An Intermediate Grammar For New Testament Greek: John Pappas
An Intermediate Grammar For New Testament Greek: John Pappas
An Intermediate Grammar For New Testament Greek: John Pappas
Intermediate
Grammar for
New
Testament
Greek
John Pappas
Copywrite 2013, 2018
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Syntax .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Syntax ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
The Phrase ............................................................................................................................................. 16
The Clause .............................................................................................................................................. 16
Sentence Structure ................................................................................................................................ 16
Nouns .......................................................................................................................................................... 19
Case ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
The Nominative ................................................................................................................................... 21
The Instrumental................................................................................................................................. 34
The Pronoun................................................................................................................................................ 48
Voice ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Mood ....................................................................................................................................................... 75
Tense ...................................................................................................................................................... 83
Present Tense...................................................................................................................................... 84
The Infinitive.......................................................................................................................................... 97
The Participle ....................................................................................................................................... 102
Miscellaneous Elements ........................................................................................................................... 108
ii
Preface
This work is the result of identifying a need for a common sense grammar that minimizes elements that
are debatable within the larger New Testament Greek community. The basic concept of “keep it simple”
built into my first year grammar continues in this intermediate grammar. This grammar is designed for
the second year student. As such, I seek not to confuse the second year student with a barrage of
debatable grammatical elements. The second year student needs to build upon and practice those elements
that are proven, not debatable. The second year student should be stretching his or her wings, applying,
questioning, debating, and checking their translation and interpretation, asking the question “Why did this
version of the Bible translate this verse that way?”
The expectation of an intermediate grammar is to bring the second year Greek student to the point
of confidence handling the Greek text. It is common for the second year Greek student to enter into
heresy after translating a particular verse and to be dogmatic with that translation until the fallacy of their
theology and translation has been brought to light. I went through that process and every student I know
has gone through it. This prompts me to share this warning with you - the second year student – do not
turn off your analytical brain when translating. You may be comfortable and even confident with your
vocabulary, declension, and parsing. Check your translation work and if you have created a unique,
“never before heard of translation and/or interpretation” – you need to take a breath, step back, and look
at it again before you pronounce your thoughts.
The excitement of translating the Bible in its original language is so very present with the second
year language student that it has served to encourage me over the years. I hope and pray that this grammar
will help you mature in your knowledge of the One who is called “the Word,” and share that knowledge
to a world in need of knowing Him.
iii
The Method
There are several methods used to learn second year Greek. The two primary methods are as follows:
1. Go through the intermediate Greek grammar and translate, translate, translate! The
recommendation of this author is to:
d. memorize the weekly vocabulary and verb/noun endings from Pappas’ Lists of Greek Words
2. Another method is to go through the intermediate Greek grammar and translate the verses
provided in the chapter. Then examine the reasons and characteristics that lead to a particular
translation and/or interpretation.
Resources
A list of resources beyond BibleGreekVpod.com’s audio, grammar and First John exposition includes the
following classic resources:
Intermediate/Advanced Grammars
Robertson, A.T. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament In the Light of Historical Research, Nashville:
Broadman Press, 1934. This grammar is the most complete grammar produced to date.
Dana & Mantey. A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament, New York: MacMillan Publishing,
1958. The classic standard intermediate text has been used for generations.
Young, Richard. Intermediate New Testament Greek: A linguistic And Exegetical Approach, Nashville:
Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994. This text has, since its introduction in the 1990s, been one of the
most widely respected and used intermediate grammars. This text is a “must have.”
Wallace, Daniel. Greek Grammar Beyond The Basics: An Exegitical Syntax of the New Testament, Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1996. This text is a monumental work in its scholarship and its detailed
breakdown of grammar and the number of Scriptural examples is unparralled.
iv
Introduction
Dr. Henry Morris provides a quote from Ralph Linton, one of the foremost
anthropologists who says, “Writing was also a Near Eastern invention and one whose
contribution to civilization has been even greater than that of metal … Writing appears almost
simultaneously some 5000-6000 years ago in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley.”2
Early development of the Greek language started as early as the 14th century, B.C. The
early form of Greek contained the same right to left style as its Semitic counterpart. Dr. Matthew
Black writes, “Like the Semitic scripts, the earliest Greek was written from right to left, a style
which was later superseded by the boustrophedon (= alternate lines from right to left and left to
1
There are four divisions: Eastern Semitic (Akkadian – Assyrian & Babylonian), Southern (Arabic & Ethiopic),
Northern (Amorite & Aramaic), Northwestern (Canaanite, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabite & Hebrew).
2
Henry Morris, Scientific Creationism (Green Forest: Master Books, 2003), p. 193
Introduction
right). After c. 500 B.C. Greek writing regularly proceeded from left to right, the lines running
from top to bottom.”3
There developed several local Greek alphabets and dialects, but they all merged into one
standard system, the Ionic alphabet of Miletus at Athens, in 403 B.C., and within fifty years all
the mainland states adopted the Athenian style and the official classical Greek script of twenty-
four letters. Within a remarkably short time, a new Greek was forged that spread throughout the
region by Alexander the Great known as - the koine dialect (ca. 300 B.C. to
4
ca. A.D. 500).
Through the years, the classical character style remained; however, two major writing
styles sprang up that are important in history and this study:
(1) The uncial script. The uncial (Latin “inch-long” letters) script is the script of classical
literature and biblical codices. The cursive or ‘running’ character was employed for non-
literary works such as personal letters, accounts, receipts, deeds, etc. Literary works were
written using the formal handwriting style called uncials. Dr. Metzger writes, “The word
‘uncial’ is derived from the Latin uncial, meaning ‘a twelfth part’ of anything.
Apparently the term came to be applied to letters which occupied roughly about one-
twelfth of an ordinary line of writing.”5 This type of writing dominated literary works of
both the Old and New Testament period until the ninth century. The uncial style used all
capital letters with no spaces between words. The most important major codices of the
type are Sinaiticus (a) of the 4th century, Vaticanus (B) of the 4th century, and
Alexandrinus (A) of the 5th century. There are 362 uncials known.
(2) The minuscule script. The minuscule script (Latin “rather small”) is the script used for
books around A.D. 800. After the development of the minuscule script, the uncial script
quickly disappeared. The minuscule script has been traced to the monks at the monastery
of the Studium in Constantinople and the humanistic scholars in Constantinople during
the second epoch of iconoclasm6(A.D. 814 - 842). The minuscule style used lower case
letters in a cursive script with a break between words. Since the majority of the
manuscripts in existence are of the minuscule type, they are collectively referred to as the
Majority Text. The total number of extant minuscules as of 1941 is 2429 (Kenyon). They
range in date from the ninth to the sixteenth centuries.
3
Matthew Black, in P.R. Ackrod & C.F. Evans, gen. eds. The Cambridge History of the Bible (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1970), vol. 1, p. 18
4
Ibid. p. 19
5
Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 9
6
Iconocasm (“image-breaking”) refers to two periods in the history of the Byzantine Empire when the use of
religious images or icons was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within the Eastern Church. The "First
Iconoclasm" lasted between about 726 and 787., and the "Second Iconoclasm" was between 814 and 842.
2
Introduction
The language of both the LXX and the New Testament are technically classified as koine. There
are, however, some writers of both the LXX and NT who favored the classic Attic style called
literary koine as opposed to the vernacular style of the majority of the New Testament.
The scholastic humanists of the age brought the study of Attic Greek, Homer and the
classics to university students throughout Europe and thus served to refine the understanding of
koine Greek. Greek dictionaries and lexicons started to be produced in Europe, most notably
Lexicon Graecolatinum printed in Paris in 1530. A Greek lexicon was produced in 1531-43 by
Robert Estienne (Stephanus) and published in 1572 in Geneva by his son Henri. Hebrew and
Aramaic also enjoyed a great revival and both grammars and lexicons were produced and widely
printed during this period.
7
Basil Hall, in S.L Greenslade, gen. ed., The Cambridge History of the Bible (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1963), vol. 3, p. 42
8
The great Godet describing John’s Gospel.
3
Introduction
conquered, Alexander appointed local people to high administrative positions thus securing the
security and stability of what was created. The Greek philosophers secured the Hellenization of
the populace and the language used was Greek. Alexander’s death at the young age of 33
brought division to the newly created empire. Four of his generals united to crush all opposition
in the battle of Ipsus in 301 B.C.
Judea was controlled by Egypt between 301 and 198 B.C., and the rulers of Egypt were
Greeks. So thorough was the use of Greek throughout the region that in 285 B.C. a group of
Jewish scholars started the translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek (LXX) in
Alexandra Egypt9. The “group of seventy” meticulously translated the Hebrew into Greek in
order to communicate the word of God to the Jews of the diaspora who no longer understood
their native language. This is both sad and providential, as the Jews who were kicked out of their
land had to live as sojourners in a foreign land; however, providential because God brought the
gospel of Christ to the world in a common tongue – the common language of the people, koine
Greek.
The return of the Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem starting in 444 B.C. brought another
major language into the picture – the Aramaic. Though this group of returning Jews numbered
some 30,000, those that remained in Jerusalem and those that fled to Egypt had the advantage as
Greek was the language of commerce and Judea had been controlled by the Greek dominated
Egyptians until the Syrians took the region in 198 B.C. The Syrian Antiochus the Great defeated
the Egyptian Scopas at the battle of Paneas in 198 B.C. But the Syrian period of Judea did not
last long (198-167 B.C) as Antiochus was defeated by the Romans in 192 B.C. Antiochus’ short
lived reign was brutal as he plundered the Temple treasury, outlawed Judaism, and proclaimed
himself god, thus straining relations with the Jews. But the conflict over the Hellenization in
Judea was between pro-hellenic Jews and traditional religious Jews – the Hasidim (“pious
ones”), and the Maccabees.
With Judaism outlawed, a small group of Jews led by the priest Mattathias revolted and
when he died, his son Judas the Maccabee assumed command. Guerilla warfare turned into open
battle as their group grew in size and capability, and in 165 B.C. they took all of Jerusalem
except the citadel held by a Syrian garrison. The Maccabees, as they were called, cleansed the
Temple and rededicated it. They had won the day and Jewish religious freedom was restored.
