling 2.2 billion tonnes per
year (Laurent et al. 2014a). Due the fact that waste generation and management
significantly contribute to human health and environmental preservation, and also
have enormous impacts on the economy, creating regional integrated waste man-
agement strategies are inevitable.
Among distinctive definition presented for “waste”, lack of use/value, or “use-
less remains” are the simplest ones. Cheremisinoff (2003) referred to waste as
B. Khoshnevisan S. Rafiee (&)

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
e-mail: shahinrafi[email protected]
M. Tabatabaei (&)
Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran

306 B. Khoshnevisan et al.
materials resulting from inefficient production processes on the industrial side, and
low durability of goods and unsustainable consumption patterns on the consumer
side. McDougall et al. (2008) considered waste as a by-product of human activity.
Pharino (2017) defined the term “waste” as any substances or objects which the
holder discards, or intends or is required to discard. Based on the definitions pre-
sented in the literature, it can be inferred that becoming ‘waste’ depends on many
factors including time, location, state, income level, and personal preferences
(Christensen 2011). In order to be able to thoroughly develop waste management
strategies, it is necessary to appropriately distinguish different sources and types of
waste and have a good knowledge about different types of waste and their com-
position. Waste classification facilitates creating waste management strategies and
helps better achieve the most sustainable waste scenario under regional conditions.
Tables 12.1 and 12.2 summarize sources and types of solid waste as well as waste
composition linked to different sources, respectively.
A waste management system generally consists of collection, transportation,
biological (i.e., composting or anaerobic digestion) or thermal (i.e., incineration)
treatment, and disposal (i.e., landfilling). Concerns over the Earth’s finite material
and energy resources along with the generation of pollution and wastes that exceed
the ability of the planet’s natural sinks to absorb and convert them into harmless
compounds have resulted in shifting away from disposal methods to waste mini-
mizing and reuse strategies. The Waste Management Hierarchy, an internationally
recognized strategy, stresses on maximizing the upstream waste management
hierarchy towards reduce, reuse, and recycle (Fig. 12.1). However, categorizing
waste management methods as the best to the worst or from the most
environmentally-preferred to least one does not practically help with determining
the option of the lowest environmental burdens and the highest
economical-sustainability under different circumstances. In fact, different waste
management options should be considered to effectively deal with various waste
materials at a given condition (Rajaeifar et al. 2017). This necessitates developing
integrated waste management strategies capable of adapting with regional
conditions.
The design and implementation of integrated sustainable waste management is
highly challenging because it must fully covers many dimensions including
financial, technical, legal, environmental, and sociocultural perspectives (Pharino
2017). Van de Klundert et al. (2001) developed a framework consisting of four
principles; (1) Equity, (2) Effectiveness, (3) Efficiency, and (4) Sustainability
(Fig. 12.2). While the “equity”, referring to the accessibility of the system for all
citizens, can be simply evaluated in this framework, the assessment of effectiveness,
efficiency, and sustainability of the targeted integrated system could be time con-
suming and more complicated. Due to the fact that solid waste management is
known to be an important contributor to many different environmental problems,
creating an integrated management system which would be comprehensively cap-
able of addressing environmental problems and contributing to moving towards a
more environmentally sustainable society should be given priority before imple-
menting any strategies (Laurent et al. 2014b; Rajaeifar et al. 2015b).
12 Waste Management Strategies: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach 307
Table 12.1 Sources and types of waste (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012)
Source Typical waste generators Types of solid waste
Residential Single and multifamily dwellings Food waste, paper, cardboard,
plastics, textiles, leather, yard waste,
wood, glass, metals, ash, special
waste (e.g., bulky items, consumer
electronics, white goods, batteries,
oil, tires), household hazardous
waste (e.g., paint, aerosols, gas
tanks, waste containing mercury,
motor oil, cleaning agents), e-waste
(e.g., computers, phones, TVs)
Industrial Light and heavy manufacturing, Housekeeping waste, packaging,
fabrication, construction sites, power food waste, construction and
and chemical plants (excluding demolition materials, hazardous
specific process waste when the waste, ash, special waste
municipality does not oversee their
collection)
Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,
office buildings food waste, glass, metals, special
waste, hazardous waste, e-waste
Institutional Schools, hospitals (non-medical Same as commercial
waste), prisons, government
buildings, airports
Construction New construction sites, road repair, Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, bricks,
and renovation sites, demolition of tiles
demolition buildings
Municipal Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, Street sweeping, landscape and tree
services beaches, other recreational areas, trimmings, general waste from
water and wastewater treatment parks, beaches, and other
plants recreational areas, sludge
Process Heavy and light manufacturing, Industrial process waste, scrap
refineries, chemical plants, power materials, off-specification products,
plants, mineral extraction and slag, tailings
processing
Medical Hospitals, nursing homes, clinics Infectious waste (bandages, gloves,
waste cultures, swabs, blood and body
fluids), hazardous waste (sharps,
instruments, chemicals), radioactive
waste from cancer therapies,
pharmaceutical waste
Agricultural Crops, orchards, vineyards, dairies, Spoiled food waste, agricultural
feedlots, farms waste (e.g., rice husks, cotton stalks,
coconut shells, coffee waste),
hazardous waste (e.g., pesticides)
Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, despite some underlying problems,

has been shown to be an appropriate approach to quantify environmental impacts
caused by distinctive solid waste management scenarios, by identifying the hot
Table 12.2 Type of waste composition linked to different sources (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata
2012)
Composition Sources
Organic Food scraps, yard (leaves, grass, brush) waste, wood, process residues
Paper Paper scraps, cardboard, newspapers, magazines, bags, boxes, wrapping paper,
telephone books, shredded paper, paper beverage cups
Plastic Bottles, packaging, containers, bags, lids, cups
Glass Bottles, broken glassware, light bulbs, colored glass
Metal Cans, foil, tins, non-hazardous aerosol cans, appliances (white goods), railings,
bicycles
Other Textiles, leather, rubber, multilaminates, e-waste, appliances, ash, other inert
materials
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
Biological
treatment • Digestion/Composting
Thermal
treatment • Incineration With energy recovery
Thermal
treatment • Incineration without energy recovery
Disposal
• Landfill
Fig. 12.1 A hierarchy of waste management
spots through different waste management practices and introducing the most
eco-friendly scenarios (Bisinella et al. 2017; Mercante et al. 2012; Rajaeifar et al.
2015a; Saner et al. 2012; Yıldız-Geyhan et al. 2017). Despite the fact that LCA was
initially introduced to take into account the environmental impacts related to a
product or service, it has been also employed in evaluating the waste management
systems to provide new insights into their environmental aspects. Although in the
product-based LCA a cradle to grave approach is commonly employed to focus on
the production and use stages, in the waste-based LCA, the end-of-life of products
is in the spotlight (Christensen 2011). This principal difference brings about
deviations in the definition of system boundary for a waste LCA compared with a
product LCA (Fig. 12.3). Accordingly, the objective of this chapter was to provide
insights about the general principles and methods of LCA followed by providing
guidelines on the application of LCA in waste management systems.
Stakeholders
• Local authorities
• NGOs/CBOs
• Service users
• Private informal sector
• Private formal sector
• Donor agencies
Sustainability
Elements
Aspects
• Generation & separation
• Technical
• Collection
• Environmental
• Transfer & transport
• Financial/Economic
• Treatment & disposal
• Socio-cultural
• Reduction
• Institutional
• Re-use
• Policy/Legal/Political
• Recycling
• Recovery
Fig. 12.2 The integrated sustainable waste management model (Van de Klundert et al. 2001)
12.2 General Principles of Life Cycle Assessment
12.2.1 Origins and Background of LCA
The first mention of the life cycle concept, by this name, was presented by Novick
(1959) as a report to take into consideration the cost LCA of RAND Corporation. In
the late 1960s and 1970s, Hunt (1974) led a research study to investigate the
resource and emission profiles of nine beverage container alternatives ignoring the
quantitative assessment of the associated impacts on the environment or resources.
By increased public environmental concerns in the 1990s, it was proved that a more
strategic and systematic approach to environmental challenges would be necessary,
therefore, the International Organization for Standardization’s ISO 14001 in 1996
indicated that environmental management would be no longer an option (Horne
2009). The urgent need to increase the interpretability of LCA results showed that
an assessment method would be required to make the environmental impacts of
the inventory results apparent (Hauschild and Huijbregts 2015). Accordingly, in the
early 1990s, the first methods for the assessment of environmental impacts in the
concept of LCA were presented by Ahbe et al. (1990) and Heijungs et al. (1992).
System boundary in LCA of products
Waste management
Use
Distribution
Manufacture
Product A
Raw material extraction
Waste management
Use
Distribution
Manufacture
Product B
Waste management
Use
Distribution
Manufacture
Product C
Waste management
Use
Distribution
Product D Manufacture

System boundary in LCA of waste
management
Fig. 12.3 The difference between waste-based LCA and product-based LCA. Adapted from
(Christensen 2011)
In parallel with these attempts, the International Organization for Standardization

also developed a series of framework and fundamental principle to systematically
describe LCA and its main elements (Fig. 12.4) to provide the minimum require-
ments for performing an LCA study. Along with the development of the ISO 14040
series, a large number of impact assessment methods including EDIP (Wentzel et al.
1997), CML 2002 (Guinée et al. 2002), Ecoindicator 99 (Goedkoop and Spriensma
2000), and ReCiPe (Goedkoop et al. 2009) were also established in the form of
national projects. Despite providing an indispensable framework for LCA, in many
cases ISO 14040 series suggest a range of choices to practitioners with significant
• Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and

ISO Framework
14040
• Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Goal and Scope

ISO Definition and Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
14041
• Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle Impact

ISO Assessment
14042
• Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle

ISO Interpretation
14043
• Environmental management – life cycle assessment – Requirements and

ISO Guidelines
14044
Fig. 12.4 ISO 14040 series on LCA
impacts on the final results. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System
(ILCD) was therefore developed by the European Commission to provide guidance
on planning, developing, and reporting both life cycle emission and resource
consumption inventory (LCI) data sets and LCA studies (Wolf et al. 2012).
12.2.2 Definitions for LCA, Benefits, and Limitations
LCA is an environmental management tool aimed at supporting decisions and

policies rather than being a decision making tool. While different definitions for
LCA are reportedly seen in the literature, the most comprehensive one can be found
in the introductory part of ISO 14040 as follows:
LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout a product’s life
(i.e. cradle-to-grave) from raw material acquisition through production, use and disposal.
The general categories of environmental impacts needing consideration include resource
use, human health, and ecological consequences.
A similar definition was also adopted by the Society of Environmental

Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) (Consoli 1993) and Scandinavian Ministers of
the Environment DIN-NAGUS (Nordic Guidelines) (Christiansen et al. 1995).
Klöpffer (2014) referred to LCA as a science-based method aimed at evaluating the
environmental impacts of product systems. Disregarding the different terms used to
define LCA, all definitions unanimously consider LCA as a technique established to
assess the environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product’s life
from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
Table 12.3 A brief explanation of mandatory stages of life cycle assessment (McDougall et al.
2008)
Terms Definitions
Goal and scope Stage at which the functional unit for comparison is defined (normally
definition per equivalent use), as well as the study purpose, system boundaries,
life cycle stages, unit processes, types of data, geographical scope, and
scope of the assessment
Life cycle inventory Process of accounting for all the inputs and outputs of the product
system over the life cycle. Will result in a list of raw material and
energy inputs, and individual emissions to air, water and as solid
waste
Life cycle impact Associates the inputs and outputs with particular environmental issues,
assessment e.g., ozone depletion, and converts the inventory of materials, energy,
and emissions into representative indicators, e.g., an aggregate loading
of ozone-depleting chemicals
Life cycle Evaluation of the significance of the inputs, outputs, and indicators of
interpretation the system life cycle. This stage is the least well accepted or defined
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and final disposal or recycling. ISO 14040
divides the entire LCA procedure into four distinct stages: goal and scope defini-
tion, life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and
interpretation. A brief explanation of these terms and their important differences is
demonstrated in Table 12.3.
In the second phase of each LCA study, i.e., LCI, a mass balance is performed in
which all necessary inputs to the system and outputs leaving the system boundary
as well as emissions taking place in any stages and operations of the life cycle are
accounted. One of the main benefits of LCA is incorporating both direct and
indirect inputs as well as emissions for production, distribution, use, and disposal.
Direct inputs and emissions refer to data from the foreground system where inputs
are employed to generate a product or deliver a service. Contrary to direct data,
indirect inventory data are collected from the background system, such as from the
initial production of the energy, where raw materials are manufactured and energy
carriers are extracted/processed/produced. As can be noticed in each LCA study,
data belonging to different time spans are aggregated and included over space
regardless of when they occur and where they are located.
Another important feature of LCA is its ability in aggregating data from separate
unit processes and operations. In better words, LCA connects different unit pro-
cesses to a system (Heijungs et al. 2014). More specifically, for each unit process,
material and energy flows as well as emissions, products, and wastes of the total
system are mapped. Such a detailed system allows the identification of the hotspots
where the greatest environmental burdens are taking place. Moreover, in compar-
ative studies, such a systematic approach facilitates investigating the environmental
impacts of different alternatives and help find areas where environmental
improvement can be made.
Besides what have already been mentioned as benefits of LCA approach, its
ability in expressing the environmental impacts in terms of either individual indices
called “midpoints” or aggregated index called “endpoints” cannot be ignored. This
aspect of LCA enables practitioners to either deeply investigate about a particular
impact category, e.g., global warming potential, or instead, simultaneously focus on
an area of protection (damage category), e.g., ecosystem quality.
In spite of the benefits discussed herein, there are also some limitations which
should not be ignored. One limitation of LCA studies arises when the environ-
mental burdens through a given life cycle should be attributed to the co-products. In
many cases, the system under consideration is multi-functional meaning that the
processes produce more than one valuable output (product or service). The envi-
ronmental burdens associated with a particular multi-functional process then need
to be partitioned over the various functional flows of that process posing challenges
related to multi-functionality and allocation (Heijungs and Guinée 2007). While
several alternatives have been suggested to deal with multi-functionality issues
including system expansion, economic, mass, exergy and energy allocation,
selection of each method can significantly affect the final results. This limitation
will be discussed in details in the subsequent section.
The idea that LCA is capable of delivering a comprehensive and overall
assessment is not correct because it employs an overall system balance and func-
tional unit to aggregate data over time and space. Consequently, it is not able to
determine the actual environmental effects of a system (McDougall et al. 2008). In
better words, the precise effects of such an environmental impact are time and
cite-dependent as well being affected by the origin of emissions. For instance, the
environmental impacts caused by a specific amount of emission released in a
particular event, e.g., in a single factory, would be completely different from the
same amount of emissions released continuously over years from several sources.
The other important limitation that needs to be taken into account is the type of
LCA employed, i.e., attributional or consequential. As a brief description, the
attributional approach considers the flows in the environment within a chosen
temporal window while in contrast, the consequential method deals with changes in
flows in response to decisions (Ekvall et al. 2016). According to the ILCA hand-
book, the attributional model describes the actual or forecasted specific or average
supply chain plus the use and end-of-life value chain, all embedded into a static
technosphere (Wolf et al. 2012); meaning that a linear relationship is laid under the
concept of attributional approach. However, in practice, the interrelationship within
a production system is, in most cases, non-linear. Plevin et al. (2014) well argued
that attributional LCA is not predictive of real-world impacts and the results cannot
be employed for policy decision making. They discussed that more production of
product A with partially lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than product B
does not necessarily mean a similar reduction in carbon emissions.
12.2.3 Different Phases of LCA
According to ISO 14040, LCA studies are comprised of four compulsory steps, i.e.,
goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis, life cycle impact
assessment (LCIA), and interpretation, along with some optional steps, i.e., nor-
malization, classification, and weighting. Different stages of the LCA framework
and their interconnections are illustrated in Fig. 12.5.
Goal and scope definition

– Options to be compared
– Intended use of results
– The functional unit
– The system boundaries
Life Cycle Inventory

Analysis
– Accounts for all materials
Interpretation
and energy, both inputs and
outputs across the whole Life
Cycle
Life Cycle Impact

Assessment
– Aggregates LCI into specific
issues or categories
Fig. 12.5 LCA phases according to ISO 14040

12.2.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition
At the first step, the “Goal and Scope” of the study shall be determined. The goal
definition includes specifying the fundamental concepts of the study, the reason for
which the study is performed, the options/alternatives that should be compared, the
intended use of the results, and the audience for whom the LCA study is conducted.
The ISO 14044 states that:
The goal and scope of an LCA shall be clearly defined and shall be consistent with the
intended application. Due to the iterative nature of LCA, the scope may have to be refined
during the study.
This statement emphasizes that the LCA has an iterative nature as shown by
double arrows in Fig. 12.5, therefore, any modifications of goal and scope must be
documented and reported. Moreover, it can be inferred that, despite the fact that the
goal and scope of the study are determined prior to data collection, any modifi-
cations during the course of the study can take place as data are collected and new
information is revealed (Curran 2017).
Scope definition outlines the most important parameters by which the study is
performed. As instructed by ISO 14040, this step shall explicitly describe the
following aspects:
• Product system and its functions
• Technical, geographical, and temporal system boundaries
• Functional unit
• Allocation methods
• Data availability and depth of study
• Assumptions, limitations, and restrictions
• Data quality requirements
• Type of critical review (if any) and the type and format of the report required for
the study.
The product system represents the functions of the system by illustrating the unit
processes and the collection of operations connected by flows of intermediate
products. The unit processes are the smallest parts of a product system and are used
to manifest the activities of a single operation or a group of operations. The product
system is used as a basis for the definition of functional unit. A flow chart can
simply and precisely describes the product system under consideration and reflects
the interrelations of unit processes within the product system. The system boundary
then separates those unit processes that will be included in the system from the rest
of technosphere and shows what is omitted from the assessment (Fig. 12.6). It
should be born in mind that if a comparative LCA study is intended to be per-
formed, adapted boundaries must be balanced between different systems in terms of
inclusion and omission.
Besides technical aspects of system boundary, geographical and temporal system
boundaries are also important issues. Geographical system boundary provides
information about the place where the product(s) is manufactured or service(s) is
Oil production Iron ore mining Coal mining

and transport and transport and transport
Production
Production PVC
sheet steel
Extrusion Punching, deep-drawing
Cutting to length Cutting to length
Setting in and screwing steel profile Screws
Welding PVC Teflon foil
Fittings
Assembly window
PVC-lip
seal glass
Installation
Use System boundary
Demounting
Material recycling Thermal recovery Landfill
Fig. 12.6 Product system and system boundary (Klöpffer 2014)
delivered. It is worth quoting that, the geographical system boundary always has
extensions beyond the selected range because all input materials and energy carriers
are not supplied from the concerned country. Therefore, in the life cycle impact
assessment (LCIA) stage, for some impact categories (e.g., climate change/
greenhouse effect, stratospheric ozone depletion), global effects are considered,
while, the regional or local effects are taken into account for the other impact
categories e.g., eutrophication potential (Klöpffer 2014).
Once the goal of the study is assessed, the functional unit (FU) shall be deter-
mined in order to describe the product or process under study. This is performed by
reflecting the function that the system delivers at the product unit level. The
prominent role of such a measure relates to the LCI stage since FU will be used as a
reference point to which inputs to the system boundary and outputs of the system
are related. In better words, FU demonstrates the function(s) to which the envi-
ronmental assessment is implemented, so that, the amount of input materials and
energy carriers used within the system boundary are calculated for the preferred
function(s).
Early in the scope definition of each LCA study, it must be determined which
modeling approach will be employed: attributional or consequential modeling. This
decision will affect the final results and has implications for many of the later
choices including the choice of allocation method or inventory data collection. The
type of LCI modeling used depends on several factors, among them, the
decision-context reproducibility and robustness, practical feasibility, and stake-
holder acceptance can be referred to.
As discussed earlier, in the attributional approach, inputs and outputs of a
product system are attributed to the functional unit by linking and/or partitioning
the unit processes of the system. In the consequential modeling, the objective is to
identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a
system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and economic
implications of a decision must to be taken into account. One of the most important
distinctions between the attributional and consequential modeling is the type of data
used in LCI analysis. In the attributional approach, “average data” is used while in
the consequential modeling, “marginal data” are employed. Due to the fact that in
the attributional approach, efforts are made to relate the environmental impacts
caused by some specific activities that have contributed to the production, con-
sumption, and disposal of a targeted product, it will be relevant to collect data on
specific or market average suppliers. In contrast, the consequential LCA is used to
find out the environmental impacts related to those activities that are expected to
change when producing, consuming, and disposing of a product. Therefore, data
from marginal suppliers will better fit the objectives.
Allocation method, as another distinction between the attributional and conse-
quential modeling, shall be chosen in the goal and scope definition phase. As
discussed earlier, many product systems have multi-functional performance, so that,
the environmental burdens need to be partitioned over the various functional flows.
Because allocation is a challenging issue in each LCA study, ISO 14041 empha-
sizes that allocation should be avoided by either dividing the unit process into some
sub-processes and collecting the input and output data related to these
sub-processes, or expanding the product system in order to include the additional
functions related to the co-products (ISO 14041 1998). To handle the allocation
problem, the ISO hierarchy is as follows:
1. Subdivision of multi-functional processes
2. System expansion (with/without substitution)
3. Allocation.
In the subdivision methodology, the objective is to break down the targeted unit
process with several outputs or functionality (Fig. 12.7a) into some single output
Emissions
(a)
Inputs Process Product A

Product B
Resources
Wastes
Emissions ii
(b)
Emissions i Emissions iii
P1 P2 P3
Inputs Product A
P4 P5 Product B
Resources
Wastes i Wastes iii

Wastes ii
Fig. 12.7 Solving the multi-functionality problem by subdivision (Wolf et al. 2012)
unit processes (Fig. 12.7b). It is worth mentioning that subdivision is often but not
always applicable. This approach can be considered if the separated unit processes
will not be multi-functional.
If subdivision cannot be performed, system expansion is the best option to avoid
the need for allocation. System expansion can be performed in two different ways.
In the first approach, so called “system expansion with subtraction”, the additional
function(s) of the system is subtracted. Imagine system A has two co-products, e.g.,
wheat and straw, meaning that environmental burdens should be divided between
these co-products. Straw is intended to be combusted and used to replace
fossil-based heating. To perform “system expansion with subtraction”, a substituted
product must exist. In this case, the same amount of heat can be generated out of
burning fossil based fuel. When the required heat is generated out of straw com-
bustion, the associated emissions related to fossil-based heating system are avoided.
Accordingly, the associated resource use and emissions of fossil-based heating
system are also subtracted from system A as shown in Fig. 12.8. The second
approach of system expansion is performed when among the two systems under
Emissions Emissions
Seeds Extraction and

Fertilizers Wheat
refinement of light
Diesel cultivation
Chemical fuel oil
“X” kg
_ “M” L
Straw Light fuel
Emissions
Emissions
Straw Fuel
Combustion Combustion
“Z” MJ “Z” MJ
Heat Heat
“Y” kg
grain
Fig. 12.8 Application of “system expansion with subtraction” to solve the multi-functionality
problem by substituting the unnecessary co-functions
comparison, one has some additional functions. This would be done by expanding
the system boundaries and adding missing functions and the inventories of the
respective mono-functional products to the given case (Fig. 12.9).
Allocation is suggested to be performed as the last option for multi-functional
systems. ISO 14041 states that “where allocation cannot be avoided, the inputs and
outputs of the system should be partitioned between its different products or
functions in a way which reflects the underlying physical relationships between
them”. Moreover, it continues that “where physical relationship alone cannot be
established or used as the basis for allocation, the inputs should be allocated
between the products and functions in a way which reflects other relationships
System A
~ System B
+
System C
“X” Unit “Y” Unit “X” Unit “Y” Unit

M N M N
Fig. 12.9 Application of “system expansion” to solve the multi-functionality problem by adding
the additional functions
between them, e.g., based on economic value”. Accordingly, several allocation

methods have been introduced and evaluated and their results were also compared
to show how the choice of allocation method would affect the final results. Mass,
energy, exergetic-based allocation, economic, and physio-chemical allocations are
the most reported methods in different LCA studies.
12.2.3.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
The second stage of each LCA study, called “LCI analysis”, concerns collecting
data regarding input materials, energy flows to the system, and outputs as well as
pollutants leaving the system boundary. In better words, the focus of LCI analysis is
to quantify the inventory of the various flows of material extractions and substance
emissions crossing the system boundary (Jolliet et al. 2015). The LCI analysis
iteratively includes data collection and validation, relating data to unit processes
and to the adopted functional unit, data aggregation, and refining the system
boundaries. Due to the fact that data collection may span several reporting locations
and published references, ISO 14041 suggests some several steps to ensure uniform
and consistent understanding of the product systems will be modeled. These steps
are as follows (ISO 14041 1998):
• Drawing of specific process flow diagrams that outline all unit processes to be
modeled, including interrelationships;
• Description of each unit process in detail and listing data categories associated
with each unit process;
• Development of a list that specifies the units of measurement;
• Description of data collection techniques and calculation techniques for each
data category, to assist personnel at the reporting locations with understanding
the type of information needed for the LCA study; and
• Provision of instructions to reporting locations to document clearly any special

cases, irregularities or other items associated with the data provided.
Two approaches have been identified for LCI analysis, i.e., process-based and
input-output approach. In the first approach, inventory is calculated by multiplying
the reference flows and corresponding intermediary flows assessed per FU by the
direct emission or extraction factors of each unit process. In the input-output
approach, the inventory is calculated by using economic data in order to relate the
direct demand of a good or service to the total demand within the entire economy.
The inventory of emissions and extractions is then calculated by multiplying the
total demand per FU by their corresponding emissions per dollar spent in each
sector (Jolliet et al. 2015).
When collecting data, double counting should be avoided. Also, the time when
data have been collected and the place where data have been obtained shall be
documented. In this context, data aggregation over time and space is proposed to be
performed to solve the problem arising from data collected from several locations at
different time spans. As an example, imagine a situation in which the production
process of product “X” emits 100 kg carbon dioxide into the air. This total emission
may consist of 30 kg CO2 emission in Denmark in 2012, 20 kg CO2 emission in
Netherlands in 2014, 40 kg in Germany in 2015, and 10 kg emission in Poland in
2017. Therefore, accurately accounting for the specific time and place of every
emission necessitates providing an immense amount of data and calculations. To
deal with this problem and to avoid huge deal of work, data aggregation over time
can be considered. It means that we assume the effect caused by such an emission is
time independent. Moreover, all emissions are aggregated regardless of the location
at which the emission took place.
If data from the literature are used, the employed literature shall be referenced.
The consistency through an LCI analysis must be kept. If the higher heating value,
for instance, is used in a part of an LCI calculation, the same approach should be
used for the other processes as well. In each iteration of inventory data collection,
the validity of the collected data should be justified by establishing, for example,
mass balances, energy balances and/or comparative analyses of emission factors
(ISO 14041 1998).
12.2.3.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
Based on the ISO 14040, the LCIA is the third phase of an LCA study in which the
inventory data are converted into some selected environmental issues, called impact
categories, to better understand their environmental significance ISO 14042 (2000).
This conversion is done by multiplying emissions by their corresponding prede-
fined characterization factors. Characterization factors refer to some figures derived
from characterization models which are applied to convert the assigned LCI results
to the common unit of a given impact category. As depicted in Fig. 12.10, the
LCIA phase is composed of some mandatory and optional elements.
Selection of impact categories and characterization models

Mandatory elements
Assignment of LCI results (Classification)
Calculation of category indicator (Characterization)
Normalization
Optional elements
Grouping
Weighting
Fig. 12.10 Elements of the LCIA according to ISO 14042
To link LCI results to the impact categories, the inventory data having similar
effects are aggregated into an intermediary level called midpoint categories or
impact categories. The inventory data with similar effects are multiplied by their
corresponding characterization factors to demonstrate their contributions to that
specific impact category. A well-known impact category is global warming by

which the impact of GHGs is attributed to warming the Earth. Each impact category
or midpoint category affects one or more areas of protection. The areas of protection
are also called damage categories such as ecosystem quality, human health, and
climate change.
Each impact category has its own specific unit; therefore, the magnitude of each
calculated indicator cannot be understood when it is compared with other indica-
tors. Normalization can be used to present the magnitude of the category indicator
results relative to some reference information. Moreover, identifying “important”
impact categories, understanding the meaning of results by comparing with more
familiar references or solving tradeoffs between the results are among the most
important reasons for employing normalization (Pizzol et al. 2017). In normaliza-
tion, the numerical values resulted from the characterization step are generally
divided by some reference values. Several approaches have been introduced for this
optional step. External normalization relates the results of an LCI analysis to an
external database or normalization reference. By contrast, internal normalization
utilizes values within the study and shows the relative significance of an impact
with regards to the other competing alternatives (Curran 2017). For example, in the
external approach, the total GHGs emissions of a specific product is related to the
total regional GHGs emissions but in the internal method the significance of GHGs
of product “A” are expressed relative to those of product “B” and “C”. If the use of
normalization is inevitable, the following recommendation shall be taken into
account (Curran 2017):
• To document and justify the choice of any normalization references
• To communicate the results clearly by, e.g., reporting units and explaining their
meaning
• To integrate uncertainty assessment
• To perform scenario analysis whenever possible e.g., by applying more than one
method.
The other optional element of LCIA is grouping by which results are prioritized
by sorting or ranking. Grouping can be carried out with two possible procedures as
mentioned by ISO:
• Sorting by which the impact categories are sorted on a nominal basis
• Ranking by which the impact categories are ranked on ordinal basis or a given
hierarchy.
Weighting is the process of converting indicator results of different impact
categories to a single score. By this approach, the multiple scores of each scenario is
converted to a single score by using numerical factors based on value-choices. The
weighting methods are generally classified based on distance to target weighting
approach, panel weighting approach, Monetary weighting approach, and binary
weighting approach.
12.2.3.4 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis
The intrinsic nature of LCA brings about a magnitude of uncertainties. According

to ISO 14043, LCIs should also undergo sensitivity and uncertainty analysis to
better understand their quality and limitations. Sensitivity analysis is a systematic
approach to show how the choices made regarding methods and data affect the
outcomes of a study. In better words, sensitivity analysis identifies the assumptions
with significant influence on the final outcome of an LCI. The procedure includes
comparison of the results obtained using certain given assumptions, methods or
data with the new results obtained by variations in these parameters. The sensitivity
can be performed over following variations (ISO 14043 2000);
• Allocation method;
• Cut-off criteria;
• Boundary setting and system definition;
• Judgements and assumptions concerning data;
• Selection of impact category;
• Assignment of inventory results (classification);
• Calculation of category indicator results (characterization);
• Normalized data;
• Weighted data;
• Weighting method;
• Data quality.
Ideally, all parameters contributing to an LCI analysis should be considered
when sensitivity analysis is performed, but in practice, it rarely happens and the
procedure is often limited to a number of selected parameters. One of the systematic
methods for performing sensitivity analysis, developed by Heijungs et al. (1992),
uses confidence limits for all input parameters and identifies those parameters for
which the margins of uncertainty have large influences on the final results.
Subsequently, the margins of uncertainty for these parameters can be improved.
Uncertainty analysis is a systematic procedure to quantify the uncertainty
introduced in the results of a life cycle inventory analysis due to the cumulative
effects of model imprecision, input uncertainty, and data variability. Uncertainty
can be categorized as stochastic uncertainty, choice uncertainty, and
knowledge-based uncertainty.
12.2.4 Special Types of LCA
Beside the conventional LCA discussed herein, there are new branches of this
well-established and widely used environmental management tool. The new trends
in LCA can be categorized as; Life cycle sustainability assessment, Life cycle
costing, Carbon footprint, Water footprint, Social LCA, Eco-efficiency assessment,
Input-output (IO) and hybrid LCA, Material flow analysis, and Resource efficiency
assessment. Dealing with these types of LCA are beyond the scope of the current
chapter and more information about these types of LCA can be found in
(Finkbeiner 2016).
12.2.5 LCA in Waste Management
Waste management is a large and complex system and its complexity will also be
extended when it is linked to other sectors such as energy supply chain, agriculture,
and industry. In fact, waste management is a challenging issue because achieving a
sustainable solution necessitates considering a multi-dimensional relationship, i.e.,
technological, economic, environmental, and social dimensions. In this context,
LCA can contribute to addressing the concerns about sustainability of waste
management strategies. In another word, LCA can be used as a decision support
tool in waste management revealing the appropriateness of implemented waste
management strategies.
12.2.5.1 System Boundary in Waste Management Strategies
The first step of a successful waste-LCA performed is to accurately define the goal
and scope of the study including a proper system boundary, an appropriate func-
tional unit, allocation method/system expansion, etc. This step begins with selecting
the system boundary of the study. When the system boundary of waste management
scenarios is defined, with respect to the goal of the study, the following activities
along with the outputs of the system could be included within the system; collec-
tion, transportation, recovery and separation of materials, treating and disposal of
waste, as well as energy and nutrient recovery. Regarding the capital and equipment
required such as vehicles employed for waste collection and equipment used for
composting or incinerating, their resource and energy consumption as well as their
associated emissions are also included in LCI analysis but manufacturing, fabri-
cation, construction, and maintenance are not taken into account. Moreover, the
energy used in the office buildings where the operations are supervised can also be
included in the scope of the study (Curran 2017).
While in product-LCA studies, inputs and outputs are followed from “cradle to
grave”, in waste-LCA, not all inputs can be followed from the “cradle”. The waste
materials shall be considered from the point when they are discarded as waste. This
concept, called zero-burden, shall always be followed unless the scenario under
consideration affects the amount of waste generation such as what happens in waste
minimization strategies. Similarly, the end point of all recovered materials, ener-
gies, and nutrients cannot be set at “grave”, thereby the downstream processes of
these materials are not included in the system boundary. This always applies for
recycled materials which are used to replace their equivalent virgin materials.
Therefore, the subsequent use of these materials is excluded from the system
boundary.
12.2.5.2 Time Horizon in Waste LCA
Time horizon is also important in the LCA of waste management. The focus of
most LCA studies is on annual waste generation and management. When Landfill is
part of the scenario under evaluation, it must be noticed that emissions from landfill
take place in a rather long time horizon. Under conditions laid forth, a time
boundary of around 100 years can be assumed to estimate the landfill related
emissions. Then, the estimated emissions can be attributed to the year of the study.
12.2.5.3 Functional Unit in Waste-LCA
The selection of FU in waste-LCA studies must be done in accordance with the goal
of the study. In the LCA of waste management strategies, the objective is to find out
which alternative is more environmentally beneficial. Therefore, the FU can be
defined as the quantity of a given amount of waste which will be managed under a
specific waste management strategy. If energy recovery from waste management
options is targeted, the FU would be different. In this context, the FU would be
defined, for example, as “X” MWh produced.
12.2.5.4 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Recycling
When dealing with recycling strategies, distinctions should be made between two
types of recycling. In closed-loop recycling, the recycled materials are sent back to
the same production process. In this approach, the recovered materials go back into
the production process of the same type of product, so that there are repeated
recovery and reuse cycles. In the second approach, i.e., open-loop recycling, the
recovered materials from waste stream are sent to a different type of product system.
Making distinction between open-loop and closed-loop is sometimes misleading.
As an example, the post-consumer plastic waste is incinerated to generate elec-
tricity. This recovered electricity may be used in the analyzed system but this
electricity as the secondary product is completely different from the original
material, i.e., polymer. While such a recycling system is sometimes mistakably
interpreted as closed-loop, it must be categorized as open-loop recycling.
Accordingly, two sub categories of open-loop recycling have been identified. The
first sub-category is called “open-loop with same primary route” in which the
recovered materials with no changes in their inherent properties are used in a
different type of product system. The second sub-category is called “open-loop with
different primary route” in which the inherent properties of the recycled materials
are changed. Therefore, it would be better to use the function of the primary and
secondary goods as a basis to find out if an open-loop or closed-loop modeling
should be chosen.
12.2.5.5 Multi-functionality and Allocation in Waste-LCA
Regardless either open-loop recycling or closed-loop approach is considered for