This victory brought encouragement to the Maccabees as they now wanted complete victory and
independence from foreign control. A prohibition was mandated about the time of the siege of
Jerusalem against a Jew teaching his son Greek. The Jewish religious Hasidim, however, only
wanted religious freedom and did not support the aspirations of the Maccabees. The Maccabees
eventually achieved political independence in 143 B.C. Their independence lasted 80 years at
which time the Romans secured a firm grip on the region in 63 B.C. But it is during this period
9
The Pentateuch was translated between 285-247 B.C.
4
Introduction
of brief freedom (though they had an alliance with Rome), that the Hasmonean Jews made no
effort to win over the pro-hellenic Jews and were permanently alienated from the ruling class.10
By the time of Jesus, Hebrew had made a comeback after the Jews almost lost their
language during the Babylonian captivity, Greek, Aramaic, Hebrew and even Latin all existed in
the region, but it was Greek that still dominated in both law and commerce as the Romans ruled
Judea. One could almost divide the major groups of Jesus’ day with the language groups. The
Pharisees, whose predecessors were the Hasidim of the Syrian and Maccabean periods favored
Aramaic and Hebrew and considered themselves the true Israel of God. The Hebrew OT was
used in most synagogues but most likely was read in Hebrew and translated to the people in
Aramaic. The Sadducees concerned themselves with the Temple and the Sanhedrin, they were
the aristocratic priests who accepted the Greek and above all aimed to please Rome. In
Jerusalem, Aramaic and Greek were the language of the common people.
With the addition of the Greek Old Testament, Greek was able to thrive among the Jews.
But Hebrew and Aramaic were the language of the religious class in Jerusalem. A certain elitism
existed among the religious class in Jerusalem that favored Aramaic and Hebrew over the Greek,
while the common people favored the Greek and the LXX outside Jerusalem. It is observed in
the New Testament that Jesus spoke both Greek and Aramaic and it should not be supposed that
He did not speak Hebrew as well.
Hellenistic Judaism developed outside the land with two leading representatives being
Philo in Egypt and Josephus in Rome. There were Greek synagogues in Judea, but by the time of
Jesus, the major Jewish population in Alexandra Egypt had produced its own set of Jewish sages
as Greek dominated the synagogues there. The two most important cities of Jewish thought and
life had become Alexandra and Jerusalem, but all Jews had to come to Jerusalem to the Temple
for the appointed religious days, so Jerusalem with all its unique culture and diversity was the
place that the Greek of the New Testament was born.
The world into which Christianity was born was, if not literary, literate to a
remarkable degree; in the Near East in the first century of our era writing was an
essential accompaniment of life at almost all levels to an extent without parallel in
living memory.11
With this new level of education came a new manner of religious life for the Greek
speaking Jewish community. Dr. Black writes, “The hellenisation of the Near East contributed
powerfully to the more general use of the written word; but although where books were
concerned the sophisticated Judaism of Alexandria was influenced by the Hellenic elements it
10
Everett Harrison, Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 9
11
Matthew Black, in P.R. Ackrod & C.F. Evans, gen. eds. The Cambridge History of the Bible (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1970), vol. 1, p. 48
5
Introduction
sought to proselytize (as can be seen in Philo), a widespread use of the book was something that
hellenism and Judaism, even in its more ultramontane forms, had in common. Both Greeks and
Jews used the roll as the vehicle for their literature, although the latter tended to prefer skin to
papyrus for copies of the Law read in synagogues, while to the Greek the use of papyrus was one
of the marks of civilization.”12 Though the LXX was highly regarded and used by the Jewish
community, it came into disfavor only when the Christians adopted it as the text of the Old
Testament. The last mayor Greek NT writer was Irenaeus (c. 180), afterwards, Christianity
moved to Latin.
It should be noted at this point that the “scribes” of the NT period up to the invention of
the printing press took great caution in making copies. They were not haphazard in their method
of copying, though it is true that certain “copy mills” turned out works of varying quality. Some
words were missed, some misspelled, and others intentionally “corrected.” At times editorial
12
Matthew Black, in P.R. Ackrod & C.F. Evans, gen. eds. The Cambridge History of the Bible (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1970), vol. 1, p. 48
6
Introduction
comments turned into Scripture, but since the printing press these works have been weeded out
and the best manuscripts are now used and it is thought that we possess upwards of 99 percent of
the original text of the New Testament.
By Semitic is meant either Hebrew as the language of the Old Testament or Aramaic as
the mother-tongue of many NT writers.14 Dr. Moulton writes, “True Semitisms in the NT are of
two kinds. First come imitations, conscious or unconscious, of Greek OT, where the translators
had perpetrated ‘translation Greek.’ Secondly, there are similarly slavish renderings of Semitic
sources, oral or written, which lie behind the NT documents: we may here stretch the term
‘sources’ to include a writer’s native Semitic in which he frames his sentences in his own mind,
and then more or less successfully translates them into Greek.”15
Most important to our study is the Jewish theological vocabulary that is found in the New
Testament. New Testament Greek words take on a new meaning as context supplies their
theological meaning. Some words are given definitions so as to make no mistake as to their Old
Testament meaning. Some words are simply brought over to the Greek as transliterated from the
Hebrew and Aramaic (‘amen’, ‘abba’, ‘hosanna’, etc)16.
Some words take on a deeper Jewish theological meaning. An example is the common
Greek word “truth” which means, “what is evident, what is real;” but the Hebrew adds the
theological meaning of “substantial” and “dependable.”
With respect to the idea proposed by some that the NT was originally written in Aramaic
is unfounded and as Dr. Thiessen writes, “We admit, of course, that there is a good bit of
Aramaic coloring in some portions of some books, as in the early chapters of the Third Gospel,
13
Everett Harrison, Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 55
14
James Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek (Edinburgh: T & T. Clark, 1979), p. 14
15
ibid., p. 16
16
Less than half the OT quotations in the NT are from the Hebrew text.
7
Introduction
in the Book of Acts, and the Apocalypse, but that is not true of any book as a whole. The
discovery of the papyri has done much to undermine this theory.” 17
It would not be proper to say that the Greek words of the New Testament are completely
taken over by Semitic Hellenization. The use of the Greek still has its fundamentals attached, and
where a certain Semitic sense is used, it is obvious when one reads in context and has a working
knowledge of Hebrew. This is where the works from the giants of the past and subsequent giants
of the present are helpful. The great grammarians like A.T. Robertson, Moulton, Dana &
Mantey, Daniel Wallace, and Richard Young; the great lexicons like that of Thayer, BAG
(BDAG18), Louw & Nida, and Vine’s; and finally the great commentaries like A.T. Robertson,
Nicole, Wuest, Lenski, and Vincent.
The difference between koine and Attic Greek can be seen in a number of ways, but to “all
intents and purposes the vernacular is the later vernacular Attic with normal development
under historical environment created by Alexander’s conquests.”20 It is also true that not all the
New Testament can be classified as purely koine. A few examples are noted:21
17
Henry Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2002), p. 35
18
A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature, by Bauer, Arndt & Gingrich
(BAG) and later revised by Danker (BDAG).
19
A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Nashville:
Broadman, 1934), p. 56
20
ibid., p. 71
21
This compilation identified by several sources. Most notabely, Everett Harrison & Robertson.
22
J. Harold Greenlee, in Frank Gaebelein, gen. ed., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
1979), vol. 1, p. 412
8
Introduction
It should be noted that the Greek Scriptures have been translated into the Syrian
manuscripts24 (Syriac), and the Latin (Old Latin25). Together with the New Testament
manuscripts are the lectionaries26 that are the weekly readings of the early Church, and the
23
Everett Harrison, Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 52
24
The term ‘Syriac’ denotes the ancient Semitic language and literature of the ‘Syriac’ Christians and is not
synonymous with Christian inhabitants of Syria. It refers to those Christians that employed the Syrian descendant of
Aramaic or were part of the Syriac Church in the Hellenistic culture whose most important center was the city of
Antioch (cf. Acts 11:26). The Syriac was the last important branch of Aramaic but a different dialect than that of
Judea in the time of Christ and the Apostles. Greek did not dominate Mesopotamia as it did along the coastal region,
so Syriac translations of the Bible began to appear in the second century.
25
The Old Latin versions of the Bible were in general use in Africa in the time of Tertullian of Carthage (before
150-222).
26
There are presently some 2,193 lectionaries dating from the sixth century.
9
Introduction
writings of the Fathers that provide quotes from Scripture. These resources provide a valuable
resource for dating and tracing the various Greek witnesses.
All together, what we have today in the form of the Greek New Testament amounts to about
99 percent of the original written text. That is more accurate than any other book of antiquity.
And, of the variations, the great historian Philip Schaff concluded that only 400 of the 150,000
differences identified in all the manuscripts available that caused any doubt about the textural
meaning and only 50 of these were of any great significance. Not one of the variations alters “an
article of faith or a precept of duty which is not abundantly sustained by other undoubted
passages, or by the whole tenor of Scripture.”27
Geisler and Nix put this into perspective as they report, “There is an ambiguity in saying
there are some 200,000 variants in the existing manuscripts of the New Testament, since these
represent only 10,000 places in the New Testament. If one single word is misspelled in 3,000
different manuscripts, this is counted as 3,000 variants or readings.”28
1. Alexandrian text. The Alexandrian text is perhaps the best scientifically managed text
as it was compiled by skillful editors, trained in the traditions of Alexandria Egypt.
The manuscripts used are some of the earliest and are dated from the second to the
fourth centuries. This class of text-type is called “Natural” by Westcott and Hort.
27
Philip Schaff, quoted in Josh McDowell, Evidence that demands a verdict (Campus Crusade for Christ, 1972), p.
44
28
ibid, p. 44
29
Norman Geisler & William Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible (Chicago: Moody, 1986), p. 385
10
Introduction
3. Caesarean text. The text that Origen used at Caesarea was the Caesean text. This
textual tradition has its origin from Egypt and brought to Caesarea by Origen where it
was carried to Jerusalem (cf., Jerusalem Colophon), to the Armenians, and to the
Georgians (cf., codex Koridethi). The Caesarean text is a mixture of Western and
Alexandrian readings.
4. Byzantine text. The Byzantine text was originally collected and prepared near the
close of the third century by Lucian of Antioch. The Byzantine text was further
revised up to the eighth century where it was essentially standardized. It is
characterized by a “smooth and easily understood text.” This is the text-type that was
used by Erasmus and Stephanus and ultimately the Textus Receptus.