LCI analysis, the recycled materials will offset some similar virgin materials. It
means that a new function has been provided by waste management system.
Therefore, to have a fair assessment, the environmental burdens and the impacts
caused by the waste management strategies should be partitioned between the two
new functions. As discussed earlier, the system expansion should be given priority
to allocation methods as instructed by ISO 14040 and ILCD Handbook.
System expansion is performed to take into account or subtract all associated
burdens which are avoided due to replacing virgin materials by recovered ones
within a production system. Despite being the first alternative and so straightfor-
ward, system expansion will not be feasible in some cases and for some specific
product systems. For instance, performing system expansion in some cases requires
excessive data collection from downstream processes outside the scope of the study.
On the other hand, it is sometimes impossible to assess what impacts or burdens are
actually avoided when products are recycled. This could be due to the fact that
some recovered materials do not have the same quality compared with their virgin
materials, and so, they will be used in another production process which requires a
lower quality material. Under these circumstances, allocation can be performed.
To correctly perform the allocation in recycling systems, the following question
should be answered: Does the material under consideration have any market values
at the end of its life? This question shall be answered because market value above
zero and below zero need to be differentiated when dealing with allocation problem.
If the material has a market value above zero at the end of its life, it would be
called co-product rather than waste. This co-product can further be recycled, as
expected, turning into a secondary good. This secondary good at the end of its life
can also be recycled again and again; hence, many co-products will be available and
all should be considered when the inventory for the second goods is identified.
A three step procedure has been recommended by the ILCD handbook and will be
briefly explained herein. At the first step, the total amount of uses is determined.
The total amount of use refers to the sum of the amount of primary use plus the
amount obtained after each recycling round. For instance, if 1 kg of material “X” is
recycled with 90% recycling rate at the end of its life, it means that 0.9 kg sec-
ondary material is recovered. This amount of secondary material can also be
incorporated into a new product and be recycled at the same recycling rate resulting
in 0.81 kg recovered end-of-life product. Therefore, the total amount of uses from
the primary materials is calculated as 1 kg + 0.9 kg + 0.81 kg, etc. At the second
step, the total LCI associated with the total amount of uses must be estimated. This
includes the LCI of primary production plus the LCI of effort for reuse/recycling/
recovery, plus the LCI of final waste management but the processes related to the
manufacture and use of the products made from these materials are not included. At
the final stage, the average inventory per unit is calculated by dividing the total life
cycle inventory of the total amount of use by the total amount of uses.
When the end-of-life product has a negative market value, it would be called
waste rather than co-product. However, there are two types of cases to be
differentiated:
(1) No valuable product is produced during waste treatment, thereby the inventory
is fully attributed to the first system that has generated the waste.
(2) A valuable product is produced during waste treatment. This valuable product,
called “secondary good” would be a co-product for the first system so that
allocation is to be applied. To perform allocation under such a circumstance, all
treatment processes that are necessary until the treated end-of-life product
achieves a market value of zero are assigned to the first system.
12.2.5.6 Using LCA Results for Making Decisions
When LCA results are obtained, they can be combined with other aspects of sus-
tainability issues including technical, economic, and social information to reach the
best decision. Key issues which must be taken into account include cost, accessi-
bility to new facilities, technical feasibility, environmental performance, market
behavior about recovered energy and materials, and public acceptance (Weitz
2012). These results are further implicitly or explicitly combined to fairly compare
distinctive integrated waste management strategies and wisely choose the best
alternative.
A large number of studies performed to compare different integrated waste
management strategies, unanimously argued that landfill disposal is not the pre-
ferred option. While recycling could be the most favorable waste management
strategy, it is not possible to recycle some waste fractions due to their low quality or
high level of contaminations. Accordingly, integrated waste management strategies
consisting of recycling and waste to energy options would be the most environ-
mentally friendly and cost effective alternative. Briefly, recycling is given priority
as far as recycled materials can replace an equivalent amount of virgin materials.
The heating value of non-recycled materials, the environmental performance, and
the efficiency of energy recovery shall be considered when deciding over the use of
waste to energy option. Materials which can be biologically treating are highly
recommended to undergo anaerobic digestion process with the aim of energy and
nutrient recovery.
12.3 Conclusions
With the increased awareness on waste-related environmental issues, LCA has been
increasingly employed as a decision support tool to help achieve the best integrated
waste management strategies. Despite its popularity in waste management studies,
faulty assumptions and incorrect methodologies can still be found in performing
waste LCA studies leading to scientific errors and erroneous conclusions. A well
performed LCA study begins with a clear goal definition covering the intended
applications, the limitations and restrictions, the drivers and motives, the target
audience, the potential disclosure to the public, and the commissioner of the study.
Following the goal definition, the context of the study should be also clearly
identified due to the fact that the frame work of the LCI analysis depends on this
selection. The selection of FU in waste-LCA studies must be done in accordance
with the goal of the study. Unitary-based, generation-based, input-based, and
output-based FU are commonly used in waste-LCA studies. To perform a com-
prehensive LCA study, all relevant impact categories must be evaluated before
claiming the environmental superiority of one alternative. Multi-functionality and
decision over allocation methods are also important issues in this context. While
system expansion would be the best option, it is not always possible to solve the
multi-functionality problem by system expansion. Allocation methods, especially
when dealing with recycling waste management strategies, must be wisely per-
formed considering if either an open-loop or closed-loop system is under consid-
eration. Eventually, it must be kept in mind that without considering technical,
economic, and social information, the most sustainable waste management strategy
would never be achieved.
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Chapter 13
Techno-Economic Aspects of Biogas
Plants
Marzieh Shafiei
13.1 Introduction
Production of biomass-derived transportation fuels has been promoted to reduce the

negative environmental and social effects of fossil fuels. Advanced biofuels have
several definitions most of which are focused on the production of biofuels from
non-food based materials, e.g., lignocelluloses, municipal solid waste or industrial
wastes, which have low CO2 emissions, high GHG reduction, and using minimum
(or zero) indirect land use change (ILUC) (Balan et al. 2013). The U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA) has predicted a 48% increase in the global energy
demand from 2012 to 2040 if the current energy policies do not change (EIA 2016).
Limited fossil fuels resources and their environmental drawbacks, e.g., the green-
house effect and climate change, have emerged using renewable fuels (Igliński et al.
2015). Biogas has a significant contribution among the future been highlighted as
the main drivers of renewable energies (Mao et al. 2015; Pike Research 2012). The
target of the European renewable energy directive is to replace 27–30% of the total
energy consumption with renewable sources by 2030. It is estimated that 14–26%
of this renewable energy target can be met by biogas from farming and forestry
residues (Holm-Nielsen et al. 2009; Meyer et al. 2017). Traditionally, biogas is
produced from excess sludge in wastewater treatment plants or in the landfills from
municipal solid waste. Other potential feedstock includes agricultural wastes, e.g.,
animal manure; food industry wastes, e.g., wastes from slaughterhouses, sugar
refining, alcohol generation; or industrial wastes, e.g., wastes from biotechnological
industries and paper manufacturing (Werner et al. 1989). A research by the US
Energy Information Administration (EIA) revealed that if all of these types of raw
materials, except lignocellulosic materials and lipids, are utilized in the US, the
M. Shafiei (&)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Isfahan, 81746-73441 Isfahan, Iran
e-mail: m.shafi[email protected]

334 M. Shafiei
produced amount of biogas would be about 420 billion (11.9 109 m3) of
methane. However, this amount of methane could only replace 5% of the natural
gas used for electricity generation and cover 56% of the natural gas used in the
transportation sector (EIA 2013; NREL 2013). Moreover, this report also reveals
that if lignocellulosic materials are used, the produced methane would cover 46% of
the natural gas demand in the electricity generation sector and all of the natural gas
used for transportation.
Biogas is currently produced and used in Europe. In 2007, Germany was the
largest biogas producer in Europe mainly from energy crops, while the UK was the
second producer of biogas mainly from landfill sources (AEBIOM, 2009).
Nevertheless, the main raw material for biogas production in Germany has been
energy crops which has environmental and economical drawbacks (Meyer et al.
2017; Poeschl et al. 2010). Furthermore, environmental policies discourage waste
landfilling and it is projected to be decreased due to its environmental drawbacks
(Scharff 2014; European Commission 2016; Li et al. 2015; Kormi et al. 2017).
Therefore, in order to meet the high energy demands of the future, use of more
sustainable methods and feedstocks are recommended. Lignocellulosic agricultural
residues, e.g., rice and wheat straw, bagasse, and corn stalks are the potential
recommended feedstocks for the future. The co-digestion of these feedstocks with
animal manure is recommended to reduce the demand for additional fertilizers
(Meyer et al. 2017; NREL 2013).
Lignocellulosic feedstocks have a highly crystalline and recalcitrant structure.
This structure resists to microbial attacks and diminishes the biogas yield (Karimi
et al. 2013; Shafiei et al. 2015). Among the four steps of anaerobic digestion, i.e.,
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis, hydrolysis is the
rate-limiting step when biogas is produced from lignocelluloses (Taherzadeh and
Karimi 2008; Kabir et al. 2015). The biogas production process from these feed-
stocks requires an extra pretreatment step which is cost and energy intensive. In
spite of high potential for biogas production from lignocellulosic materials, due to
technological and economic problems, the industrial production of biogas from sole
lignocellulosic materials has not been practiced yet (Shafiei et al. 2013; Sárvári
Horváth et al. 2016). Biogas is currently produced in small farm scale or large
industrial scale. The volume of digesters may vary from a few hundreds to thou-
sands of cubic meters (Mussoline et al. 2012; Li et al. 2015). However, larger plants
are economically more favorable both for the biogas production and for upgrading
(Turton et al. 2009; Jalalzadeh-Azar 2010; Sun et al. 2015; Yliopisto 2009;
Patterson et al. 2011; Persson 2003). The necessity of considering an economically
viable scale is more highlighted when lignocellulosic materials are considered for
biofuel production. However, before any kinds of industrial construction and
investment, the economic profitability of the plant should be studied. Since biofuel
production from lignocelluloses is a developing technology and has not been
proved yet, this profitability analysis should be performed after the development
and design of these new processes. Techno-economic analysis is a combination of
these studies (Lauer 2017; Humbird 2011; Swanson 2010; Tao 2014; McAloon
2000).
13 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biogas Plants 335
A techno-economic analysis is a method for comparison of different process

designs, to find the main bottlenecks of the processes, to direct the research studies
towards removing these bottlenecks, and to estimate the absolute manufacturing
cost of the lignocellulosic biofuels compared with those of the first generation
biofuels and fossil fuels (Humbird 2011; Aden and Foust 2009; Aden 2002; Dutta
et al. 2010; Eggeman and Elander 2005; Hamelinck et al. 2005; Humbird and Aden
2009; Iranmahboob et al. 2002; Kazi 2010; Lynd 1996; Klein-Marcuschamer et al.
2010; Piccolo and Bezzo 2009; Sassner et al. 2008; Sendich et al. 2008; von Sivers
and Zacchi 1996; Wooley et al. 1999a; Yu et al. 2008). Other typical results of
techno-economic analysis are estimation of total capital investment (TCI); manu-
facturing costs and minimum selling price of the products, and comparison of the
economic profitability of different processes (McAloon 2000; Tao et al. 2013).
13.2 Techno-Economic Analysis: Definition and Methods
Although biofuels still require financial supports from the governments, it is predicted
that their prices will be able to compete with those of the fossil fuels in the future.
This is said to be because of “learning effects, large scale operations, and efficient
system integrations”. (Balan et al. 2013). Techno-economic analysis is a technique
for further boosting of this commercialization. When a techno-economic assessment
for a biofuel plant is considered, many types of feedstocks, products, and process
configurations are possible. Detailed design for all of these possible configurations is
a time consuming process and not applicable. Thus, it is very important to address the
most important factors and choose those processes which seem to be the most eco-
nomically feasible ones. In fact, techno-economic analysis enables the evaluation and
comparison of the newly developed research findings, performed in the lab and pilot
scales. Furthermore, the manufacturing cost of the biofuel produced by these new
processes can be estimated and compared with those of conventional available bio-
fuels, as well as gasoline and natural gas (Kazi 2010; Anex et al. 2010; Brown 2014,
2015; Chovau et al. 2013; von Sivers and Zacchi 1995; Wooley et al. 1999b).
Techno-economic analysis includes conceptual development of process flow
diagrams (PFDs) and economic assessment of these processes. The economic
assessment for biofuel production plants is basically similar to the established
methods in the chemical and petrochemical industries. There are several criteria for
comparison of the economic profitability of plants which will be discussed later in
this section (Tao et al. 2013; Chovau et al. 2013; Tan et al. 2016).
13.2.1 General Design Considerations
Although techno-economic analysis involves design and economic assessment of a

process, there are others factors which could affect the overall viability of the
336 M. Shafiei
process. These factors include environmental, health and safety considerations,

structural design, utilities, patents and legal restrictions, materials handling, and
storage. Furthermore, the plant location, capacity, operation and control, and layout
are also factors which should be considered (Turton et al. 2009; Peters et al. 2003).
In this regard, the most important factors are briefly discussed here.
13.2.1.1 Health, Safety and Environmental Considerations
When a plant is designed, the potential hazards and dangers for both the labor and
plant equipment should be considered. In chemical processes, usually severe pro-
cess conditions, e.g., pressure higher than 5 bar and temperature more than 700 °C,
or hazardous chemicals dictate the considerations concerning costly equipment
(Peters et al. 2003; Douglas 1988). Furthermore, prevention of leakages of these
hazardous liquids or gasses imposes additional investment expenses. Safety hazards
are highly toxic substances with immediate negative health impacts while “indus-
trial health and hygiene hazard” are those chemicals that long term exposure to
them at low concentrations causes injuries. When designing a plant, the usage of
these types of materials should be avoided as much as possible (Peters et al. 2003).
Fortunately, production of biogas and other types of biofuels, involves moderate
process conditions and less toxic or explosive materials compared with many other
chemical or petrochemical industries (Taherzadeh and Karimi 2007, 2008; Karimi
et al. 2013; Smith 2005). However, biogas production plants also face their typical
health and safety issues.
The most important safety issues are explosion, hydrogen sulfide poisoning,
asphyxiation, and disease. Dilution of biogas with 10–30% air produces an
explosive gas. Around the biogas digesters, gas pipes, combined heat and power
(CHP) units, gas flares, and gas storage tanks, collectively called Ex-Zones, all
types of safety measures related to explosion should be considered including the
installation and usage of acceptable devices. Accumulation of gasses at the feed-
stock storage area is a common safety hazard. Hydrogen sulfide, which is heavier
than air at concentrations higher than 700 ppm could cause immediate death.
Furthermore, accumulated biogas, carbon dioxide, and ammonia could cause
unconsciousness and suffocation. Thus, considering ventilation equipment for
closed storage areas and work places is necessary (Westenbroek and Martin 2017).
Possible infections by bacteria, viruses, or parasites should be avoided by
addition of pre-sanitation equipment for specific types of feedstock. These feed-
stock and their required sanitation facilities are specified by the European
Regulations (EC 1774/2002). The pre-sanitation involves pasteurization, i.e.,
maintaining materials at 70 °C for 1 h, or pressure sterilization, i.e., minimum
temperature of 133 °C for 20 min (Findeisen 2015; Maciejczyk 2014). Regulations
for “Toxic Hazardous Substances” and “Occupational Noise Exposure” are the two
most common regulations which must be followed in the original design of a biogas
plant (Peters et al. 2003).
There are general environmental protection rules about waste disposal and
hydrocarbon emissions. Examples of these rules are available in the US federal
environmental regulations (Peters et al. 2003). Methane is considered 20-folds a
more effective greenhouse gas compared with carbon dioxide. Thus, special
equipment and consideration would be required for minimizing emissions of this
gas from biogas plants (Cakir and Stenstrom 2005; Börjesson and Mattiasson
2008). There are also regulations for the disposal of the wastewater and digested
solids which must be considered in the process design.
13.2.1.2 Plant Location
Selection of the plant location mainly depends on the availability if the raw
materials and the possible market for the products. Other most important factors are
the availability of energy and water supplies, transportation facilities, as well as
taxation and legal restrictions. These factors directly affect the results of a
techno-economic analysis and thus, a preliminary estimation for plant location is
necessary in order to minimize the costs associated with energy, water, and local
income taxes. However, plant location is the most effective factor for the calculation
of the TCI. The cost of construction materials, wage rates, and taxes may vary
significantly based on the country. For instance, the TCI for a plant in the Middle
East may be as low as 80% of the TCI for a plant in the US. There are other factors
which could be important before and upon the completion of the “detailed estimate
design” stage of the plant. These factors such as climate, waste disposal, labor
supply, flood and fire protection, site characteristics, and community factors are not
considered in the techno-economic analysis in the “study estimate” level of design
(Peters et al. 2003; Smith 2005; Shafiei et al. 2014).
13.2.1.3 Plant Capacity
Plant capacity is an important factor which could affect the process economy.
Techno-economic studies in general try to target economic scales usually leading to
the design of large capacity plants (Anex et al. 2010). Typical plant capacities
which were studied may vary from 50,000 to 600,000 ton biomass/year (Balan et al.
2013; Sassner et al. 2008; Anex et al. 2010; Brown 2015; Shafiei et al. 2011; Galbe
et al. 2011). The possibility of the application of such large capacities depends on
the availability of raw materials and the associated transportation costs, availability
of the required capital investment, and availability of the product market (Pike
Research 2012; Peters et al. 2003). For instance, when biogas is to be produced
from municipal solid waste, maximum plant capacity would be the amount of waste
which is produced in a specific city. Transportation of raw materials from other
cities to the plant site involves additional costs and the economic feasibility for such
transportation should be considered first.
338 M. Shafiei
13.2.1.4 Plant Operation and Control
Instrumentation and maintenance are two important factors in plant operation and
control. Typical instrumentations in biogas plants involve instruments for online
measurement of flow, level, temperature, pressure, pH, and redox potential (Wiese
and König 2017). For process control in techno-economic analysis, digital, ana-
logue or programmable logic controller (PLC) systems can be chosen. In large
chemical industries, centralized automatic control facilities are used. These facili-
ties, including computers are usually located in rooms which are separated from the
rest of the compound for more labor safety. In small biogas plants, a few control
boards and panels are often situated in a safe place inside the plant. The instru-
mentation charge is typically 2–8% of the fixed capital investment of the plant.
Maintenance expenses are regarded as operating costs and may vary from 2 to 11%
of the annual value of the fixed capital investment. This value is at maximum 6%
for simple chemical processes while for a process with normal operating conditions,
it would increase to a maximum of 9% (Peters et al. 2003).
13.2.2 Process Development and Simulation
The first step for a techno-economic analysis is the conceptual design of the pro-
cesses involved in biofuel production, i.e., determination of the required equipment,
their sequences, and many other details about the processes involved (Fig. 13.1)
(Tao et al. 2013). These data will be summarized in a PFD. The next step is the
simulation of the corresponding models in a simulation software, e.g., Aspen Plus.
To do this, numerous types of data is required, and the most important ones are
chemistry and kinetics of the main and side reactions. Typically, the reaction rates
or yields/productivities are available based on experimental lab- or pilot-scale
studies. Other necessary data are physical, chemical, and thermochemical properties
of all of the important substances in the processes, e.g., molecular weight, boiling
Process
Development
Process Flow Economic Profitability
Diagram (PFD) Assessment Analysis
Process
Simulation
Main Equipment, Mass and
Energy Balance, Preliminary
Equipment Sizing
Fig. 13.1 General procedure for techno-economic analysis

point, triple point properties, vapor pressure, and viscosity. Additionally, a simu-
lation is reliable only if the process models are as correct as possible. For instance,
Aspen Plus® has many pre-built process models for reactors, heat exchanger, and
distillation columns. These models have been proven by several expert engineers
and companies. (AspenTech 2017). The results of process simulation are mass and
energy balances for the main process equipment.
13.2.3 Total Capital Investment (TCI) and Operating Cost

Estimation
The TCI is estimated based on the costs of purchased equipment. After simulation
is completed, the next step is the sizing or selection of equipment based on design
rules of chemical engineering. For instance, heat exchangers, towers, and reactors
should be sized while pumps and compressors should be selected from the available
types and sizes. Upon completion of this step, the expenses for purchased equip-
ment are calculated using available databases, e.g., available literature or software.
For instance, Aspen Process Economic Analyzer has a wide and reliable library for
prices of most of the equipment used in chemical processes. The next steps involve
calculation of the fixed and working capitals and consequently TCI for the plant.
These investment costs together with operating costs are defined based on rec-
ommended factors which should be multiplied by the total value for purchased
equipment (Turton et al. 2009; Peters et al. 2003) (Fig. 13.2).
TCI for a plant involves fixed and working capital investments. The fixed capital
investment includes direct and indirect costs. The direct costs represent the
expenditures required for purchasing of the main process equipment. Furthermore,
they also include the expenses for installation of the equipment, purchase and
installation of the instrumentations and controls for the equipment, piping, elec-
tricals, all types of buildings, service facilities, yard improvements, and land. The
indirect costs include construction expenses, engineering and supervision, contin-
gencies, and contractors’ fees. The above charges are estimated as recommended
percentages of the purchased equipment cost (Fig. 13.2). If these values are used for
the estimation, the ranges of uncertainties would increase up to 25–30%, however,
the cost estimation would be much faster and without requiring site-specific data
(Turton et al. 2009; Tao et al. 2013; Peters et al. 2003).
Working capital involves the credit for 1 month of raw materials, supplies,
finished and stored products, and semi-finished products in the process.
Furthermore, it also includes 1 month cash for the payable operating expenses,
taxes, and accounts (Turton et al. 2009; Peters et al. 2003).
Total product cost is estimated based on TCI and other expenses of the project.
These costs involve manufacturing costs and the general expenses. Manufacturing
costs include fixed charges, direct production costs, and plant overheads. The direct
manufacturing costs include the costs for raw materials, utilities, operating labor
340 M. Shafiei
Process Flow
Diagram (PFD)
Direct Costs
(65-85% of FCI)
Individual
Purchased o Purchased Equipment Cost (15-40% of FCI) a
Equipment Cost Fixed Capital o Installation (25-55 % of PEC) b
(PEC) Investment o Installed instrumentation and controls (8-50% of
(FCI) PEC) b
o Installed Piping (10-80 % of PEC) b
Total Purchased o Installed Electricals (10-40 % of PEC) b
o Auxiliary and Buildings (10-70 % of TPEC)
Equipment cost o Yard improvement and service facilities (40-100 %
(TPEC) of TPEC)
o Land (4-8 % of TPEC or 1-2 % of FCI )
Indirect Costs
Total Capital
(15-35% of FCI)
Investment (TCI)
o Engineering and Supervision (5-30 % of Direct

Costs)
o Contractors’ fees and construction expenses (10-
20% of FCI)
o Contingency (5-15% of FCI)
Working Capital
(10-20% of TCI)
a
The cost is estimated based on equipment design data from PFD and simulation
b
The costs can be estimated for each equipment and then added together
Fig. 13.2 Recommended values for calculation of Total Capital Investment (TCI) (Turton et al.
2009; Peters et al. 2003)
and direct supervisory, operating charges, maintenance, and repairs, as well as

patents and royalties. The fixed charges include income taxes, rent (if the cost for
land is not considered as a part of TCI), insurance, and depreciation. General
expenses include the costs for research and development, financing and adminis-
trative costs, and the costs for distribution and selling of the product. The amount of
raw materials and utilities are determined based on the simulation and experimental
data. Depending on the process type, i.e., batch or continuous, the number of
operating labors required for each major equipment is estimated and the labor cost
is predicted by multiplying the total number of labor by the labor wage rate. The
rest of these expenses are mainly estimated based on recommended percentages of
total or fixed capital investment. These recommended percentages may vary slightly
depending on the plant type. However, for the preliminary estimations, it is possible
to use the recommended values which are available in the literature (Turton et al.
2009; Peters et al. 2003) (Fig. 13.3).
Direct Production Costs

66% of TPC
o Raw materials (10-80 % of TPC) a

o Utilities (10-20% of TPC) a
o Operating Labor (OL) (10-20% of TPC) a
o Direct supervisory and Clerical Labor (10-
25% of OL) a
Total Capital o Operating Supplies (Charges) (0.5-1% of
Investment (TCI) FCI or 10-20% of maintenance and repairs)
o Maintenance and Repairs (2-10% of FCI)
and other Costs
o Patent and Royalty (0-6% of TPC)
o Laboratory Charges (10-20% of OL)
Manufacturing
Fixed Charges
Costs
10-20% of TPC
o Income taxes (depends on local rules)

o Rent (8-12 % of the value of the
property, if the cost for land is not
considered as a part of TCI)
Total Product Cost o Insurance (0.4-1% of FCI)
(TPC) o Depreciation (depends on local rules)
Plant Overheads
o 50-70 % of (OL + Supervision +

maintenance)
o Research and development (5 % of TPC or

General 2-5% of revenue)
Expenses o Financing (0-10% of TCI)b
o Administrative costs (2-6% of TPC or 15 %
of (OL + Supervision + maintenance)
o Distribution and selling (2-20% of TPC)
a
These costs can be estimated directly using values obtained from simulation, e.g., mass and energy balance and unit costs, e.g., for unit
price of materials or utilities.
b
The financing cost is calculated as the sum which should be paid back if the capital is borrowed. Thus, it would include the amounts of
borrowed money and the related interest. If the capital is 100% equity financed from the existing founds of the company, this parameter
may be excluded or reduced to the interest rate of the invested money.
Fig. 13.3 Recommended values for the calculation of Total Product Cost (TPC) (Turton et al.
2009; Peters et al. 2003)
13.2.4 Profitability Analysis
After individual design and economic analysis for each process, the economic
profitability of the processes involved should be compared. There are two approaches
for designing of biofuel production plants. The lignocellulosic biofuel plant can be
added to an existing plant or built as “grass root and clear field” or “green field”
342 M. Shafiei
plants. For example, in the former case, a plant for biogas production from straw can
be added to an existing plant from sewage sludge. In the latter case, the biogas plant
from whole wheat crop or wheat straw is built from the beginning.
The production cost is calculated by dividing the total product cost (TPC) by the
total plant capacity (Turton et al. 2009; Peters et al. 2003). For instance, the pro-
duction cost of biomethane, i.e., upgraded and pressurized biogas, from lignocel-
luloses can be compared with the prices of compressed natural gas (CNG) and the
methane produced by other processes.
Cash flow diagram for a project is depicted based on total project investment,
operating expenses, and the time-value of money. The time-value of money is
considered by applying interest (discount) rate. At zero time, the land is purchased
and the investment for the plant begins. Gradually, the fixed capital investment is
used for the construction of the plant, i.e., during the construction phase which may
last from 6 months to 3 years. At the end of the construction phase, fixed and
working capital is spent and the cash flow position is at minimum. Upon the
completion of the construction phase, it may take several months to 2 years for the
plant to work in full capacity. For new processes, the start up to full-capacity may
take longer times compared with proven processes. The details about the calcula-
tions of cash flow diagram was presented by Turton et al. (2009) and Peters et al.
(2003). Considering the time-value of money, any delays before full-scale plant
operation dictates profit losses and is not desirable. A sample cash flow diagram for
a biogas plant is presented in Fig. 13.4. The concepts of discounted cumulative cash
flow position (net present value), discounted payback period (payout period), and
discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) are common parameters used for the
evaluation of the process profitability. The term “discounted” is used when
time-value of money is considered in the calculations through the application of
interest rate for all of the costs and revenues.
Break-even point is an expression used in different conditions. In a situation
when Net Present Value (NPV) at the end of a project equals zero, a break-even is
reached. This indicates that the current assumptions for the project will lead to
80
Net Present Value (Million €)
60
40 Interest
Rate (i)
20
0.1
0
0.2
-20 0 5 10 15
0.3
-40
-60
-80
Project Life (Year)
Fig. 13.4 Cash flow diagram for a biogas plant using different values of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 as
interest rate. When i = 0.21, the Net Present Value (NPV) would be zero [Calculated from Shafiei
et al. (2014)]
neither profit nor loss. Any of the following assumptions may be considered as the
break-even parameter, e.g., the break-even interest rate (internal rate of return, IRR)
or the break-even selling price of the product (Turton et al. 2009; Peters et al. 2003).
In this regard, a very common expression for comparing the profitability of projects
is the minimum selling prices (MSP) of the biofuel. Minimum ethanol selling price
(MESP) is the price at which the NPV of the process would equal zero after a
defined plant life time, e.g., 20 years (Humbird 2011; Swanson 2010; Tao 2014;
McAloon 2000; Kazi 2010; Wooley et al. 1999a). When the profitability of two
projects is to be compared, all possible factors which may affect the NPV should be
eliminated. These investment parameters are presented in the following sections.
Sometimes the break-even point is defined as the minimum plant capacity at
which the operating costs would be equal to earnings. Thus, at this capacity, which
is a percentage of the plant full capacity, the net earnings are zero (Peters et al.
2003). Another definition for break-even point is when two additional plans should
be compared for an existing plant. In this case, the required capital cost for these
additions are calculated as well as the amounts of increased revenues. Then, the
required time taken for these revenues to cover all the capital cost is calculated. At
this time which is called the “breakeven point”, all the expenses are recovered and
from that time on the plant will produce extra profits. Therefore, the project which
requires shorter time to payback the investment, is more profitable (Tao et al. 2013).
However, this method is not suitable for the comparison of investments which have
big differences in the amounts of capital cost or involve differences in the invest-
ment assumptions, e.g., rate of return on investment or taxation rate. A more general
and accurate method for the comparison of the profitability of new or additional
projects is the incremental analysis which has been widely discussed by Turton
et al. previously (2009).
Profitability index (PI) or present value ratio (PVR) is calculated by dividing the
present value of benefits (all positive cash flows) by the present value of costs (all
negative cash flows). A profitable process has PI values greater than 1. If the NPV
is equal to zero, then the PI would be 1 and a break-even situation has occurred
(Turton et al. 2009; Shafiei et al. 2014).
13.2.5 Investment Parameters
In every techno-economic analysis, the investment parameters should be clearly

stated. The economic viability of the processes may change significantly by
changing these parameters such as taxation rate and interest rate (desired rate of
return). The method for calculation of depreciation depends on the regulations in
the plant location. For instance, the interest rate should be at least equal to the
interest rate enforced by the banks. This value is as low as few percentages in the
European countries while in the Middle East, it can be as high as 20%.
The calculated IRR or DCFROR should be always more than the desired rate of
return. If longer plant lives are considered, the NPV would be higher while shorter
344 M. Shafiei
time for the depreciation of the plant would help the economy of the plant. The year
at which the analysis was performed could also affect the capital costs significantly.
Thus, a comparison of the results of techno-economic analyses is not easy and
accurate (Chovau et al. 2013; Gnansounou et al. 2015).
13.3 Comparison of Techno-Economic Research Studies
A comparison of various techno economic analyses conducted for biogas produc-