II. Most important historical manuscripts. A short summary of the most important Greek
manuscripts are as follows:
1. Codex Sinaiticus (a) (c. 340). Codex Sinaiticus is identified as a and is the most
important and complete of all the manuscripts. This codex is written on vellum
(antelope skin) in the uncial script. It includes over half of the LXX of the Old
Testament and all of the New Testament (except Mark 16:9-20 & John 7:53-
8:11). It contains 389 ½ leaves (43 found in 1853 & 346 ½ in 1859) measuring 13
½ by 14 inches. It is thought that this codex might be one of the 50 copies that
Constantine ordered Eusebius to prepare in 331 and that Justinian might have sent
one copy to the convent of Mt. Sinai which he founded and where it was
discovered.
3. Codex Vaticanus (B) (c. 325-350). Codex Vaticanus is identified as B. This codex
is written on vellum in the uncial script. It includes most of the LXX of the Old
Testament and most of the New Testament. It contains 759 vellum (142 belong to
the NT) measuring 10 by 10 ½ inches. CodexVaticanus contains the New
30
Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament:Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 213
11
Introduction
4. Chester Beatty Papyri (P45, P46 & P47) (c. 250). The Chester Beatty Papyri are
identified as P45, P46 & P47 and dates to about A.D. 250. This collection is written
on papyrus in the uncial script and on three codices. It includes most of the New
Testament (though some are in very bad shape). It contains 220 leaves measuring
10 by 8 inches. This papyri collection gives us a text that is from 125 to 150 years
earlier than that of Codex Vaticanus.
III. The major Greek texts used today. Through the years, the compilation of the Greek texts
into a mass produced complete New Testament has a great history. With the invention
of the printing press in 1450, a limited number of mass produced works replaced the
individual manuscripts made by hand. The first important major works of this type
appears in the early 1500s in Europe. Cardinal Ximenes in 1514 commissioned the
publication of the most complete multi-lingual work the Complutensian Polyglot.
Erasmus published his first Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum omne) in
March 151631, and the monumental work containing both the Old and New
Testaments in Hebrew, Greek and Latin was compiled and published in 1522.32
1. Textus Receptus (TR). The text-type of the Textus Receptus is the Byzantine text.
This text is one of the most important works as it formed the King James Version.
Its roots can be found in the work of Erasmus and the great Complutensian
Polyglot of 1522. The source of this manuscript was Erasmus’ third edition of the
Greek text. Erasmus had available to him several Greek witnesses from the 12th
century in Basle33, most notably codex Basilensis for his 1st edition and Minuscule
3 (codex Cosendocensis34) for his 2nd edition. The 3rd edition made corrections
and adjusted the Geek text to better conform to the Latin Vulgate35. The text in
general is far less “authentic” than the others. This is due to the politics and
motivation of its day. For example, Erasmus did not have the last six verses of
31
F. G. Kenyon, The Text of the Greek Bible (Gloucester: Duckworth, 1975), p. 173
32
F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1988), p. 242
33
The first edition used the following sources: codex Basilensis, Minuscule 2814, codex Besiliensis A (11 th or 12th
century), Minuscule 7, Minuscule 817.
34
Codex Cosendocensis had all the books of the NT except Revelation.
35
Erasmus produced five editions of his NT, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, & 1535.
12
Introduction
Revelation so he simply translated them from the Latin into Greek. In another
instance, the third edition of the text included the Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7-
8), Erasmus could not find the text in any Greek text, but since the later Latin and
Greek manuscripts contained the text, one manuscript dated to around 1520 was
provided to him, so he added it. Other editions were produced by Robert Estienne
(Latin: Robertus Stephanus or simply Stephanus) at Paris in 1546, 1549, 1550, &
1551, Beza produced another nine editions between 1565 and 1605. But it is
Stephanus’ 1550 edition that became the Textus Receptus36. Stephanus added
verse divisions to his 1551 edition, which becomes the standard verse division for
the Geneva and Authorized Version of 1611. It is this text that was taken up and
edited by Bonaventure and Abraham Elzevir (1633) that became the standard text
used and we get the name Textus Receptus (“received text”) from the preface to
this edition: “You therefore have the text which is now received by all, in which
we give nothing altered or corrupted.” Though the problems of the TR are many
and understood, it is still in print, promoted, and even viewed by many as
superior, this text’s real value lies in the fact that it is free and readily available
for all in public domain.
2. Nestle Aland (NA)/USB. The most important Greek text today is the United Bible
Societies Greek text referred to as the Nestle-Aland text due to its main editors
Eberhard Nestle and Kurt Aland. The limited textural resources used to form the
Greek text of the Textus Receptus expanded when John Fell printed a text in 1675
using over 100 manuscripts, thus starting what became called the critical period.
John Mill in 1707 produced the first set of principles of textural criticism37 of the
Greek text, thus setting the standard rules for identifying what is most likely to be
the original text. By 1767, the collection of texts were organized into the three
classes of texts: Alexandrian, Oriental, and Occidental, which by 1777 refined to:
Alexandrian, Western, and Constantinopolitan.38 The modern period of textural
criticism is credited to Karl Lachmann as he applied the same principles to the NT
text as he did to other classical works placing emphasis upon the more ancient
manuscripts. But it is the German scholar Constantin Tischendorf who produced
the most important text of the critical period with his final edition of the Greek
NT (1869-72) complete with a critical apparatus. It is Tischendorf version that
36
Stephanus identifies 15 different manuscripts for his sources in marginal notes.
37
The science called “Lower Criticism,” deals with the original text and distinguished from “Higher Criticism.”
Bentley (1662-1742) sought a Greek Testament that would correspond to the text of the 4 th century as did Lachmann
(1793-1851). Dr. Thiessen notes,”Tregelles (1813-1875) aimed not simply to produce the text of the oldest
manuscripts in existence … but to reproduce the oldest text obtainable. Westcott (1825-1901) and Hort (1828-1892),
however, set out to restore the original text, as far as possible.” Henry Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament
(Peabody: Hendrickson, 2002), p. 32
38
For a complete review of this period see Kenyon, The Text of the Greek Bible, pp. 172-183
13
Introduction
sets the standard in the time of Westcott and Hort. And in 1881 Westcott and Hort
publish their Greek Text with a complete critical apparatus. The goal was to put
together the best text as close to the original as possible (hence their title: The
New Testament in the Original Greek). Eberhard Nestle combined the majority
reading texts of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort and another scholar Weymouth
into an edition in 1898 published by the Wurttemberg Bible Society. It was
adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1901, he replaced Weymouth
with Bernhard Weiss’s text and published another edition. In 1927, his son Erwin
Nestle took over and published the 13th edition, and in 1952 Kurt Aland became
the editor and published the 21st edition. In the 1950s, Aland performed a
thorough revision based on the new manuscript discoveries of the 20th century and
combined with M. Black, B.M. Metzger, A. Wikgren, and others to produce the
United Bible Societies UBS1 in 1966, revised in 1968 (UBS2) and finally the
UBS3 in 1975 which is the NA26 published in 1979. Another revision was made
in in 1993 called the NA27 (UBS4). The current revision is NA28 (2013).
3. Greek Orthodox Text. The Greek Orthodox Church uses the Byzantine (Koine)
witnesses. This text was originally prepared near the close of the third century by
Lucian of Antioch and later modified.
In summary, Drs. Geisler and Nix write, “Greek was an intellectual language. It is more a
language of the mind than of the heart, a fact to which the great Greek philosophers gave
abundant evidence…Because Greek possessed a technical precision not found in Hebrew, the
theological truths that were more generally expressed in the Hebrew of the Old Testament were
more precisely formulated in the Greek of the New Testament.”39
39
Norman Geisler & William Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), p. 329
14
Syntax
Syntax
Language is the means by which thought is communicated from one mind to another, the means
by which one mind is able to think with another.1 Language is accomplished in the spoken form,
sometimes referred to as the vernacular, using sounds coming from the mouth. Language is
accomplished in the written form by means of a system of symbols grouped together that form
words and thought. In both the written and spoken form, all languages bring together groupings
of words that makeup phrases, clauses and complete sentences. Language is not designed by
some happenstance with a loose set of rules; it has a universal set of fundamental laws that
govern its use. If these laws are broken, then the thought is not transmitted, does not make sense
and the meaning gets lost. God created language so that He could communicate with His
creation, so that He could reveal Himself to mankind through special revelation. Jesus Christ was
called the Word in John (John 1:1-4; 1 John 1:1-3) and one aspect of His incarnation was to
completely reveal ( “to declare, to draw out in narrative”) the Father to us (John 1:18).
Adam was formed mature both physically and mentally and there was nothing he lacked –
including complex language. Archeology reveals the earliest of written documents found
possesses all the complexity, all the complex forms of any modern language. In fact, it seems
that the newer languages are less complex. The idea of the evolutionist that man started language
by grunting and drawing pictures on walls just does not harmonize with the archeological record.
How does one explain the complex syntax of the earliest of documents that we have found?
Syntax has to do with grammatical relations between words. Syntax deals with the forms
that thought may take in the process of expression. At the heart of the construction of a complete
thought is the sentence. For example, “the disciples went to sea” expresses a complete thought
made up of a group of words. There are two basic elements that make up the sentence, the
designation of the object – “the disciples,” and the assertion about the object – “went to sea.”
The first element we call the subject, and the second the predicate. There are two basic elements
required in a sentence, the noun and the verb.
1
Dana & Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Toronto:Macmillian, 1957), p. 60
Syntax
The Phrase
A phrase is the basic unit of thought. There are noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases
and adjective phrases. For example, the following are noun phrases:
Disciples!
the disciples
the Jewish disciples
the twelve Jewish disciples
The Clause
A clause is a group of phrases that includes at least one verb phrase and one predicate phrase.
The following examples illustrate the clause based on the phrases above:
The Clause
Sentence Structure
The sentence can be structured as simple, compound, complex, and compound/complex.
A Simple Sentence
16
Syntax
A simple sentence contains a single clause. For example, “Joe hit the ball” is a complete simple
sentence. It contains the subject – Joe; the verb – hit; and the object – the ball. A complete
sentence can contain only a verb and the noun. For example, the shortest sentence in the Bible is
“Jesus wept” (John 11:35).
A Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more clauses linked by a coordinate conjunction. For
example, “Jack hit the ball, and Jill watched.” The distinctive feature of a compound clause is
that no clause is subordinate to another. The clauses are coordinate or paratactic (arranged
alongside)2.
A Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains a main clause and at least one subordinate clause. For example,
“Joe ran fast because he saw a snake.” This subordinate relation is called hypotactic (arranged
under).