tion is presented in Table 13.1. Barta et al. (2010) compared the economic viability
of the addition of different anaerobic digestion system to an ethanol production
plant in Sweden. Aspen Plus was used for process simulation and Aspen Icarus
Process Evaluator was applied for the economic evaluation. The ethanol plant
utilized spruce wood and was based on steam explosion pretreatment catalyzed by
SO2. The anaerobic digestion scenarios were compared with a case of using an
evaporation system for treatment of the stillage. The study compared the energy
efficiency and ethanol production costs of the processes. The alternative scenarios
included four scenarios for biogas production from the liquid fraction of the stillage
(A scenarios) and one scenario for anaerobic digestion of the whole stillage (B). In
the four former scenarios, i.e., A1–A4, in addition to ethanol and heat provided to
the district heating system, the by-products could be upgraded biogas and pellets;
pellets; upgraded biogas; or no other by-product. The results indicated that the
energy efficiency of all the alternative scenarios were 87–92% while the base case
had an energy efficiency of 81%. Scenarios A3 and B were associated with the
lowest ethanol production costs of 4.01 and 4.00 (SEK1/L), respectively. These
values were less than 5.14 SEK/L for the base case.
In a study by Akbulut (2012), the economy of a biogas plant as an addition to a
farm for milk production was investigated. In addition to cow manure, which was
available for free, sheep manure would be transported at a cost of 5.8 €/ton. In
addition to ordinary operating costs, animal feed was purchased for cows. The main
products of the plant were electricity, solid and liquid fertilizers, and milk. The final
plant NPV was € 9.88 million using the most optimistic parameters. Although this
study used a discounted cash flow analysis, the estimation method or reference for
the equipment prices was not mentioned. Furthermore, mass and energy balance
calculations and the cash flow analysis were performed manually. The taxation rate
was too low and the contingencies and working capital were not included in the
total capital investment.
Wheat straw and paper tube residuals were used as a feedstock for biogas
production via solid state fermentation (Shafiei et al. 2013). Steam explosion at
180–190 °C was used for the pretreatment of the lignocelluloses. The process
was developed based on the experimental data and simulated by Aspen Plus®.
1
Swedish kronor
Table 13.1 Comparison of techno economic analysis for biogas productiona
13
Reference Barta et al. Akbulut Shafiei Shafiei Rajendran et al. Kabir et al. Mel et al. Larsson et al. (2015)
(2010) (2012) et al. et al. (2014) (2014) (2015) (2015)
(2013)
Year 2009 2010 2013 2014 2012 2014 – –
Feedstock Ethanol Cow Paper tube Pinewood Municipal solid Forest Fruits and Kraft pulp mill waste
plant stillage manure and residuals/ waste and biogas residues vegetable
Sheep dung wheat from WWTP wastes
straw
Feedstock 0 0 and 5.8 €/ 80/50 €/ton 60 €/ton 0 $/kg + ? $/L 0.4 $/kg RM 0
cost ton 1,062,335/
yd
Pretreatment SO2- – Steam Steam – Methanol – –
catalysed explosion explosion/
steam NMMO
Techno-Economic Aspects of Biogas Plants
pretreatment
Main product Ethanol Milk Raw biogas Biomethane Biomethane Biomethane Biomethane Liquefied methane
Main product 4.01/4.00 0.28 €/kg 0.57 €/m3 1.15 €/m3 1.81 $/L (0.76 $/ 1.81 $/L RM 5.0/kg 119 €/MWh (80 €/MWh)
price SEK/Lc (0.48 €/m3/ (1.35/1.17 L) (gasoline (RM 4.4/
(production 0.36 €/m3) €/m3) equivalent)/ kg)d
cost)b 3.0 $/kg
Byproduct Biomethane Electricity/ Solid fuel Solid Fertilizer Lignin – –
and heat solid and and steam residue and
liquid sludge
fertilizer
Byproduct 600 and 280 €0.1/kWh, 0.02 and 0.04 €/kg – 3.0 $/kg – –
price SEK/MWhc €120/t, 0.003 €/kg
€32/t
(continued)
345
346
(2010) (2012) et al. et al. (2014) (2014) (2015) (2015)
(2013)
Plant 200,000 ton/ 28,105 ton/ 200,000 100,000 110,000 m3 20,000 ton/ 83.79 m3/h 1.3, 9 and 13 ton/day of
capacity year dry year (DM ton/year tons/year MSW/ year primary sludge, Secondary
spruce chips 10.8)% (dry basis) (dry basis) year + 3500 m3/ sludge and methanol
day raw biogas
Contingency – – 15 15 – – – –
(%)
Working 2.6/2.5% of – 5% of TCI 5% of TCI 5% of TCI – 11.7% of –
capital FCI TCI
Interest rate 7 14 10 10 10 7 6 6
(%)
IRR – – 34%/34% 0%/0% 34%/34% 11.8% 9.61% –
(DCFROR)
Tax rate – 5% 30% 30% 33% 33% – –
calculated
Project life 15 20 15 15 20 15 – 15
(years)
Location Sweden Turkey Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Malaysia Sweden
Depreciation Straight line – Straight Straight Straight line Straight line – –
line line
Depreciation 15 10 7 7 – – – 15
period
(years)
(continued)
M. Shafiei
13
(2010) (2012) et al. et al. (2014) (2014) (2015) (2015)
(2013)
Payback – 3.4 5 7.6/8.3 6 5.34 8.2 7.8
period (year)
Total capital 1268/1305 10.26 M€ 63.9 M€/ 65.1 M€/ 49.2 M$ 60.5 M$ MRM 15 M€
investment MSEKc 61.8 M€ 69.7 M€ 25.7d
NPV – 9.88 M€ 34.7 M€/ 82.2 M€/ 106 M$ 19.9 M$ MRM 6.8d –
65.6 M€ 71.9 M€
a
In each case, the results of the best scenarios are presented, M€: million Euro; M$: million US dollar
b
Product price is the value at which the product is sold and depends on the market; production cost is the calculated value that the financier should pay to
produce the product
c
MSEK: Million Swedish Kronor, US $ 7.3 SEK (2010)
d
MRM: million RM, RM = MYR = Malaysian Ringgit (1 MYR * $ 0.31, 2014)
Techno-Economic Aspects of Biogas Plants
347
348 M. Shafiei
The economic evaluation was performed with Aspen Process Economic Analyzer.
Manufacturing cost of raw biogas was 0.36 or 0.48 €/m3 of methane for paper tubes
and the straw while 46 and 56% of this cost was contributed by the raw material
expenses. The respective total project investment of the processes were 63.9 and
61.8 million €, respectively.
Techno-economic analysis of steam explosion and Nmethylmorpholine-N-oxide
(NMMO) pretreatment for biomethane production from pinewood was performed
by Shafiei et al. (Shafiei et al. 2014). Aspen Plus® and Aspen Process economic
analyzer were used for this analysis. Total capital investment of the processes were
65.1 and 69.7 million € for steam explosion and NMMO pretreatment, respectively.
The respective manufacturing costs of the products were 0.77 and 0.97 €/m3 of
biomethane, respectively, excluding taxes as well as selling and distribution prices.
Rajendran et al. (2014) investigated the techno-economic aspects of biogas
production from organic fraction of the municipal solid waste (OMSW) in Sweden.
Aspen Plus and Aspen Process Economic Analyzer were used for process simu-
lation and economic evaluation, respectively. The base case included the processing
of 55,000 m3 of the feedstock and required 34.6 million USD for its capital cost.
The NPV after 20 years of plant life was 27.2 million USD. The scenarios included
two types of biogas upgrading technologies, i.e., carbon dioxide absorption by
monoethanolamine and water scrubbing method. Furthermore, the economy of the
plants with double capacity, i.e., the application of two digesters, was also inves-
tigated. In order to improve the economy of the biogas upgrading system, buying
additional raw biogas from nearby wastewater treatment plant was included in the
scenarios and compared with the other ones. The minimum selling price for
compressed biogas was 0.76 USD/L. This value was corresponding to the scenario
with two digesters which imported biogas from the wastewater treatment plant. This
scenario also included both scrubbing and absorption technologies for biogas
upgrading.
Experimental and economic evaluation of biomethane production from forest
residues were performed by Kabir et al. (2015). The processes included pretreat-
ments with acetic acid, ethanol, or methanol at 190 °C for 60 min using 50% (V/V)
of the organic solvent. The processes were simulated and evaluated using
Superpro® Designer program. Among the processes investigated, the one which
used methanol was the most promising process due to the lower cost of methanol.
SuperPro Designer software was used for the simulation and economic evalu-
ation of a process for production of biomethane from fruits and vegetable wastes
(Mel et al. 2015). The process involved a single concrete digester with a volume of
about 2400 working at mesophilic conditions and retention time of 25 d.
Water-scrubbing was used for the purification of biogas to 95%. The process was
too simple and lacked compressors, biogas drying system, storage tanks for feed
and product, and wastewater treatment unit. Water was not recycled back and thus,
the desorption column was not considered for this process. The wastewater from the
anaerobic digestion was not further processed to meet standard quality as
wastewater either.
Larsson et al. (2015) performed a techno-economic analysis for the addition of a

unit for biogas production for waste streams of a pulp and paper mill in Sweden.
They considered two scenarios: case 1 evaluated the addition of a high rate (upflow
anaerobic sludge bed, UASB) thermophilic anaerobic digester prior to the activated
sludge treatment. This digester treated the condensate from Kraft evaporator
methanol and alkaline filtrates from the bleaching process. The other scenario
included a completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) fed by the primary and secondary
sludge of the aerobic wastewater treatment and Kraft evaporator condensate. The
main product of these processes was liquefied methane. The most profitable case
was the second one with the production cost of 80 €/MWh.
13.4 Conclusions
Considering the tremendous amounts of waste generated on a daily basis, biogas

production from these waste streams is a promising strategy to move towards the
substitution of fossil fuels. Agricultural and forest residues are the most available
raw materials for biogas production in terms of quantity. However, the challenges
of microbial treatment of these lignocellulosic feedstock have raised economic
concerns for their commercial conversion to biogas. Many studies have investigated
the economics of biogas production from such types of feedstock; however, dif-
ferent results were obtained and comparison of the results did not come into a good
conclusion. There have been two main approaches for economic assessment of the
processes involved; via calculation of cash flow diagram, and by calculation of
production cost. In each method, there are many parameters which can affect the
final results. Cost of raw materials, tax rates, contingencies, selling price of the
products, plant location and capacity, and interest rate are among the most
important parameters affecting the final results of economic assessments. While
calculation of NPV may not show the whole picture of the economic feasibility of a
process, it can be concluded that simultaneous application of both methods, i.e.,
cash flow analysis and calculation of production cost, could facilitate the com-
parison of the results from different studies. While some studies revealed that
biogas, biomethane or electricity production was economically feasible, some
studies concluded very low potentials for the commercialization of biogas pro-
duction from lignocelluloses in the near future. This was concluded due to the
payback periods of more than 5 years and low return rates compared with what
expected by the industrial stakeholders. Furthermore, issues such as process
instabilities and maintenance problems are hardly ever discussed in
techno-economic analysis, while these concerns are very important as risk factors of
a process. Other risk factors which are not discussed in techno-economic analysis
are escalation factors for raw materials and the products. These factors have drastic
effects on the revenues and raw material expenses in the cash flow analysis, and
thus, a deep market analysis is required to have a correct picture of the future prices.
Finally, in addition to economic viability of a process, issues such as energy
350 M. Shafiei
efficiency and analysis of life cycle assessment are also essential to have a real
green process which reduced GHG emissions.
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Chapter 14
Exergy-Based Performance Assessment
of Biogas Plants: Application
of Advanced Exergy and
Exergoeconomic Analyses for
Evaluating Biogas Upgrading Process
Hojat Ansarinasab and Mehdi Mehrpooya
14.1 Introduction
Nowadays, both energy and environmental problems call upon a reconsideration of

the current energy infrastructure by improving the design and performance of
energy conversion processes. Accordingly, research attempts have been propelled
towards the use of advanced engineering approaches such as emergy, life cycle
assessment (LCA), energy, and exergy for decision-making on the efficiency,
productivity, and sustainability of energy conversion systems, particularly renew-
able energy systems. Among the methods developed so far, exergy concept is
attractive because of its potency for locating and quantifying the irreversibility
aspects of energy conversion systems. Moreover, all kinds of material and energy
flows can be fairly evaluated/valued using this concept.
Simply speaking, exergy is the maximum amount of obtainable shaft work from
an energy or material flow when it brings to equilibrium with its reference envi-
ronment (Dadak et al. 2016). Due to unique conceptual features of the exergy-based
analyses in designating both the energy quantity and quality more accurately
compared with the conventional energy analysis, these approaches have recently
become very popular for scrutinizing the efficiency, productivity, and sustainability
aspects of biofuel production and utilization systems. In better words, exergy is the
H. Ansarinasab
Faculty of Energy Systems Engineering, Petroleum University
of Technology (PUT), Abadan, Iran
M. Mehrpooya (&)
Renewable Energies and Environmental Department,
Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies,
University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

356 H. Ansarinasab and M. Mehrpooya
confluence of energy, environment, and sustainable development (Dincer 2011)

(Fig. 14.1).
Even though the reasons and sources of internal and external irreversibilities can
be accurately identified by exergy analysis, it alone cannot be used as a perfect
decision-making metric because of the fact that classical analysis does not consider
economic and environmental constraints of energy systems. Fortunately, integrated
exergy-based approaches like exergoeconomic and exergoenvironmental approaches
can easily address this issue. In recent years, these approaches have found interna-
tional reputation for micro/macro-level analysis, development, and optimization of
energy systems from exergy/economic and exergy/environmental perspectives,
respectively. Advanced exergy, exergoeconomic, and exergoenvironmental analyses
respectively split the exergy destruction of a given component as well as its asso-
ciated costs and environmental impact into four parts, i.e., avoidable endogenous,
unavoidable endogenous, avoidable exogenous, and unavoidable exogenous. In
better words, advanced exergy-based analyses can reveal technical, economical, and
environmental interactions among components of energy systems.
In spite of the fact that biogas produced from waste organics is a renewable clean
biofuel, its production and upgrading processes require huge amounts of energy,
water, and materials. In light of that, there is an urgent need to find the most
resource-efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally-friendly biogas production
and upgrading processes in response to both energy crisis and environmental pol-
lution. Biogas upgrading is one the most important step of biogas production plant
Fig. 14.1 The

interdisciplinary triangle of
exergy. Adopted from Dincer
(2011)
14 Exergy-Based Performance Assessment of Biogas Plants … 357
in order to reduce its CO2 and H2S contents to a safe level as required by
gas-powered vehicles and equipment. It should be noted that biogas upgrading
process for removing CO2 from evolved biogas can be carried out various tech-
nologies including high pressure water scrubbing, cryogenic separation, membrane
separation, organic physical scrubbing, chemical scrubbing, and pressure swing
adsorption. In this chapter, two biogas upgrading processes, i.e., high pressure
water scrubbing (HPWS) and cryogenic separation (CS) were simulated and ana-
lyzed using advanced exergy and exergoeconomic analyses in order to pinpoint the
breakthrough points for further thermodynamic and economic improvements. More
specifically, the effects of influential parameters were investigated on the exergetic
and exergoeconomic parameters of both processes.
14.2 Processes Description
14.2.1 HPWS Process
In this method, CO2 and H2S are separated from biogas and absorbed by the liquid
absorbent. Figure 14.2 illustrates the process flow diagram of the HPWS simulated
in this study. Table 14.1 presents thermodynamic properties and chemical com-
positions of the main streams of the HPWS process. In this process, raw biogas was
compressed (to 8 bar) and then cooled down (to about 25 °C) by intermediate
cooler (stream 5). The compressed biogas entered from the bottom of the absorption
tower T-1. High pressure water with a flow rate of 71,820 kg/h was sprayed from
top section of the tower. The purity of biogas (stream 6) at top outlet of the tower
was higher than 90%. The remaining impurities like oxygen could not be removed
simply because they were inert gases. The tower bottom outlet (stream 7) con-
taining CO2 and H2S entered the water regeneration tower T-2. In this unit water
entered from the top and contacted with air (stream 8) entering from the bottom.
Acid gases were separated because of breaking their bonds with water and took
away by air (stream 9). Finally, regenerated water transferred to the absorption
tower (T-1) by pump P-1.
14.2.2 CS Process
In this method, biogas impurities like CO2 and H2S are liquefied and separated from
the methane. Figure 14.3 shows the process flow diagram of the CS process sim-
ulated throughout this study. In this process, separation is done in three successive
stages. Table 14.2 presents thermodynamic properties and chemical compositions
of the main streams of the CS process. In each stage of separation, temperature and
pressure of the streams were adjusted in order to maximize CO2 separation from
Fig. 14.2 Process flow diagram of the HPWS process
Table 14.1 Thermodynamic Stream name Biogas (6) (8) (9)

properties and chemical (1)
compositions of the main
streams of the HPWS process Flow (kg/h) 533.32 226.07 2885.03 3217.80
Temperature 25.00 13.04 25.00 13.14
(°C)
Pressure (bar) 2.00 6.00 1.20 1.20
Components – – – –
(mol%)
CH4 60.76 91.87 0.00 0.41
CO2 36.49 4.28 0.00 6.21
H2S 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.15
H2O 0.00 0.27 0.00 1.27
O2 0.97 1.69 21.00 19.30
N2 0.97 1.90 79.00 72.65
methane. In this process, raw biogas compressed by three stage compression and
cooled down by two intermediate coolers. The compressed biogas having tem-
perature of 103.2 °C and pressure of 50 bar (stream 6) entered heat exchangers
HE-1 and HE-2 and cooler E-1, respectively. The compressed biogas was cooled
down to −45 °C (stream 9) and then transferred into two phase separator F-1 and a
portion of its CO2 was separated (stream 10). The partially purified biogas (stream
12) was flowed to heat exchangers HE-4 and HE-3 and was then cooled again by
cooler E-2. The outlet stream was sent to valve V-1 and its pressure and temperature
reached to −70 °C and 40 bar, respectively. This stream entered two phase sepa-
rator F-2 and a portion of its CO2 was liquefied and separated. Finally, stream 19
was cooled down in cooler E-2 and flowed into expansion valve V-1. The outlet
24
F-3
CO 2 CO 2
19 20 21
18 23 F-2
HE-5 V-2
12 13 14 15 16
CO 2 Upgraded biogas
HE-3 HE-4 E-2 V-1
11 26 F-1
22
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 17
Biogas HE-1 HE-2 E-1
C-1 AC-1 C-2 AC-2 C-2
25
10
Fig. 14.3 Process flow diagram of the CS process
stream reached to −120 °C and 20 bar. In phase separator F-3, the remained CO2
was separated from the methane.
14.3 Thermodynamic Modeling
Both HPWS and CS processes were developed using the Aspen HYSYS. The
well-known Peng-Robinson equation of state was utilized for simulating these
processes due to the nature of components available in the biogas. This equation of
state can be written as below (Eq. 14.1) (Robinson et al. 1985):
RT a
p¼ ð14:1Þ
v b vðv þ bÞ þ bðv bÞ
Here, the values of a and b can be expressed as follows (Eqs. 14.2 and 14.3):
XX
a¼ zi zj ðai aj Þ0:5 ð1 kij Þ ð14:2Þ
X
b¼ z i bi ð14:3Þ
The power consumption rates of equipment involved in both biogas upgrading

processes are presented in Table 14.3.
14.4 Exergy Analysis
14.4.1 Conventional Exergy Analysis
The total exergy flow rate associated with each stream could be computed as the
summation of chemical, physical, potential and kinetic exergies. In this work,
potential and kinetic exergies were ignored because of their insignificant contri-
bution to total exergy. Physical and chemical exergies are written as below
(Eqs. 14.4 and 14.5) (Mehrpooya et al. 2016):
Table 14.2 Thermodynamic properties and chemical compositions of the main streams of the CS
process
Stream name Biogas (1) (11) (18) (23) (26)
Flow (kg/h) 532.93 185.56 121.86 35.08 190.44
Temperature (°C) 25.00 60.00 −46.00 −49.00 22.00
Pressure (bar) 2.00 50.00 40.00 2.00 5.00
Components (mol%) – – – – –
CH4 61.10 23.91 29.51 1.48 92.67
CO2 36.93 75.63 69.98 98.48 4.05
H2S 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
O2 0.98 0.19 0.20 0.01 1.67
N2 0.98 0.26 0.29 0.01 1.61
Table 14.3 Power consumption rates of equipment involved in both biogas upgrading processes
HPWS process CS process
Component name Power (kW)a Component name Power (kW)a
C-1 16.23 C-1 26.37
C-2 11.72 C-2 27.48
AC-1 6.34 C-3 13.51
AC-2 7.61 AC-1 14.28
P-1 10.21 AC-2 17.14
a
Mechanical efficiency = 0.75
E_ PH ¼ H Ho To ðS So Þ ð14:4Þ
X X
E_ CH ¼ xi E_ io þ G xi G i ð14:5Þ
where E_ io , xi and Gi refer to the standard chemical exergy, molar fraction, and Gibbs
free energy, respectively, for ith stream.
By defining the product exergy (ĖP,k) and fuel exergy (ĖF,k) associated with the
kth process component, the exergy destruction (ĖD,k), exergy efficiency (ek) and
exergy destruction ratio (yk) of each element can be calculated as below (Eqs. 14.6,
14.7, and 14.8) (Ansarinasab and Mehrpooya 2017a):
E_ D;k ¼ E_ F;k E_ P;k ð14:6Þ
E_ P;k E_ D;k
ek ¼ or ek ¼ 1 ð14:7Þ
E_ F;k E_ F;k
E_ D;k
yk ¼ ð14:8Þ
_EF;tot
Table 14.4 summarizes the fuel and product definitions for components of both
HPWS and CS processes.
14.4.2 Advanced Exergy Analysis
The classical exergy method can only reveal the irreversibilities of each component,
while the sources and inevitability of these irreversibilities are still important.
Advanced exergy method can provide more information by splitting the exergy
destruction of process components into endogenous/exogenous parts based on the
origin of the irreversibilities and into avoidable/unavoidable parts based on the
removing ability of the irreversibilities. Endogenous part of exergy destruction can
be computed if it is assumed that other elements operate ideally. In better words,
this value reveals the amount of exergy destruction of the kth element occurred due
to poor efficiency of other elements. Engineering (graphical) method, as shown in
Fig. 14.4 (Ansarinasab et al. 2017a; Kelly et al. 2009), can be used to compute
endogenous exergy destruction based on the following equations (Eqs. 14.9 and
14.10) (Sadaghiani et al. 2017):
E_ D;t ¼ E_ F;t E_ p;t ð14:9Þ

X
E_ D;t ¼ E_ D;k ¼ E_ D;k þ E_ D;other ð14:10Þ
k
Furthermore, exogenous part of exergy destruction caused by the interaction

among the considered element and other elements of the system can be computed
by subtracting the endogenous exergy destruction from the total exergy destruction
as below (Eq. 14.11) (Vatani et al. 2014):
E_ D;k
EX
¼ E_ D;k E_ D;k
EN
ð14:11Þ
Due to economic and technical obstacles, all of the thermodynamic irre-

versibilities of a given element cannot be removed briefly called “inevitable” or
“unavoidable” exergy destruction. In contrast, avoidable exergy destruction can be
declined by technical improvements. The unavoidable conditions for both devel-
oped biogas upgrading processes, affecting their efficiency and performance sig-
nificantly, are tabulated in Table 14.5.
The following relations can be utilized for calculating the unavoidable and
avoidable exergy destructions (Eqs. 14.12 and 14.13) (Vatani et al. 2014):
362
Table 14.4 Fuel and product definitions for components of both HPWS and CS processes
Component Exergy of fuel Exergy of product Component Exergy of fuel Exergy of product
C-1 ĖF = ẆC-1 ĖP = Ė2 − Ė1 C-1 ĖF = ẆC-1 ĖP = Ė2 − Ė1
C-2 ĖF = ẆC-2 ĖP = Ė4 − Ė3 C-2 ĖF = ẆC-2 ĖP = Ė4 − Ė3
AC-1 ĖF = (ĖPH)2 + ẆAC-1 ĖP = (ĖPH)3 − Ėair,out C-3 ĖF = ẆC-3 ĖP = Ė6 − Ė5
AC-2 ĖF = (ĖPH)4 + ẆAC-2 ĖP = (ĖPH)5 − Ėair,out AC-1 ĖF = (ĖPH)2 + ẆAC-1 ĖP = (ĖPH)3 − Ėair,out
T-1 ĖF = Ė5 − Ė6 ĖP = Ė7 − Ė11 AC-2 ĖF = (ĖPH)4 + ẆAC-2 ĖP = (ĖPH)5 − Ėair,out
T-2 ĖF = Ė7 − Ė10 ĖP = Ė9 − Ė8 HE-1 ĖF = Ė10 − Ė11 ĖF = Ė6 − Ė7
P-1 ĖF = ẆP-1 ĖP = Ė11 − Ė10 HE-2 ĖF = Ė25 − Ė26 ĖF = Ė8 − Ė7
HE-3 ĖF = Ė17 − Ė18 ĖF = Ė13 − Ė12
HE-4 ĖF = Ė23 − Ė24 ĖF = Ė14 − Ė13
HE-5 ĖF = Ė25 − Ė24 ĖF = Ė20 − Ė19
E-1 ĖF = ĖQ(E-1) ĖF = Ė9 − Ė8
E-2 ĖF = ĖQ(E-2) ĖF = Ė15 − Ė14
H. Ansarinasab and M. Mehrpooya
Fig. 14.4 Engineering

(graphical) method used to
compute endogenous exergy
destruction (Ansarinasab et al.
2017a; Kelly et al. 2009).
ɛk=const.
ĖF,tot - ĖP,tot
With permission from
Elsevier, Copyright© 2018
ĖN
ĖD,k
Ė D,others
Table 14.5 Assumptions for the unavoidable conditions

Component Main aim for unavoidable conditions Unavoidable conditions
Compressor To maximize the isentropic efficiency ηis = 90.0%
Pump To maximize the isentropic efficiency ηis = 90.0%
Tower To maximize the exergetic efficiency e = 99.9%
Air cooler To minimize the Min. Approach DTmin = 5.0 °C, DP = DPreal
Heat exchanger To minimize the Min. Approach DTmin = 0.5 °C, DP=DPreal
!UN
E_ D;k
E_ D;k
UN
¼ E_ P;k ð14:12Þ
E_ P;k
E_ D;k
AV
¼ E_ D;k E_ D;k
UN
ð14:13Þ
To achieve more informative results regarding the role of each element on total
exergy destruction, the above mentioned concepts can be integrated. Accordingly,
hybrid destruction parts can be obtained by combining the unavoidable/avoidable
and exogenous/endogenous destructions as below (Eqs. 14.14, 14.15, 14.16, and
14.17) (Vatani et al. 2014):
!UN
_
EN ED;k
E_ D;k
UN;EN
¼ E_ P;k ð14:14Þ
E_ P;k
E_ D;k
UN;EX
¼ E_ D;k
UN
E_ D;k
UN;EN
ð14:15Þ
E_ D;k
AV ;EN
¼ E_ D;k
EN
E_ D;k
UN;EN
ð14:16Þ
E_ D;k
AV ;EX
¼ E_ D;k
AV
E_ D;k
AV;EN
ð14:17Þ
14.5 Exergoeconomic Analysis
14.5.1 Conventional Exergoeconomic Analysis
In order to provide useful data for designing a cost-effective energy conversion

system, exergoeconomic analysis should be applied. The first step in an exergoe-
conomic analysis is the development of an economic model.
14.5.1.1 Economic Model
An economic model was developed based on the Total Revenue Requirement

(TRR) method proposed by the Electric Power Research Institute (Cao et al. 2016).
TRR model considers the whole costs associated with a project such as expenses
and carrying charges. Table 14.6 summarizes economic constants and assumptions
used in this study (Ansarinasab et al. 2016).
The levelized annual total revenue requirement (TRRL) can be determined by
implementing the capital recovery factor (CRF) as below (Eq. 14.18) (Bejan and
Tsatsaronis 1996):
X
BL
TRRj
TRRL ¼ CRF ð14:18Þ
1 (1 þ ieff ) j
The capital recovery factor (CRF) can be expressed as below (Eq. 14.19) (Bejan
and Tsatsaronis 1996):
Table 14.6 Economic constants and assumptions (Ansarinasab et al. 2016)

Economic parameters Value
Average annual rate of the cost of money (ieff) 10%
Average nominal escalation rate for the operating and maintenance cost (rOMC) 5%
Average nominal escalation rate for fuel (rFC) 5%
Plant economic life (book life) 25 years
Total annual operating hours of the system operation at full load 7300
ieff (1 þ ieff )BL

CRF ¼ ð14:19Þ
(1 þ ieff )BL 1
where ieff and BL stand for the average annual rate of the cost of money and plant
economic life, respectively. In both biogas upgrading processes, TRRj as the rev-
enue requirement in jth year of process performance, consisted of four annual costs
as follow (Eq. 14.20) (Mehrpooya et al. 2015):
TRRj ¼ TCRj þ ROIj þ FCj þ OMCj ð14:20Þ
where ROI and TCR stand for minimum return on investment and total capital
recovery, respectively. FC and OMC refer to fuel costs and operation and main-
tenance costs, respectively. The levelized value of electrical power cost (electrical
power consumed by compressors, pumps, and air coolers) as fuel costs can be
computed by implementing the fuel cost (FC0) at beginning of the first year of plant
economic life as follows (Eqs. 14.21 and 14.22) (Mehrpooya et al. 2015):
kFC (1 kFC
BL
)
FCL ¼ FC0 CELF ¼ FC0 CRF ð14:21Þ
(1 kFC )
1 þ rFC
kFC ¼ rFC ¼ constant ð14:22Þ
1 þ iiff
where CELF and rFC stand for the constant escalation levelization factor and
average nominal escalation rate for fuel, respectively. The levelized annual oper-
ation and maintenance cost (OMCL) can be achieved by the same procedure as
following (Eqs. 14.23 and 14.24) (Mehrpooya et al. 2015):
kOMC (1 kOMC
BL
)
OMCL ¼ OMC0 CELF ¼ OMC0 CRF ð14:23Þ
(1 kOMC )
1 þ rOMC
kOMC ¼ rOMC ¼ constant ð14:24Þ
1 þ iiff
Similarly, rOMC refers to nominal escalation rate of operation and maintenance

cost. Finally, the levelized carrying charges (CCL) can be achieved as follow
(Eq. 14.25) (Mehrpooya et al. 2015):
CCL ¼ TRRL FCL OMCL ð14:25Þ
The conventional exergoeconomic method was carried out at the

component-level by using related principles for each equipment. Therefore, the cost
rate associated with the kth equipment for CI (refers to capital investment) and
OMC (refer to operation and maintenance cost) can be computed as follows
(Eq. 14.26) (Mehrpooya et al. 2015):
CCL þ OMCL PECk

Z_ k ¼ Z_ kCI þ Z_ kOM ¼ P ð14:26Þ
s PECk
k
where s and PECk refer to the operational hours and the purchased cost of the kth
equipment, respectively. Table 14.7 depicts purchased-equipment cost functions.
14.5.1.2 Cost Balance Equations
The cost balance equation for each component of the process can be written as
follows (Eq. 14.27) (Mehrpooya et al. 2017):
X X
(ci E_ i )k þ Z_ kCL þ Z_ kOM ¼ (co E_ o )k ð14:27Þ
i o
where ci stands for average unit cost of exergy in $/GJ unit.

Moreover, auxiliary equations can be obtained according to the fuel and product
rules (Lazzaretto and Tsatsaronis 1997). The cost balance and auxiliary equations
for each component of both biogas upgrading processes are presented in
Table 14.8.
Table 14.7 Purchased cost equations of the process components

Component Purchased equipment cost functions Reference
0:78
Heat A Ansarinasab et al.
PECHE ¼ 130 0:093
exchanger (2017b)
PECE = 8500 + 409(A)0.8 Ansarinasab et al.
(2017b)
Compressor PECC = 7900(HP)0.62 Ansarinasab et al.
(2017b)
Air cooler PECAC = 30(A)0.4 Ansarinasab et al.
(2017b)
Pump 0:26 1g Ansarinasab et al.
PECP ¼ 800 W10P g
P
P
(2017b)
Flash drum PECF = 1.218(42 + 163 W) Ansarinasab et al.
(2017b)
Tower PECT = 1.218[Cb + NCt + Cp] Ct = 457.7 exp Cooper et al.
(0.1739D), N = number of trays (2010)
Cb = 1.218 exp[6.629 + 0.1826(ln W) +
0.02297(ln W)2],
Cp = 300D0.7396L0.7068
14
Table 14.8 Cost balances and auxiliary equations of the process components
Component Cost balance Auxiliary equation Component Cost balance Auxiliary equation
C-1 Ċ1 + ĊẆ(C-1) + ŻC-1 = Ċ2 c1 = 0 C-1 Ċ1 + ĊẆ(C-1) + ŻC-1 = Ċ2 c1 = 0
C-2 Ċ3 + ĊẆ(C-2) + ŻC-2 = Ċ4 None C-2 Ċ3 + ĊẆ(C-2) + ŻC-2 = Ċ4 None
AC-1 Ċ2 + ĊẆ(AC-1) + ŻAC-1 = Ċ3 None C-3 Ċ5 + ĊẆ(C-3) + ŻC-3 = Ċ6 None
AC-2 Ċ4 + ĊẆ(AC-2) + ŻAC-2 = Ċ5 None AC-1 Ċ2 + ĊẆ(AC-1) + ŻAC-1 = Ċ3 None
T-1 Ċ5 + Ċ11 + ŻT-1 = Ċ6 + Ċ7 c6 = c7 AC-2 Ċ4 + ĊẆ(AC-2) + ŻAC-2 = Ċ5 None
T-2 Ċ7 + Ċ8 + ŻT-2 = Ċ9 + Ċ10 c9 = c10, c8 = 0 HE-1 Ċ6 + Ċ10 + ŻHE-1 = Ċ7 + Ċ11 c10 = c11
P-1 Ċ10 + ĊẆ(P-1) + ŻP-1 = Ċ11 None HE-2 Ċ7 + Ċ25 + ŻHE-2 = Ċ8 + Ċ26 c25 = c26
HE-3 Ċ12 + Ċ17 + ŻHE-3 = Ċ13 + Ċ18 c17 = c18
HE-4 Ċ13 + Ċ22 + ŻHE-4 = Ċ14 + Ċ23 c22 = c23
HE-5 Ċ19 + Ċ24 + ŻHE-5 = Ċ20 + Ċ25 c24 = c25
E-1 Ċ8 + ŻE-1 = Ċ9 + ĊQ(E-1) None
E-2 None
Exergy-Based Performance Assessment of Biogas Plants …
Ċ14 + ŻE-2 = Ċ15 + ĊQ(E-2)

F-1 Ċ9 + ŻF-1 = Ċ10 + Ċ12 c10 = c12
F-2 Ċ16 + ŻF-2 = Ċ17 + Ċ19 c17 = c19
F-3 Ċ21 + ŻF-3 = Ċ22 + Ċ24 c22 = c24
V-1 Ċ19 + Ċ16 None
V-2 Ċ20 + Ċ21 None
367
14.5.1.3 Exergoeconomic Variables
Based on the product and fuel rules presented in the previous section, cost rate
related to the fuel (ĊF) and product (Ċp) can be determined for the process
equipment. Accordingly, the average cost per unit exergy of the fuel (cF) and
product (cP) can be defined as follows (Eqs. 14.28, and 14.29) (Mehrpooya et al.
2018):
C_ F;k
cF;k ¼ ð14:28Þ
E_ F;k
C_ P;k
cP;k ¼ ð14:29Þ
E_ P;k
The costs rate associated with the irreversibilities of the kth process component
is exergy destruction cost. This hidden cost can be obtained using the following
equation where the average cost per unit exergy of the fuel (cF) is constant
(Eq. 14.30) (Mehrpooya et al. 2018).
C_ D;k ¼ cF;k E_ D;k ð14:30Þ
Moreover, the exergoeconomic factor as an important relationship between the

exergy related costs (exergy destruction cost) and non-exergy related costs
(investment costs) is used to evaluate the process efficiency as follows (Eq. 14.31)
(Mehrpooya et al. 2018):
Z_ k
fk ¼ ð14:31Þ
Z_ k þ C_ D;k
Relative cost difference (rk) between unitary average cost of product and fuel
exergies for the kth equipment can be calculated as below (Eq. 14.32) (Mehrpooya
et al. 2018):
cP;k cF;k 1 ek Z_ k
rk ¼ ¼ þ ð14:32Þ
cF;k ek cF;k E_ P;k
14.5.2 Advanced Exergoeconomic Analysis
The cost rate associated with the irreversibilities of the kth component can be
split into endogenous/exogenous and avoidable/unavoidable parts as follows
(Eqs. 14.33, 14.34, 14.35, and 14.36) (Mehrpooya and Ansarinasab 2015):
C_ D;k
EN
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
EN
ð14:33Þ
C_ D;k
EX
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
EX
ð14:34Þ
C_ D;k
UN
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
UN
ð14:35Þ
C_ D;k
AV
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
AV
ð14:36Þ
Similar to the advanced exergy analysis, the mentioned concepts can be con-
solidated to attain more insights regarding the role of each element on total exergy
destruction cost (Eqs. 14.37, 14.38, 14.39, and 14.40) (Mehrpooya and
Ansarinasab 2015):
C_ D;k
UN;EN
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
UN;EN
ð14:37Þ
C_ D;k
UN;EX
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
UN;EX
ð14:38Þ
C_ D;k
AV;EN
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
AV;EN
ð14:39Þ
C_ D;k
AV;EX
¼ cF:k E_ D;k
AV;EX
ð14:40Þ
Furthermore, endogenous/exogenous and avoidable/unavoidable investment

costs can be written as follows (Eqs. 14.41, 14.42, 14.43, and 14.44) (Mehrpooya
and Ansarinasab 2015):
real
Z_
Z_ kEN ¼ E_ P;k
EN
ð14:41Þ
E_ P k
Z_ kEX ¼ Z_ k Z_ kEN ð14:42Þ

UN
Z_
Z_ kUN ¼ E_ P;k ð14:43Þ
E_ P k
Z_ kAV ¼ Z_ k Z_ kUN ð14:44Þ
In addition, the integrated endogenous/exogenous and avoidable/unavoidable

investment costs can be presented as follows (Eqs. 14.45, 14.46, 14.47, and 14.48)
(Mehrpooya and Ansarinasab 2015):
UN
Z_
Z_ kUN;EN ¼ E_ P;k
EN
ð14:45Þ
E_ P k
Z_ kUN;EX ¼ Z_ kUN Z_ kUN;EN ð14:46Þ
Z_ kAV ;EN ¼ Z_ kEN Z_ kUN;EN ð14:47Þ
Z_ kAV;EX ¼ Z_ kEX Z_ kUN;EX ð14:48Þ
In order to compare the performance of each element before and after modifi-
cation, some parameters can be determined based on avoidable endogenous part of
investment and exergy destruction costs as follows (Eqs. 14.49, 14.50, and 14.51)
(Ansarinasab and Mehrpooya 2017b):
E_ P;k
emodified ¼ ð14:49Þ
E_ F;k E_ D;k
UN
E_ D;k
AV;EX
Z_ kAV;EN
fkAV;EN ¼ ð14:50Þ
C_ AV;EN þ Z_ AV;EN
D;k k
C_ tot
AV ;EN
¼ C_ D;k
AV;EN
þ Z_ kAV;EN ð14:51Þ
where emodified refers to the modified exergy efficiency and fkAV ;EN and C_ tot
AV ;EN
refer
to the available endogenous exergoeconomic factor and total operating cost,
respectively.
14.6 Results and Discussion
14.6.1 Conventional Method
Tables 14.9 and 14.10 tabulate thermodynamic data for both HPWS and CS pro-
cesses, respectively.
Tables 14.11 and 14.12 summarize the results of the conventional exergy and
exergoeconomic analyses of the HPWS and CS processes, respectively. Clearly, the
majority of irreversibility of the HPWS process belonged to column T-2
(33304.52 W), compressor C-1 (3304.58 W), and air cooler AC-2 (3200.61 W),
respectively. Similarly, these components had the highest exergy destruction costs.
The values of exergoeconomic factor of the HPWS varied from a minimum value of
67.21% (pump P-1) to a maximum value of 99.79% (column T-1). To decrease the
total cost of the HPWS process, investment cost associated with column T-1 should
be decreased even though this modification could increase the cost of exergy
destruction. Moreover, the exergetic performance of pump P-1 must be improved
even if this could increase the investment cost. Furthermore, compressor C-2
(4857.78 W) and compressor C-1 (4838.64 W) had the highest contributions to the
total exergy destruction of the CS process. These components had the highest
14
Table 14.9 Thermodynamic data for the HPWS process