Structure
There are four main sentence structures in English.
2
Dana & Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Toronto:Macmillian, 1957), p.269
3
This table adapted from C. Edward Good, Whose Grammar Book is this Anyway? (New York:MJF Books, 2002),
p. 26. This is an excellent resource to have on hand for English grammar.
4
A Transitive verb is an action verb that is capable of having a direct object. The test for a transitive verb is to ask
“can I [verb] somebody or something?”
5
An intransitive verb needs a preposition or other word to go-between the verb and the noun. The words usually
show where, when, how, or why the action took place (e.g. John runs across the field).
17
Syntax
No-Action Verbs
+ Predicate Noun
+ Adverb or Phrase
+ Predicate Noun
+ Adverb or Phrase
18
Nouns
Greek nouns, as English nouns, are words used to name a person, place, or thing. The Greek
noun contains case, gender, and number.
Case
Case has to do with how the noun functions as it relates to the verb or to other parts of the
sentence. Greek has eight distinctive cases, but of these eight cases, one only has to remember
four inflectional forms (or five when the vocative form is different from the nominative).
Genitive Description
Second
Ablative Separation/Origin
Dative Reception
Instrumental Means/Instrument
1. Nominative. The nominative is the case of designation. It is the “naming” case. The
nominative serves as the subject of the sentence or clause. It is translated as υιός “a son,” or
when used with the article ό υιός “the son.”
Nouns
2. Genitive. The genitive is the case of description. The genitive specifies or qualifies the word
it modifies. It expresses possession and is translated as υιόυ “of a son,” or when used with
the article του υιόυ “of the son.”
3. Ablative. The ablative is the case of separation or origin. It uses the same form as the genitive
and is translated υιόυ “from a son,” or when used with the article του υιόυ “from the son.”
4. Dative. The dative is the case of reception. It is translated as υιόω “to a son,” or when used
with the article τω υιόω “to the son.”
5. Locative. The locative is the case of location or position. It uses the same form as the dative
and is translated as υιόω “in a son,” or when used with the article τω υιόω “in the son.”
6. Instrumental. The instrumental is the case of means or instrument. It uses the same form as
the dative and is translated as υιόω “with or by a son,” or when used with the article τω
υιόω “with or by the son.”
7. Accusative. The accusative is the case of limitation. The action extends to and is limited to
the object. Its main usage is with the direct object of the phrase. It is translated as υιόν “son,”
or when used with the article τον υιόν “the son.”
8. Vocative. The vocative is the case of address. In the plural the case always has the same form
as the nominative, but in the singular the forms are often different. It is translated as υίέ
“Son,…”
20
The Nominative
The nominative is the case of designation. It is referred to as the naming case and has two major
functions: the subject nominative and the predicate nominative. The primary use of the
nominative is to identify the subject of the phrase. In Greek, the verb expresses its own subject
so when a noun subject is supplied it is in apposition1 with the subject supplied. In other words, a
phrase does not need a nominative noun; the subject may be supplied with the verb. In the New
Testament approximately thirty percent of the nouns are in the nominative case making it the
dominate case.
Subject Nominative
The chief use of the nominative is to specify that which produces the action or presents the state
expressed by a finite verb. Another way of saying this is that the subject is the topic of the
sentence. The subject noun phrase can be constructed in different ways using the nominative
case. The following are examples of subjects of the noun phrase2:
3. Using a participle, with or without an article present (but usually with the article).
1
Apposition means construction in which two elements are placed side by side, with one element serving to define
or modify the other. For example, in the phrase "John loves," the name "John" is in apposition to "he loves," but one
could write “John, he loves,” it is just not as smooth.
2
See Richard Young, Intermediate Greek: A Linguistic and Exegetical Approach (Nashville:Brodman & Holman,
1994), p. 11 for a full description.
Nominative
Matthew 10:38:
“The one who does not take his cross and follow after me is not worthy of me”
Predicate Nominative
The predicate nominative will either identify the subject (John is the boss) or qualify the subject
(John is a boss). The verb is usually a state of being verb like the “to be” verb , as in 1 John
4:8: “God is love”; sometimes , as in John 1:14:
“the word became flesh”; and occasionally , as in Luke 8:41:
“This one was a ruler of the synagogue.”3
When two nominatives appear in a sentence one is usually the subject nominative and the
other is the predicate nominative. In this case, the noun with the article will be the subject; in
English, this is the one placed first. For example, John 1:1: “the Word was
4
God,” not “God was the Word.”
2. The subject will be the nominative with the article (called articular).
3
Richard Young, Intermediate Greek: A Linguistic and Exegetical Approach (Nashville:Brodman & Holman,
1994), p. 11
4
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids:Zondervan, 1996), p. 41
22
Nominative
Nominative Absolute
The nominative absolute is called the independent nominative in the older grammars. By calling
this nominative independent, the sense is apparent since grammatically it is unrelated to other
elements in the sentence. Dana and Mantey write, “When an idea is conceived independent of
any particular verbal relations, the expression of it may be left standing alone in the nominative,
with some descriptive or explanatory phrase added. Thus employed the nominative names an
idea rather than an object.”5 Simply stated, the nominative is present without a finite verb.
Examples are as follows:
3. Salutations. Nominatives used in salutations are used in the personal letters. Col. 1:1-2:
…
“Paul an apostle of Jesus Christ … grace and peace to you from God our Father.”
Nominative of Exclamation. When it is desired to stress a thought the nominative is used without
the verb. This usage is like an emotional outburst. Notice Rom. 7:24:
“O wretched man [that] I am!” See also Mark 3:34; Rom. 11:33.
5
Dana & Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Toronto:Macmillian, 1957), p. 70
23
Nominative
Nominative of Address. The nominative of address is used to designate the person addressed. It
functions like the vocative. An example is Luke 8:54: “Child, arise.” See also
Eph. 5:25; Mark 9:19.
Nominative of Appellation. When a proper name or title is mentioned, it is not unusual to find it
in the nominative case instead of the case expected by the construction. Since the nominative is
the naming case, it is not unusual to use proper names in this case regardless of contextual
relations. For example, Luke 2:21: “His name was called Jesus.”
In this example, Jesus is in the nominative case rather than the accusative as would be expected.
See also Luke 19:29; 21:37; John 1:6; 3:1; Act. 7:40; 2 Cor. 12:18; Rev. 9:11.
Proverbial Expressions. Occasionally, the writer uses the nominative in proverbial expressions
that have no finite verb. This use looks like a fragment but the saying has a fixed history, an
idiom. For example, 2 Peter 2:22: “a dog returns to its
vomit.”
24
The Genitive
The genitive is the case of description. It specifies or qualifies the word it modifies, and serves to
define, describe, qualify, restrict, or limit the idea. The basic meaning comes from the Greek
meaning “kind,” “possessing the same kind.” The Greek genitive functions much like
the English but it is more versatile and is used in ways the English is not. This versatility is found
in the fact that the genitive case covers twenty-five percent of the cases in the New Testament.
The genitive limits as to kind, while the accusative limits as to extent. For example, the
accusative “he worked the day,” means he worked through a portion of the
day or throughout the day. The genitive, however, means “he worked in
1
the day time” and not in the night. The genitive serves to limit or reduce the range of reference
to an idea, confining the extent to specific limits.
The genitive has the meaning of attribution. Attribution comes to the English from the
Latin attribuere meaning “to allot to,” “assign to,” and appears next to the main noun or head
noun. For example, the genitive expresses an essential quality as in the expression
“an evil heart of unbelief” (Heb. 3:12). The descriptive genitive expresses
quality like an adjective but with more clarity.
The genitive usually comes after the main noun, but it can appear first as in typical
emphatic use. It is also common to find genitives lined up, two or more, in a literary string.
“John came baptizing in the wilderness and preaching a baptism of repentance for
the remission of sins.” Repentance further describes the baptism. In 2 Cor. 6:2 “in the day of
salvation,” means the day characterized by salvation.
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 73
Genitive
Genitive of Possession. The genitive of possession conveys the idea of ownership. To denote
ownership is to make one noun the attribute of another in relation of privilege of prerogative.2
Saying it another way, the genitive modifies the noun by identifying the person who owns it. For
example, Luke 5:3: “Then He got into one of the
boats, which was Simon’s.” Here, the boats are clearly identified as being owned by Simon.
To identify the genitive of possession ask the question, can the word “of” be replaced by
the word “belonging to” or “possessed by.” Examples include 1 Cor. 1:12:
‘ “I am of Paul; and I am of Apollos,” likewise, Heb. 11:25:
“the people of God” refer to belonging to a particular group.
Genitive of Relationship. The genitive of relationship defines the “familial” relationship, either
by marriage or a progenitor. For example, Acts 13:22: “David, the (son)
3
of Jesse” The genitive expresses essential relationship as in the popular expression,
“the kingdom of God.” The meaning is “the kingdom related to God.”
Another important theological use is in the relationship of Jesus to the Father, υιό
“the Son of God,” and to mankind, υιό “the Son of Man.” Both these
expressions have the essential idea of Christ being the legal representative of God and the legal
representative of man and could be expressed “the Son related to God,” and “the Son related to
mankind.”
Genitive of Content. The genitive of content modifies the main noun or verb by denoting its
contents. An example is John 21:8: “dragging the net with fish”
(Cf. Mark 14:13; Acts 6:3; Col. 2:3). When used with the verb the idea is given by the translation
“with” instead of “of” as in the following example, John 2:7: “Fill
the waterpots with water.” An important theological construction is the use of being filled with
the Holy Spirit as in Luke 1:15: “and he shall be filled with
the Holy Spirit” (cf., Acts 2:4; Luke 2:40; 4:28; 6:13).
Genitive of Material. A genitive of material modifies the main noun by identifying the material it
is make of. For example, Colossians 1:22: “in the body of his
flesh,” means, “His body is made of flesh.”
Adverbial Genitive. The adverbial genitive relates a verbal idea attributing local or temporal
relations. The main idea expressed is the kind of action.
1. Genitive of time. A genitive of time expresses when an action happens. For example, John
3:2: “He came to Him by night,” meaning, “he came to Him
sometime in the night” (cf. Matt. 25:6; John 19:39).
2
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 76
3
The construction without the word “son” is common in colloquial Greek of the Koine period cf. John 21:15, Matt
4:21, Luke 24:10.
26
Genitive
2. Genitive of place. The genitive of place is also called the genitive of space and identifies
where the action takes place. For example, Luke 16:24:
“in order that he may dip the tip of his finger in water.” (cf. Matt. 1:12)
3. Genitive of reference. The genitive of reference limits the descriptive force to a particular
frame of reference and can be translated with, “with respect to,” or “in reference to.” For
example, in Heb. 3:12: “A evil heart of unbelief” (cf. Heb. 5:13;
James 1:13).
Genitives with nouns of action. A noun in the genitive can signify action. In this case, the
genitive noun indicates the thing that the action is referred and can be as the subject or the object
of the verbal idea.
1. Subjective genitive. This construction occurs when the noun in the genitive produces the
action. The genitive noun or pronoun acting as the subject in a genitive absolute construction
with the participle functioning as the verb. An example is Mark 5:2:
“And when he came out of the boat.”
2. Objective genitive. The construction occurs when the noun in the genitive receives the action.
An example is Matthew 12:31: “but the
blasphemy of the Spirit shall not be forgiven.”
Genitive of Apposition. The genitive of apposition explains or identifies the main noun,
providing additional information. The genitive stands in exact apposition with the noun it
modifies. The meaning can be expressed further by the addition “that is,” “namely,” or “which
is.” For example, John 2:21: “but he was speaking
of the temple of his body,” which has the meaning, “but he was speaking of the temple, that is,
his body” (cf. Rom. 4:11; 2 Cor. 5:1).
Partitive Genitive. The partitive genitive modifies the main noun by denoting which part it is
identified with. Instead of the word, “of,” you can substitute the words, “which is a part of.” For
example, Mark 2:6: “certain ones of the scribes,” they are part of the
group of scribes (cf. Mark 6:23; Luke 19:8; Rom. 11:13; 11:17).
27
The Ablative
The Ablative is the case of separation or origin. The word comes to the English from the Latin
ablātus meaning, “carried off.” “This case has seldom occurred in Indo-European languages
with a distinctive ending of its own, but it does have quite a distinct function. The name suggests
the basal significance of the case: ablatives, that which is borne away, or separated.”1
When speaking of the ablative it may be static or progressive. In the static sense, it means
a state of being – as separated where the emphasis may be on either the resulting state or
separation as the cause and may be the source or origin. And in the progressive sense as in
moving away from something.
Ablative of Source. As the name implies the ablative of source says something about the source
or original situation contributed in some way to that head noun’s present character or state.
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 61
Locative
The Dative
The dative is the case of reception. It is translated by adding the words “to” or “for.” For
example, υιόω “to/for a son,” or when used with the article τω υιόω “to/for the son.” It comes to
the English from the Latin datīvus meaning, “to do with giving.”
The basic meaning of the dative is to point out the indirect object of the phrase. An
indirect object is a noun or noun phrase that names the person or thing that is indirectly affected
by the action of the verb. Examples are as follows:
Subject Predicate
Verb Object
The examples above do not use the dative as such; they are textbook examples for indirect
objects placed between the verb and the direct object. For the dative, the indirect object is moved
to the other side of the direct object (the accusative) and is referred to as a prepositional phrase.
2
Dr. Wallace clarifies: “Transitive” should probably be defined in two ways, one grammatical and the other lexical.
Grammatically, a transitive verb is one that takes a direct object and can be put into the passive voice. Lexically, the
kinds of transitive verbs that take dative indirect objects are generally those that, in the strict sense, move the direct
object from one place to another. Thus, “give,” “repay,” “send,” “bring, “speak,” etc. naturally occur with indirect
objects, while verbs such as “have” or “live” do not. (Wallace, p. 141)
29
Locative
An example is: “John tossed the ball to me.” The direct object (acc.) is “the ball,” and the
indirect object (dat.) “to me.”
For example, John 5:27: “He gave him authority.” (translated with a simple noun or pronoun.)
“He gave authority to him.” (translated as a prepositional phrase).
3
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 85.
30
Locative
Dative of Reference. The dative of reference serves to limit a verb or adjective to a particular
frame of reference and the dative can be replaced with the words “with reference to.” Dr. Young
lists Romans 6:2 as an example for limiting a verb: “we have died in
4
reference to sin.” An example limiting an adjective is Matt. 5:3:
“Blessed are the poor in reference to their spirit” (cf. Matt 5:8; Rom. 6:11; Heb. 5:11;
James 2:5).
Dative of Possession. The dative of possession is used with the noun and instead of the usual
word “to,” use, “belonging to,” or “possessed by.” Dana and Mantey point out that this use is an
idiom which has no exact English equivalent. An example is found in John 1:6:
‘ “The name belonging to him was John.” (cf. Matt. 18:12; Luke 1:7)
4
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 46
31
Locative
The Locative
The locative is the case of location or position. It shares the same form as the dative and
instrumental but is distinguished by its use as it is translated by adding the word “in.” For
example: υιόω “in a son,” or when used with the article τω υιόω “in the son.” The root idea of
the locative is clear and its application is readily identifiable. The word comes from the Latin
locus meaning a “place,” “position,” “a period,” or “condition.” The case “indicates a point
within limits and corresponds with the English “in, on, among, at, by.” “In every instance it is
not hard to see the simple root ides of the case, a point with limits set by the word and context.
So in simplest terms we may define the location as the case of position. Its varieties in use are
few and plain.”5
Locative of Time. The locative of time serves to limit temporally. This usage serves to indicate
the time when the action of the main verb takes place. For example Matt. 20:19:
(And in the third day He will be raised up).
Locative of Sphere. The locative of sphere serves to limit spherically (within the spheres of a
thing). This is most often a metaphorical use of the locative. The limit is logical rather than
spatial or temporal, confining the idea within the bounds of the sphere of a thing.
5
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 86
32
Locative
33
The Instrumental
The instrumental is the case of means or instrument. It uses the same form as the dative and
locative but is translated as υιόω “with,” or “by a son;” when used with the article τω υιόω “with
the,” or “by the son.” The word instrumental comes to the English from the Latin instrūmentum
meaning “a tool,” “an implement,” “any means to an end,” and reflects the basic meaning of the
case.
One of the great theological uses of the instrumental is found in Ephesians 2:8-9:
(for by grace you have been saved through faith, and not of yourselves; it is
the gift of God, not of works, lest anyone should boast). “By grace” is the instrumental of cause
indicating the cause of our salvation, while “through” or “by faith” is the means of our salvation.
The preposition expresses means “by the means of faith.” The source of our faith is given as
a gift from God. To put it another way, our faith is seen as a gift and something that we on our
own cannot produce. It is produced in our hearts by the agent that is God Himself. The ablative
of source or origin with the preposition informs us that the source is not out of us (
) nor out of works ( ) but from God alone. Dr. Wallace says “it would be
better to translate it as ‘by grace’ or ‘on the basis of grace’ instead of ‘because of grace,’ since
this last phrase might be construed as indicating only God’s motive, but not the basis of our
salvation.”1
Instrumental of Cause. The instrumental of cause indicates the cause of the action. The
translation uses “because of,” or “on the basis of.” For example Hebrews 2:15:
1
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 168
Pronoun
Instrumental of manner. The instrumental of manner indicates the method by means of which an
act is performed or an end is achieved. This use is frequently found with adjectives of the
instrumental form. For example, 1 Cor. 11:5:
(But every woman who [is]
praying, prophesying with the head uncovered dishonors her head).
Instrumental of measure. The instrumental of measure is used when two points of time or space
are separated by means of an intervening distance. It may also identify degrees of difference in
space or time (cf. Heb. 1:4). The translation simply uses “by.” For example, Hebrews 1:4:
’
(having become by so much better than the angels, as He has inherited a more excellent
name than they).
(It pleased them indeed, and they are their debtors. For if the Gentiles have been
partakers [with you] by means of your spiritual things, their duty is also to minister to them in
material things).
Instrumental of agency. The instrumental of agency indicates the personal agent by whom the
action is accomplished. The translation uses “by,” or “through.” This is often expressed by use of
the instrumental case without the addition of a preposition and the verb is always in the passive
or middle voice. For example, Romans 8:14:
(For as many as are being led by [the] Spirit of God, these are the sons of God).
35
Pronoun
The Accusative
The accusative is the case of limitation, meaning, its main usage is with the direct object of the
phrase and the action extends to and is limited to the object. It is translated as υιόν “son,” or ”a son,” and
when used with the article τον υιόν “the son.” The word accusative comes to the English from the
Latin accūse meaning “to accuse,” and has two primary uses in its historical Latin context: (1) to
charge before a judge or court; and (2) to blame or find fault with.2
This historical use of the word brings out the intended use of the accusative in a precise
way, that is, it points to the object which something proceeds, either to the end, direction, or
extent of the motion or action. Dana and Mantey provide the following illustration: “If one say,
, the man sent, the act of sending is left without boundary, and has no definite
meaning; but to say, , the man sent the servant, immediately
limits the action by specification of its object. Or to say, , the man
went to the country, limits the motion by specifying its destination. Likewise, to say,
, the man traveled a long journey, limits the action by
3
indicating its extent.”
2
D. P. Simpson, Cassell’s Latin Dictionary (New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1968), p. 8
3
Dana & Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1955), p. 92
36
Pronoun
John 3:16:
(For God so loved the world, that
he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have
everlasting life.)
Mark 2:17:
(Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who
are sick. I did not come to call [the] righteous, but sinners)
Double Accusative. The double accusative is of common use in the Greek, for certain verbs
require two accusatives to complete the thought of the verb. The double accusative usually is
broken down into two categories:
1. Personal and impersonal objects (person and thing). In this construction both the person and
the thing are required to complete the thought. The majority of this usage is found with the
noun and adjective pair. For example, John 14:26:
(But the Comforter, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in My name, he
shall teach you[person] all things[thing], and bring all things to your remembrance, whatsoever I
have said to you.) Another example is Hebrews 1:9:
(therefore God, your God, has anointed
you[person] with oil[thing] of gladness above your fellows.
2. Direct and predicate objects (object-complement). The double accusative where one
accusative serves as the direct object and the second predicates or complements something
about it. An example is John 4:46:
(So Jesus came again to Cana of Galilee where He turned the
water[obj] [into] wine[comp].)
Adverbial Accusative. The adverbial accusative has three divisions: of measure, manner, and
reference.
1. Accusative of measure. An adverbial accusative of measure limits the extent of the verbal
action in either time or space. For example, Matt. 28:20: ’
(and behold, I am with you all the days [or extent of days]
until the end of the age.)