Stream no. T (°C) P (bar) ṁ (kg/h) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg.C) ĖPH (kW) ĖCH (kW) ĖTOT (kW) Ċ ($/h) c ($/GJ)
1 25.00 2.00 533.32 −7103.13 6.74 9.33 2887.18 2896.51 0.00 0.00
2 102.30 4.50 533.32 −6993.54 6.81 22.26 2887.18 2909.44 5.42 0.52
3 40.00 4.50 533.32 −7084.29 6.55 20.48 2887.18 2907.66 8.41 0.80
4 95.93 8.00 533.32 −7005.21 6.60 29.78 2887.18 2916.96 12.67 1.21
5 25.00 8.00 533.32 −7108.62 6.29 28.19 2887.18 2915.37 15.81 1.51
6 13.04 6.00 226.07 −4895.03 9.48 15.56 2720.45 2736.01 21.25 2.16
7 30.37 6.00 72153.29 −15833.57 3.06 20.24 13146.24 13166.48 102.30 2.16
8 25.00 1.20 2885.03 −0.28 5.21 11.65 3.60 15.24 0.00 0.00
9 13.14 1.20 3217.80 −953.97 5.19 12.87 160.90 173.77 1.39 2.22
10 30.33 1.20 71820.51 −15864.19 3.06 4.52 12970.14 12974.65 103.60 2.22
11 30.36 5.00 71820.51 −15863.68 3.06 13.50 12970.14 12983.63 104.90 2.24
371
Table 14.10 Thermodynamic data for the CS process
372
Stream no. T (°C) P (bar) ṁ (kg/h) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg.C) ĖPH (kW) ĖCH (kW) ĖTOT (kW) Ċ ($/h) c ($/GJ)
1 25.00 2.00 532.93 −7176.71 6.73 9.33 2870.87 2880.20 0.00 0.00
2 147.50 7.00 532.93 −6998.58 6.84 30.86 2870.87 2901.73 7.82 0.75
3 35.00 7.00 532.93 −7166.83 6.37 26.44 2870.87 2897.31 13.34 1.28
4 162.98 25.00 532.93 −6981.19 6.48 49.07 2870.87 2919.93 21.42 2.04
5 35.00 25.00 532.93 −7181.78 5.94 43.35 2870.87 2914.21 27.26 2.60
6 103.19 50.00 532.93 −7090.55 6.00 54.13 2870.87 2924.99 31.98 3.04
7 22.46 50.00 532.93 −7224.98 5.60 51.99 2870.87 2922.86 32.03 3.04
8 −15.92 50.00 532.93 −7295.78 5.34 52.85 2870.87 2923.72 32.08 3.05
9 −45.00 50.00 532.93 −7439.07 4.74 58.13 2870.87 2929.00 31.77 3.01
10 −45.00 50.00 185.56 −8863.21 2.53 15.24 295.92 311.17 3.74 3.34
11 60.00 50.00 185.56 −8477.10 3.98 12.81 295.92 308.74 3.71 3.34
12 −45.00 50.00 347.38 −6678.34 5.92 41.43 2576.40 2617.83 31.46 3.34
13 −48.63 50.00 347.38 −6706.21 5.80 42.28 2576.40 2618.68 31.49 3.34
14 −55.67 50.00 347.38 −6755.10 5.58 43.93 2576.40 2620.33 31.54 3.34
15 −63.45 50.00 347.38 −6807.35 5.34 45.93 2576.40 2622.33 31.48 3.33
16 −70.00 40.00 347.38 −6807.35 5.38 44.76 2576.40 2621.16 31.43 3.33
17 −70.00 40.00 121.86 −8785.68 2.46 11.28 246.14 257.42 3.42 3.69
18 −46.00 40.00 121.86 −8706.23 2.83 10.24 246.14 256.38 3.41 3.69
19 −70.00 40.00 225.52 −5738.26 6.95 31.91 2331.87 2363.78 31.43 3.69
20 −78.03 40.00 225.52 −5801.91 6.63 33.91 2331.87 2365.78 31.39 3.69
21 −120.00 2.00 225.52 −5801.91 7.65 14.93 2331.87 2346.80 31.39 3.72
22 −120.00 2.00 35.08 −9472.21 1.09 3.04 7.19 10.23 0.15 4.12
23 −49.00 2.00 35.08 −8988.10 3.60 0.47 7.19 7.66 0.11 4.12
24 −120.00 2.00 190.44 −5125.86 8.85 10.50 2326.08 2336.58 34.66 4.12
25 −77.49 5.00 190.44 −5050.47 8.87 14.23 2326.08 2340.31 34.71 4.12
26 22.00 5.00 190.44 −4852.34 9.69 11.82 2326.08 2337.90 34.67 4.12
14
Table 14.11 Results of the conventional exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of the HPWS process
Component ĖF (W) ĖP (W) ĖD (W) cF ($/ cP ($/ ĊD ($/ Ż ($/ e (%) yD r (%) f (%)
Gj) Gj) h) 103 h) 103 (%)
C-1 16234.66 12930.08 3304.58 19.72 101.84 234.60 3587.94 79.64 6.34 416.43 93.86
C-2 11715.03 9305.74 2409.29 19.72 112.31 171.04 2930.74 79.43 4.62 469.52 94.49
AC-1 28597.42 26477.15 2120.27 19.72 45.19 150.52 2277.54 92.59 4.07 129.18 93.80
AC-2 37392.89 34192.28 3200.61 19.72 40.07 227.22 2277.54 91.44 6.14 103.19 90.93
T-1 179364.11 178285.85 1078.27 1.51 5.91 5.85 2822.09 99.40 2.07 292.57 99.79
T-2 191827.83 158523.31 33304.52 2.16 7.31 258.74 2680.12 82.64 63.91 238.63 91.20
P-1 10208.49 8981.00 1227.49 19.72 27.94 87.14 178.63 87.98 2.36 41.68 67.21
373
374
Table 14.12 Results of the conventional exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of the CS process
Component ĖF (W) ĖP (W) ĖD (W) cF ($/ cP ($/ ĊD ($/ Ż ($/ e (%) yD r (%) f (%)
Gj) Gj) h) 103 h) 103 (%)
C-1 26370.52 21531.88 4838.64 19.72 86.67 343.50 4846.35 81.65 4.90 339.52 93.38
C-2 27481.82 22624.04 4857.78 19.72 85.00 344.86 4972.32 82.32 4.92 331.06 93.51
C-3 13505.71 10780.09 2725.62 19.72 107.18 193.50 3200.68 79.82 2.76 443.51 94.30
AC-1 45142.11 41443.33 3698.78 19.72 47.65 262.58 3903.87 91.81 3.74 141.61 93.70
AC-2 66207.37 62349.11 3858.26 19.72 38.33 273.91 3903.87 94.17 3.91 94.39 93.44
HE-1 2428.43 2138.41 290.02 3.34 24.25 3.49 157.50 88.06 0.29 626.48 97.84
HE-2 2410.37 862.59 1547.78 4.12 62.23 22.96 157.50 75.79 1.57 1410.49 87.28
HE-3 1038.20 852.75 185.45 3.69 55.80 2.47 157.50 82.14 0.19 1411.00 98.46
HE-4 2568.81 1645.46 923.35 4.12 33.02 13.70 157.50 74.06 0.93 701.47 92.00
HE-5 3734.98 1997.62 1737.36 4.12 29.60 25.77 157.50 73.48 1.76 618.55 85.94
E-1 6504.48 5276.64 1227.84 2.66 9.92 11.76 126.11 81.12 1.24 272.84 91.47
E-2 2125.68 1998.76 126.91 2.66 20.35 1.22 126.11 94.03 0.13 665.21 99.05
exergy destruction cost as well. Additionally, the higher values of exergoeconomic

factor for the components of the CS process indicated that their investment costs
must be minimized in order to decrease total cost of the process.
14.6.2 Advanced Exergy Analysis
Figure 14.5 depicts the results of advanced exergy analysis for the HPWS process.
Obviously, the endogenous portion of exergy destruction was larger than its
EN=2644 EN=2168 EN=1484

C-1 C-2 AC-1
AV=424
AV,EN=297
AV=2184
AV=1596
AV,EX=127
AV,EN=1748 AV,EN=1437
ĖD =2120 W
ĖD =2409 W
ĖD =3305 W
UN,EN=1187
UN=1696
AV,EX=437 AV,EX=160
UN=813
UN=1120
UN,EN=896 UN,EN=732
UN,EX=509
UN,EX=224
UN,EX=81
EX=661 EX=241 EX=636
EN=2560 EN=485 EN=13322

AC-2 T-1 T-2
AV=9991
AV,EN=170
AV=377
AV,EN=3997
AV=960
AV,EN=768
AV,EX=192 AV,EX=208 AV,EX=5995

ĖD=33305 W
ĖD =3201 W
ĖD=1078 W
UN,EN=9325
UN=23313
UN,EN=315
UN=2240
UN=701
UN,EN=1792
UN,EX=385 UN,EX=13988
UN,EX=448
EX=640 EX=593 EX=19983
EN=982
P-1
AV=771
AV,EN=617
ĖD =1227 W
AV,EX=154
UN=457
UN,EN=365
UN,EX=91
EX=245
Fig. 14.5 Breakdown of exergy destruction rate of the components of HPWS process
corresponding exogenous part for all the process equipment except columns T-1
and T-2. Therefore, technical relationship between the process equipment was not
considerable. According to the avoidable part of exergy destruction, potential
improvement of compressors C-1 and C-2 and pump P-1 were higher than the other
process components. However, the total irreversibility rate associated with pump
P-1 was very low, showing its trivial importance on the overall performance. Based
on the avoidable endogenous part of exergy destruction, compressors C-1 (1748 W)
and C-2 (1437 W) should be first modified, respectively.
Figure 14.6 shows the results of advanced exergy analysis for the CS process.
The endogenous part of exergy destruction showed a significant contribution to the
total irreversibilities compared with its exogenous part for all the components. This
indicated weak, interactions between the CS process equipment from technical
viewpoint. The avoidable part of exergy destruction was large for the compressors
C-1 (3187 W), C-2 (2241 W), and C-3 (1806 W), while this value was small for
the air coolers and heat exchangers.
Figures 14.7, 14.8, 14.9 and 14.10 manifest the results of advanced exergoe-
conomic analysis for the HPWS and CS processes, respectively. Similar to the
advanced exergy analysis, the endogenous cost of exergy destruction was higher
than its corresponding exogenous cost for all the HPWS process equipment except
columns T-1 and T-2. The cost associated with exergy destruction of compressors
and pump was avoidable, while it was unavoidable for the heat exchangers, col-
umns, and air coolers of the HPWS process. Based on the avoidable endogenous
part of exergy destruction cost, compressors C-2 and C-1 of the HPWS process and
compressors C-1 and C-3 of the CS process should be first modified, respectively.
According to Fig. 14.9, investment cost for all the equipment of HPWS process
was endogenous except columns T-1 and T-2. Unlike the exergy destruction cost,
investment cost for the air coolers and heat exchangers was avoidable, while this
value was unavoidable for the compressor, pump, and column due to technological
and economic limitations. This manifested the fact that air coolers and heat
exchangers could be improved exergoeconomically. Furthermore, according to the
avoidable endogenous part of investment cost, air coolers AC-2 and AC-1 of the
HPWS process and heat exchangers HE-4 and HE-5 of the CS process should be
first modified, respectively.
Table 14.13 summarizes a comparison between the results of conventional and
advanced analyses for both processes on the basis of exergetic efficiency, total cost,
and exergoeconomic factor. Clearly, exergetic efficiencies of all the process
equipment could increase after performing the required modifications. Moreover,
exergoeconomic factor of the compressors and pump could decrease after carrying
out modifications for both processes, while exergoeconomic factor of the heat
exchangers, columns, and air coolers could increase. Overall, air coolers should be
first modified since their total costs were higher than the other equipment, followed
by compressors.
Table 14.14 presents three different strategies for reducing the avoidable exergy
destruction cost. These strategies should be performed either on the process or its
units. Strategy A could be applied when the cost rate is high due to high
EN=4355 EN=3400 EN=2180

C-1 C-2 C-3
AV,EN=2241
AV=3187
AV=3202
AV=1806
AV,EN=2869 AV,EN=1445
ĖD =4839 W
ĖD =2726 W
ĖD =4858 W
AV,EX=319 AV,EX=960 AV,EX=361
UN=1651
UN=1656
UN=920
UN,EN=1486 UN,EN=1159 UN,EN=736
UN,EX=497 UN,EX=184
UN,EX=165
EX=484 EX=1457 EX=545
EN=2700 EN=2662 EN=197

AC-1 AC-2 HE-1
AV=55
AV,EN=729 AV,EN=37
AV=1273
AV=999
AV,EN=879
AV,EX=18
AV,EX=270
AV,EX=395
ĖD=3858 W
ĖD=290 W
ĖD=3699 W
UN,EN=160
UN=2700
UN=2585
UN=235
UN,EN=1971
UN,EN=1784
UN,EX=729 UN,EX=801 UN,EX=75
EX=999 EX=1196 EX=93
EN=1130 EN=108 EN=702

HE-2 HE-3 HE-4
AV=418
AV,EN=305 AV,EN=38
AV=65
AV=416
AV,EN=316
AV,EX=113 AV,EX=27
ĖD=1548 W
ĖD =185 W
ĖD=923 W
AV,EX=100
UN=1130
UN,EN=70
UN=121
UN,EN=825
UN=508
UN,EN=386
UN,EX=51
UN,EX=305 UN,EX=122
EX=418 EX=78 EX=222
EN=1407
HE-5
AV=608
AV,EN=493
AV,EX=116
ĖD=1737 W
UN=1129
UN,EN=915
UN,EX=215
EX=330
Fig. 14.6 Breakdown of exergy destruction rate of the components of CS process
irreversibilities in the elements involved. Clearly, strategy A should be applied to all

the equipment. Strategy B could be applied for some equipment such as air cooler
AC-1 and columns of the HPWS process and heat exchangers HE-1, HE-2, HE-3,
AV,EN AV,EX UN,EN UN,EX

ĊD,K ĊD,K ĊD,K ĊD,K
100 %
15.9
5.77
EX=17.10
6.48
31.81
EX=17.43
EX=45.44
EX=46.92
EX=45.16
36.13
90 %
UN=79.52
UN=57.71
UN=32.42
63.62
2.09
51.94
108.67
80 %
25.93
Exergy destruction cost ($/hr)
EX=3.22
EX=155.24
UN=181.12
UN=159.05
UN=3.80
70 %
UN=120.42
11.33
31.02
60 %
127.24
10.94
EN=153.94
50 %
1.71
84.29
EN=69.71
EN=187.68
EN=181.77
72.45
AV=155.08
EN=105.37
40 %
AV=113.33
AV=54.72
102.0
124.06
30 %
43.78
13.63
EN=103.49
EN=2.63
1.13
46.57
AV=77.62
AV=2.05
20 %
AV=68.17
9.03
AV=30.10
54.53
10 %
0.92
21.07
31.05
0%
C-1 C-2 AC-1 AC-2 T-1 T-2 P-1
Fig. 14.7 Splitting exergy destruction costs of the components of HPWS process into
endogenous/exogenous and avoidable/unavoidable parts

ĊD,K ĊD,K ĊD,K ĊD,K
100 %
11.7
EX=34.4
13.1
EX=38.7
35.3
3.18
EX=4.90
1.81
EX=3.29
51.8
EX=70.9
4.52
56.9
EX=6.20
EX=103.5
90 %
EX=84.9
EX=1.12
UN=117.6
0.67
0.90
UN=117.2
UN=65.3
105.5
EX=1.04
52.2
80 %
Exergy destruction cost ($/hr)
82.3
UN=7.53
UN=191.7
UN=16.75
UN=1.60
70 %
UN=183.5
UN=2.82
5.72
UN=16.76
13.57
22.6
25.6
60 %
126.6
68.2
139.9
0.93
12.23
EN=309.2
50 %
EN=154.8
EN=20.87
1.92
EN=10.41
EN=241.4
EN=191.7
EN=16.76
AV=226.3
1.48
40 %
AV=227.3
EN=2.37
AV=128.2
EN=189
1.71
EN=1.43
203.7
30 %
0.36
102.6
28
159.1
AV=6.16
19.1
1.67
AV=0.86
AV=90.4
AV=9.02
20 %
4.68
AV=70.9
0.21
AV=6.20
7.31
AV=0.66
62.4
51.8
050
4.52
10 %
0.45
0%
C-1 C-2 C-3 AC-1 AC-2 HE-1 HE-2 HE-3 HE-4 HE-5
Fig. 14.8 Splitting exergy destruction costs of the components of CS process into endogenous/
exogenous and avoidable/unavoidable parts
HE-4, and air coolers of the CS process where the avoidable exogenous part of
exergy destruction cost was large compared with its avoidable endogenous portion.
Finally, strategy C could be an inevitable option if the avoidable exogenous cost
had a high contribution to the total avoidable exergy destruction cost. This strategy
could be used for some equipment such as columns of the HPWS process and air
cooler AC-1 and heat exchangers HE-1 and HE-3 of the CS process.

Ż D,K Ż D,K Ż D,K Ż D,K
100 %
182.2
EX=293.1
234.5
239.1
EX=455.5
EX=35.7
502.3
EX=717.6
26.8
90 %
EX=683.3
UN=797.1
884.5
931.3
UN=911
80 %
EX=1552.2
UN=1474.1
728.8
EX=1608.1
558
UN=1693.3
UN=2511.6
Investment cost ($/hr)
70 %
UN=2344.6
UN=134
2009.2
2110.1
60 %
589.6
444.1
273.3
762
107.2
50 %
EN=2637.7
EN=2870.4
EN=142.9
EN=1822
40 %
EN=1594.3
AV=1480.4
AV=1366.5
723.6
30 %
620.9
215.3
AV=1128.8
EN=1270
AV=1206
1036.3
1093.2
EN=1072
8.93
AV=1076.4
527.5 58.6
20 %
AV=44.7
AV=586.2
861.1
482.4
35.7
10 %
508
0%
C-1 C-2 AC-1 AC-2 T-1 T-2 P-1
Fig. 14.9 Splitting investment costs of the components of HPWS process into endogenous/

Ż D,K Ż D,K Ż D,K Ż D,K
100 %
11.34
12.27
373.2
17.64
EX=484.6
EX=640.1
421.6
16.54
19.56
EX=29.93
EX=37.80
EX=1054.1
581
UN=39.38
13.1
EX=42.53
EX=1491.7
EX=1210.2
UN=47.25
90 %
1074
EX=5040
UN=55.13
UN=1561.6
EX=66.15
UN=64.58
35.91
UN=1873.9
22.84
UN=72.45
80 %
37.49
52.31
1140
52.89
Investment cost ($/hr)
UN=3580.1
1293
70 %
UN=3731.7
UN=2560.6
26.46
49.61
60 %
3358.5
32.76
2506.1
17.66
632.4
52.2
EN=4361.7
50 %
EN=2560.6
22.96
AV=118.13
EN=127.58
EN=119.70
629.3
EN=3480.6
AV=110.25
EN=2849.8
EN=114.98
40 %
EN=2693.7
EN=107.10
AV=102.38
AV=2342.3
AV=92.93
EN=91.35
AV=85.05
AV=2030
30 %
83.79
417.7
75.27
1003.2 111.5
68.51
69.62
62.09
1710
1400.7
AV=1392.3
20 %
102.6 25.6
AV=1114.7
AV=640.1
974.6
10 %
0%
C-1 C-2 C-3 AC-1 AC-2 HE-1 HE-2 HE-3 HE-4 HE-5
Fig. 14.10 Splitting investment costs of the components of CS process into endogenous/
14.6.3 Cost Sensitivity Analysis
Various operating variables such as pressure drop in valves and pressure ratio of
compressors and pumps can profoundly affect the process efficiency. In order to
reduce costs and improve the process performance, these operating variables should
be elaborately adjusted. Figure 14.11 illustrates the variations of avoidable
endogenous exergoeconomic factor and advanced exergy destruction cost of
compressor C-2 and air cooler AC-1 of the HPWS process by changing the pressure
380
Table 14.13 Comparison between the results of conventional and advanced analyses for both HPWS and CS processes
Process Component Conventional Advanced
e f Ċtot emodified fAV,EN tot
ĊAV,EN
(%) (%) ($/hr) 103 (%) (%) ($/h) 103
HPWS
C-1 79.64 93.86 3822.54 88.09 87.41 985.17
C-2 79.43 94.49 3101.78 86.63 83.80 629.53
AC-1 92.59 93.80 2428.06 98.89 98.01 1057.35
AC-2 91.44 90.93 2504.75 97.80 95.25 1147.75
T-1 99.40 99.79 2827.94 99.90 99.82 508.90
T-2 82.64 91.20 2938.86 97.54 93.95 513.47
P-1 87.98 67.21 265.77 93.57 44.94 79.50
CS
C-1 81.65 93.38 5189.85 88.24 83.13 1206.85
C-2 82.32 93.51 5317.19 90.99 85.97 1133.67
C-3 79.82 94.30 3394.18 88.18 83.31 614.68
AC-1 91.81 93.70 4166.46 98.27 97.06 1761.65
AC-2 94.17 93.44 4177.78 98.61 95.74 1463.08
HE-1 88.06 97.84 160.99 98.28 99.36 70.07
HE-2 75.79 87.28 180.46 83.87 93.21 66.61
HE-3 82.14 98.46 159.97 95.77 99.27 69.01
HE-4 74.06 92.00 171.20 83.90 94.71 88.47
HE-5 73.48 85.94 183.27 80.22 91.15 82.58
Table 14.14 Three different strategies for discounting avoidable cost of exergy destruction
14
Process Component Cost of exergy destruction categories ($/hr) The part should be focused Possible strategies to reduce cost of exergy
destruction
AV AV;EN AV;EX Strategy Aa Strategy Bb Strategy Cc
C_ D C_ D;k C_ D;k C_ D;k
HPWS
C-1 234.60 155.08 124.06 31.02 EN. *
C-2 171.04 113.33 102.00 11.33 EN. *
AC-1 150.52 30.10 21.07 9.03 EN./EX. * *
AC-2 227.22 68.17 54.53 13.63 EN. *
T-1 5.85 2.05 0.92 1.13 EN./EX. * * *
T-2 258.74 77.62 31.05 46.57 EN./EX. * * *
P-1 87.14 54.72 43.78 10.94 EN. *
CS
C-1 343.50 226.28 203.65 22.63 EN. *
C-2 344.86 227.29 159.10 68.19 EN. *
C-3 193.50 128.21 102.57 25.64 EN. *
AC-1 262.58 70.90 51.76 19.14 EN./EX. * *
AC-2 273.91 90.39 62.37 28.02 EN./EX. * * *
HE-1 3.49 0.66 0.45 0.21 EN./EX. * * *

HE-2 22.96 6.20 4.52 1.67 EN./EX. * *
HE-3 2.47 0.86 0.50 0.36 EN./EX. * * *
HE-4 13.70 6.16 4.68 1.48 EN./EX. * *
HE-5 25.77 9.02 7.31 1.71 EN. *
a
Strategy A: Improving the efficiency of the kth component or replacing the component with efficient devices
b
Strategy B: Improving the efficiency of the remaining components
c
Strategy C: Structural optimization of the overall system
381
Fig. 14.11 Variations in advanced exergy destruction cost and exergoeconomic factor of the
compressor C-2 and air cooler AC-1 of the HPWS process by changing the pressure ratio of the
compressor C-1
compressor C-2 and air cooler AC-2 of the HPWS process by changing the pressure ratio of the
compressor C-2
ratio of compressor C-1 from 1.65 to 2.85. Obviously, avoidable endogenous

exergoeconomic factor of the compressor C-2 increased by increasing the pressure
ratio of the compressor C-1, while its advanced exergy destruction cost decreased.
However, an opposite behavior was found for the air cooler AC-1. This could be
attributed to the fact that power consumption of the compressor C-1 increased by
increasing the pressure ratio of compressor C-1, while it decreased for the com-
pressor C-2.
Figure 14.12 explains the variations of avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic
factor and advanced exergy destruction cost of the compressor C-2 and air cooler
AC-2 of the HPWS process by modifying the pressure ratio of compressor C-2. It is
clear from this figure that avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic factor of the
compressor C-2 and air cooler AC-2 decreased by increasing the pressure ratio of
the compressor C-2, while their advanced exergy destruction costs decreased. This
could be ascribed to more electrical power consumption of the compressor C-2 and
more cold energy demand of the air cooler AC-2 by increasing the pressure ratio of
the compressor C-2.
pump P-1 and column T-1 of the HPWS process by increasing the pressure ratio of pump P-1
compressor C-1 and air cooler AC-1 of the CS process by increasing the pressure ratio of the
compressor C-1
Figure 14.13 reveals the variations of avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic

factor and advanced exergy destruction cost of the pump P-1 and column T-1 of the
by HPWS process by changing the pressure ratio of pump P-1. Clearly, advanced
exergy destruction cost of the pump P-1 increased as the pressure ratio of pump P-1
increased from 4.17 to 5.37, while avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic factor of
the column T-1 decreased. This occurred due to the fact that the irreversibilities
increased in column T-1 by increasing the pressure ratio of pump P-1.
Figure 14.14 displays the variations in advanced exergy destruction cost and
exergoeconomic factor of the compressor C-1 and air cooler AC-1 of the CS
process by increasing the pressure ratio of the compressor C-1. It is obvious from
this figure that avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic factor of the compressor C-1
and air cooler AC-1 decreased as the pressure ratio of compressor C-1 increased,
while advanced exergy destruction cost showed a slight increment. The reason for
this behavior was that more electrical power was required by compressor C-1 and
more cold energy was demanded by air cooler AC-1 as the pressure ratio of the
compressor C-1 increased.
Figure 14.15 indicates the variations in advanced exergy destruction cost and
exergoeconomic factor of the compressors C-2 and C-3 of the CS process by
compressors C-2 and C-3 of the CS process by increasing the pressure ratio of compressor C-2
Fig. 14.16 Variations in advanced exergy destruction cost and exergoeconomic factor of the heat
exchangers HE-2 and HE-4 of the CS process by increasing the pressure drop in the expansion
valve V-4
increasing the pressure ratio of the compressor C-2. Clearly, increasing the pressure
ratio of compressor C-2 from 2.97 to 4.17 led to a decrease in avoidable endoge-
nous exergoeconomic factor of the compressor C-2, while this change increased its
advanced exergy destruction cost. Unlike the compressor C-2, avoidable endoge-
nous exergoeconomic factor of the compressor C-3 increased by increasing the
pressure ratio of compressor C-2, while its advanced exergy destruction cost
decreased. This occurred since the power consumption of the compressor C-2
increased by enhancing the pressure ratio of compressor C-2, whereas the power
consumption of the compressor C-3 decreased.
Figure 14.16 demonstrates the variations in advanced exergy destruction cost
and exergoeconomic factor of the heat exchangers HE-2 and HE-4 of the CS
process by increasing the pressure drop in the expansion valve V-4. Clearly,
avoidable endogenous exergoeconomic factor of the heat exchanger HE-2
decreased by increasing the pressure drop in the expansion valve V-2, while its
advanced exergy destruction cost increased. Moreover, opposite findings were
obtained for the heat exchanger HE-4.
Overall, exergy-based methods, particularly advanced approaches, can be very

powerful tools with a wide variety of applications for various biogas production,
upgrading, and utilization systems. Future works should include conventional and
advanced exergoenvironmental analyses for component-level analysis of biogas
plants from exergy/environmental viewpoint. The application of advanced exer-
goeconomic and exergoenvironmental approaches together with elaborated
evolutionary-and knowledge-based optimization tools should be also considered in
future works in order to make decisions on operational conditions of biogas plants.
14.7 Conclusions
Conventional and advanced exergy and exergoeconomic analyses were successfully

applied for two biogas upgrading processes, i.e., HPWS and CS processes.
Conventional method showed that the majority of irreversibility of the HPWS
process belonged to column T-2 (33304.52 W), compressor C-1 (3304.58 W), and
air cooler AC-2 (3200.61 W), respectively, Moreover, the majority of irreversibility
of the CS process originated from from compressor C-2 (4857.78 W) and com-
pressor C-1 (4838.64 W). These components had the highest exergy destruction
costs as well. Therefore, to minimize total irreversibilities and to mitigate inefficient
costs of both processes, these components must be first considered. The main
results of advanced exergy and exergoeconomic analyses are summarized as below:
• Unlike the air coolers, columns, and heat exchangers, the cost rates of exergy
destruction of the pump and compressors were avoidable.
• The investment cost rates of the pump and compressors were unavoidable, while
these cost rates were avoidable for the air coolers, columns, and heat
exchangers.
• The endogenous part of exergy destruction and investment costs dominated over
exogenous counterpart, indicating weak economic and technical interactions
between the processes components.
• Improving the efficiencies of the components or replacing them with more
efficient ones can be a useful strategy for reducing the exergy destruction cost
rate.
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Chapter 15
Advanced Soft Computing Techniques
in Biogas Production Technology
Fatemeh Almasi, Salman Soltanian, Soleiman Hosseinpour,

Mortaza Aghbashlo and Meisam Tabatabaei
15.1 Introduction
The increasing of global energy demand and environmental concerns caused by

using fossil fuels have pleaded in favor of using alternative renewable and sus-
tainable energy resources. Among the various renewable energy resources devel-
oped to date, biofuels obtained from biomass via thermochemical and biochemical
routes are excellent energy sources for completely/partially replacing the conven-
tional fossil fuels. Anaerobic digestion is a promising biochemical pathway for
converting organic matter into biogas using bacterial consortiums in the absence of
oxygen. The obtained gas contains 50–70% methane, 30–40% carbon dioxide, and
trace amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and hydrogen. In
this process, solid and liquid biofertilizers having valuable agronomical features are
also generated.
Fast and accurate modeling, optimization, control, and fault diagnose of
anaerobic digestion systems are extremely critical aspects of biogas production
F. Almasi S. Hosseinpour (&) M. Aghbashlo (&)

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
M. Aghbashlo
S. Soltanian
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam), Karaj, Iran
M. Tabatabaei (&)
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam) / Agricultural Biotechnology
Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research, Education
and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran

388 F. Almasi et al.
technology. However, anaerobic digestion process is very complex as it depends on

many endogenous and exogenous factors. A considerable amount of studies have
been conducted to assess the effects of influential factors like temperature, total
solid, volatile solid, ultimate and proximate characterizations of the input feed-
stocks, carbon/nitrogen ratio, chemical oxygen demand, alkalinity, organic loading
rate, hydraulic retention time, volatile fatty acid, pH, co-substrate inputs
(co-digestion), pretreatment type, and reactor structure on the biogas production
process (Carrère et al. 2010; Khalid et al. 2011; Horváth et al. 2016). Despite the
extensive attempts have been made to scrutinize the details of the anaerobic
digestion process, it is impossible to consider all the influential parameters simul-
taneously. In addition, it is very difficult or even impossible to identify the rela-
tionships between inputs and outputs of such complex biochemical processes using
the conventional mathematical and phenomenological approaches. Unlike the
conventional modeling techniques, heuristically soft computing methods can easily
deal with the complexity, nonlinearity, and uncertainty of ill-defined biogas pro-
duction systems using experimental data. It is worth mentioning that these tech-
niques do not need any information about the mechanisms and principles of
digestion process. Therefore, using advanced soft computing techniques is vital to
control the anaerobic digestion process, to diagnose faults occurring in the process,
to discount energy and operating costs, to optimize the operating conditions of the
digesters, and to enhance biogas or methane production rate. Accordingly, this
chapter is devoted to the applications of soft computing techniques for modeling
and optimization of biogas production processes.
This chapter is arranged into four main sections. In the first section, after a brief
description of artificial neural network (ANN) and its learning algorithms, an
overview is provided of the most important investigations relating to the application
of this approach for modeling and predicting the biogas production processes. In the
second parts, fuzzy logic systems are introduced to predict and control anaerobic
digestion processes. In the third section, evolutionary algorithms like genetic
algorithm (GA), ant colony optimization (ACO), and particle swarm optimization
(PSO) used for optimization purposes are introduced. In the last part, hybrid models
are briefly presented and discussed and their applications in biogas production
processes are summarized. It should be noted that it is impossible to introduce and
comprehensively explain all soft computing techniques used in this domain in a
single book chapter. For details, the readers are referred to the textbooks like
(Nguyen and Sugeno 2012; Gazi and Passino 2011; Dorigo and Stützle 2010).
15.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Figure 15.1 shows the main components of a biological neural network and man-
ifests its similarity with an ANN. The ANN model is an extended version of the first
artificial neuron proposed by McCulloch and Pitts in the year 1943 (McCulloch and
Pitts 1943). Cell body of neuron is called “Soma” which is connected to fibers
15 Advanced Soft Computing Techniques in Biogas Production … 389
Biological Neural Network Artificial Neural Network
Dendrite Input layer Hidden layer Output layer
Cell body
(Soma) X1 Wi,j
Synapse
Nucleus
Σj fa Wi,j
Axon
X2 Σj fa Y
Axon hillock
Σj fa
Myelin sheath Activation
X3 function
Bj
Bj
Synaptic Bj
terminal
Bias inputs
Fig. 15.1 The main components of a biological neural network and an ANN
branches called “Dendrites”. Dendrite has a connection rule for bringing input
signals to the neuron. The neuron is activated when the intensity of the received
signals reaches to a specific excitation threshold. Consequently, a new signal is
transferred to the “Synaptic terminals” via a connecting line named “Axon”. Then,
the signal is sent to other neurons by “Synapses” located on their dendrites or their
cell body.
There are many different types of ANN models used for predicting scientific and
engineering problems. The multi-layer perceptron artificial neural network (MLP
ANN) model is one of the most used ANN architectures. This network is composed
of at least three layers, i.e., input layer, hidden layer, and output layer. The inter-
connections between artificial neurons are called weight and biases. The inputs of
jth neuron (Xi;j ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; D where D is the number of neurons connecting to the
jth neuron) are multiplied by their weights (Wi;j ) and summed together and then bias
input of jth neuron (Bj ) is added to it to form Rj (Eq. 15.1)
X
D
Rj ¼ Bj þ Wi;j Xi;j ð15:1Þ
i¼1
The obtained value (Rj ) is then fed into a activation function, i.e., fa ðRj Þ.
Table 15.1 lists some important activation functions. Each neuron is linked to
others by weighted connections adjusted by training the network (Dibaba et al.
2016; Sewsynker-Sukai et al. 2017).
Training is the process of changing the weights between layers to reduce the
differences between computational outputs and desired outputs at an allowable
level. After the training, the model is often validated by the set of data which is
never seen before by network. Then, the output of a new set of data can be predicted
by the trained network (Almasi et al. 2014). The best model is chosen according to
Table 15.1 Some important activation functions

Name of Equation of activation function Plot
activation
function

Unit step 0 for x\0 1
fa ð xÞ ¼
1 for x 0 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Identity fa ð xÞ ¼ x
8
Piecewise linear <1 for x xmax 1
fa ð xÞ ¼ xxmin
for xmin \x\xmax 0.8
: xmax xmin
0 for x xmin 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Sigmoid fa ð xÞ ¼ 1
1 þ eax
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Tangent fa ð xÞ ¼ tanðaxÞ
-π/2
π/2
ax ax
Hyperbolic fa ð xÞ ¼ tanhð xÞ ¼ eeax e
þ eax
1
tangent
0.5
-0.5
-1
(continued)

Name of Equation of activation function Plot
activation
function
fa ð xÞ ¼ eax
2
Gaussian 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
the statistical indicators and model simplicity. The main statistical parameters often
used for assessing the performance of ANN models are Mean Absolute Error
(MAE), Mean Square Error (MSE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and
Regression Coefficient (R2) (Table 15.2).
15.2.1 Neural Networks Learning
The network can learn by changing the connection weights and biases so-called
“training algorithm”. Learning techniques in ANNs include supervised learning and
unsupervised learning.
15.2.1.1 Supervised Learning Rule
In the supervised learning rule, the inputs and the desired outputs are available.
The predicted outputs are compared with desired outputs and the error value is then
computed. The error is minimized by adjusting the weights and biases repeating
process over and over (Sewsynker-Sukai et al. 2016). This learning method include
Table 15.2 Main statistical parameters often used for assessing the performance of ANN models
Statistical parameter for prediction accuracy Equation
n
P
Mean Absolute Error (MAE) predicted
1
n yi yobserved
i
i¼1
Pn 2
Mean Square Error (MSE) predicted
1
n yi yobserved
i
i¼1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) Pn 2
predicted
1
n yi yobserved
i
i¼1
Pn observed predicted 2
Regression Coefficient (R2) ðyi yi Þ
1 Pn i¼1 observed
ðy Þ
2
i¼1 i
ymeanobserved
i
Widrow–Hoff rule, Gradient descent, Delta rule, Back propagation (BP) rule,
Cohen–Grossberg learning rule, and Adaptive conjugate gradient model of Adeli
and Hung (Siddique and Adeli 2013).
15.2.1.2 Unsupervised Learning Rule
Unlike the supervised rule, there is no desired output(s) in the unsupervised rule.
It searches for characteristics and features of the inputs to find a pattern between
inputs. Unsupervised learning rules are used for clustering and affinity methods.
Hebbian’s learning rule and Kohonen’s rule belong to the unsupervised training
rule (Siddique and Adeli 2013). It is noted that this learning rule is rarely used in
biogas production problems domain.
15.2.2 Applications of ANN Technology in Biogas

Production
Table 15.3 shows some important applications of ANN technology in order to

model the anaerobic digestion process for biogas production. According to
Table 15.3, prediction of the evolved biogas compositions was the main issue
attracting researchers’ attention to use ANN technology in this domain.
15.3 Fuzzy Logic
Traditional models and control laws for controlling systems are linear while not all
real-world systems can be solved using linear models. Therefore, fuzzy logic sys-
tems have been invented, developed, and applied to numerous non-linear systems,
fitting mathematical modeling and human thinking for controlling systems. These
approaches provide a model of reasoning propositions of human having an
approximate value. Fuzzy logic is a multivalued logic and relies on the theory of
fuzzy sets achieved by generalization and expansion of crisp sets in a natural way.
A fuzzy set A is mapped onto X with a real number in range of [0, 1] by a
membership function (MF) µA(x). It means that the quantity of µA(x) at X illustrates
the membership degree of X in A. A fuzzy set A in X is represented as a set of
arranged pairs that X is a universe of discourse and its elements are defined by x
(Eq. 15.2).
A ¼ fðx; lA ðxÞÞjx 2 Xg ð15:2Þ

Table 15.3 Some important applications of ANN technology in order to model the anaerobic digestion process for biogas production
15
ANN model Aim(s) Model input(s) Model output(s) Best model(s) Result(s) References
Batch gradient decent To predict the trace In H2S model: Sulfate In H2S model: In H2S model: 5 This model could Strik et al.
with momentum compounds loading rate [gSO4-Sm−3 Hydrogen hidden neurons and be successfully (2005)
algorithm d−1], OLR [kgCODm−3 sulfide in tangent sigmoid and used to control the
d−1], and H2S in biogas biogas [ppm] pure linear transfer process and avoid
[ppm] In NH3 model: functions in the hidden the harmful trace
In NH3 model: Total Ammonia in and output layers, compounds
nitrogen loading rate biogas [ppm] respectively production
[gNm−3 d−1], OLR In NH3 model: 7
[kgCODm−3 d−1], NH3 hidden neurons and
in biogas [ppm], tangent sigmoid and
biogas-productivity [m3 pure linear transfer
biogas m−3 d−1], pH, functions in the hidden
ammonia in reactor and output layers,
[mgN-NH3 l−1] respectively
MLP ANN with BP To model and control OLR, VFA of the Biogas Sigmoid transfer The developed Kanat and
training algorithm biogas production in effluent, influent-effluent production function model Saral
a thermophilic upflow ALK, influent–effluent satisfactorily (2009)
anaerobic sludge pH, and temperature of estimated biogas
blanket (UASB) the reactor production in a
reactor thermophilic
Advanced Soft Computing Techniques in Biogas Production …
UASB
Feed-forward To predict COD and Flow (m3/day), COD and TSS Feed-forward BP The feed-forward Elnekave
BP ANN model, radial total soluble solid volumetric load (kg/m3), concentrations BP ANN model et al.
basis function-based (TSS) concentrations COD (mg/l), and TSS of the effluent was found to be (2012)
neural network (RBF), of the effluent and (mg/l) concentrations in and biogas the best approach
and generalized biogas the influent production for prediction of
regression neural (m3/h) the desired outputs
network (GRNN)
(continued)
393
394
ANN model Aim(s) Model input(s) Model output(s) Best model(s) Result(s) References
Free forward BP ANN To study the effects of pH, moisture content Biogas – ANN model Nair et al.
model different factors on (MC), VS, VFAs, and production predicted the (2016)
biogas production CH4 fraction biogas production
with an
R2 > 0.915
Quasi-Newton method To model and pH, COD, ammonium, Biogas and 10 hidden neurons The developed Antwi
and conjugate gradient optimize biogas and ALK, total Kjeldahl methane yield MLP ANN model and ANN model could et al.
BP algorithms methane yield nitrogen, total Tangent sigmoid and satisfactorily (2017)
phosphorus, VFA and linear functions in the predict and
HRT hidden and output optimize biogas
layers, respectively and bio-methane
production
F. Almasi et al.
The function of µA(x) that specifies the fuzziness of a fuzzy set A in X in the
fuzzy logic are Triangular, Trapezoidal, Gaussian, Bell-shaped, and Sigmoidal MFs
(Table 15.4).
The linguistic variables used as appellation of fuzzy subsets are variables whose
quantities are words or sentences. The specifications of systems which cannot be
defined by numerical values are described by linguistic variables. A fuzzy logic
system has four main steps including fuzzification, fuzzy rule base, fuzzy inference
mechanism, and defuzzification. The fuzzy logic steps are shown in Fig. 15.2.
Fuzzification is the process of converting a numeric values (or crisp value) into
fuzzy inputs (linguistic variables) by the determined membership degrees. In fuzzy
If-Then rules, the conditional statements are formulated which contain fuzzy logic.
Table 15.4 Important MFs

Type of Function Parameters Relation between
MF parameters
n n o o
Triangular lðxÞ ¼ max min bx a ; cx ; 0 a, b, c a˂b˂c
a cb
n n o o
Trapezoidal lðxÞ ¼ max min bx a ; 1; dx ; 0 a, b, c, d a˂b˂c˂d
a d c
h 2 i
Gaussian lðxÞ ¼ exp 12 xrm m, r m and r are the center
and width of the
Gaussian MF
Bell-shaped lðxÞ ¼ 1 m, r, a m and r are the center
1 þ jxrmj
2a
and width of the
bell-shaped MF
Parameter a, usually
positive, controls the
slope of the MF
Sigmoidal lðxÞ ¼ 1 þ exp½1aðxcÞ a, c Parameter a controls
the slope of the MF at
cross point x = c
Fuzzy inference system
Interface
Fuzzifier Difuzzifier
engine
Input Output
If-Then rules
Fig. 15.2 Fuzzy logic steps

The relationships between variables are demonstrated by fuzzy If-Then rule as

follows:
If 〈fuzzy antecedent proposition〉 Then 〈fuzzy consequent proposition〉
In contrast with the fuzzification, the defuzzification is a process that converts
the fuzzy value of a fuzzy set into a crisp value. It is important to be done when the
crisp value is prepared for the user. Some of the most important used defuzzification
methods are presented in Table 15.5.
15.3.1 Inference Mechanism
In the fuzzy logic inference process, a nonlinear mapping is formulated from an

input space to output space by using fuzzy logic. Inference mechanisms, also called
fuzzy models, can be categorized as Mamdani, Sugeno, and Tsukamoto fuzzy
inferences. The main difference among these models lies in the defuzzification
procedure.
15.3.1.1 Mamdani Fuzzy Inference
A typical rule in a Mamdani fuzzy model is defined by fuzzy If-Then rules as

bellow:
k: If x is Aki and y is Bkj then z is Ckl
k = 1, 2, …, R (R is the maximum number of rules, R N M)
i = 1, 2, …, N, j = 1, 2, …, M and l = 1, 2, …, L. N, M and L are the numbers of
membership functions for inputs and outputs, respectively.
Table 15.5 Some of the most important defuzzification methods

Defuzzification method Equation Parameter
Pm
Max-membership method ck hk ck is the peak value of the fuzzy sets
x ¼ Pk¼1n
(height method) h
i¼1 k
and hk is the height of the clipped fuzzy
sets
Pm
Centre of gravity method l ðxÞ:xi x is the centroid of the area
x ¼ Pi¼1m c
(center of area or centroid l ðxi Þ
i¼1 c
method)
P
Weighted average method l ðxÞ:x0 Defuzzified value x
x ¼ P lc ðx Þ
c i
PN
Mean-max membership l ðxi Þ lmax ðxi Þ is the maximum membership
x ¼ i¼1 N max
value
N is the number of times the
membership function reaches the
maximum support value
Pm P
Centre of sums x : n l ðxi Þ Defuzzified value x
x ¼ Pi¼1 iP k¼1 k
m n
i¼1
l ðxi Þ
k¼1 k
In this model, crisp values are used as inputs and defuzzification is done to
convert a fuzzy set to a crisp value. The overall output is gained by employing the
center of gravity defuzzification method.
15.3.1.2 Sugeno Fuzzy Inference
The Sugeno fuzzy inference or TSK fuzzy model was introduced by Takagi, Sugeno,
and Kang to create fuzzy rules from a given input/output data set. A typical rule in
the Sugeno fuzzy model is similar to Mamdani model but the output in Sugeno
model is a crisp function z = ƒ(x, y) that is usually polynomial of the inputs.
k : If x is Aki and y is Bkj then Zk ¼ f ðx; yÞ
Another difference between Sugeno and Mamdani models is the process of

obtaining the overall output. In Sugeno model, it is obtained by weighted average of
crisp outputs Zk that prevents wasting time for defuzzification.
15.3.1.3 Tsukamoto Fuzzy Inference
Similar to Mamdani model, a typical rule in a Tsukamoto fuzzy model is defined by

rules as bellow:
k : If x is Aki and y is Bkj then z is Ckl
Fuzzy consequent proposition of each if-then fuzzy rule is defined by a mono-

tonic MF. The crisp output value of each rule is used to obtain the overall output by
the weighted averages defuzzification method (Siddique and Adeli 2013).
15.3.2 Applications of Fuzzy Logic in Biogas Production
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using fuzzy logic for
predicting the behavior of anaerobic digestion systems to maximize biogas pro-
duction and optimize their performance. Table 15.6 shows some important appli-
cations of fuzzy logic systems in order to model the anaerobic digestion systems.
15.4 Evolutionary Optimization Algorithms
The evolution of nature has immensely impressed the scientists to use the ideology
behind them for developing evolutionary optimization techniques. Several evolu-
tionary optimization algorithms have been emerged by converting the behavior of
Table 15.6 Some important applications of fuzzy logic systems in order to model the behavior of anaerobic digestion systems
398
Fuzzy logic Aim(s) Model input(s) Model Result(s) References

model output(s)
Mamdani-type To develop a fast predicting Volumetric OLR, Biogas and The fuzzy logic control Turkdogan-Aydınol
fuzzy inference MIMO (multiple inputs and volumetric COD removal methane system forecasted biogas and Yetilmezsoy
system multiple outputs) rate (RV), influent ALK, production and methane production (2010)
fuzzy-logic-based model for influent, and effluent pH rates with an R2 value over
the estimation of biogas and 0.98
methane production rates in
a pilot-scale mesophilic
UASB reactor
Mamdani-type To predict the biogas Biogas production of one Biogas The developed model was Varne and Macwan
fuzzy system production rate in a day before, COD reduction production able to assess the (2012)
large-scale UASB reactor of reactor one and two day performance of the
treating distillery (s) before (Kg/d), COD large-scale UASB reactor
wastewater loading (Kg/d), equalized treating distillery spent
and effluent pH
Mamdani To predict the effect of Microwave temperature, WAS Fuzzy model predicted the Saha et al. (2014)
method microwave pretreatment on microwave intensity, WAS solubility response variables, i.e.,
the waste activated sludge concentration, and volume and WAS solubilisation and
(WAS) solubility and percentage of WAS anaerobic cumulative biogas
anaerobic digestibility or pretreated digestibility production with R2 values
biogas production or biogas of 0.81 and 0.98,
production respectively
Takagi-Sugeno To control methane Influent flow rate and VFA Gaseous The fuzzy logic controller Robles et al. (2017)
structure production and VFA concentration outflow rate was able to achieve the
concentration in order to of methane process stability and the
avoid acidification process maximum methane
at closed-loop production at higher VFA
concentrations without
acidification process
F. Almasi et al.
different creatures in the nature to mathematical models. In this section, the rela-
tively successful evolutionary algorithms including GA, ACO, and PSO are briefly
introduced.
15.4.1 Genetic Algorithm (GA)
GA was initially introduced by John Holland in 1975. The GA has been inspired by
focusing on the hypothesis of Darwinian evolution. The nature has stringent
selection rules to survive individuals. Consequently, the individuals who have
superior fitness are more likely to survive and spread their genetic material in next
generation. As shown in Fig. 15.3, the variables of a possible solution are encoded
into a chromosome which is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material
(genome). A gene is a locus of DNA representing a bit of the encoded variables,
typically a digit value of 0 or 1. Therefore, a population of the possible solutions or
chromosomes forms a generation which is manipulated based on the evolutionary
rule of survival of the superior fitness through genetic operations such as repro-
duction (selection), crossover, and mutation. Over the time, generations will evolve
into the best fitness, i.e., optimizing the problem.
Let’s assume that the optimization problem depends on n variables. The algo-
rithm of the GA for achieving the optimum solution is as follows:
Generation
DNA Gene or Bit Chromosome or

Possible solution
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Fig. 15.3 A schematic representation of the genetic algorithm

Step 1: initially, a population of possible solutions is randomly selected in the

search domain. The variables of each possible solution are separately encoded and
then stuck together to form a binary string, representing a chromosome. The
population of the chromosomes indicating a generation is put to a gene pool. The
fitness values of the chromosomes are evaluated using a pre-specified fitness
function.
Step 2: the reproduction (selection) genetic operator is performed to the gene
pool of chromosomes under a given reproduction rate, pr . The production rate is the
probability of the chromosomes’ presence in the next generation via the repro-
duction implementation. Thus, the number of chromosomes is transformed by
reproduction operator, Nr , obtained by the following equation (Eq. 15.3).
Nr ¼ pr Nchrom ð15:3Þ
where Nchrom is the number of chromosomes of the gene pool.

Two types of reproduction operator have been typically introduced, i.e., roulette
wheel selection and elitist selection. In the Roulette wheel selection, the chromo-
somes are chosen according to their probabilities obtained by the following equa-
tion (Eq. 15.4).
Fi
pi ¼ PNchrom ð15:4Þ
i¼1 Fi
where Fi is the fitness of the ith chromosome. The roulette wheel selection is
unfortunately based on the stochastic selection, disrupting the higher fitness chro-
mosomes. The elitist selection transforms the superior chromosomes having better
fitness compared with the others.
Step 3: the crossover genetic operator is applied to the gene pool of the chro-
mosomes under a specified crossover rate, pc . The crossover rate is defined as the
probability of the chromosomes to be selected to combine. Therefore, the number of
mixed chromosomes, Nc , is calculated by the following equation (Eq. 15.5).
Nc ¼ pc Nchrom ð15:5Þ
Various types of crossover operator have been defined. Single-point crossover

and two-point crossover are the most popular crossover operator. Either random
selection or tournament selection is used to pick the parent chromosomes for
mating. The random selection chooses pairs of parent chromosomes stochastically.
In the tournament selection, pairs of chromosomes are randomly chosen from the
gene pool and then the more fitness of each pair has permission to mate.
Afterwards, pairs of parent chromosomes are also stochastically picked from the
allowable chromosomes. As can be seen from Fig. 15.4, the single-point crossover
selects one point (bit) of the pair of parent chromosomes (strings) randomly and
then the right hand side bits of the parents are exchanged together. The two-point
crossover operator considers two points of the pair of the parent chromosomes;
Single-point crossover Two-point crossover
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Fig. 15.4 The single-point and two-point crossover techniques
accordingly the bits among these points are interchanged between parent strings.
In the mentioned crossover techniques, each pair of the parent chromosomes creates
two new chromosomes (offspring) which are transformed to the next generation.
Step 4: the mutation genetic operator is implemented to the gene pool of the
chromosomes under a given mutation rate, pm . The mutation rate is described as the
probability of chromosomes’ transformation into the next generation due to
mutation. Similar to the reproduction and crossover, the number of mutated chro-
mosomes, Nm , is specified by the following equation (Eq. 15.6).
Nm ¼ pm Nchrom ð15:6Þ
It is noted that the number of chromosomes should be constant during the

generations. Here, two types of mutation operator are introduced, i.e., single-point
mutation and bit-wise mutation. Single point is the traditional mutation method in
which a gene of a selected chromosome is stochastically chosen and then its digit
value is changed to opposite value, i.e., zero is converted to one and vice versa. In
the bit-wise mutation, a value is stochastically selected in the range (0, 1] for each
gene of a picked out chromosome. If the value is lower than a pre-specified bit-wise
mutation rate pbw 2 ð0; 1, then digit value of bit is reversely altered. This work is
continued until the mutated chromosomes in the next generation reach to Nm . The
aim of the mutation operation is to prohibit the chromosomes in the new generation
to trap into a local optimum.
Step 5: After performing the above-mentioned steps, the fitness value of each
chromosome of the new generation is evaluated. If the convergence criteria such as
a given number of generation or a given iterations time is reached, the chromosome
with the overall best fitness value is then presented as the optimum solution.
Otherwise, steps 2–5 should be iterated again. The genetic parameters of the GA
algorithms can profoundly influence the final solution. Accordingly, these param-
eters should be appropriately selected by trial-and-error method.
15.4.2 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)
This optimization paradigm has been developed by mimicking the complex social
behavior of ants in natural world. Ants randomly wander about their colony in order
to find food. They return to colony just after discovering the food while leaving
trails of pheromone. The trails are followed by other ants if they find such a path.
Afterward, if other ants eventually achieve the food, they strengthen the intensity of
the pheromone trails in their return path. As the time passed, the pheromone
evaporates gradually, diminishing the attractiveness of the path for ants. As the path
is longer, the more time it takes for ants to get the food and return to the nest. Thus,
the pheromone trail of longer path is faster evaporated than the pheromone trail of
shorter ones. Therefore, a shorter path has a higher chance to be found by ants. Over
the time, the number of the ants travelling on the shorter path increases and hence,
more pheromone reinforcements are applied to the path. Consequently, the shorter
path (best solution) is unanimously chosen by the ants (Fig. 15.5).
Reinforcing Pheromone
Evaporating Pheromone Trail (Medium Intensity)
Trail (Medium Intensity)
Ant
Reinforcing Pheromone
Trail (High Intensity)
NEST FOOD
Shortest Path
(Optimum)
Longest Path
Evaporating Pheromone
Trail (Low Intensity)
Fig. 15.5 A schematic illustration of ACO algorithm

15.4.2.1 Ant System (AS)
Ant System (AS) is the preliminary meta-heuristic algorithm of the ACO proposed
to tackle the combinatorial optimization problem such as Traveling Salesman
Problem (TSP). Assuming there are n towns and the problem is finding the shortest
length of closed journey (tour) that touch all the towns just once. m artificial ants
deployed for obtaining the best path. As an initial, the ants randomly distribute over
the towns and then each ant chooses the next town with a probability obtained by
the following equation (Eq. 15.7).
½si;j ðtÞa ½gi;j b

pki;j ðtÞ ¼ P if j 2 Nik ð15:7Þ
l2Nik ½si;l ðtÞa ½gi;l b
where pki;j ðtÞ is the probability value of selecting jth town by the ant located in ith
town at iteration t. si;j ðtÞ is pheromone value of the path connecting the ith town to
the jth town. gi;j is the heuristic information defined as inverse of the distance
between the ith town to the jth town. a and b are constant values specified by user.
Nik is the allowed towns for kth ant located in ith town. It is noted that the amounts
of pheromone are initially guessed as s0 for all paths at the first iteration. After
finishing the tour by all ants, the pheromone values of their paths in the next
iterations are updated by the following equation (Eq. 15.8) where the effect of the
pheromone evaporation is considered in the first term.
X
m
si;j ðt þ 1Þ ¼ ð1 qÞsi;j ðtÞ þ Dski;j ðtÞ ð15:8Þ
k¼1
where q is the evaporation rate of the pheromone trails. Dski;j ðtÞ is the amount of the
added pheromone by kth ant on the path of ith town to jth town which is defined by
the following equation (Eq. 15.9).
1
Lk ðtÞ ði; jÞ 2 Y k ðtÞ
Dski;j ðtÞ ¼ ð15:9Þ
0 ði; jÞ 62 Y k ðtÞ
where Y k ðtÞ and Lk ðtÞ are the path and its length from which the kth ant passed at
iteration t, respectively. After some iterations, the shortest path becomes unanimous
choice which could be a global optimum. Nevertheless, many ants are able to travel
on good path but sub-optimum paths called “stagnation” especially when lengths of
the tour are close together. The appropriate values of pre-specified parameters in the
AS algorithm vary in different problems, often set by trial and error.
15.4.2.2 Ant System with Elitist Strategy
The first popular strategy for improving the AS is elitist approach for ant system.
This method emphasizes the more pheromone trail on the overall shortest path
found during all iterations besides the considerations of the other ants’ pheromone
reinforcement on their path. Using the elitist strategy, the ants are efficiently
focused on the optimum solution instead of dispersion on lower significant paths.
For this purpose, the pheromone trails are updated using the following equation
(Eq. 15.10)
X
m
si;j ðt þ 1Þ ¼ ð1 qÞsi;j ðtÞ þ Dski;j ðtÞ þ cDsbest
i;j ð15:10Þ
k¼1
where Dsbest
i;j is the amount of added pheromone by the elitist ants during all
iteration which is obtained by the following equation (Eq. 15.11). c is a
pre-specified constant value.
1
ði; jÞ 2 Y best
Dsbest ¼ Lbest ð15:11Þ
i;j
0 ði; jÞ 62 Y best
where Y best ðtÞ and Lbest ðtÞ are the best path and its length in all iterations,
respectively.
15.4.2.3 Ant System with Elitist Strategy and Ranking
The main controversy of the AS arises over the danger of over-emphasizing of

pheromone trails on the sub-optimum path caused by many ants. In order to remove
this obstacle, a modified algorithm of the AS has been introduced which is based on
the overall elitist ant and the high rank ants at the end of a tour (Bullnheimer et al.
1997). The modification is simply applied to the AS. After completing a tour, the
ants are sorted in terms of shorter tour length and then r number of higher rank ants
is selected as the elitist ants of tth iteration. Moreover, the overall elitist ant (the
shortest tour length) during all iterations is obtained as well. According to this
strategy, the pheromone trails are updated by the following equation (Eq. 15.12).
X
r1
si;j ðt þ 1Þ ¼ ð1 qÞsi;j ðtÞ þ ðr r ÞDsri;j ðtÞ þ rDsbest
i;j ð15:12Þ
r¼1
where r is the rank of ants, Dsbest

i;j is determined by Eq. (15.11), and Dsi;j ðt Þ is found
r
as follows (Eq. 15.13).

1
Lr ð t Þ ði; jÞ 2 Y r
Dsri;j ¼ ð15:13Þ
0 ði; jÞ 62 Y r
where Y r ðtÞ and Lr ðtÞ are the path and its length of the ant with rank r at iteration t,
respectively.
15.4.2.4 Max-Min Ant System (MMAS)
The problem of premature stagnation is the most important disadvantage of the

greedy search strategies of ACO. Therefore, Max-Min Ant System (MMAS)
algorithm has been proposed to keep balance between an exploitation of the best
solutions found during the search, and avoidance of the early search stagnation
(Stützle and Hoos 1997; Stützle and Hoos 2000) MMAS has three differences
compared with the AS, i.e., (1) after finishing a tour, only one single ant is allowed
to add pheromone which may be either the global-best ant or the iteration-best ant,
(2) to escape from stagnation of the search, the pheromone trails are bounded
between the lower and upper thresholds i.e. si;j ðtÞ 2 ½smin ; smax , and (3) to reach a
higher exploration of solutions at the beginning of the algorithm, the initial values
of the pheromone trails are set to smax . Consequently, the pheromone trails are
updated using the following equation (Eq. 15.14).
si;j ðt þ 1Þ ¼ ð1 qÞsi;j ðtÞ þ Dsbest

i;j ð15:14Þ
where Dsbest
i;j is the amount of added pheromone defined depend on choosing
global-best ant or iteration-best ant. Accordingly, Eq. (15.11) can be used if
global-best ant is selected. However, this equation can be simply modified if
iteration-best ant is chosen.
The global-best ant choice is caused the search may be rapidly focused around
the path which is not necessarily the optimum and therefore, limits the exploration
of possibly better ones. On the other hand, the iteration-best ant reduces the danger
of stagnation because the iteration-best solutions may vary during iterations,
resulting in the extensive search over different solutions. It is proved that the
combination of the global-best ant and iteration-best ant strategies is more efficient
in convergence of the solutions into the optimum. It is demonstrated that the
maximum and minimum pheromone limitations in the MMAS algorithm are
obtained by the following equations (Eqs. 15.15 and 15.16).
1 1
smax ðtÞ ¼ ð15:15Þ
q Lbest
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 n pbest
smin ðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi smax ðtÞ ð15:16Þ
ðavg 1Þ n pbest
where pbest is the probability by which an ant chooses the best path (optimum). avg
is the average number of choices of each ant. According to these equations, the
upper and lower pheromone thresholds vary at each iteration until final solution.
15.4.2.5 Application of ACO in Biogas Production Technology
As an example of the application of ACO in biogas production, an optimal man-

agement of anaerobic co-digestion process using ACO is given in details in the
following paragraphs. In an anaerobic co-digestion two or more substrates are
simultaneously digested. The advantages of anaerobic co-digestion include: (1) it
dilutes the potential toxic chemicals like ammonia and improves the stability of
digestion (Sosnowski et al. 2003; Dai et al. 2013), (2) it prevents the inhibition of
digestion process caused by volatile fatty acid (VFA) accumulation and a decrease
in pH (Lin et al. 2014), (3) it promotes the quality of waste management in order to
achieve the environmental sustainability, (4) it enhances mass conversion and
reduces the weight and volume of digested residual (Macias-Corral et al. 2008), and
(5) it increases the biogas and consequently methane production (Jafari et al. 2014).
A key issue of anaerobic co-digestion is management of real-time discharge of
the organic waste from different sources (e.g., sewage sludge, agricultural residues,
forest residues, food residues and etc.) for producing biogas. The ACO algorithms
can be applied to the waste management in order to optimize the discharge of
different organic waste sources for maximizing the biogas production (Fig. 15.6).
The volume of different waste sources is discharged to produce maximum volume
of biogas considering the significant characterizations of each feedstock such as:
Total Solid (TS), Volatile Solid (VS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total
Nitrogen (TN), Alkalinity (Alk), Toxicity level (Tox), Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA),
pH, etc.
An optimal management of anaerobic co-digestion of sewage sludge and food
residue has been performed using the MMAS algorithm with the aim of maximizing
biogas production (Verdaguer et al. 2016). The co-substrates contributions to input
feed of anaerobic digester were optimized by considering their COD, TN, Alk and
Tox as well as the availability of each waste source over time. The fitness function
has been defined by the following equation (Eq. 15.17).
X
n X
lw X
3
I¼ ysw Vws Cw4 Cwd ð15:17Þ
w¼1 s¼1 d¼1
where n and lw are the number of the waste types and sources, respectively. w and
s are the waste number and source number, respectively. Vws is the volume of
substrate discharged from each source as a part of input feed. ysw is the decision
variable which is 1 if the source is selected and otherwise is 0. Cwd are coefficients
related to COD for d = 1, COD/TN for d = 2, alkalinity for d = 3, and toxicity
level for d = 4. These values have been expressed by the following equation
W-3
W-4 W-2
S-3
S-4 S-2
W-1
W-5
S-5 S-1
Optimal input of
anaerobic digester
Anaerobic
digester Maximum biogas
production
Fig. 15.6 A schematic illustration of waste management for an anaerobic co-digestion process
(Eq. 15.18) according to the previous experimental studies about the effect of
feedstock characterizations on the biogas production.
8 1
>
> Cw ¼ 0:000035Zw1 0:5
>
> 2
>
>
ðZw2 40Þ
< Cw2 ¼ e 2152
Cwd ¼ ðZ 3 4500Þ
2
ð15:18Þ
>
>
w
Cw3 ¼ e Zw3 20002
>
>
>
>
: 4
2
ðZw4 Þ
Cw ¼ e20:132
where Zwd are the COD, COD/TN, alkalinity, and toxicity contents of the substrate
for d = 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
This problem has been solved under constraints G1–G5 defined by the following
equations (Eqs. 15.19–15.23).
n X
X lw
G1 ¼ ysw Vws VAnD ð15:19Þ
w¼1 s¼1
Pn Plw s s 2
s¼1 yw Vw Zw
2
G2 ¼ P
w¼1
n P lw
2 Zmin ; Zmax
2
ð15:20Þ
s s
w¼1 s¼1 yw Vw
Pn Plw s s 3
s¼1 yw Vw Zw
3
G3 ¼ P
w¼1
n P lw
2 Zmin ; Zmax
3
ð15:21Þ
s s
w¼1 s¼1 yw Vw
Pn Plw
ysw Vws Zw4
G4 ¼ w¼1
P n
s¼1
P lw
Zmax
4
ð15:22Þ
s s
w¼1 s¼1 yw Vw
X
lw
G5 ¼ ysw ¼ 1; w ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; n ð15:23Þ
s¼1
Equation 15.19 prevents the input feed to be exceeded from the volume of
anaerobic digester, VAnD . Equations 15.20 and 15.21 bind the mean values of the
COD/TN and alkalinity in the appropriate range, respectively. Equation 15.22
keeps the mean value of toxicity level lower than the allowable value.
Equation 15.23 represents that at least one source should be involved in the
anaerobic digestion. In this problem, the ants have chosen the solutions with the
P
probabilities calculated by Eq. 15.24. This equation is obtained using Vws 4d¼1 Zwd
as heuristic information in the Eq. 15.7. The other processes of the optimization
algorithm are similar to the MMAS algorithm as mentioned before.
h P ib
½sw;s ðtÞa Vws 4d¼1 Zwd
pkw;s ðtÞ ¼ h P ib ð15:24Þ
Pl¼lw a 4
l¼1 ½sw;l ðtÞ Vw
l d
d¼1 Zw
15.4.3 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
PSO has been inspired by collective behavior of social intelligent of some organ-
isms such as schools of fishes (or flocks of birds). During developments of particle
swarm concept, it was observed that movement behavior of the agents is more
similar to a swarm than a flock or a school. The term of “particle” is due to the fact
that velocities and accelerations are suitably applied to particles. Therefore, the
name of “particle swarm” was chosen to introduce optimization concept.
PSO is a stochastic population-based problem, comprising primitive mathe-
matical related to positions and velocities of particles in the hyperspace. For a better
understanding of the algorithm, it is initially worth describing how fishes (or birds)
participate in their school (or flock) in order to discover bait. As shown in Fig. 15.7,
each probable solution for an optimization problem is treated as a fish, called a
particle. At the initial time, the fishes randomly commence seeking the search
Time=0 Time=1 Time=2

Location of best evaluation 3
3
of ith fish till recent time
Location of global best
3
evaluation till recent time 3
FOOD FOOD FOOD
3
Fish
1
(Particle)
1
6 6 1
6
1
1
6 4
5
5 4
4
5
6
4 2 2
2
5
5 2
4
Time=T Best Time=t Time=t-1

solution
3
1
1 1
2
FOOD 4 FOOD FOOD
3 3
3 1
1
3
5
4
4
3
5 1
5
2
2
5 4 4
5
6 6 6
6
5 4
2
2
6
2
Fig. 15.7 A schematic representation of collaboration among fishes to attain food illustrated for
understanding PSO algorithm
domain. Over time, each fish remembers its own nearest position to food and shares
generously to the others. Therefore, the fishes tend to the target (food) with a
change in their speed rely on their best experienced position and the best position of
the most successful fish. By following this process, the school movement trajectory
is improved till the fishes reach in the vicinity of final destination which is food or
the best solution of the investigating optimization problem.
The PSO algorithm described originally by Kennedy and Eberhart is known as
the Standard (global) PSO (Eberhart and Kennedy 1995). The main steps for
implementing the PSO are subsequently discussed.
Step 1: the positions of the particles are randomly chosen and their velocities are
arbitrary initialized on n-dimensions in the problem domain. The position
and velocity
of ith fish (particle)
in hyperspace at time t are represented by
Xit ¼ xti;1 ; xti;2 ; xti;3 ; . . .; xti;j ; . . .; xti;n and Vit ¼ vti;1 ; vti;2 ; vti;3 ; . . .; vti;j ; . . .; vti;n
respectively.
Step 2: the value of optimization fitness function corresponding to the

n-dimensional position of each particle is obtained.
Step 3: fitness evaluation of each particle is compared with its best experienced
fitness (PBest;i ). If current value is more suitable than PBest;i , then the current value is
set as PBest;i . Therefore, the location of particle’s best fitness (xj ½GBest ) is equal to its
current position in n-dimensional domain.
Step 4: fitness evaluation of each particle is compared with overall previous best
fitness of the population (GBest ). If current evaluation is better than GBest , then
current value is substituted for GBest . Consequently, the location of overall best
fitness (xj ½GBest ) is equal to its current position in n-dimensional space.
Step 5: the velocity and position of each particle is updated according to the
following equations (Eqs. 15.25 and 15.26).
n o n o
vti;j ¼ vt1
i;j þ C c R t
c x j PBest;i x t1
i;j þ Cs Rt
s x j ½ GBest x t1
i;j ð15:25Þ
xti;j ¼ xt1
i;j þ vi;j
t
ð15:26Þ
where Cc and Cs are cognitive and social positive acceleration constants, respec-
tively, and Rtc and Rts are two random functions in the range [0, 1]. These parameters
could be constant or modified at each time step.
The first, second, and third terms of the Eq. 15.25 are the “inertia”, “cognition”,
and “social” parts, respectively. The “inertia” term introduces previous velocity of
particle. The “cognition” and the “social” terms represent the effects of the indi-
vidual particle and the particles group, respectively, contributing to the change of a
particle’s velocity. Without considering these two terms, the particles will retain
their motion in the same speed and direction until they exceed the boundary of the
space (e.g., motion of dead fish in its school).
It is noted that particle’s velocity of each dimension are restricted to a maximum
value called vMAX;j . If the particle’s velocity of each dimension exceed from the
user-specified vMAX;j , then the velocity is set to vMAX;j .
Step 6: the steps of 2–5 are iterated until a criterion is satisfied which could
usually be a sufficiently good fitness or a maximum number of iterations.
The essential merits of the PSO compared to the other optimization methods are
its facile implementation and few adjustable parameters.
15.5 Hybrid Models and Applications

in Biogas Production
Hybrid models such as adaptive neural-fuzzy interface system (ANFIS),