37
Pronoun
Cognate Accusative. The cognate (Lat. Cognātus “related,” “connected by blood”) accusative is
an accusative noun that has the same idea or stem as the verb. For example, 2 Timothy 4:7:
(I have fought the good
fight, I have finished the course, I have kept the faith).
Accusative of Oath. An accusative of oath names the person or thing that swears an oath. In the
New Testament the term “I cause to swear,” “I adjure,” is regularly followed by two
accusatives. For example, Mark 5:7: (I adjure you by
God, torment me not).
38
Pronoun
The Article
The article in the Greek is more versatile than that of the English. The word article comes from
the Latin artĭcŭlus meaning “a small joint,” and came to mean “a division,” so the related word
artĭcŭlare meaning, “to articulate,” “to speak distinctly.” I find this etymology humorous since
Latin does not have the definite article. The definite article comes to Italian (il, la, & etc),
Spanish (el, la, & etc) and French (le, la, & etc) from the Latin demonstrative ille, illa & etc.
As for the indefinite article Dr. Richard Young notes, “Many European languages
developed an indefinite article from the number “one,” as English did. There are also traces of
this in Koine Greek. Occasionally (one) and (someone) are used in place of an indefinite
4
article (Matt. 8:19, Luke 10:25).” There is, however, no indefinite article in the Greek.
The function of the article is to point out an object, to make an object distinct, or draw
attention to it. The article has case, gender and number, and it always agrees with the noun that it
modifies in case, gender and number.
4
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:Broadman & Holman, 1994), p. 55
5
ibid, p. 56
39
Pronoun
To Denote Previous Reference. The article may be used to point out an object whose identity was
defined by a previous reference. This is sometimes called an anaphoric6 article. It serves to
remind the reader of someone or something previously mentioned in the context. A good
example given by Daniel Wallace is John 4:10-11, “Jesus introduces to the woman at the well
the concept of living water ( ). In v 11 the woman refers to the water, saying, ‘Where,
then, do you keep the living water?’ ( ). The force of the article
here could be translated, ‘Where do you keep this living water of which you just spoke?’”7 (cf.
Matt. 2:1,7; Rev. 15:1, 6).
To Denote Abstract Nouns. The article is used sometimes to make the ordinary indefinite abstract
quality of a noun definite in some particular aspect. Abstract nouns are propositional attitudes
such as truth, love, faith, grace & etc. For example, “truth” means anything in general which
presents a character of reality and genuineness, but “the truth” in the New Testament means “that
which may be relied upon as really in accord with God’s revelation in Christ.”8 The general
sense of the abstract noun can be restricted, giving it a particular application by using the article.
An example is Eph. 2:8:
(For by the grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves;
[it is] the gift of God.) (cf. Rom. 12:9)
With Proper Names. The article is sometimes used with monadic9 and proper nouns even though
by definition these nouns are one of a kind and need no definite article to point them out. But
Greek is different, more precise, so the use of the article with proper nouns serves a purpose and
the task is to identify the purpose.
1. With God. It is common to find the article used with the word God ( ). In this case, the
presence of the definite article seems to point out divine personality, either the Father or the
Triune Godhead. Whereas when used without the article it points out divine essence or some
attribute of divinity.
2. Proper Names. In general the article is used with proper names to emphasize the identity of a
well known person to the reader. When the article is absent its purpose is to emphasize an
explanatory phrase to the name; to emphasize the name as a designation rather than the
identity.
6
Anaphoric comes from the Greek meaning “to bring back,” “bring up.”
7
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids:Zondervan 1996), p. 218
8
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 141
9
A monadic noun is one that refers to something that there is only one of. Examples are God, Christ, heaven, earth,
& etc.
40
Pronoun
In the example above Dana & Mantey write, “That is, ‘by the particular Jesus whom one by the
name of Paul preaches.’ The thought of definite identity belongs to , but not to .
10
This is to put special stress upon the designation of Jesus.”
Generic Article. The article is used to designate a class or group. It points out a class or group as
a single whole and sets it apart from all other classes or groups. An example is Matthew 18:17:
(he shall be to you as the Gentile [as a class] and the
tax collector [as a class]) (cf. Eph. 5:25; 1 Tim. 3:2).
With Pronouns. The article is often times used as a pronoun, either personal (he, she, it),
alternative (the one… the other), relative (who, which), or possessive (his, her).
10
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), pp. 142-143
11
There are 6 rules: (1) When two personal nouns of the same case are connected by kai, if the former has the
definite article, and the latter has not, they both relate to the same person. (2) If both nouns have the article, but not
the kai, they relate to the same person. (3) If the first has the article, and the second has not, and there is no kai, they
also relate to the same person. (4) If the nouns are not personal, they relate to different things or qualities. (5) If
personal nouns, of the same case, are connected by kai, and the first does not have the article, they relate to different
persons. (6) If they are connected by the kai, and both have the article, they relate to different persons.
12
By noun is meant noun, participle, or adjective.
41
Pronoun
(For if, after they have escaped the pollutions of the world through the
knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and
overcome, the latter end is worse for them than the beginning).
Titus 2:13:
(looking for the blessed hope and glorious appearing of our
great God and Savior Jesus Christ - “our great God and Savoir” not “the great God and our
Savior”)13.
(For we say to you by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive remaining until the coming
of the Lord will by no means precede those who are asleep).
Hebrews 1:2: ’
’ (has in these last days He [God] spoke to us in Son,
whom He has appointed heir of all things, through whom also He made the worlds). Most
translate “by [His] Son.” Westcott says the absence of the article focuses attention on the nature
rather than the personality of the Son.15
1. Attributive position. When the article precedes the adjective it is in the attributive position.
For example, Matt. 12:43:
’ (When the unclean spirit
goes out of a man, he goes through dry places, seeking rest, and finds none.) (cf. Mark 12:37;
John 10:11)
13
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 63
14
Richard Young, p. 66
15
Richard Young, p. 68
42
Pronoun
2. Predicate position. When the article does not precede the adjective it is in the predicated
position. For example, 1 Cor. 5:6:
Your glorying [is] not good. Do you know that a little leaven leavens
the whole lump?) (Cf. Heb. 7:24; 1 Pet. 4:8)
3. Repeated position. When the article is repeated with both the adjective and the noun it
distributes the emphasis equally between the adjective and noun. An example is John 10:11:
(I am
the good shepherd. The good shepherd gives his life for the sheep).
4. Participle. When an article precedes the participle it functions as a qualifying phrase. When
there is no article with the participle it functions as a predicate. “Thus
means the man who came into the city, but
means the man having come into the city.”16 For example 1 Cor. 2:7
(But we speak a wisdom of God which is hidden, the hidden [wisdom] which God
ordained before the ages for our glory).
16
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 153
43
Pronoun
The Adjective
An adjective modifies a noun or substantive. As such, the adjective must agree with the noun it
modifies in gender, number, and case. The word adjective comes from the Latin adicicĕre
meaning, “to throw to,“ or “to add to what has been said.”
Dr. Richard Young provides an excellent introductory remark concerning the adjective,
in his intermediate grammar he writes, “[I]n Matthew 26:27 the AV reads ‘Drink ye all of it.’
One might think that Jesus told His disciples to down the entire cup. If so, then the next person
would not have anything to drink, since they were sharing the same cup. The adjective ‘all’ is
nominative masculine plural and modifies the subject; it cannot modify the cup:
. Thus the meaning is ‘All of you drink from it.’”17 This example serves to illustrate one
important usage of the adjective, namely, its fundamental usage as a modifier for the noun, but
the adjective can be used in other ways.
Attributive. The attributive is of the form adjective+noun. For example, Luke 19:17:
(And He said to him, well done, good servant, because you were faithful
in a very little, have authority over ten cities).
Matthew 4:5
(Then the devil took him up into the holy city).
(No one has seen God at any time. The only begotten Son, who is in the
bosom of the Father, He has declared [Him]).
2. Predicate adjective. The predicate adjective makes an assertion about the noun it modifies.
An example is or = the man [is] good.
(Blessed [is] a man who endures temptation, for when he has been
approved, he will recieive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love
Him).
45
Pronoun
Used as a Comparative. The adjective functions as a comparative in terms of degree. There are
three degrees of adjectives: positive (e.g. good), comparative (e.g. better), and superlative (e.g.
best).
1. Positive adjective. The positive adjective (e.g. good) can be broken down into the following
usage:
Normal usage. The positive adjective modifies a noun, focusing on the properties of the
noun in terms of kind. For example, Romans 7:12:
(Therefore the law [is] holy and the commandment holy and
just and good).
Positive for comparative. The positive adjective can function as a comparative. For
example, Matt. 18:8:
Positive for superlative. The positive adjective can function as a superlative. For
example, Matt. 22:38: (This is the greatest and
first commandment)
2. Comparative adjective. The comparative adjective (e.g. better) can function in the following
ways:
Normal usage. The comparative adjective normally makes a comparison. For example,
Heb. 4:12:
Comparative for superlative. The comparative can function as a superlative. The use of
the comparative for the superlative is one of the distinguishing idioms of the Koine. 18
This usage continued until in Modern Greek no distinctive superlative form is left. For
18
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 121
46
Pronoun
Comparative for elative. The comparative adjective can function as elative (e.g., very or
exceedingly). The elative expresses the intensified quality and not a comparison. Daniel
Wallace notes that the elative sense in classical Greek was normally reserved for the
superlative, “but in Koine the comparative has encroached on the superlative’s
domain.”19 For example, Acts 17:22:
(then Paul
stood in the midst of Areopagus and said, Men of Athens, I perceive that in all things you
are very religious).
3. Superlative adjective. The superlative adjective (e.g., best) as already mentioned was on its
way out of use by the Koine. The superlative in the Koine can function is the following way
Normal usage. The English superlative normally functions as the supreme degree of
comparison. For example, John 11:24:
(Martha said to Him, I know that he will rise again in the
resurrection on the last day)
Superlative for elative. The superlative adjective can function as elative (e.g., very or
exceedingly). For example, Mark 4:1:
(And He began again to teach by the sea
side. And there was gathered to Him a very great crowd).