Fuzzy-neural, Geno-Fuzzy, and Neuro-genetic have been developed to benefit from
the advantages of all the involved approaches. Among the hybrid models developed
to date, ANFIS is the most attractive paradigm proposed by Jang in the year 1993.
Fig. 15.8 Schematic structure of ANFIS
This intelligent technique has merged the merits of an artificial neural network, i.e.,
learning capability with Takagi, Sugeno and Kang (TSK) fuzzy inference system,
i.e., human decision-making ability (Fig. 15.8 illustrates a concise structure of
ANFIS). Some applications of ANFIS approach in biogas production technology
are summarized in Table 15.7.
ANN technology consolidated with evolutionary optimization algorithms like
GA, ACO, and PSO are considered among the most successful hybrid soft
comptuing approches. These hybrid models can applied to model complex engi-
neering problems like biogas production processes that cannot be estimated and
optimized by conventional approaches. In such approaches, evolutionary algo-
rithms utilize the outlet of the developed ANN models as fitness functions to select
the optimal input variables, leading to the optimum biogas production or methane
yield. Table 15.8 lists some important applications of hybrid models for optimizing
the anaerobic digestion processes.
412
Table 15.7 Some important applications of ANFIS approach to model the anaerobic digestion process
Type of Aim(s) ANFIS model input(s) ANFIS Result(s) References
biogas model
production output(s)
system
High-rate To predict and simulate the response and OLR, HLR, alkalinity loading rate VMP, TOC, The developed model has Tay and
anaerobic performance of high-rate anaerobic (ALR), volumetric methane VFA at time an acceptable Zhang
wastewater digestion systems after two-fold OLR with production rate (VMP), total (n + 1) performance to predict the (2000)
treatment two-fold hydraulic loading rate organic carbon (TOC), and VFA at response of the systems
systems (HLR) shock time (n)
Anaerobic To control an anaerobic hybrid reactor pH, ALK and total volatile acids Influent High methane production Waewsak
hybrid (TVA) feed flow rate and great stability in et al. (2010)
reactor rate the process was achieved
using the developed
model
Landfill To simulate and predict the landfill gas Time, sludge addition rate, and Biogas The developed model was Abdallah
production rate leachate recirculation rate production successfully in predicting et al. (2011)
rate the biogas production rate
Two-phase To predict biogas production HRT, pH, and OLR Cumulative The process was Arumugam
AD model gas effectively modeled using et al. (2015)
production the developed ANFIS
model
F. Almasi et al.
Table 15.8 Some prominent applications of ANN technology integrated with evolutionary algorithms to predict and optimize the anaerobic digestion process
15
Waste type Aim(s) Prediction model Optimization Model input(s) and its Model output(s) References
algorithm optimal value and its optimal
value
Organic waste Modeling and Two-hidden layers BP trained GA Temperature (36 °C), TS Methane fraction Qdais
optimizing the MLP ANN model with (6.6%), VS (52.8%), and pH (77%) et al.
biogas production sigmoid function (6.4) (2010)
process in an
industrial digester
Co-substrate Modeling and One-hidden layer BP trained GA Concentrations of cow dung Biogas Kana et al.
of cow dung, optimizing the MLP ANN model with 2 (25% w/w), banana stem performance (2012)
paper waste, co-digestion process hidden neurons and sigmoid (25% w/w), rice bran (5% w/ (10.144 ml)
rice bran, transfer function w), paper waste (25% w/w),
banana stem, and sawdust (20% w/w)
and saw dust
Co-digestion Modeling and One-hidden layer BP trained GA Substrate (potato waste) Methane yield Jacob and
of potato optimizing the MLP ANN model with 12 concentration (7 g TS/L), (449.4 L/kg Banerjee
waste with co-digestion process hidden neurons, and tangent proportion of co-substrate VSfed) (2016)
Pistia sigmoid and pure linear (Pistia stratiotes) (69.08% TS,
stratiotes transfer functions in the w/w), and inoculum
hidden and output layers, concentration (78% VS/VS)
respectively
Advanced Soft Computing Techniques in Biogas Production …
Sludge Modeling and One-hidden layer BP trained PSO Temperature (35.4 °C), TS Methane Akbaş
optimizing the MLP ANN model with 20 (31751 mg/L), VFA percentage of the et al.
methane percentage hidden neurons, and tangent (8.78 mg/L), ALK (2754 mg/ produced biogas (2015)
of biogas produced sigmoid transfer function L) and pH (6.86) (66.5%)
in an industrial
wastewater digester
Sludge Modeling and One-hidden layer BP trained PSO
optimizing the MLP ANN model with 15
(continued)
413
414
Waste type Aim(s) Prediction model Optimization Model input(s) and its Model output(s) References
algorithm optimal value and its optimal
value
biogas production hidden neurons and tangent Temperature (35 °C), SLR Biogas Akbaş
rate in an industrial sigmoid transfer function (403.79 m3/day, SRT production rate et al.
wastewater digester (18.3 day), and pH (6.85) (3459 m3/day) (2015)
Sludge Modeling and One-hidden layer BP trained PSO Temperature (35.8 °C), TS Methane Akbaş
optimizing the MLP ANN model with 30 (22090 mg/L), VS percentage of the et al.
biogas quality in an hidden neurons and tangent (18361 mg/L), VFA biogas produced (2015)
industrial sigmoid transfer function (17.04 mg/L), ALK (66.8%) and
wastewater digester (3934 mg/L), SLR biogas production
(371.5 m3/day), OLR rate (3322 m3/
(2.02 kg/m3 day), SRT day)
(18.05 day), and pH (6.87)
F. Almasi et al.
15.6 Conclusions
Various soft computing approaches have been used for modeling and optimizing
biogas production systems because of their capability to deal with complexity,
nonlinearity, and uncertainty associated with the digestion process. Interest in
applying such advanced tools to biogas production technology is growing due to
the need for fast and accurate control of ill-defined digestion systems. Overall,
advanced soft computing approaches will serve as powerful tools for modeling,
optimizing, and controlling biogas production systems. Modeling and optimizing
the biogas production processes using various soft computing techniques have been
reported in the literature, while these methods have rarely been used for real-time
monitoring and control of digestion systems. Therefore, future work should be
directed towards the application of advanced soft computing techniques for
real-time monitoring and control of biogas production systems and exploring
strategies to enhance the quantity and quality of the biogas evolved.
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Chapter 16
New “Omics” Technologies and Biogas
Production
Gholamreza Salehi Jouzani and Reza Sharafi
16.1 Introduction
The increasing concern about energy security, negative environmental effects of

fossil fuels and improvements in living standards have forced national and inter-
national authorities to promote green and renewable energy alternatives.
Application of renewable energies is among the most encouraging and
environmentally-compatible ways to mitigate pollution, improve energy security,
and diminish consumption of conventional fuels. Different waste streams, such as
forestry and agricultural residues, sewage and industrial organic wastewater,
municipal solid wastes, as well as livestock and poultry dung have been shown to
hold economic potentials for production of different types of bioenergies, such as
bioethanol, biobuthanol and biogas (Benato and Macor 2017; Mao et al. 2015).
Biogas production through anaerobic digestion, is a promising waste treatment
strategy and is becoming increasingly important because of being clean, renewable
and environmentally friendly. Furthermore, biogas energy production relies on a
balanced carbon dioxide cycle (Bremges et al. 2015; Deng et al. 2016). Principally,
biogas production process takes place under anaerobic conditions, in which com-
plex consortia of microorganisms are involved in hydrolysis and fermentation of
organic matter, resulting in biogas (methane) as the final product. The anaerobic
digestion process of biomass for biogas production is generally performed in four
steps, including hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Each
step is catalyzed by the activity of a specific group of microorganisms, commonly
named as lignocellulose degrading, acidogenic, acetogenic and methanogenic
microorganisms (Maus et al. 2014). In spite of the huge number of research works
G. Salehi Jouzani (&) R. Sharafi

Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Agricultural Biotechnology Research
Organization (AREEO), Fahmideh Blvd, P.O. Box: 31535-1897, Karaj, Iran

420 G. Salehi Jouzani and R. Sharafi
focused on the identification of the microorganisms and the genes involved in

biogas production from different types of biomass, the majority of the participating
microbes and genes are still unknown, due to the lack of optimized culture media
and conditions needed to grow the majority of the microbial communities involved.
It is well known that biogas production efficiency of biogas plants is significantly
dependent on the microbial community composition and activity, type of input
waste, and process parameters, and therefore, the technologies providing a more
in-depth understanding about the correlation among these parameters are of great
importance (Heyer et al. 2016).
New “omics” technologies have become available for different families of cel-
lular molecules, including genes, RNAs, proteins, and metabolites (Raupach et al.
2016). Recent developments in “omics” technologies, such as genomics, metage-
nomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and next generation sequenc-
ing (NGS) technologies have provided excellent opportunities for developing new
high-throughput structural and functional genomic surveys which can be efficiently
used in the identification of uncultivable microorganisms, unknown genes, and
pathways involved in biogas production from different biomass resources
(Fig. 16.1). For instance, sequencing of the total metagenomic DNA in biogas
process could efficiently help to obtain unbiased insights into the composition and
function of a microbial community under investigation (Bremges et al. 2015).
Overall, these innovations have great potentials to improve the efficiency of biogas
production from different agricultural and municipal wastes. In line with that, in this
chapter, we have tried to briefly elaborate on the state of the art of the application of
different “omics” technologies in biogas production (Fig. 16.1).
Biogas and “Omics” technologies
Proteomics and Metabolomics and

Genomics and metagenomics metaproteomics meta-metabolomics
Whole genome Transcriptomic and
sequencing metatranscriptomics
18S rDNA genes and 16S rRNA
ITS
Interactions between
syntrophic microbes,
Performing acetogens, and
taxonomic methanogens
profiling
Identification and characterization of Taxonomic
microorganisms involved in abundances and
anaerobic digestion Total RNA biological
Characterization
of intracellular
metabolites
ATGCATCCA
ATCCATGCA
Discovering the microbial communities

and genes involving in the biogas Discovering the
production Monitoring the metabolites and
proteins pathways
Discovering the genes involved in the involved in the
expressed during
biogas production process
the process
Fig. 16.1 Potential applications of new “omics” technologies in biogas production studies
16 New “Omics” Technologies and Biogas Production 421
16.2 Whole Genome Sequencing of Microorganisms

Involving in Anaerobic Digestion
Identification and characterization of dominant bacteria and archaea involved in the

four steps would be essential to target bioprocess optimization and metabolic
engineering with an aim to enhance biogas production efficiency in biogas plants.
Recent advances in NGS technologies for whole genome sequencing of diverse
organisms have opened a wonderful way to explore adaptive genome features
conferring competitiveness to different microorganisms contributing to one or more
steps of anaerobic digestion within biogas reactor environments. During the last five
years, the whole genome of many microbes, such as Methanoculleus bourgensis,
Clostridium bornimense, Clostridium ultunense, Ruminiclostridium cellulosi,
Herbinix hemicellulosilytica and Peptoniphilus sp. involved in different steps of
anaerobic digestion have been sequenced and characterized (Table 16.1) (Maus
et al. 2014, 2016; Hahnke et al. 2014; Koek et al. 2014a, b, 2015a, b; Tomazetto
et al. 2014, 2016; Manzoor et al. 2013; Sun and Schnürer 2016).
Methanogens are members of the phylum Euryarchaeota. Methanoculleus spe-
cies are known as one of the most abundant microorganisms involved in
methanogenesis in biogas plants (Nettmann et al. 2010; Wirth et al. 2012; Maus
et al. 2014). In particular, the species M. bourgensis is known as one of the key
species in different biogas reactor systems. Maus et al. (2014) completely
Table 16.1 Application of whole genome sequencing in characterization of microorganisms

involved in anaerobic digestion
Name Type of life Type of activity Organic matter References
Methanoculleus Mesophilic Methanogenesis Sewage sludge Maus et al.
bourgensis (2014)
Porphyromonadaceae Mesophilic Hydrolysis and Maize silage and Hahnke
acidogenesis pig and cattle et al. (2015)
manure
Clostridium Mesophilic Biomass Maize silage and Hahnke
bornimense M2/40 degradation Wheat straw et al. (2015)
Ruminiclostridium Thermophilic cellulolytic industrial-scale Koek et al.
cellulosi DG5 biogas plant (2014a, b)
Peptoniphilus sp Mesophilic Protein Maize silage Tomazetto
breakdown and et al. (2014)
acidogenesis
Clostridium Mesophilic Acidogenic Maize silage and Tomazetto
bornimense strain wheat straw et al. (2016)
M2/40T
Clostridium ultunense Mesophilic Syntrophic Sludge Manzoor
acetate-oxidizing et al. (2013)
Clostridium sp Mesophilic cellulolytic Slaughterhouse Sun and
waste Schnürer
(2016)
sequenced the genome of the type strain M. bourgensis MS2T. The strain contained
a chromosome with a size of 2.8 kbp, and showed significant genome similarities to
M. marisnigri JR1. Specific genes contributing to methanogenesis and osmolyte
production were detected in the genome of M. bourgensis MS2T, and the majority
of the genetic information generally found in methanogenesis in biogas plants was
detected in the genome of this strain. The same group of researchers in another
work sequenced and annotated the genome of another strain BA1 belonging to this
species (Maus et al. 2016).
Hahnke et al. (2015), by using Illumina MiSeq system, sequenced the whole
genome of a mesophilic, anaerobic Porphyromonadaceae bacterium, previously
isolated from a biogas-producing lab-scale continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
optimized for anaerobic digestion of co-fermented maize silage and pig/cattle
manure. The genome sequencing results indicated that this bacterium may be
involved in hydrolysis and acidogenesis during anaerobic digestion and
biomethanation, as its genome contained diverse genes encoding proteins con-
tributing to the degradation of complex carbohydrates and proteinaceous com-
pounds, and catalyzing the production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs). This research
group in another work, by using the same NGS technology sequenced the genome
of a mesophilic and anaerobic bacterium Clostridium bornimense M2/40, previ-
ously isolated from a two-phase biogas reactor continuously fed with maize silage
and 5% wheat straw. The results revealed two replicons, including a chromosome
(containing 2613 putative genes) and a newly discovered secondary replicon
(containing 680 putative genes). Koek et al. (2014a, b) sequenced the genome of
the Ruminiclostridium cellulosi DG5 (formerly known as Clostridium cellulosi), a
thermophilic, anaerobic and cellulytic bacterium, previously isolated from an
industrial-scale biogas plant in Germany. This microbe is probably responsible for
lignocellulose degradation during the anaerobic digestion process and its genome
contained 2017 coding sequences, including 136 genes for carbohydrate-
hydrolases. The characterized enzymes mainly belonged to different glycoside
hydrolase classes which are mainly involved in hydrolysis and/or rearrangement of
glycosidic bonds. In another work, same researchers also isolated and characterized
a novel species Herbinix hemicellulosilytica from a thermophilic biogas reactor.
The strain was efficiently able to degrade cellulose at thermophilic conditions
(Koeck et al. 2015a). The results of the genome sequencing of the strain showed the
presence of a total of 2681 protein coding sequences, including 155 genes encoding
glycoside hydrolases (GH) and carbohydrate-binding modules (CBM) (Koeck et al.
2015b). The genes involved in the cellulytic system of the strains included three
cellulases, one endoglucanase and two cellobiohydrolases, which presumably
degrade cellulose (Koeck et al. 2015b).
Another recently sequenced genome belonged to a mesophilic and obligate
anaerobic bacterium Peptoniphilus sp. strain ING2-D1G. This strain has high
potentials for the hydrolysis of proteins and in acidogenesis during biomass
degradation. The chromosome of the strain is 1.6 Mb in size, containing 1476
coding sequences, 53 tRNAs, and 4 ribosomal RNA (rrn) operons. The genome of
the strains contained putative genes with potentials for production of acetate,
lactate, and butyrate which are involved in the acidogenic metabolism. However,
the strain did not possess any genes encoding cellulases (Tomazetto et al. 2014).
Later in the year 2016, the same group of researchers annotated the genome
sequence of another bacterium, Clostridium bornimense strain M2/40T, isolated
from a biogas reactor fed with maize silage and wheat straw. The genome of the
strain consisted of two replicons, a chromosome with size of 2.9 Mb containing
2613 putative genes, and a chromid with the size of 700 Kb harboring 680 coding
sequences. The genome sequence data indicated that the strain should be classified
as acidogenic bacterium, as that it encodes all enzymes required for hydrogen,
acetate, formate, lactate, butyrate, and ethanol production (Tomazetto et al. 2016).
Clostridium ultunense strain Esp was another bacterium, whose genome recently
has been sequenced. This bacterium belongs to the syntrophic acetate-oxidizing
bacteria which play a key role during biogas production from protein-rich materials.
The total genome size was about 6.2 Mb containing a total of 6446 putative genes,
6296 of which were protein-encoding sequences, and the others were rRNA genes
(Manzoor et al. 2013). Sun and Schnürer (2016) reported on the genome sequence
of Clostridium sp. Bc-iso-3, a cellulolytic strain isolated from a Swedish
industrial-scale biogas digester. The genome size was about 4.3 Mb which con-
tained 3711 coding sequences. Totally, 181 carbohydrate metabolism enzymes
(CAZyme) were detected in the genome of the strain, of which one had auxiliary
activity, 23 carbohydrate-binding modules, nine carbohydrate esterases, 29 gly-
coside hydrolases, 16 glycosyltransferases, and three polysaccharide lyases. All
these results reveal the high potential of NGS to explore genes and pathways
involved in the biogas process.
16.3 Microbial Composition and Functions in Anaerobic

Digestion: Genomics and Metagenomics Approaches
High throughput genomics and metagenomics sequencing has been widely used to
more deeply investigate the microbial communities and genes involved in the
biogas production process from different biomass. For improving the efficiency of
biogas digesters, the presence of an active complex microbial communities,
effectively hydrolyzing different polymers to methane, is essential. However,
understandings on these communities is currently limited as a large proportion of
these organisms are uncultivable (Stevenson et al. 2004; Tian et al. 2016).
Moreover, only little knowledge exists on the variations in taxonomic, functional
and metabolic patterns of microbiomes found in biogas digesters (Luo et al. 2016).
Therefore, identification and characterization of microbial communities active
during anaerobic digestion for biogas production is an essential task to enhance
efficient substrate use and process stability (Stark et al. 2014).
Microbial community composition in the anaerobic digestion system can be
identified by PCR amplification and analysis of conserved housekeeping genes as
marker genes. The 16SrRNA (for bacteria) as well as 18SrDNA genes and ITS
sequences (for fungi) have been widely used (Vanwonterghem et al. 2014; Su et al.
2012). Different traditional molecular fingerprinting markers, such as random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD; Dubey et al. 2014; Koeck et al. 2014a, b),
ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (RISA; Ciesielski et al. 2013),
single-strand-conformation polymorphism (SSCP; Delbès et al. 2000; Leclerc et al.
2001), ribotyping-16SrDNA sequencing (Kröber et al. 2009; Koeck et al, 2014a, b),
and variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR; Koeck et al. 2014a, b) have been
widely used to study biogas digesters. However, these traditional techniques are
culture dependent, time-consuming, and relatively low-throughput. The NSG and
“omics” strategies have significantly decreased the cost and improved the yield and
quality of the sequence data generated. These advantages make it feasible to rapidly
sequence tens to hundreds of amplicon samples on a single run without need to
purification and cultivation of each microorganism (Vanwonterghem et al. 2014;
Delmont et al. 2012).
Metagenomics is the study of genetic material of all or a group of microbial
communities recovered directly from environmental samples. In this science,
studies are performed without isolation and purification of microbes. Hence, the
genetic materials (DNA of all microbiome) are extracted directly from the envi-
ronmental samples. Recent explosion in the application of NSG to explore
metagenomic or 16S rRNA and 18SrRNA/ITS taxonomic diversity of microbial
environments has provided a huge deal of data which has opened a new view on
microbial communities involved in different processes, such as biogas production.
These studies provide a genuine understanding and fingerprinting of structure,
functions, and interactions of the microbial communities present in the biogas
production process in a culture-independent manner. (Gilbert et al. 2011;
Dudhagara et al. 2015; Campanaro et al. 2016). Different metagenomics tech-
nologies, such as denaturing/temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE/
TGGE) (Connaughton et al. 2006; Liu et al. 2009), terminal-restriction fragment
length polymorphism (T-RFLP) (Carballa et al. 2011; Ziganshin et al, 2013), clone
library sequencing (Dong et al. 2015), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)
(Nettmann et al. 2010), and 454 pyrosequencing (Li 2013) have been used during
the last decade to identify the composition, dynamics, and bioconversion functions
of microbial communities in biogas digesters. These studies have mostly been
carried out to detect microbial communities in large (Liu et al. 1999), lab-scale (Li
2013) biogas reactors or small-sized household digesters (Dong et al. 2015; Tian
et al. 2016).
Based on the source biomass (manure, lignocellulosic materials, etc.), the
microbial communities involved in the anaerobic digestion are different. Tsapekos
et al. (2016) showed that during the process of anaerobic co-digestion of pig
manure and ensiled meadow grass, species similar to Coprothermobacter prote-
olyticus and to Clostridium thermocellum with high proteolytic and cellulolytic
activities were found firmly attached to the solid fraction of the digested feedstock,
whereas liquid samples contained different microbial community composition,
mainly dominated by Proteobacteria and archaea. Furthermore, an unclassified

Alkaliphilus sp. was found in high relative abundance in all samples.
Tian et al. (2016) used a combination of 16S rRNA gene PCR-based techniques
to study community composition, richness, and evenness in different household
biogas digesters in Yunnan Province, China. They showed that the composition of
bacterial and archaeal community in different regions were significantly different,
and was drastically affected by seasonal changes. The dominant bacterial phyla
included Chloroflexi, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, and the most
dominant archaeal phylum was Euryarchaeota. The dominant genera were
Bacteroides, Clostridium, Smithella, Syntrophus and Bellilinea. Chloroflexi and
Crenarchaeota (species Methanosaeta concilii) were identified as the most domi-
nant bacteria and archaea, respectively. Suksong et al. (2016) optimized different
key parameters of biogas production in a solid-state anaerobic digestion (SS-AD)
fed by oil palm biomass. The most dominant bacteria were Ruminococcus sp. and
Clostridium sp., while Methanoculleus sp. was detected as the most dominant
archaea. A combination of Illumina MiSeq platform sequencing and DGGE were
used to study the effect of straw microbial community on thermophilic biogas
process. The results obtained revealed that Methanosarcina was the most efficient
in producing biogas (Li et al. 2017). Sun et al. (2016) by using 16S rRNA gene
amplicons could show that Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the most dominant
microorganisms involved in the degradation of lignocellulos to enhance biogas
production. Zhao et al. (2016) investigated the microbial community of a biogas
reactor fed by Pennisetum sinese Roxb as mono-substrate by 16S rRNA
gene analysis. The dominant bacteria were Treponema porcinum, Eubacterium
limosum, Clostridium, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Anaerofilum, while the
dominant archaea were Methanobacterium curvum, Methanosarcina barkeri,
Methanobacterium bryantii, and Methanofollis ethanolicus. Luo et al. (2016) used
metagenomic analysis to elucidate the structure, function, and metabolic patterns of
the core microbial consortium existing in 14 full-scale biogas reactors fed by sludge
or manure, operated under various conditions. The metagenomics analysis showed
higher relative abundance of hydrogenotrophic methanogens, and that the
sludge-based samples were clearly distinct from the manure-based samples from
both taxonomic and functional patterns perspectives. Treu et al. (2016a, b) also
used high throughput metagenomics to characterize the structure and function of the
microbial community in biogas reactors. They found that a complex consortium of
unknown species was involved in the anaerobic digestion process, but it could only
be characterized at high taxonomic levels (Treu et al. 2016a, b).
Another application of metagenomics in biogas production is the monitoring of
inoculated microorganisms during the biogas production process. For instance,
Tsapekos et al. (2017) evaluated the efficiency of two hydrolase producing bacteria,
C. thermocellum and Melioribacter roseus in degrading lignocellulosic matter in
biogas production process in batch reactors and CSTRs. The results confirmed that
the presence of C. thermocellum could enhance biogas production up to 34%,
whereas another bacterium did not show significant effect on methane production.
They used high-throughput 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to evaluate the effect of
bacterial inoculation on bacterial and archaeal populations. The results confirmed

that both strains were not markedly resided into biogas microbiome, and did not
significantly alter the microbial communities.
Another application of metagenomic studies in anaerobic digestion is the char-
acterization of functions of those microorganisms involved in the breakdown of
polysaccharides and methanogenesis during biogas production (Vanwonterghem
et al. 2014). For instance, Jaenicke et al. (2010) used 454 pyrosequencing to elu-
cidate the structure and function of the microbial consortium contributing to the
anaerobic digestion of a mixture of maize silage, green rye, and chicken manure in a
production-scale biogas plant. They found that Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were
dominant in the process and were likely responsible for the breakdown of
polysaccharides and fermentation. Moreover, metagenomics studies have been used
to study metabolic pathways in the anaerobic digestion process. In line with that,
Wirth et al. (2012) could evaluate the regulatory role of hydrogen metabolism in a
biogas plant fed periodically with a mixture of maize silage and pig manure, and
tried to enhance biogas production by optimizing the balance between H2-producers
and H2-consumers. In addition to the wide application of metagenomic sequencing
in phylogenetic and functional diversity in anaerobic digestion systems, it can also
be used to evaluate the effects of reactor set-up, pretreatment methods, operational
conditions, and feedstock composition on the community composition and function
(Vanwonterghem et al. 2014).
16.4 Microbial Functions in Anaerobic Digestion:

Transcriptomics and Metatranscriptomics
Approaches
Commonly, the transcriptome includes a set of all RNA molecules in one cell or a
population. It is sometimes used to refer to all RNAs, or just mRNA, depending on
the particular experiment. Therefore, transcriptomics is the study of the whole
transcriptome of an organism. Another term is metatranscriptomics which refers to
the sequencing of reverse transcribed mRNA extracted from microbial communities
of different environmental samples. The advantage of this technology is the
reduction of the level of complexity seen in metagenomics by only focusing on
those microorganisms and genes that are metabolically active (Sue et al. 2012;
Vanwonterghem et al. 2014). Previously, microarray technologies have been widely
used to explore gene expression profiles for different organisms. However, this
technology is time consuming and expensive, and cannot detect novel genes, as the
probes are designed and used based on known genes, whereas, metatranscriptomics
is very efficient and does not need any information about the genes of interest.
In investigating biogas production from different feedstock, transcriptomics
analysis could play an important role in finding the right microorganisms with
appropriate genes and metabolites. Transcriptomics technologies can be used not
only for exploring active microorganisms, new genes, and pathways involved in
lignocellulose degradation and methane production, but also can help to find
markers for monitoring industrial biogas production to prevent failures or to model
the whole process (Stark et al. 2014). Zakrzewski et al. (2012) for the first time used
metatranscriptome sequencing of 16S ribosomal sequence tags to perform taxo-
nomic profiling of the active part of the microbial community in an anaerobic
digestion system. Their results showed Euryarchaeota and Firmicutes as dominant
and the most active phyla during the process, whereas a small part was assigned to
the Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Synergistetes phyla. Maus et al. (2016) used
metatranscriptome sequencing analysis to determine the active microbial flora in an
exemplary thermophilic biogas plant. The meta-transcriptomic 16SrRNA analysis
showed that the genera Defluviitoga (9.2%), Clostridium cluster III (4.8%), and
Tepidanaerobacter (1.1%) as well as Methanoculleus (5.7%) were the most tran-
scriptionally active microorganisms during the process, whereas Hallocella (1.8%),
Tepidimicrobium (0.5%), and Methanothermobacter (<0.1%) were less active.
This approach can be used to determine the role and function of high or low
abundant individual microbes in maintaining the efficiency and stability of the
process, and also to evaluate the functionally versatile lineages with the capability
to drive diverse processes from hydrolysis to acetate oxidation (e.g. Clostridia), and
even to assess the role of different strains and species of a specific genus under
different environmental conditions or presence of syntrophic or competitive com-
munity members. By using this “omics” technology, it has been shown that
Clostridia were the dominant class of hydrolytic organisms in the biogas fer-
menters, playing a key role during the initial biomass degradation (Gulert et al.
2016; Sundberg et al. 2013; Vanwonterghem et al. 2014; Ziganshin et al. 2013).
The metatranscriptome analysis also has the potential to study microbe-microbe
interactions between syntrophic microbes, acetogens, and methanogens. For
instance, electron transfer mechanisms occurring as result of interspecies
microbe-microbe interactions (e.g., between Geobacter and Methanosaeta popu-
lations) during the anaerobic digestion have been explored (Morita et al. 2011; Liu
et al. 2012). Moreover, metatranscriptomics holds the potential to be applied to
quickly assess regulatory reactions in biogas plants to monitor shifts in metabolic
pathways and profiles, and changes in the balance of functional guilds. This would
help to determine the optimized conditions in which pathways of interest would be
active, allowing a defined and special microbial community towards efficient
biodegradation and fermentation of biomass. For instance, Gulert et al. (2016) used
metagenomics and metatranscriptomics to evaluate hydrolysis rates in a commercial
biogas plant fed with maize silage, cow manure, chicken manure, and feces samples
from herbivores. The maximum active cellulolytic GHs genes were observed in the
biogas reactor fed by elephant feces. RNA-Seq results indicated that highly tran-
scribed cellulases of Firmicutes were four times more than that of Bacteroidetes in
the biogas fermenter, while in the elephant feces samples, the distribution of these
enzymes was very similar. Based on these results, they suggested that increase of
Bacteroidetes and Fibrobacteres populations may enhance hydrolytic performance
in the anaerobic digesters.
It is clear that the application of metatranscriptomics in combination with other

“omics” technologies and chemical, rheological, and physical parameters could
assist with achieving the best results. However, transcriptomics and metatran-
scriptomics studies are faced with some technical challenges, such as impurity of
the final extracted RNA from environmental samples, fast degradation of RNA due
to its short half-life, difficulties in enriching mRNA and bias related to cDNA
synthesis and amplification (Vanwonterghem et al. 2014). Therefore, optimizing
total RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis protocols is of importance in tran-
scriptome studies in biogas process. In line with that, attempt have made to over-
come these challenges. For instance, Stark et al. (2014) tried to set up different
RNA-extraction protocols which could be efficiently used for metatranscriptomics
studies in biogas plants.
Anaerobic fungi have been known as efficient degraders of lignocellulosic
biomass in the digestive tracts of their host animals and are regarded as a promising
reservoir for bioaugmentation in biogas production processes (Dollhofer et al. 2017;
Gruninger et al. 2014). Dollhofer et al. (2017) by using genomics (PCR) and
transcriptomics (cDNA synthesis) approaches could detect anaerobic fungi GH5
endoglucanase gene in two digesters fed by lignocellulosic biomass. In addition,
they isolated and characterized a new Piromyces species from a PCR-positive
digester. However, the cellulytic activity was at low level in the digesters, and it
was proposed that anaerobic fungi from digesters sludge should be added to those
digesters to enhance cellulytic activities. Bremges et al. (2015) used deep
sequencing of metagenome and meta-transcriptome to explore the genes involved
in methanogenic pathways in an agricultural production-scale biogas plant, and
reconstructed the major genes contributing to the methane metabolism in the
process.

Proteomics and Metaproteomics Approaches
Commonly, proteomics is considered as the large-scale characterization of all

protein components of an organism, whereas metaproteomics is a set of all proteins
expressed by complex microbial communities under a given set of conditions at a
specific point in time in one ecosystem. In order to perform metaproteomics studies,
at the first step, proteins are extracted from an environmental sample (e.g., soil,
water, and fermentation process), followed by fractionation and separation using
liquid chromatography, and finally detection and sequencing are performed using
tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) (Vanwonterghem et al. 2014; Langley et al.
2013). By using these approaches, it is possible to organize proteome analysis on an
organism or environmental samples, and also to detect the presence and quantity of
enzymes and overall metabolic activity of microbial communities in different
environmental samples, such as anaerobic digesters.
One of the application of metaproteomics is proteotyping of microbial flora

involved in anaerobic digestion process. Heyer et al. (2016) used a metaproteomics
approach (liquid chromatography coupled to tandem MS) to determine microbial
community of 35 different industrial biogas plants. The obtained proteome datasets
showed that Bacillales, Enterobacteriales, Bacteriodales, Clostridiales, Rhizobiales
and Thermoanaerobacteriales as well as Methanobacteriales, Methanosarcinales
and Methanococcales were playing key roles in biogas production process. These
results were very similar to those data achieved from metagenomics studies.
Recently, Kohrs et al. (2017) used tandem MS-based proteotyping to identify
taxonomic abundances and biological processes in some biogas plants.
Proteotyping and T-RFLP fingerprinting indicated significant differences in the
composition of individual microbial communities, indicating multiple steady-states.
Proteomics and metaproteomics studies allow to monitor all proteins expressed
during the process of lignocellulose degradation and fermentation regardless of the
microorganisms producing them. Hence, these approaches have evolved as pow-
erful methods to detect catalytic enzymes, metabolic pathways and even novel
functional proteins expressed by microbial communities in biogas plants (Stolze
et al. 2015; Montag and Schink 2016; Lin et al. 2016; Vanwonterghem et al. 2014).
Abram et al. (2011) used metatranscriptomics approach to determine key
metabolic pathways during anaerobic digestion process in an anaerobic
industrial-like wastewater treatment bioreactor. Their results showed that the core
microbiome in the process was very diverse and complex, and the archaeal pop-
ulation was mainly composed of Methanocorpusculum-like (76%) microorganisms.
They identified 33 different proteins which were excised from 2-D gels. The
detected proteins were related to methanogenesis process, such as CO2 and acetate,
glycolysis, and the pentose phosphate pathways. In addition, this approach using
protein assignments indicated the presence of some specific microorganisms in
the bioreactor. Hanreich et al. (2013) performed integrated metagenomic and
meta-proteomic studies to evaluate the hydrolase activity of different groups of
microorganisms involved in the process of an anaerobic digesting system. Their
results indicated that Bacteroidetes expressed a high number of hydrolases and
sugar transporters, whereas few glycoside hydrolases were expressed by
Firmicutes. In addition, the key enzymes of the methanogenesis were highly
expressed during the process.
Metaproteomics can also be used to enhance the efficiency and stability of the
anaerobic digestion process, by characterizing regulatory elements contributing to
enzyme production, through identification of biomarkers as predictive indicators of
process failure in anaerobic digesters following perturbation, and to elucidate
critical steps in the conversion of biomass to methane by generating functional data
(Vanwonterghem et al. 2014; Heyer et al. 2016).
In spite of the above-mentioned attractive features, metaproteome analyses are
faced with different shortcomings as well, such as sample impurities and com-
plexity and limited availability of genome sequences. Therefore, developing new
suitable extraction and fractionation methods for metatranscriptomics studies is of
importance (Heyer et al. 2016; Kohrs et al. 2015). Kohrs et al. (2014) showed that
sample pre-fractionation with liquid isoelectric focusing improved deep metapro-

teome analysis of different types of biogas plants. This group of researchers also
developed a fast and easy centrifugal fractionation method for metaproteome
extraction from biogas sludge samples. This method uses a centrifugal fractiona-
tion, and gel-based separation followed by LC-MS/MS identification (Kohrs et al.
2015).
Ortseifen et al. (2016) used a combined strategy based on metagenomics and
metaproteomics approaches to elucidate the composition of microbial communities
and proteins involved in the anaerobic digestion in an agricultural biogas plant. The
highly abundant proteins of the biogas microbiome were related to the pathways
involved in methanogenesis, transport, and carbon metabolism. In addition, by
integration of metagenome and metaproteome data, it was possible to construct a
lineage link between special microorganisms and the detected genes encoding
special proteins contributing to the process. For instance, meta-proteome data
showed that 3 dominant proteins contributing to the methanogenesis process
belonged to Methanoculleus sp.
Overall, it can be concluded that integration of metaproteomics data with
advanced imaging techniques, metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metabo-
lomics could be used for efficient exploration of metabolic pathways involved in
biogas production from organic materials.