19
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 300
47
Pronoun
The Pronoun
A pronoun replaces a noun or substantive. The pronoun serves as a literary device to prevent the
monotony of repeated use of the noun. The noun that the pronoun replaces is called the
antecedent. The word pronoun comes from the Latin pronomen meaning, “for a noun.“ The
pronoun must agree with the antecedent noun it replaces in gender, number, but its case is
determined by its intended usage.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun indicates an individual, a person, or group. The word personal comes from
the Latin persōna meaning “a mask (as worn by actors in a drama).” The personal pronouns are
(I) (we) (you, sg.) (you, pl.) (he) and (they). Personal
pronouns function with the case in the same way nouns do. For example, when I do something,
the pronoun is said to be in the nominative case. When something is done to me, the pronoun is
in the accusative case. Pronouns such as my, her, and their are in the genitive case.
48
Pronoun
Oblique usage. The use of the personal pronoun in the oblique cases (cases other than the
nominative) is simply to stand in the place of the noun.
1. Normal use. The normal usage is simply anaphoric, meaning it refers back to its antecedent.
2. Possessive use. The pronoun can be used as possessive when used in the genitive case. For
example, Matt. 6:9:
(In this manner, therefore, pray: Our Father in heaven, hollowed
be Your name,)
3. Reflexive use. The pronoun can be used as reflexive. For example, Matt. 6:19:
Redundant use. The third person pronoun is sometimes used redundantly. It may be found
used in the following ways20:
2. Predicate. In the predicate position, translate in the intensive sense as “self.” For example,
Luke 24:39:
(Behold My
20
This usage is widely regarded in the New Testament as a Hebrew influence and Dr. Robertson calls this usage a
Hebrew idiom.
49
Pronoun
hands and My feet, that it is I Myself. Handle Me and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and
bones as you see I have).
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that serves to “point out” and has the idea of showing
with clearness and certainty. It comes from the Latin demonstrare meaning “to point out,” “to
show” (a compound from de “out from,” and monstrare “to show”).
There are two demonstrative pronouns in the Greek: the near demonstrative “this” ;
and the far or remote demonstrative “that”
Normal use. The normal near usage points out the near, immediate object. The normal far usage
points out the far, distant or remote object. The nearness or remoteness refers to the literary
context and thus its meaning must come from the context. Please note, the demonstrative does
not always refer to the closest noun, since it serves to point out the noun that is most important in
the mind of the writer, which may not be the closest.
Relative Pronouns
The word relative comes from the Latin referre “to refer,” so a relative pronoun is a word that
relates more than one clause together. The relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause,
referring to an antecedent, and is represented by the words, “who,” “which,” and “that.”
50
Pronoun
The relative pronouns are: definite (who, which, that); and indefinite (who,
which, whoever, whichever). The usage of these relative pronouns follows:
1. That. When the clause is a restrictive or a defining clause (e.g. the identity of the noun has
not been defined, but is now defined) use “that.”21
2. Which. When the clause is a non-restrictive or a non-defining clause (e.g., the identity of the
noun has been defined and the clause is not defining it) use “which.”22
3. Who and whom. When referring to persons use who and whom. When referring to masculine
or feminine concepts use “who.” When referring to neuter concepts use “which.”
Regular usage. When the relative pronoun connects the qualifying clause and agrees with the
antecedent in gender and number, but not in case, it serves to describe, clarify, or restrict, the
meaning of the noun. For example, Col. 2:10:
(And you are complete in Him, who is the head of all principality
and power).
Attraction. A relative pronoun normally agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but
sometimes the relative pronoun is attracted to the case of the antecedent resulting in a relative
clause. There are two types of attraction: direct and indirect.
1. Direct attraction. When the relative pronoun is attracted to the case of the antecedent it is
called direct. For example, John 4:14:
21
In the clause, “everyone should read the books that the critics recommend.” The noun is books and the restrictive
clause takes a look at books and says, “which books is the writer talking about?” The books that the critics
recommend points out which books the writer is talking about and thus defines them. This clause is a restrictive or
defining clause.
22
In the clause, “everyone should read the books, which the critics recommend.” It is assumed that the writer has
already revealed the identity of the books, so the clause is not identifying which books the writer is writing about.
The clause is non-restrictive or non-defining since the clause does not define the books. The pronoun is “which” and
the clause must be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
51
Pronoun
(But whoever drinks of the water that I will give him will
never thirst. But the water that I will give him will become in him a fountain of water
springing up into everlasting life.)
2. Indirect attraction. When the antecedent is attracted to the case of the relative pronoun it is
called indirect attraction. For example, Mark 12:10:
(And have you not read this
scripture: The stone which the builders rejected, this has become the chief cornerstone.)
Omission of the antecedent. Sometimes a relative pronoun is used all by itself without an
antecedent. In this case, the relative pronoun is functioning either as a demonstrative (the one
whom, that which) or as an indefinite pronoun (whoever, whatever). For example, 1 John 1:1:
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is a word that asks a question. The word interrogative comes from the
Latin interrogare meaning “to question,” “to ask,” or “to interrogate.”
The interrogative asks the qualitative question, “of what kind?” “what sort?” or
“which?” An example is, John 12:33:
(This He said, signifying by what sort of death he would die)
The interrogative asks the quantitative question “how great?” how much?” or
“how many?” An example is, Luke 16:7:
(Then he said to
52
Pronoun
another, “And how much do you owe?” So he said, “A hundred measures of wheat.” And he
said to him, “Take your bill, and write eighty.”)
Possessive Pronouns
The possessive pronouns are (my, mine), (your, sg.), (our), and
(your, pl.). There is no possessive pronoun for the third person; instead, the genitive of
(his) is used. An example is found in John 5:30:
Reflexive Pronouns
The reflexive pronoun indicates the action of the subject acts upon itself. Or to say it another
way, the subject and the object of the sentence refer to the same person or thing23. The word
reflex comes from the Latin reflecto meaning “to turn back,” “to bend back,” and is represented
by the words “myself,” “yourself,” and “himself.”
23
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 79
53
Pronoun
Reciprocal Pronouns
A reciprocal pronoun expresses an interaction between two or more groups. The action,
relationship, or interchange, is mutual between persons. The word reciprocal comes from the
Latin reciprocus meaning “to move backwards and forwards.”
The reciprocal pronoun is (of one another). And example is 1 John 4:7:
Indefinite Pronoun
An indefinite pronoun is used to introduce a person or thing without further identification. The
indefinite pronoun is translated “someone,” or “anyone,” or as an indefinite adjective “a
certain person.” For example, John 6:51:
(I am the living bread that came down from heaven, if anyone eats
from this bread, he will live forever and the bread that I will give is my flesh which I will give
for the life of the world).
54
The Preposition
A preposition is a word used to express the relationship a substantive employs with its verb,
adjective or another substantive. The word preposition comes from the Latin praepōnere
meaning “to put before,” or “place before;” since normally the preposition is placed before the
substantive. It should be noted that although the preposition is used before a substantive, it
modifies verbs, nouns, or adjectives. Some grammarians speak of prepositions as extended
adverbs, in that they frequently modify verbs and tell how, when, where, & etc.1
Prepositions show direction and location of action, and are used to bring out more clearly
the idea of the case. As can be seen in the basic function of the noun’s form, some prepositions
are “built into” the case, but prepositions express the relation of the verb to the noun.
Prepositions became so widely used that some of the cases have disappeared in Modern Greek. 2
To see how this works, consider the example: “and Jesus went out from the temple,” which is
written in Matthew 24:1 as, but can be
written without the preposition as, .
This usage may serve to be more precise in direction or location, and sometimes serves to
intensify the meaning of the verb. Nearly every preposition may be prefixed to a word in order
to add a new idea to the original word or modify it in some way.
1
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 356
2
Ray Summers, Essentials of New Testament Greek (Nashville: B & H Publishers, 1995), p. 37
Preposition
For the most part one can take the root meaning of the preposition as it stands, but since its root
meanings accumulated over the years, one must examine the context to understand how it was
used by the author. Some helpful advice is given as follows:
Dr. Wallace notes, “Whenever any of the oblique cases [cases other that nominative or
vocative] follows a preposition, you should examine the use of the preposition, rather
than the case usage, to determine the possible nuances involved.”4
Drs. Dana & Maney note, “The best way to determine the meaning of a preposition is to
study it in its various contexts and note its various uses.”5
3
A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the New Testament in Light of Historical Research (Nashville:Broadman, 1934), p.
568
4
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 360
5
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 98
56
Preposition
gen. through
acc. because of
loc. in, at, on
inst. by means of
gen. down, upon, against
acc. along, according to
gen. with
acc. after
gen. about, concerning
acc. around, about
gen. in behalf of, for the sake of
acc. over, above, beyond
abl. by (agency)
acc. under
58
Preposition
59
Preposition
60
Preposition
61
Preposition
6
Preposition chart adapted from Dana & Mantey
62
Preposition
63
The Verb
The verb is that part of the sentence that expresses action, existence, occurrence or state of being.
The word verb comes to the English from the Latin verbum meaning “word.” The verb is the
most important word in the phrase for it describes and clarifies the author’s thought. Dana and
Mantey write, “No element of the Greek language is of more importance to the student of the
New Testament than the matter of tense. A variation in meaning exhibited by the use of a
particular tense will often dissolve what appears to be an embarrassing difficulty, or reveal a
gleam of truth which will thrill the heart with delight and inspiration…The development of tense
has reached its highest in Greek, and presents its greatest wealth of meaning. ‘Among all known
ancient languages none distinguishes the manifold temporal (and modal) relations of the verb so
accurately as the Greek.’”1
Though the Greek verb is more complex than the English, it is the task of the expositor to
communicate the Greek text to an English audience and that means we must understand the
English sentence structure. Dana and Mantey write, “The nature of the verb presents two
varieties. The action described in the verb may require an object to complete its meaning. ….
When we say, ‘He built a house,’ the sense is complete. Such a verb is called a transitive verb.
Other verbs do not require an object to complete their meaning. Thus, ‘he ran’ makes complete
sense. These are called intransitive verbs.”2 When the verb has a subject, a direct object, and an
indirect object it is called a ditransitive verb (e.g., “He built the house for the Lord.”). For
transitive and ditransitive verbs, the necessary parts, that is, the direct object and indirect object
are called complements of the verb.
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), pp. 176-177.
2
Dana & Mantey, p. 154. To clarify, a transitive verb is an action verb that is capable of having a direct object. The
test for a transitive verb is to ask “can I [verb] somebody or something?”