Metabolomics and Meta-Metabolomics Approaches
Characterization of intracellular metabolites involved in anaerobic fermentation

processes could help to delineate metabolic pathways of microbial communities for
the optimization of the process to enhance the efficiency of biogas production
(Yang et al. 2014). Metabolomics and meta-metabolomics are the science of total
metabolites of an organism or all organisms present in a specific environment under
a specific condition. To do these analyses, commonly different chromatography
techniques, such as GC-MS are used. This method provides the opportunity to
reconstruct metabolic pathways and to discover genes and enzymes. On the another
hand, metabolomics helps to distinguish post-translational modifications
(Vanwonterghem et al. 2014). Furthermore, metabolomics analysis can be used to
elucidate microbial and metabolite distribution in the anaerobic digestion under
different conditions (Beale et al. 2016).
Yang et al. (2014) optimized a meta-metabolite extraction protocol based on
acetonitrile/methanol/water (2:2:1, by vol.) to evaluate microbial community and
their metabolites involved in the anaerobic fermentation of corn stalk in a biogas
digester using GC–MS. The comparison of metabolite profiles during the process
indicated a significant increase in the levels of sugars and sugar alcohols during the
methanogenesis and fatty acids during acidogenesis. Beale et al. (2016) used an
integrated metagenomics and metabolomics analysis in the laboratory scale

digesters. Their results indicated that the ratio of oxidizing bacteria (methane,
sulphide, and sulphate) to sulphate reducing bacteria had a significant effect on the
efficiency of biogas production. Ina addition, increases in short chain fatty acids
improved the biogas production efficiency.
Sasaki et al. (2014) compared the metabolite profiles of the microbiomes during
methanogenic process between a stable methanogenic reactor and a deteriorated
reactor. Their results showed that the carbon flux was higher during the stable
methanogenesis process, as the concentrations of the intracellular metabolites
involved in the Embden–Meyerhof and pentose phosphate pathways were higher in
this period. In addition, the concentrations of the intermediate metabolites in the
reductive branch of tricarboxylic acid cycle, malate, fumarate, and succinate were
higher in the deteriorated reactor, whereas the glutamate levels were higher in the
stable methanogenic reactor. In another study, Kučera et al. (2017) studied the
metabolites changes during the process of anaerobic digestion of wine waste in a
microscale discontinuous fermenter using GC-MS in combination with principal
component analysis and orthogonal projection. Their findings showed that partic-
ular polyphenolic structures were dominant during the process of anaerobic
digestion. A group of dihydro-flavonoids appeared at early stages of the process
(acidogenic phase), however, they were degraded in the next steps. As some
dihydroflavonoids (e.g., taxifolin) are very toxic, so, the application of un-stabilized
digestate as a fertilizer would represent a potential environmental risk. These
studies indicated that the application of metabolomics could help scientists to better
understand biogas production processes, especially when used in combination with
other “omics” technologies.
16.7 Conclusions
Biogas production from organic matters is becoming an increasingly promising

bioenergy source owing to being clean, renewable, and environmentally compati-
ble. The most important factor during the process of anaerobic digestion for biogas
production is the presence and activity of a complex consortia of microorganisms
contributing to an efficient decomposition of organic matter and the subsequent
stages, i.e., acidogenesis and methanogenesis. The majority of the participating
microbes, their genes, and metabolic pathways during this process are not still well
known, as most of the biogas microbial communities are non-cultivable. Recent
developments in “omics” technologies, such as genomics, metagenomics, tran-
scriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and NGS have provided excellent oppor-
tunities for identification and characterization of microbial flora, their genes,
encoded transcripts, proteins, and metabolites, as well as the metabolic pathways
contributing to the anaerobic digestion process. By such new findings, it will be
possible to optimize the process conditions for efficient and economic production of
biogas from different organic materials, especially from lignocellulosic biomass and
wastewaters. Recent studies have indicated that co-application of two or more

different “omics” technologies could result in deeper insights into the different steps
of anaerobic digestion process. Finally, it could be concluded that these recent
revolutionary innovations and developments in “omics” and NGS technologies will
be instrumental in enhancing the efficiency of biogas production from a diverse
range of organic matters with complex structures.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thanks Dr. Meisam Tabatabaei for his assistance
with carefully reviewing the manuscript and the improvements made as a result.
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Zhao C, Ai C, Li Q, Yang C, Zhou G, Liu B (2016) Diversity of archaea and bacteria in a biogas
reactor fed with Pennisetum sinese Roxb by 16S rRNA sequence analysis. Tropic J
Pharmaceutical Res 15(12):2659–2667
Ziganshin AM, Liebetrau J, Pröter J, Kleinsteuber S (2013) Microbial community structure and
dynamics during anaerobic digestion of various agricultural waste materials. Appl Microbiol
Chapter 17
Small Scale Biogas Production
Ram Chandra Poudel
17.1 Global Challenges for Sustainable Development
Fossil fuels are in many cases inaccessible and/or unaffordable in some rural areas
of developing countries. People are thus forced to rely on locally available tradi-
tional resources like firewood, dried cattle dung, coal, agricultural wastes, etc. for
cooking, lighting and heating purposes. Therefore, deforestation, environmental
degradation, ecological imbalance, sanitation and other public health issues and
socioeconomic difficulties are the prime concern with traditional energy depen-
dency. According to IEA and World Bank (2015) report, more than 2.7 billion
people rely on conventional energy resources of which 1.2 billion populations are
living without electricity. The report notes that the indoor air pollution caused by
burning such fuels takes premature lives of four million annually and 946 million
people do not have access to toilet forcing to defecate in open areas. Moreover, the
number of people lacking improved sanitation, drinking water sources and surface
water stand at 2.4 billion, 663 million and 159 million, respectively. Surprisingly,
around 90% of these affected people live in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia (IEA and World Bank 2015). Implementing small-scale biogas
(SSB) plant at household levels has positive and synergistic effect in mitigating
such integrated global problems. As such, it is undoubtedly true that small
household biogas system is the integral part of sustainable development.
R. C. Poudel (&)
Department of Microbiology, National College
(Tribhuvan University), Kathmandu, Nepal

438 R. C. Poudel
17.2 Small-Scale Biogas Technology and Its Benefits
SSB technology is predominant in rural areas of the developing world. Therefore, it

is also named as rural household biogas technology. Countries with highest number
of small-size biogas plant installed are Thailand, India, China, Malaysia and
Philippines (Daniel et al. 2009). By the end of 2010, China had more than 40
million small family-sized (6, 8 and 10 m3) biogas plants, with a target of adding
400,000–500,000 plants annually (Chen et al. 2010; Zhang and Wang 2014).
Similarly, countries like Nepal, Vietnam, Pakistan, Kenya, Uganda, etc. has
adopted similar simple technologies which has contributed to significant
improvements in the number of their installations in recent years.
SSB system facilitates circular economy by providing a clean and
self-sufficiency renewable energy and nutrients rich fertilizers in rural areas
(Fig. 17.1). It offers alternative solutions to proper management of such organic
wastes. Therefore, this technology is well-suited in rural areas to improve liveli-
hoods and to maintain economical, ecological and agricultural sustainability.
It should be noted that the extent of the benefits expected from SSB depends
upon different factors such as efficiency of biogas production, availability (quantity)
and quality of resource material, size and design of biogas plants, etc. Nevertheless,
the general advantages are as follows:
• Reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) (methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide)
emissions in three ways: (i) improving manure and other organic waste man-
agement system, (ii) substituting fossil fuels and non-renewable energy for
Fig. 17.1 Overview of the benefits of small-scale biogas technology

17 Small Scale Biogas Production 439
cooking and lighting and (iii) replacing synthetic fertilizer with biofertilizer
(Daniel et al. 2009).
• Reduces demands for wood, charcoal, agricultural residue and dried cow dung
for cooking and therefore, prevents deforestation and land use change as well as
landslides while maintaining ecological diversity.
• Provides nutrients rich bio-fertilizers thereby closing the nutrient cycles and
consequently improves soil fertility, soil microbial biodiversity and reduces soil
erosion.
• Mitigate indoor air pollution as well as the associated infections such as res-
piratory infections and lung diseases, low birth weight, asthma, cataract, etc.
• Attaching latrines to biogas plants improves household sanitation and eventually
the surrounding society while improving the surface water quality.
• Increases the rural household economy by generating secured energy, substi-
tuting synthetic fertilizers and enhancing crop productivity.
• Diminishes the workloads mostly for women and school going girls, in cutting
and collecting firewood and in preparing cattle dung cakes and this extra time
can be utilized for rest, education or other income generating activities.
• Rural public health system is improved through the access to reliable energy
sources for cold storage of blood and other samples, vaccines, etc.
• Contributes to maintaining food quality through refrigeration run by biogas.
• With sustainable energy, business will grow, jobs and markets are created.
17.3 Design of Biogas Plant
As a matter of fact, the main technical prerequisite of an efficient biogas plant

encompasses an air tight reactor with ample space for microbial activities to take
place. However, implementing a single size or type of digester for all households is
impractical. During the last few decades, SSB plants have been developed in dif-
ferent sizes and shapes/types depending upon constraints like simplicity, avail-
ability of feedstock, geographical scenario, climatic condition, operational and
maintenance skills, efficiency of digestion process and energy yields, cost value and
stability.
17.3.1 Sizing of Biogas Plant
Along with the above mentioned parameters, the dimensioning of the reactor vol-
ume largely depends upon the hydraulic retention time (HRT) and duplication time
of the microbial populations, in order to avoid the loss of slow-growing metha-
nogenic population from the digester. In general, digester ranges from small-scale
household digesters, i.e., 1 m3 to large commercial scale bioreactor, i.e., 10,000 m3.
440 R. C. Poudel
Table 17.1 The differences between small-scale and medium/large-scale biogas plants
Small-scale biogas plants Medium/Large-scale biogas plants
1. More common in rural parts of developing More prevalent in developed countries like
and under developed countries. For Germany, Denmark, Netherland, USA,
instance: India, China, Nepal, Thailand, UK etc.
Nigeria, Vietnam etc.
2. Feedstock include locally available Agricultural wastes, manures from animal
organic materials like kitchen waste, cattle farms like pig, cow and poultry farms,
manure, human excreta from latrines dairy wastes etc. are the input materials
3. Heating and mixing mechanisms are often Heating and mixing mechanisms are
absent necessary
4. Biogas is used for cooking, lighting and Biogas is used to generate electricity
heating purposes at household levels (on-grid or off-grid), as transport fuels and
for district heating benefitting large
populations
5. Uses simple, low-tech design and is Use advanced and high-tech design with
cost-effective and therefore, low efficient high investments which maximize the
process efficiency of the digestion process
6. Low-risks and less-expensive in operation High risks and expensive in operation and
and maintenance maintenance
7. Upgrading of biogas is not essential Upgrading of biogas is crucial
Therefore, depending upon the size of a digester, plants can be broadly divided as
follows.
(1) Small-scale household plant (1–20 m3) and
(2) medium (community based)/large scale commercial plant (>20 to 10,000 m3).
Although, the general principles applies in all types of digesters; small-scale
differs from medium and large-scale in many ways as shown in Table 17.1.
17.3.2 Types of Small-Scale Biogas Plant
Biodigesters are of two operation modes: continuous-flow and batch digester

depending upon the feeding nature. In continuous-flow type, new substrate is fre-
quently fed into a digester subsequently pushing the digestate (bioslurry) out from
the system. In contrast to this, batch digesters are fed once with an intention to
remove the digestate upon the completion of the digestion and the process will then
be repeated. Unlike, continuous-flow type, batch type digesters do not supply gas
on a regular basis. However, they benefit a simple and cost-effective technology. By
fitting inlet and outlet tubes, batch digesters can be converted into semi-continuous
type.
The basic standard of micro-digesters falls under the following design types.
However, other digester designs also exist which are developed by individuals,
private institutions, or government agencies depending upon the geographical and

socio-economic conditions of the user. In general, the main structure of
micro-digesters falls in three categories with some variations: floating drum/tank
design (batch or semi-continuous), fixed/in ground dome style (continuous flow)
and tunnel/tube design (continuous flow).
17.3.2.1 Floating Tank/Drum Design
This design was originated in India in 1950 (Marchaim 1992) and is widely popular
in Indian households. The tank size normally used in practice is 1000 L (1 m3).
Examples of floating drum are Pragati model, ARTI model, etc.
This design consists of two tanks which are slightly different in diameter
(Fig. 17.2). In general, both are made up of plastic or metal but the larger tank can
also be built with brick and concrete under or above the ground. The larger reactor
is kept facing upwards into which the smaller one is fitted upside down forming a
floating clamper. As a principle, the open side of the smaller tank (floating tank) in
always submerged in the substrate mixtures under digestion. The produced gas is
stored under the floating tank which slides up and down depending on the volume
of the gas produced. Pressure can be applied by adding extra weight on the top of
the smaller tank. This pressure allows the gas to flow through the pipeline for use.
The main disadvantage of this type of digester is that there is a high chance of
corrosion of the floating tank and therefore, the system has a short life span.
Nevertheless, this period can be prolonged by painting the inner and outer wall of
the drum but the painting could be toxic to methane producing bacteria.
Fig. 17.2 Design of floating tank digester: (1) inlet; (2) reactor (larger tank); (3) digesting
substrate mixtures; (4) outlet (digestate holding tank); (5) floating/inner tank, and (6) gas pipe
442 R. C. Poudel
17.3.2.2 Fixed-Dome Digester Design
This design, a modified form of septic tank, was originally developed in China in
1936 and is the most popular design in the developing world in 6, 8, and 10 m3
sizes (Zhang and Wang 2014; Chen et al. 2010; Marchaim 1992). The design
consists of an underground digesting pit with a dome-shaped cover on the top built
of brick, stone or concrete (Fig. 17.3). A second pit called the expansion or slurry
reservoir is built higher on the side of the digester pit and is open to atmospheric
pressure. The gas produced from the mixture under digestion is accumulated in the
top space of the dome-shaped chamber. The pressure exerted by the gas then
displaces some of the slurry into the expansion chamber. Upon the use of biogas,
the slurry flows back from the reservoir to the chamber. Given the geo-thermal
activity of the Earth, this type of underground dome-style digester can maintain a
constant temperature even in colder climates.
Examples of these types of digesters are China fixed dome, Indian-fixed dome
(Deenbandu), Nepalese fixed dome (GGC-2047) etc.
17.3.2.3 Tunnel/Tube Digester Design
This digester is based on a very simple design developed in Taiwan which

consists of a thick polyethylene tube serving as digester with an inlet at one
Fig. 17.3 Fixed-dome digester (Chinese model): (1) inlet; (2) Latrine; (3) inlet pipe;
(4) fixed-dome (bioreactor); (5) expansion chamber (reservoir); (6) outlet (slurry holding tank),
and (7) gas pipe
2 4
Fig. 17.4 Tunnel biodigester design: (1) inlet; (2) tubular digester; (3) underground soil;
(4) outlet; and (5) gas pipe
end and an outlet at the other end while a gas outlet is fitted on the top
(Fig. 17.4).
This design applies the displacement principle meaning that there is a simulta-
neous movement of the slurry in and out of the tunnel shaped chamber. The gas
holder space is approximately ¼ of the total digester volume. The system is built
underground and therefore, uses geothermal energy to maintain the temperature. In
order to reduce the low flow rate of the produced gas, an additional tubular poly-
theylene could be set up where the gas is to used, e.g., kitchen.
17.3.2.4 Modern Portable Design
With the aim of using the vast potentials of biogas as an energy carrier at small
scale, there are a few companies worldwide offering various modernized versions of
the above-mentioned biogas production systems. Using these kinds of user-friendly,
easy-to-operate, portable biogas production systems, users can produce a proportion
of their household energy requirements (e.g., for cooking, warming, etc.). It should
be mentioned that the conventional small scale biogas production systems suffer
from a range of shortcomings which could be effectively overcome using such
modern designs; a typical example is presented in Fig. 17.5. In line with that,
commercially available biogas production systems have been introduced into the
market such as the design by Homebiogas Inc. This technology well suits rural
areas where access to sustainable sources of heat is a challenge while
waste-oriented feedstock such as food wastes and/or animal manure are available in
ample amounts on a daily basis. Being a portable apparatus, it is possible to operate
the system in cold weather by using either a simple heating device or by placing it
in a greenhouse or an indoor space. They also offer the advantage of low mainte-
nance costs compared with the conventional small scale systems.
444 R. C. Poudel
Fig. 17.5 A typical example of user-friendly, easy-to-operate, portable biogas production

systems; a 3D view and b cross-section views
17.4 Activation, Operation and Maintenance
Before the start-up process, it is of utmost importance to inspect the whole plant
system to certify that its construction and technical part is well efficient. Like
large-scale biogas plant, the activation of SSB plants is possible by feeding the
digester with animal manure or human excreta which are potential sources of
methanogenic bacteria. It may take the digester a few weeks to adjust to the new
environment and once the process is started, the gas will be produced continuously
depending upon the type and amount of the substrates fed on daily basis.
The operation and maintenance of small-scale plants is simple and less risky
compared with large-scale ones. Operation of biogas plants is linked to safety issues
as well and potential risks and hazardous situations should be diminished by fol-
lowing safety measures to ensure safe and stable operation (Paterson et al. 2015).
Animal manure and human excreta are partially digested substrates so their
digestion alone would lead to low methane yields. Therefore, to enhance the effi-
ciency of the digestion process, animal manure should be co-digested with crop
residues and other plant materials having low cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin
contents. This also allows to balance the C:N ratio and reduce the failure risks of the
digestion process by high ammonia production. However, some feeding materials
need pre-treatment for continuous gas production. In this case, the materials are
pre-treated by chopping into fine particles before being fed into the digester. In
addition, they can be treated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). For instance, pre-
treatment of corn stover at ambient temperature with specific dose and loading rate
of NaOH could enhance the biodegradability and increase substrate availability for
digestion and finally boost the biogas production yield (Pang et al. 2008). As the
pretreatment of substrates with high lignin, hemicelluloses and lignin contents
requires would be energy-intensive and costly; therefore, it is beneficial to avoid
using such materials in SSB plants.
A properly built biogas plant requires less maintenance and can generate gas for
at least 15–20 years without major problems and additional cost (Daniel et al.
2009). A trained consumer is able to easily maintain a household digester. It is
necessary to frequently check gas pipes to avoid leaking problems and corrosion of
pipes and to perform other small repairs. Depending upon the design and feedstock,
the undigested materials deposited at the bottom of the digester should be removed
at certain intervals varying from 1 to 5 years. In the floating drum design, main-
tenance is required to avoid rusting of the drum reactor.
17.5 Small Biogas Systems and Sustainability
17.5.1 Biogas for Sustainability
Sustainability has now become a global concern. SSB system is a paradigm shift for
sustainability in rural areas as it endorses the stability of environmental, economic
and social elements. This is due to the fact that this energy system applies a simple
technology using locally available resource materials to supply clean and efficient
renewable energy and at the same time, it cracks the major environmental problems
like indoor air pollution, soil degradation, deforestation, desertification, global
warming, etc. while it also contribute to solving public health problems such as
respiratory infections, water-borne and air-borne diseases, and to resolving social
issues like some gender related problems.
446 R. C. Poudel
17.5.2 Sustainability of Biogas Production Scheme
SSB technology is installed mainly for its household use; therefore, the rate of its
implementation depends on family decisions and economic conditions. These
families or the potential users are usually of low literacy rate while have low
investment capacity and low access to communication and transport. As such, the
obstacles for sustainable biogas promotion and production in rural areas are eco-
nomical, technical, and social barriers. Rural people generally can not afford the
high initial cost for biogas installation. Similarly, it may be difficult for them to
obtain proper technical assistance during operation and maintenance of biogas
plants. On the other hand, it may sometimes difficult to convince the uneducated
people living in rural areas regarding the overall benefits of biogas technology.
Moreover, the currently available SSB technology is not suitable for consistent
biogas production and the biogas yields are largely affected by the climatic con-
ditions. The reality is that such SSB technology produces extra biogas in summers
and inadequate amounts in winters. As a result, this conventional technology fails to
enhance digestion process and biogas yields efficiently in rural regions with cold
climates. Therefore, improvements may include insulation of the underground
design digesters with compost heaps or green house as well as heating the digester
with external supply of energy, the latter one is costly though and may be
unsuitable in rural areas. SSB systems do not have direct fossil fuels inputs yet
some extra energy of such may be required at some points during the execution
process.
Overall, to achieve sustainability in biogas production social, environmental, and
economic elements should be observed while effective local/national policies and
organizational capacity building are also of crucial importance. It is significant to
evaluate the cost-benefits of biogas production including sanitary and health ben-
efits as well as the reduction of GHG emissions. This will assist with more effi-
ciently promoting biogas as well as with moving towards policies in favour of SSB
development like subsidies, incentives, technical support, and awareness activities.
17.6 Small-Scale Biogas in Urban Areas
Generation and improper treatment of organic municipal wastes in the urban areas
of developing countries is of great concern from environmental, socio-economic
and aesthetic point of views. To solve this global problem faced in urban areas,
biogas production at household level could be an efficient solution to not only target
resources recovery but also to reduce demands for fossil fuels. Moreover, it can also
contribute to reducing the waste volumes and associated transportation and disposal
cost. Production of biogas in urban areas can also create a new job market by
establishing new enterprises, manufacturing technical equipments, construction,
operation and maintenance of biogas plants, etc. Furthermore, the digestate could
provide a good source of biofertilizer for urban farming. Unlike large-scale biogas
plants, small-scale household biogas plants have gained no attention in developed
countries. Therefore, there is no investment at all in terms of research and devel-
opment on small-sale biogas production either. As a result, this technology has
failed to gain popularity in urban areas.
The successful implementation of family size biogas plants involves local and
national policies including alternative organic waste management strategy, subsi-
dies in biogas plants installation and research and development with reference to
biogas yields and digester design. This propels SSB technology to cross the
threshold of competitive markets with multiple benefits.
17.7 Conclusions
The integrated global environmental, economical, health and social problems

associated with using conventional fuels and the global needs for sustainable
development have persuaded the governmental, institutional and private agencies
and policies makers to step forward towards sustainable energy carriers. In line with
that, biogas technology has been shown to hold enormous potentials in fulfilling
sustainable energy demands in rural and urban areas.
Promoting and executing SSB technology in both rural and urban areas, using
freely available local organic resources, will lead to reduced more sustainable
national energy demands and will also reduce the use of traditional biomass and
imported fossil fuels. By doing so, the targets of renewable energy generation,
mitigation of GHGs emissions and sustainable waste management could be
fulfilled.
It is important to invest in research and development to improve the various
designs of the SSB systems based on specific geographical scenarios, climatic
conditions, energy needs, waste management and biofertilizers requirements, etc. In
this context, it is also important to obtain competitive prices with those of
fossil-oriented energy systems.
References
Chen Y, Yang G, Sweeney S, Feng Y (2010) Household biogas use in rural China: a study of
opportunities and constraints. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:545–549
Daniel B, Ksenia B, Martin B et al (2009) PoA CDM manual—“Mini biogas plants for
households” UNEP. CD4CDM Working Paper No. 8, 2nd version: pp 2–16
International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank (2015) “Sustainable energy for all 2015—
Progress toward sustainable energy” (June), World Bank, Washington, D.C. https://doi.org/10.
1596/978-1-4648-0690-2. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO
448 R. C. Poudel
Marchaim U (1992) Biogas process for sustainable development. FAO Corporate Document
Repository, ISBN: 92-5-103126-6
Pang YZ et al (2008) Improving biodegradability and biogas production of corn stover through
sodium hydroxide solid state pretreatment. Energy Fuels 22(4):2761–2766
Paterson M et al (2015) Implementation guide for small-scale biogas plants. BioEnergy Farm II
Publication, KTBL, Germany, pp 36–38
Zhang L, Wang C (2014) Energy and GHG analysis of rural household biogas systems in China.
Energies 7:767–784
Chapter 18
Current State and Future Prospects
of Global Biogas Industry
Karan Sehgal
18.1 Introduction: Snapshot of the Global Biogas Industry
Biogas provides a renewable and environmentally friendly process that supports

sustainable agriculture. Best suited for household and small-scale farms, especially
those located in warm climates, the use of biogas energy has increasingly become
recognized as a suitable technology for industrial purposes as well, both for thermal
generation and cogeneration (Kothari et al. 2010). From an environmental per-
spective, biogas integrated in farming systems can directly lower greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions by recovering the methane produced by manure (which is 22
times more effective than carbon dioxide at trapping heat and thus a more potent
GHG).
In developing countries, the use of biogas has been treated as a clean energy
source and as a replacement to firewood and charcoal—the predominant source of
cooking fuel for over 2.7 billion people, or 38% of the world’s population, mostly
residing in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia (WEO 2016). Additionally, the
by-products of the ‘digester’ have been proven to be a potential organic waste of
high nutrient quality (Arthur and Baidoo 2011). This model has been widely
adopted in rural areas to address two of the major problems for rural development:
agricultural production and the availability of clean fuel.
In developed nations, biogas has been primarily promoted as a technological
solution that utilizes waste products from agricultural or agro-processing activities
to generate electrical power for processing equipment, internal electricity require-
ments and other enterprise needs, including vehicular application. For the latter,
biogas must be compressed and bottled, i.e., through the removal of carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide. This type of model is also garnering attention in developing
nations as it can be expanded into a “public utility” to provide a clean source of fuel
K. Sehgal (&)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome, Italy

450 K. Sehgal
Table 18.1 Different approaches to biogas promotion

Donor support Market creation ‘Sustainable energy’
approach (starting in approach (starting approach (starting in
1970s and 1980s) 1990s) 2000s)
Actor(s) Homogenous: Heterogeneous: multiple Polycentric: multiple
bilateral government agencies, public sector, private
development donors, and market market, and community
relationships participants development
between country and stakeholders
donor
Provision Household cooking Household cooking Household cooking and
and small lamps for (beginning to use biogas fertilizer, electricity and
illumination in rural industry) rural industry, integrated
with broader economic
development benefits
Ownership Public: often given Private: sold to Tailored: use of
away consumers or cost-sharing,
intermediaries public-private
partnerships, in-kind
community contribution,
etc.
Capacity Rare: often limited Emergent: some focus Integrative: efforts
building to technical on after sales service and centered on maintenance
assistance and business model and business model
maintenance development, development coupled
strengthening regulatory with strengthening public
capacities and private institutions
Source Sovacool 2016
to residents living in rural and/or peri-urban areas or at a community level (schools,

hospitals, and apartment blocks) where access to the electric grid is too costly or
intermittent. However, although the set-up of a micro-network with a centralized
distribution centre has great future prospects globally, the current regulatory
framework for bottling biogas and storing it in high-pressure cylinders is still not
properly developed, especially in many developing countries.1 Table 18.1 tabulates
different approaches to biogas promotion.
This chapter presents a series of case studies to illustrate the factors necessary for
scaling up biogas programmes from the point at which the sector was largely
donor-driven to a market-driven, commercial scale. The first section will provide an
overview of the biogas sector in India and Nepal and seeks to demonstrate the
importance of combining policy measures and innovative technologies. In these
countries, biogas is now widely integrated with animal husbandry and is recognized
1
In Kenya for example, ISO standards developed through the Association of Biogas Contractors
(ABC-K) and the Kenya National Domestic Biogas Program (KENDBIP) do not have regulations
for bottling biogas nor for feeding scrubbed (purified) biogas/biomethane into the national gas
grid.
18 Current State and Future Prospects of Global Biogas Industry 451
as a means of manure treatment in the agricultural sector, thus advancing other

environmental goals, namely waste removal, environmental management (reduced
deforestation and soil restoration) and energy production.
The second section seeks to answer the question of whether an institutional
support structure, relevant policies and a regulatory framework are the basic fun-
damentals required to even consider any advances in the biogas sector. This section
highlights how the lack of fiscal incentives for supporting a market-driven approach
still hampers the growth of the biogas sector. In addition, it recognizes how uptake
has slowed significantly in developing countries, a development attributable to the
complex logistics (requiring large volumes of sand, gravel, cement, and stone), need
for skilled expertise for proper operation and maintenance, and large volumes of
animal manure and water for daily feeding of the biogas digester (which is cum-
bersome given the open-grazing cattle raising practices in certain communities).
The last section provides a summary of what can be considered the optimal
blend of government and market-driven policies. Given that biogas is still largely
promoted through a donor-driven agenda, the chapter concludes by examining
whether the commercialization of a market-based biogas sector entails national
government strategies to reduce subsidies and embrace the necessary blend of
public-private sector support required to advance the future prospects of the biogas
sector.
18.2 Different Biogas Applications in Developed

and Developing Countries
Although commercial scale biogas projects have been predominant in developed

countries, large-scale models are now also expanding in Africa. A number of biogas
applications are widely available in the market—from biogas pumps, fans, refrig-
erators, and air conditioners, to power tools and other applications that can be
modified to run on petrol or diesel engines, such as chaff cutters for chopping
fodder, water pumps and milking machines (Oosterkamp 2013).
Over the past four decades, large scale programmes have financed traditional
fixed dome biogas systems. Most, adopting the basic principles of the first biogas
digesters implemented in India, China and Nepal—Indian Deenbandhu and Chinese
conventional fixed dome or floating drum models. The failures have been evidenced
over the years due to the inherent labour work (construction and digging required),
complex logistics (especially in relation to the transportation of materials) and the
lack of land tenure rights. As a result, numerous domestic biogas models have been
advanced technically—from modifications to the traditional underground
fixed-dome model, to fibreglass floating top and plastic tubular (plug-flow) systems.
The differences and efficiencies are dependent on specific climatic contexts, the
availability of spare parts, technical expertise and cost.
452 K. Sehgal
18.2.1 Case Study: India’s Biogas Sector
Back in the 1880s, in a sewage plant in Mumbai, it was realized that there was the
potential to produce a combustible gas—methane. From then onwards, India has
been a pioneer in developing the biogas sector which is exemplified by the creation
of state-run renewable energy agencies under the India Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA).2 Furthermore, the National Biogas and Manure
Management Programme (NBMMP), a central scheme of the government under the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), is the institutional agency that
provides household biogas digesters for rural and semi-urban/households. About
4.75 million biogas digesters have been installed in the country up to 31st March,
2014, and an annual target of approximately 1 million additional biogas plants has
been set (Virendra 2014).
Returning to the present day, India has made impressive steps towards devel-
oping the biogas sector and exporting the Deenbandhu technology to other coun-
tries. In particular, India’s development of the biogas sector has been established
alongside livestock manure management and with an emphasis on the application of
bioslurry for vegetable production.
18.2.1.1 Biogas Compression and Bottling Model
India is a pioneer in bottling and compression for mini-grids and vehicular appli-
cation. Removing carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide yields biomethane.
Compressing this purified 98% methane gas into cylinders makes it easily usable
for transport applications (three wheelers, cars, pick up vans, etc.) and also for
stationary applications at various sites. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has become
easily available and, therefore, biomethane (enriched biogas), which retains iden-
tical chemical characteristics to CNG, can be used for all applications for which
CNG is used (Virendra 2005). However, storing methane in a given limited volume
is still a technical and financial challenge for both gas transportation and storage.
Moreover, cylinders for storing compressed biogas (which can be at high pressures,
e.g., 200 psi) are not readily available in many developing countries, not to mention
the lack of policy regulations for the use of this technology.
The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, is one of the institutes created as
centres of excellence for training, research and development in science, engineering
and technology in India. The “Biogas Development and Training Centre” (BDTC)
under IIT, which was opened in 2008, has become more deeply engaged in the
research and development of biogas compression and bottling since 2012. Ongoing
research activities at BDTC, IIT Delhi include:
2
For further information see: http://www.ireda.gov.in/ and Renewable Energy and Green Growth
in India: http://www.teriin.org/projects/green/pdf/National-RE.pdf.
– Biogas production performance from non-edible oil seed cakes and other
biodegradable raw materials;
– Enrichment of methane content in biogas by removal of CO2 and H2S through
water scrubbing technology and membrane separation;
– Hydrogen sulphide removal from biogas through biological methods;
– Biogas bottling into CNG cylinders for automotive applications and biogas
testing on engine performance and emissions.
In December 2012, the Indian Convention on Biogas took place in Delhi and
provided a platform for many state government representatives and stakeholders in
the biogas sector to highlight their achievements (Table 18.2). IIT-Delhi hosted the
Table 18.2 Highlights from the IIT convention on biogas

Entity Achievements Challenges Opportunities
Government 50,000 biogas plants For a 400–600 m3 For bigger plants,
of Kerala deployed biogas plant, subsidies subsidies should not be
start decreasing. needed, and biogas
Assessing the plants with daily
production capacity and capacities of 5,000–
technology required for 10,000 m3 require
packaging biogas performance based
subsidies
Ashoka Bio 55,000 ton generated Promoting the Subsidies from 10 to
Green from sugarcane to conversion of the plant 40% of total costs are
obtain about 9000 kg of into an industrial plant financed by MNRE.
CNG for the use of CBG and Other partners are
vehicular application involved, such as the
Bank of Baroda
Jain In the process of Generating electricity Horticulture farmers in
Irrigation promoting a “one-stop from waste through a Maharashtra are known
Systems Ltd agri shop” for producers multiple benefits to be the banana belt,
of bananas assessment of biogas and account for 20% of
production the annual production of
bananas
State of Selling biogas at Commercial LPG is Confronted with
Punjab USD1.27/kg expensive (USD1.05/ technical problems
(Ganganagar) kg) and thus its relating to the
replacement with CBG compressor and methods
is a profitable business, for carbon dioxide
but the regulatory removal i.e. absorption
framework is absent in water, absorption
using chemicals,
pressure swing
adsorption and
membrane separation
INSEDA Installed 4265 biogas The volatility of the Project beneficiaries
plants between 2006 carbon credits market have applied for Carbon
and 2008 and saved credits through INSEDA
24,000 ton of CO2 every
year
454 K. Sehgal
Fig. 18.1 Demonstration model installed at IIT-Delhi; a biogas scrubbing system and b biogas
operated three wheeler
event and showcased their demonstration model including biogas scrubbing system,
compression and bottling (Fig. 18.1).
The compressed biogas (CBG) model at IIT-Delhi indicated that purified biogas
can be compressed up to 200 bar in CNG cylinders (certified by the government)
and that a standard CNG cylinder of 60 L can store 9 kg biogas at 200 bar. The
average mileage of a car is around 23 km per kg (Virendra 2014). In 2012, there
were 150 biogas upgrading plants and the CNG market rate was USD 0.61 cents/
kg. The CNG subsidized rate was USD 0.41 cents/kg and the CNG purchase rate
was USD 0.40 cents/kg (Virendra 2006).
18.2.1.2 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)’s Model
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organisation

under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. The Council is the apex
body for co-ordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agricul-
ture, including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences, in the entire country.
With 101 ICAR institutes and 71 agricultural universities spread across India, this is
one of the largest national agricultural schemes in the world. A number of ICAR
institutes are advancing R&D in the biogas sector. The National Rice Research
Institute (NRRI), Cuttack Centre, in the state of Odisha, developed a 5 m3 paddy
straw based biogas plant for running a 3 kW CNG engine for power generation
(Fig. 18.2).
The Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology (MPUA&T),
based in Udaipur, developed an aloe vera waste (40–50 L of juice are produced
daily) biogas system generating 100–120 kg of waste/d (Panjabrao 2016). The
waste generated consists of leaf peel, tentacles, froth of gel, etc. The non-edible aloe
Fig. 18.2 Biogas units at National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack Centre
Fig. 18.3 Hybrid solar/biogas dryers for button mushrooms
vera waste cannot be used as cattle feed. The institute has also been conducting
research on hybrid solar/biogas dryers for button mushrooms using 37.5 kg of
dung, 12.5 kg of spent mushroom waste and 75 L of water (Fig. 18.3) (Jena 2016).
In summary, India’s biogas sector is a proof of how various institutional, eco-
nomic, environmental, technical and sociocultural factors come into play in the
dissemination of biogas programmes as an alternative to firewood and charcoal.
At the same time, the case studies in India highlight the policy gaps and difficulties
in implementing these, for example in the CNG market, as vested interests amongst
the political classes influence the decision making of the sector at national level.
18.2.2 Case Study: Nepal’s Prospects on Use of Biogas
The first biogas programme in Nepal was initiated in 1974 by the Government of
Nepal with the support of the Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal (ADBN).
This was followed in 1977 by the establishment of the Gobar Gas Company, a
456 K. Sehgal
Table 18.3 Installations of biogas plants in Nepal

Number of biogas plants Location/Area
4000 Mountainous areas
120,000 Hilly areas
150,000 Terai location
300 Institutional level (community scale)
state-owned enterprise responsible for advancing the development and dissemina-

tion of biogas technology (Mendis and van Nes 1999). Yet, it was not until the early
1990s that uptake radically increased:
• In July 1992, the Biogas Sector Partnership3 (BSP) began operations with
funding from the Directorate General for International Cooperation of the
Netherlands (DGIS) through the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV);
• From 1992 to 2007, the BSP followed four implementation phases, resulting in
the installation of 172,505 biogas plants (World Bank 2012);
• The German Development Bank (KfW) also started funding the BSP and it
continued until July 2012. Moreover, this biogas model was replicated in 22
countries across Asia and Africa;
• Other donors also played a role in developing the national biogas sector, such as
DANIDA, the Norwegian Government, World Bank and the UK’s DFID
(World Bank 2012).
Today, the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) maintains overall
responsibilities for rural energy projects. In the fiscal year 2011/12, AEPC/BSP
reported that out of a total technical potential of 1.3 million biogas digesters,
around 300,000 biogas plants were already installed (AEPC 2015). These have
been installed in 75 districts and more than 2800 village development committees
(VDCs) in Nepal (Table 18.3).
Although the outreach of biogas is high in remote, rural areas (Bajgain 2005), the
biogas sector has been largely stimulated by donor-driven support. Unlike in India,
where government funding and institutional support were central, in Nepal, the
biogas sector lacks the capacity to continue growing exponentially. In India, subsi-
dized programmes ensure greater ownership and long-term sustainability by reduc-
ing the transaction costs for the private sector and at the same time allowing them to
expand their business in areas they otherwise would not enter. In Nepal, the fading
financial support from donor driven projects (including the volatility of carbon
credits market) has led to the realization that the private sector needs to play a more
prominent role and, for this, requires financial incentives to operate in rural areas.
3
BSP is currently managed by the Ministry of Population and Environment (previously managed
by the Ministry of Science and Technology) and provides subsidy support to promote cooking and
lighting using biogas.
Fig. 18.4 Portable biogas installation in the hilly areas of Nepal
The country is also pushing to pilot test innovative biogas technologies. Through
the support of International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD),4 the
Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture in Hilly Areas (ASHA) project piloted
portable flexi biogas digesters adapted to cold weather in the hilly areas (Fig. 18.4).
The digesters were placed in three cluster areas at altitudes ranging from 1946 m in
Dailekh district to 642 m in Surkhet district. All systems are functioning well, with
an average of 3 h daily use after being fed 20–30 kg of dung/d. Beneficiary farmers
consumed 5 kg of wood/d for cooking in their individual households and required
2 h/d to collect the firewood in nearby forest areas.
The use of biogas in cold climate areas is an area in which the International
Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE) has excelled in Bolivia,
Peru and Ecuador (Marti-Herrero et al. 2014). In all three countries, CIMNE has
worked jointly with private biogas companies to construct tubular models currently
operating at 4000 m (Perrigault 2012). The Endev-Bolivia project, supported by
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), has installed a
total of 750 digesters in Bolivia. Hivos installed 30 digesters, 14 demonstration
units (in universities and selected families as demonstrations) and 16 digesters
4
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is a specialized United Nations
agency dedicated to eradicating poverty and hunger in rural areas of developing countries. IFAD’s
Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Program (ASAP) is a climate finance window, created to
support smallholder farmers cope with increasing climate change related effects. More information
here: https://www.ifad.org/topic/asap/overview.
458 K. Sehgal
already sold on a commercial basis to families in the Bolivian altiplano linked to

small-scale dairy farms (Marti-Herrero 2014). Over the past five years, a new wave
of portable, prefabricated biogas digesters has arisen, such as the Flexi biogas
technology manufactured by Biogas International in Kenya (Rota and Sehgal
2015), The Gesi Shamba model developed by SimGas in Tanzania, BioBolsa in
Mexico or the Fibreglass model developed by Puxin in China (Table 18.4).
Table 18.4 Shortlist of portable, prefabricated biogas digesters

Renewable energy Estimated Innovative aspect Validations from field
technology (RET) unit cost testing
(USD)
FLEXI BIOGAS USD 600 – A flexible – Installed over
for above-ground PVC 3000 units within
domestic envelope housed in a projects in Rwanda
model greenhouse tunnel co-financed by IFAD
(3 m3) – Pre-fabricated kit can – Indian Institute of
be installed in a Technology (IIT) in
half-day by trained Delhi conducted
technicians feasibility studies on
Kenya
– The system is the technology
portable (weighing – Designer of the
50 kg in total), simple technology awarded
to assemble and can the Renewable
be (re)moved Energy Innovator of
the year award (2012)
in Washington D.C.
GESI SHAMBA USD 790 – Off-the shelf domestic – Finalist at the U.S.
for 6 m3 biogas digesters that International Design
are mass produced Excellence Awards
with recycled plastic (IDEA®) and Ashden
– The digester consists Awards 2014
of multiple removable – Pilot testing in
parts, creating a Tanzania and within
modular system that an IFAD funded GEF
Tanzania is adaptable and Project (LUSIP) in
scalable Swaziland in 2014
(continued)

Renewable energy Estimated Innovative aspect Validations from field
technology (RET) unit cost testing
(USD)
FIBREGLASS USD 570 – Simple to build and – Puxin Biogas won the
for 6 m3 operate relative to “Blue Sky Award”
model fixed dome biogas given by United
digesters Nations Industrial
– The mould and the Development
gas-holder can be Organization
built easily within (UNIDO) and
2 days Shenzhen
– Efficient ‘water trap’ International
China
method for managing Technology
gas pressure and – In China, Puxin
optimal operation biogas system has
been extended to over
ten provinces and
exported to over 20
countries, including
use in UNDP and
SNV projects
BIOBOLSA USD 600 – Pre-fabricated kit, – Technology has been
for modular, scalable and institutionalized with
domestic adaptable for a the International
model variety of Renewable Resources
(3 m3) biodegradable Institute (IRRI) in
material and for Mexico
human waste – Installed over 3000
management systems in Mexico,
– Pre-fabricated kit can Nicaragua, Costa
be installed in 1 day Rica, Haiti,
by trained technicians Colombia, El
Mexico – Efficient zero-waste Salvador and Panama
packaging and – Endorsed by SNV
shipping for regional and currently
distribution implementing
programmes funded
by Kellogg
Foundation, USAID
and the Mexican
government
18.2.3 Case Study—Rwanda and Kenya’s Use of Biogas
In both Kenya and Rwanda, biogas was introduced through the Kenya National
Domestic Biogas Program (KENDIP) and the National Domestic Biogas
Programme (NDBP), respectively.
460 K. Sehgal
In Rwanda, the biogas program was implemented by the energy sector of the
Ministry of Infrastructure, with technical assistance from the Netherlands
Development Organisation (SNV) and funding from the GIZ. Currently, the
average price per digester is RWF 700,000 (USD 848), towards which the NDBP
provides an investment subsidy of RWF 300,000 (USD 365) and the Banque
Populaire du Rwanda a loan of RWF 300,000. The remaining amount is covered in
a cash contribution by the user. Following the SNV experience in some Asian
countries, the country is working to take advantage of the reduction in carbon
emissions. NDBP has also implemented integrated biogas systems in Kirehe and
Ngoma by constructing 76 fiberglass biodigesters, made in China, in order to
reduce the construction time and minimize quality assurance issues.
18.2.3.1 Biogas in Prisons
The Kigali Institute of Science, Technology and Management (KIST) has devel-
oped and installed large-scale biogas plants in prisons in Rwanda to treat toilet
wastes and generate biogas for cooking. After the treatment, the bio-effluent is used
as fertiliser for the production of crops and fuelwood (Wheldon 2005). The scale of
these biogas systems is enormous: a prison with a population of 5000 people
produces between 25 and 50 m3 of toilet wastewater each day. Using a 500 m3
system (five linked digesters), this produces a daily supply of about 250 m3 of
biogas for cooking (Wheldon 2005). The program was funded by the UNDP in an
effort to curb the difficult conditions for human waste management as well as the
huge expenditures on firewood for cooking. The KIST program won an Ashden
award in 2005.
18.2.3.2 Biogas in Slaughterhouses
Biogas can cater to rural energy needs by supplying a decentralized source of power
with uninterrupted supply. The model provides waste management in a manner that
simultaneously produces energy and reduces the environmental load. In Kenya, on
the outskirts of Nairobi, Keekonyoike slaughterhouse installed a fixed dome biogas
plant that has a 250 m3 capacity and a biogas storage tank with a storage capacity of
200 m3, piped to a 16 kW generator set (Njuguna 2013). At present, the slaugh-
terhouse’s biogas plant can handle 3100 kg of digestible waste out of the 14,460 kg
available daily. Increasing the digestible amount (thereby increasing gas produc-
tion) could allow for a conversion of the current plant to an industrial plant and
potentially produce a net energy level of 2590 kWh, which could be used for
operating machinery, powering the cold meat room, internal electricity require-
ments, or by piping the excess gas to nearby homes (Njuguna 2013).
18.2.3.3 Biogas for Household and Farm Level Use
Under the ‘One Cow for Every Poor Family’ or Girinka Programme, an IFAD
supported Kirehe Community-based Watershed Management Project (2009–2016),
implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, approximately
1500 household biogas systems have been installed. In Kagogo cowshed in Kirehe
district, Rwanda, a dairy cooperative comprising 32 farmers with funding support
from Heifer International implemented the first biogas unit (48 m3) at a total cost of
USD 32,000, operating a dual fuel engine that is running a water pump (2400 L/d)
for livestock watering needs, a 3 phase motor for running a milking machine, and a
chaff cutter for chopping fodder (2 h daily) (Fig. 18.5). The biogas generated is also
being used directly as gas for cooking. This demonstrates demand for two forms of
energy that cannot be fulfilled at present: one for direct heating (pasteurizing) and
another for refrigeration.
In summary, the above three examples demonstrate how the potential of biogas
is curtailed due to the lack of technical know-how, lack of policy support and
limited access to finance. Most of these programmes, although largely
donor-funded, aspire to reach a market based approach—that is, biodigester con-
struction companies reaching an autonomous and profitable level so that they are
able to sell digesters to farmer households. These programs are also
multi-stakeholder, where financial institutions provide credit to the households for
purchasing the unit and government or NGO extension services provide training on
operation, maintenance and the use and application of the bioslurry.
Fig. 18.5 Installation of a 48 m3 digester at a communal cow shed in Rwanda

462 K. Sehgal
18.2.4 Case Study: Snapshot of Biogas Sector in the EU
A total of 80% of the cars in the EU running on methane are manufactured in Italy
(Chiaramonti 2014). By converting abundant domestic biomass resources—such as
leaves, husks or stalks from corn—into transportation fuel, this biomass conversion
technology continues to mature toward commercialization. Opportunities across the
industry are growing exponentially for providers of raw materials, technology
developers, refiners, and fuel distributors.
Germany and the Netherlands have the most auspicious programmes for
renewable energy and in particular have emphasized on the important role that
research and development (R&D) play in shaping and igniting the business/
commercial side of the biogas sector. In Italy, Research Center for Alternative and
Renewable Energies (CREAR) has dedicated activities on renewable energy, with
particular attention to biomass and biofuels. The annual budget for R&D is a total
of USD 6 million per year. The project BIOSYNG, supported by the Italian
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forestry (MIPAAF) and spearheaded by students
from the RE-CORD (a non-profit research institute associated with the University
of Florence), has set-up a gasification plant (not for commercialization) with 1 MW
capacity (or approximately 500 m3/h) producing gas from gasification of ligno-
cellulose biomass. On the outskirts of Florence, RE-CORD laboratories house a
handful of demonstration plants such as:
• Microturbines convertible on biofuels (20–30 kW);
• Biomass gasifiers;
• Charcoal briquettes;
• Engines running on vegetable oil;
• Biomass pyrolysis;
• Thermochemical methane.
From a policy angle, many developed nations have developed feed-in tariffs
(FiT), which are a good way (but not the only way) to provide incentives in the
biomethane sector. In the UK, FiT is GBP 0.71/kWh. In France, FiTs are dependent
on the producing capacity of the plant but range from EUR 45–95/MWh for landfill
plants to EUR 69–125/MWh in anaerobic digestion plants (CREAR 2016). In
Sweden, Germany and Austria, biomethane producers are entitled to receive a
technology bonus, tax reliefs and other incentives. However, under current market
conditions, biomethane cannot compete with natural gas. The biomethane sector
can grow only if the costs of storage and transportation come down and thus
become cost-competitive with natural gas. Methane is a crucial and key method of
curbing GHG emissions—the documentation of the GHG reduction in CO2
equivalent could be another driver for achieving stronger policy support at a
national and regional level.
The 2050 European Low Carbon Economy Roadmap suggests that a 40%
reduction in emissions by 2030 compared with 1990 would be cost-effective
(Chiaramonti 2014). A reduction of less than 40% would increase the long-term
costs of decarbonising the economy. The future prospects rely on the ability of the
European countries to capitalize on the experiential knowledge and innovative
applications of biogas that have already been tested and demonstrated. Looking to
the future, by 2030, the European biogas industry will produce as much “green gas”
as “green electricity” by using the natural gas distribution network for generating
electricity, heating and cooling and as a fuel for vehicular application.
18.3 Factors Shaping the Biogas Sector
There are a number of factors that shape and develop the biogas sector. There is no
one-fits-all solution. However, there are certain fundamental elements that need to
exist in order to better align biogas programmes with national government strate-
gies. Firstly, there must be political support from line ministries, i.e., Ministry of
Environment, Energy and Livestock that are pushing forward a thematic agenda
involving climate mitigation, waste-to-energy projects, health and sanitation, access
to energy and others. At the same time, given that biogas is a cross cutting theme
touching upon numerous thematic areas, there must be a realization of the
inter-ministerial dialogue and cooperation required. Over the past forty years, there
have been numerous programmes introducing trials of biogas on a wide range of
scales and with various types of feedstock, but few have been maintained for more
than a few years. The success of biogas has been limited by a combination of
factors: poor institutional framework and infrastructure; inadequate planning poli-
cies; lack of coordination and linkages in biogas programmes; pricing distortions
that have placed renewable energy at a disadvantage; high initial capital costs; weak
dissemination strategies; lack of skilled human resources; and weak maintenance,
after-sales services and infrastructure.
The prevalence of biogas among rural agricultural households and a lack of
distribution systems to enhance commercialization have resulted in a failure to
reinforce the concept of biogas for agricultural applications. The general perception
of biogas still associate it with rural households that own a few cattle that can
produce cow dung to be used as input substrate. The case studies in the previous
section highlighted why this sector has not achieved a scaling-up process, espe-
cially in its potential to promote integrated farming systems. Issues at the policy
level are one culprit but the other is the distribution network and financial sus-
tainability for post-sales services. Likewise, many governments subsidize conven-
tional fuel prices for the poorest, thus creating a barrier to entry for biogas
technologies. At the technical level, the quality in installation and operation has
been ambiguous, with many donor-funded projects lacking the capacity to monitor
and backstop projects that have promoted biogas. Although biogas systems are
cost-effective on a life-cycle basis, they are often not affordable or capable of being
scaled up without the support of government and/or financial institutions. In
addition, the capacity for the rural poor to pay is low and, once the operation and
464 K. Sehgal
maintenance costs begin, there is limited sustainability in the financial support or

other mechanisms put in place.
18.3.1 Ecological Barriers: Changing Climate and Volatile

Fossil Fuel Prices
In this chapter, we started by underscoring predominantly the benefits of biogas for

cooking, but also emphasized the potential of the effluent from the digester, the so
called bioslurry. This is a perfect solution for organic farms that suffer from soil
fertility shortages. The business case for investing in a biodigester is very positive
and biodigesters fit seamlessly into most mixed farming systems (Warnars and
Oppenoorth 2014). In general, there has been a shift in prioritizing the use of biogas
energy primarily for the slurry rather than the energy-related benefits (cooking and
lighting). Numerous studies have been undertaken demonstrating the ‘magic’ of
bioslurry (De Groot and Bogdanski 2013).
China exemplifies how to bring forward an agenda with multi-faceted benefits
for rural and peri-urban areas, which are also the main consumers of charcoal (a
leading cause of deforestation). West Guangxi Poverty Alleviation Project has
provided biogas tanks to about 30,000 poor households, saving 56,000 ton of
firewood annually, which is equivalent to the recovery of 7470 ha of forest (IFAD
2011).
The experience of the cassava starch industry in Thailand also highlights the
environmental benefits from the potential for GHG emissions reduction given that
(i) fossil fuel oil is replaced with renewable biogas; (ii) the methane that previously
escaped into the atmosphere during fermentation of wastewater in open lagoons is
now captured as biogas; and (iii) part of the grid electricity produced mainly from
coal and gas is replaced with on-site electricity produced from biogas (Hansupalak
2015).
18.3.2 Policy Barriers: Subsidy Schemes

and the Role of the Private Sector
At the macro-level, promoting South-South cooperation (knowledge and technol-

ogy transfer) for training and distribution as well as for material sourcing is key to
making biogas technologies more affordable to the lower quartile rural populations
(i.e., more resource-poor and marginalized smallholder farmers), mostly resident in
Sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia.
In developed countries, a lack of policy regulations on the use of biogas energy
(especially in the transport sector) combined with resistant lobbies such as the fossil
fuel industry impeding the biogas industry’s growth and, therefore, the central role
biogas could play in the energy and transport sector. Lessons learnt from other
countries with more advanced biogas programmes (such as Sweden and India)
show that there is also a large potential for biomethane in vehicle transportation
(buses, tractors, cars, auto rickshaws). To this end, political decision-makers must
consider the complex cultural constraints dictating institutional sustainability,
subsidies that distort market prices and subsidies on fossil fuels, including chemical
fertilizers.
18.3.3 Technical: Capacity Building, Quality Control

Systems and Training
In Rwanda, SNV and Rwanda Energy Group (REG) have provided training on
installation, operation and maintenance of all types of biogas units. This is part of a
wider SNV programme that seeks to train over 800 youth in each sector of
Rwandan industry. The goal is to train rural youth on group formation and capacity
building in financial management. In relation to biogas, certificates have been
handed out by the selected companies under the guidance of REG and SNV. These
certified biogas installers now receive RWF 15,000 (USD 18) per installation from
active biogas companies and have been trained in becoming self-sustaining. In turn,
these certified biogas installers have trained beneficiary farmers on the operation
and management (O&M) and troubleshooting of biogas digesters, such as routine
feeding of the biogas digester and appropriate mixing of cow dung (in appropriate
water to manure ratios).
In Vietnam, the biogas programme is currently implemented by the Biogas
Project Division (BPD) under the Department of Livestock and Production (DLP),
Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD). The Vietnam program
has been part of SNV’s broader Asia Biogas Programme, and is currently funded by
the EnDev Energising Development (2013–2017), the Blue Moon Fund (2013–
2014), and the sales of Voluntary Gold Standard Credits (VERs)—the programme
has been registered as a carbon project since 2012. It is estimated that 6 million ton
of CO2e are released annually by medium-scale pig farmers as a result of an
estimated 73 million ton of pig waste disposed of improperly into ponds, channels
and sewages (Teune 2007). In Vietnam, 1 million digesters have been constructed,
including 500,000 medium scaled, 150,000 industrial level units that have covered
lagoons for treating wastewater (UASB model), and 20,000 medium-sized pig
farms, growing at an annual rate of 10% (Zwebe 2013). At present, under the
SNV’s programme, 140,000 biogas plants have been constructed and over 800
technicians and 1400 masons have been trained (Zwebe 2013).
In Cambodia, more than 300 trained and certified masons are available to
construct biogas systems. 46 experienced Biodigester Construction Companies
(BCCs) in 11 provinces can fulfil an order in less than two weeks. The National
Biogas Programme (NBP) under the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry
466 K. Sehgal
(MAFF) is working closely with MFIs such as Amret and Prasac. A Czech
non-governmental, non-profit organization, People in Need (PIN), is also sup-
porting NBP and the private sector in building the capacities of BCCs to manage
and expand their businesses, which includes support for promotion and marketing
activities, but have also been directly involved in the provision of after sales ser-
vices through the establishment of village-based local technicians who sell basic
spare parts and provide technical advice to biogas users. NBP plans to install
3000 units under a recently approved Global Environment Fund (GEF) supported
project: Building Adaptive Capacity for the Scaling up of Renewable Energy
Technologies in Rural Cambodia (S-RET). The ADB project: Climate-Friendly
Agribusiness Value Chains Sector Project, beginning in 2017, is also refurbishing
approximately 11,000 biogas units and constructing an additional 5000 units dur-
ing the period 2017–2020 under the supervision and management of NBP.
The experience of the cassava starch industry in Thailand shows that since 2002
most cassava starch factories have switched from fuel oil to biogas generated from
their wastewater. The energy recovered enables factories to cover 100% of their
thermal energy needs, including starch drying (previously done with fuel oil), and
in some cases to also produce on-site electricity and reduce the use of grid elec-
tricity. The most efficient factories generate excess biogas and have invested in
generators to produce electricity, covering 20–40% of their electricity needs.
Factories report a return on investment of 2–5 years thanks to the savings from not
needing fuel oil any longer (Hansupalak 2015). The reduction in GHG emissions is
significant as well. Most cassava starch factories have adopted biogas technology in
the past 10–12 years, using their wastewater as feedstock for biogas production. As
a result, the factories can save on production costs and recover their investment
within 5–10 years.
Biogas technology works well at large scales (cassava starch factories typically
process 800 ton of cassava roots every 24 h). At small or medium scales, variations
in the quality and concentration of wastewater during the day make it more difficult
to stabilize the fermentation reaction. This requires monitoring the fermentation as
it needs constant adjustment (e.g., increasing or decreasing the flow rate of organic
material into the tank; adding starters or nutrients when necessary) and the
equipment needs maintenance.
18.3.4 Financial: Role of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs)
In developing countries, the energy lending portfolio, especially in rural areas,

remains negligible. The possibility for rural poor farmers to purchase biogas
technologies that can reduce monthly energy expenditures, improve health condi-
tions, increase agricultural productivity and increase income generation opportu-
nities is still rare.
The development challenge is to seek modalities for engaging with private sector
companies that promote environmental goods and services and to identify finance
mechanisms (grants, equity loans etc.) to support capacity building (both human
and financial). There are many other factors that need to be taken into consideration,
including cost, capacity to deliver the technology in large quantities, a training
support mechanism and timely post-sale services.
In Cambodia, a typical system costs US$500, of which the end user pays USD
350. NBP provides a USD 150 grant. For households that are not able to pay the
USD 350 upfront but are creditworthy, three leading microfinance institutions
(MFIs) provide payment schemes with an average payment of US$20 per month for
up to 2 years. To date, 20,000 households have purchased this system. The latest
consumer survey shows that 96% of these systems are still operating satisfactorily.
A private company, Kamworks, is leading the solar energy sector and is a pioneer
in the mobile technology PAYGO—a software for paying, monitoring, tracking and
troubleshooting solar energy installations. Established in 2006 by Dutch solar
engineers, to date 150,000 rural households have been reached, with 96% coverage
of the PAYGO market in Cambodia. This model has been applied only for solar
energy products but addresses a multitude of issues that are also relevant for private
companies and clients in the biogas sector: (i) pre-financing the customer;
(ii) managing and monitoring sales; (iii) collecting payments; (iv) controlling
operations and installations/repairs; and (v) inventory management and financing.
Another programme being promoted through Hivos is the Africa Biogas
Partnership Program (ABPP) in 6 countries in Africa (Ethiopia, Zimbabwe,
Tanzania, Uganda, Burkina Faso, and Kenya), Indonesia, Bolivia and Guatemala.
The program is well-aligned with national government strategies and, to date,
60,000 biogas units have been installed In Africa. 12,000 units have already been
installed in Tanzania and another 10,000 biogas plants are planned in the period
2017–2019. In Indonesia, through the ABPP, a total of 15,000 units are planned for
the next two years.5
18.3.5 Social: Trends of Urban Migration
There are a number of elements that curtail the spread of biogas programmes
(Table 18.5). Another daunting trend is that of increasing rural to urban migration,
with implications for the sustainability of biogas. For example, in rural areas,
promoting biogas energy is complicated by years of habit using traditional methods
that are perceived as cheap and inexpensive. Elderly people at home have a lower
capability to deal with technological problems and properly manage livestock
manure (collecting and feeding the digester). On top of this, over recent years biogas
energy has more and more been recognized as a ‘past’ technology and synonymous
with an inferior social status that (a) handles animal manure and (b) cannot afford
5
For more information on the Africa Biogas Partnership Program see here: http://www.
africabiogas.org/#.
468 K. Sehgal
Table 18.5 Summary of obstacles and solutions to the dissemination of biogas

Obstacles Specific challenges Possible solutions
Ecological – Large water requirements – Support livestock numbers,
barriers – Mitigating potential pathogen veterinary services, fodder and
dispersal water availability
– Sustainable groundwater
extraction
– Quantification of reductions in
deforestation and GHG emissions
– Bioslurry application with
influence on soil fertility
Policy – Lack of an enabling policy – Imposition of standards and
barriers framework for accelerating take provision of training for operating
up biogas digesters
– Lack of fiscal incentives for the – Certification of biogas installers/
private sector masons
– Poor institutional arrangements – Identification of impacts on other
(customs, regulations and import livelihood systems such as
taxes) charcoal and firewood suppliers
– Cost reductions through pursuit of and defining alternatives
economies of scale and linking
with national rural energy
subsidies
– Subsidies for low-quality
traditional biomass resources and
kerosene
Technical – Small-scale farmers with small – Adaptation of biogas digester
barriers herds not able to get sufficient design to the needs of the users
feedstock – Capturing user-knowledge for
– Complex logistics in design improvements
transportation of material – Optimising feeding methods and
components (especially in remote, types of organic substrate
rural areas) – Appropriate delivery mechanisms
– Technical skills required for (technical training manuals and
operation and maintenance facilities and post-sales services)
– Scum formation in small sized – Pre-soaking, adjustment and scum
plants formation of carbon to nitrogen
– Corrosion of gas holder ratio
– Improper preparation in treatment – Removal of inert particles such as
of solids leading to blockage sand and rocks
Financial – Initial costs too high – Provision of a line of credit to
barriers – High transportation and lower the initial investment costs
maintenance costs of plant (possibly in combination with
requiring skilled expertise microfinance services)
– Marketing of organic fertilizer – Engaging women in self-help
(bioslurry) limited groups for multiplying finance
– Construction from cheap and sharing knowledge
construction materials (glass fibre, – Quantification of economic
clay, jute-fibre reinforced plastic) benefits from substitution of
chemical fertilizers with bioslurry,
and use of free time (derived from
(continued)

Obstacles Specific challenges Possible solutions
time saved in collecting firewood)
on other income generating
activities
Sociocultural – Open-grazing practices – Stalling livestock for dung
barriers – De-stigmatizing livestock manure collection
management and introduction of – Engaging youth in the deployment
hygienic methods of feeding process for creating the next
biodigester (integration of human generation of users
waste over longer term) – Provision of information,
– Limited knowledge on the awareness-raising and promotion
potential of biogas energy regarding the benefits of RETs
– Farmer-to-farmer exposure for
stimulating take up
LPG. Destigmatizing these perceptions is a challenge in itself that can only be tackled
by demonstrating the economic benefits of biogas for the user, the community and the
environment (as, for example, in India, which remains one of the few countries where
the use of human waste is accepted as substrate for biogas digesters6).
18.4 Conclusions
The use of biogas has been promoted by virtue of its chemical characteristics (com-
posed of carbon dioxide, methane and traces of hydrogen sulphide) and produce
multi-faceted benefits, such as the reduction of GHG emissions, improved livestock
manure management, and health and sanitation benefits (Rota and Sehgal 2012).
With its many ecological and societal benefits, biogas development for energy
and fertilizer has gained much attention in recent years. However, most biogas
applications are restricted to locations where biogas is produced. At present, biogas
is associated with rural households that own a few cattle that can produce cow dung
to be used as biomass. Compressing and bottling biogas (biomethane) would aid in
commercialization and popularizing its ease of use as this would clearly segregate
production from distribution.
Many countries already seek to promote policies that create viable markets for
biogas and, at the same time, use subsidies as a quality control mechanism to
guarantee that markets function properly. Over the past decade, the uptake of biogas
has slowed due to increased urbanization rates. Biogas is still largely promoted
through subsidy programmes, and the commercialization of a market-based biogas
6
Another impressive program in India is the Sulabh International movement. More than 200 biogas
plants of 35–60 m3 capacity have been constructed by Sulabh in different states of the country so
far which are connected to human latrines (Pathak 2013).
470 K. Sehgal
sector requires the long-term vision to align this with national government strategies
(Sovacool et al. 2015). However, to arrive at that juncture, significant development
is required, such as quality control systems and training mechanisms. In addition,
public-private partnerships with clear roles must be articulated to scale up the
biogas sector. Private companies cannot do it alone and neither can government
agencies.
Biogas and biomethane deserve particular attention and support among renew-
able energy sources as these low-carbon technologies promote closed loop
waste-energy systems. The industry can significantly contribute to further devel-
opment of rural areas. The use of biogas in stationary engines for different agri-
cultural operations (milling, grinding, powering water pumps and chaff cutters, etc.)
also shows that it has the capacity to be a profitable business that can generate
ample opportunities for employment in rural areas.
Finally, a number of take-home messages can be presented as follows:
1. Engaging private sector entities is essential for achieving success in scaling up
biogas technologies. In the long-run, it is important to facilitate platforms that
can lead to rural youth entrepreneurship and agricultural development.
2. Raising awareness on the potential of biogas digesters when integrated within
farming systems. The nature of the technology and simplicity to understand its
operation allows for farmers to become technical service providers and to
troubleshoot minor complications (clearing water from gas pipes due to con-
densation, feeding digester daily or not leaving gas valve open). Therefore,
technical leaflets, exhibitions and demonstrations, community competitions,
troubleshooting manuals and documentaries are all tools that need to be dis-
seminated widely.
3. There is a need for more sensitization and demonstrations on the use of biogas.
Farmer-to-farmer exchange visits and the generation of KM products are critical
so that farmers can witness experiences of other farmers who are successfully
operating biogas and disseminate knowledge relating to the opportunities to
diversify livelihoods and increase revenue streams.
4. Carve a role for the private sector in relation to the marketing, finance and
after-sales services. For now, Vietnam is the only viable market for commer-
cially promoting biogas (as opposed to viability through Government
programmes).
5. Donor funded biogas has to stop. Being largely promoted through subsidy
programmes, the commercialization of the biogas sector is undoubtedly the
long-term vision, but to arrive at that stage, a lot of development will need to
take place (such as quality control systems and training mechanisms).
A commercially viable biogas sector entails subsidies being used as a quality
control mechanism to guarantee that markets function properly rather than
distorting market prices and creating disincentives for potential clients to invest
in the technology.
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Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies 6

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11833

ISSN 2363-7609 ISSN 2363-7617 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

Karaj, Iran Meisam Tabatabaei

1 Waste Management Strategies; the State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

10 Biogas Puriﬁcation and Upgrading Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Alireza Ghasemi Ghodrat, Meisam Tabatabaei, Mortaza Aghbashlo

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

1.1 Waste Management; A Conceptual Approach

Maximizing resource (material and energy) recovery and minimizing environ-

•During scarcity, e.g., war time and embargo, repairing an item

•For example, the feasibility of using food wastes for animal

•Regarding an item's state (price, age, and type of damage), it may

Personal •Waste to an individual may not be regarded as waste to another

collection, transport, and disposal of hazardous wastes or other wastes, including

• Disposal including landfilling and mass burning without

• Recovery in terms of material utilization and energy

• Waste substitutes for virgin production of the

• For example, cleaning and refilling of

• Waste prevention and

1.1.1 Global Status

as well as changes in the contribution of different MSWs treatment options in

Per capita generation (kg/person/day)

216 2.07 243.5 2.01

MSW landfilled (million tons)

Per capita generation

1.41 1.43 1.43

Per capita generation

17.07 1.77 1.78 1.77

2.8 South Asia East Asia and the Pacific region

MSW generaƟon per capita (kg per person per day)

MSW generaƟon per capita (kg per person per day)

Per capita generation

50 1.96 46.95 47.68 48.03 2.00

Per capita generation

Per capita generaƟon

1200 1303.25 1320.08 1334.65

2.98 Sub-Saharan Africa

Sao Tome and Principe

Congo, Dem. Rep.

Central African Republic

1.2 Waste Management Strategies

1.2.1 Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)

Per capita generation

MSW recycled (million tons) MSW composted (million tons)

Direct Combustion Gasification

Fig. 1.12 MSW technologies

Evaluation of the Development and

Procurement of Detailed engineering

• Waste has not been segregated; Collection in single

• Collection of refuse and recyclables in different colored bags in

• Collection of commingled recyclables in vehicles with two

• Recyclables separated by type at the point of collection;

1.2.2 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF)—Solid Recovery

In order to mitigate the devastating consequences of landﬁlling along with an

Biodrying - physical Magnetic separation -

Ballistic separation Air classification Aeroherds