Verb
The Greek verb, like English, has tense, voice, mood, person, and number. A Greek verb
can express an action or state of being in 108 different ways, since there are 6 tenses, 6 moods,
and 3 voices. This versatility affords the author a robust set of tools in his toolbox to craft a
phrase. However, unlike the English, the Greek verb has two elements associated with tense –
time of action and kind of action. When time is a factor, the meaning will be past, present, or
future. When kind of action is meant, it is expressing progressive, undefined, or perfected action.
But, the user should be aware that the New Testament verb is made more complicated due to the
significant Hebrew influence contained within it. The Hebrew verb is by and large dominated by
aspect (complete or incomplete action), and as such, some grammarians have gotten confused by
the nature of the Greek verb when looking at the New Testament, as the author uses Old
Testament quotations, allusions, or simply his normal Jewish mind as he wrote within his
Hellenistic world. Remember, the New Testament is authored, for the most part, by the Jew
using Koiné Greek.
Person
The verb agrees with the subject in both person and number. But, on occasion this simple
statement of concord or agreement will have an exceptional meaning. Language is a literary
device, and as such, the author may use various techniques in order to communicate something
in a notable way.
Uses of Person
1. Normal use. The person and number agree in the normal sense.
65
Verb
2. First person used for third person. At times the first person singular is used as a generic “I,”
meaning, “someone.” This occurrence can be used for a very effective teaching moment. For
example, 1 Cor. 10:30: “If I partake with thanksgiving, why am I denounced for that for
which I give thanks?” Here, Paul is using the “I” in a hypothetical situation and the result is
that he means someone or anyone within the Church, including himself performing the
action.
3. Second person used for third person. At times the second person is used as a generic “you,”
meaning, “someone.” Here, too, the use is as a literary device. For example, Matt. 23:37-39:
"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the one who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her!
How often I wanted to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her
wings, but you were not willing! See! Your house is left to you desolate; for I say to you,
you shall see Me no more till you say, Blessed is He who comes in the name of the LORD!"
Here, Jesus is using “you” as a literary device to refer to the third person, “O Jerusalem,” whose
real meaning is “the Jews.”
Number
As with person, number also can be used as a literary device to communicate something other
than its normal proper use.
Uses of Number
1. The normal sense. The person and number agree in the normal sense.
2. Neuter plural subject used with singular verb. Dr. Wallace notes, “Since the neuter usually
refers to impersonal things (including animals), the singular verb regards the plural subject as
a collective whole.”3 For example, John 9:3: “[in order that] the works of God might be
manifest in Him.” The works of God are seen as a collective singular, thus, the stress is
placed upon God not the works; conversely, when used normally – plural subject with plural
verb, the stress is place upon the individual elements.
3. Collective singular subject used with plural verb. At times, the author intends to stress the
individual elements of the group, so the collective singular is used with a plural verb. For
example, John 7:49: “But this crowd that does not know the law is accursed.” The stress is
upon the crowd as individuals.
3
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 399
66
Verb
4. Compound subject used with singular verb. When two or more subjects are combined with a
singular verb, the author wants to place more importance on the first named subject. Dr.
Wallace writes, “This construction occurs frequently enough, as we might have expected,
when ‘Jesus and his disciples’ is the compound subject. It is almost as if the disciples are
merely tagging along while all of the action centers on Jesus.”4 For example, John 2:2:
“Now both Jesus and His disciples were invited to the wedding.”
5. The indefinite plural. At times, the author wants to express the third person plural to indicate
no one in particular and means, “someone” rather than, “they.” For example, Matt. 7:16:
“they do not gather grapes from thornbushes, do they?” This might better read, “someone
does not gather grapes from thornbushes.”
6. Generalized plural. With the generalized or categorical plural, the author uses “they” to
mean “he or she.” For example, Matt. 2:20: “those who sought the child’s life are dead.” In
this verse, Herod commands to kill all the firstborn, and hence, Jesus, is in view, but it covers
all categorically, or in general who have this common goal.
Defective verbs
Defective verbs are verbs that do not have all three voices and are called irregular verbs. These
verbs arose in time as the natural process of the diminutive process in linguistics. This
simplification of the language has produced many verbs that are obsolete in all forms except
what has survived due to some idiom, saying, manner of speech, necessity, or custom. For
example, in the New Testament mind is kept in the middle form where the active form is
lost, but the aorist usage moved to the word as .
4
Ibid., p. 401
67
Voice
The relationship of the subject to the action is communicated in the verb by voice. The Greek
voice consists of the active, middle, and passive, communicating the following: the active voice
means the subject is doing the action, the passive means the subject receives the action, and the
middle means the subject is both doing and receiving the action.
Irregularities of voice
Deponent verbs. The deponent middle/passive is a verb that has no active form but has an active
meaning. An example of a deponent middle is the popular (to come, go), likewise, for
the passive, (from - to become). Though most deponent verbs are true
deponents in that they always carry an active sense, there are some that look deponent but are
not. To identify whether a verb is deponent or not: first determine if its form is labeled as such by
the lexicons, then context will determine if there is an active, middle or passive sense.
Rom. 5:8:
(But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we
were still sinners, Christ died for us). The subject, Christ, performs the action on our behalf.
Active Voice
Action
Subject Object
Causative active. The causative active means the subject is indirectly involved in the action, but
is the ultimate source or cause of it. For example, John 19:1:
(So then Pilate took Jesus and he scourged [Him]). Here, the meaning
is he (Pilate) caused Jesus to be scourged, but did not perform the act himself1. See 1 Cor. 3:6:
(I planted, Apollos watered, but God
caused to grow.)
Reflective active. Sometimes the author uses the active voice with a reflexive pronoun,
conveying the idea similar to the middle voice, but this is referred to as the reflective active. In
this case, the subject acts upon itself, much like the direct middle. For example: 1 Cor. 11:28:
(But let a man examine himself, and so let him eat of the bread and drink of the cup).
Matt:23:12:
(But whoever exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be exalted).
1
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 412
69
Voice
The uniqueness of the Greek middle is further clarified by Dr. Wallace as he writes: “For
Koine Greek, the term middle has become a misnomer, because it inherently describes that voice
that stands halfway between the active and the passive. Only the direct middle truly does this (in
that the subject is both the agent and receiver of the action). Since the direct middle is phasing
out of Hellenistic Greek, the term is hardly descriptive of the voice as a whole. Not infrequently
the difference between the active and middle of the same verb is more lexical than grammatical.
Sometimes the shift is between transitive and intransitive, between causative and non-causative,
or some other similar alteration. Though not always predictable, such changes in meaning from
active to middle usually make good sense and are true to the genius of the voices.”3
Dr. Young puts the middle in perspective as he writes, “The basic notion is that the
subject intimately participates in the results of the action. It is the voice of personal involvement.
Even though deponent verbs are translated with an active sense, they often convey the idea of
interest or involvement.”4
Middle Voice
Action
Subject
2
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), pp. 156-157
3
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 415
4
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 134
70
Voice
Indirect middle. The indirect middle means the subject acts for, by, or in its own interest. The
stress is placed upon the agent that produces the action rather than participating in its results. The
indirect middle is the most common usage of the middle in the New Testament. An example is
Eph. 1:4:
(Just as He chose us [for Himself] in Him before the
foundation of the world, that we should be holy and without blame before Him in love).
Direct middle. The direct middle means the subject directly performs the action on itself. This
usage is also called the reflexive middle and is the least used in the New Testament. For
example, Matt. 27:5:
(And he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and departed, and went and hanged
himself).
Redundant middle. The redundant middle is formed by using a reflexive pronoun as the direct
object of the middle verb. For example, Rom. 6:11:
(Likewise, you also, reckon yourselves to
be dead to sin, but alive to God in Christ Jesus our Lord).
Permissive middle. The permissive middle means the subject allows the action to be done for
itself. For example, Acts 22:16: ;
(And now why are you waiting? Arise, be
baptized, and wash away your sins, calling on the name of the Lord). (cf. 1 Cor. 6:11; 10:2).
Reciprocal middle. The reciprocal middle means one member, or subgroup of the subject
interacts with the other members of a plural subject. That is, there is an interchange among the
subjects. For example, John 9:22:
(His parents said these things because they feared the Jews. For the Jews had already agreed
with one another that if anyone confessed He was Christ, he would be put out if the synagogue).
Deponent middle. Some verbs have no active form, are in the middle, but have an active
meaning. The word deponent comes from the Latin deponere meaning, “to lay down,” “put
down,” “lay aside5.” These verbs are easy to identify because their dictionary form will be listed
with the first middle ending (-ομαι) and most dictionaries will list them as deponent. Context will
determine whether to translate with the active or middle sense. For example, John 10:25:
5
D.P. Simpson, Cassell’s Latin Dictionary (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p.180
71
Voice
Passive Voice
Action
Subject
Passive with direct agent. The passive can be used with the proposition with the ablative to
express the original agent which produces the action of the passive. The agent may also be
emphasized by use of the prepositional phrase using and An example is Matt.
1:22: (But all
this took place in order that what was spoken by the Lord might be fulfilled).
Passive with intermediate agent. The passive can be used with the proposition with the
genitive to express the medium through which the cause is effected by the action of the passive.
For example, Matt 1:22:
(But all this was done so that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by
the Lord through the prophet, saying:).
6
Dr. Young says the simple passive usage is “Thematizing the subject – the most common function of the passive
voice is to keep the topic of the passive or the previous subject as the subject of the sentence.”
72
Voice
Passive with impersonal agent. The passive can be used with the proposition with the
instrumental case to express the agent through which the action of the passive is performed is
impersonal. For example, Eph. 2:8:
(For by grace you have been saved through faith, and not of
yourselves: the gift of God).
Theological passive. Dr. Young says the theological passive is found in the Scriptures in order to
circumvent the Jewish tradition of using the word God. “The Jews avoided unnecessary use of
the divine name to protect them from frivolously uttering the sacred name and thus violating the
Third Commandment (Ex. 20:7). This circumlocution occurs most often in the Gospels. The
passives in the Beautitudes (Matt. 5:4-9), for example, are theological passives:
(they shall be comforted = God will comfort them), (they
shall be satisfied = God will satisfy them), (they will be shown mercy = God will
be merciful to them), and (they will be called = God will call them).”7
Passive with middle sense. The passive is sometimes better translated with the middle sense. For
example, 1 Peter 5:6:
(Therefore humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God, that He may exalt you in
due time).
Deponent passive. Some verbs in the passive have no active form, but have an active meaning.
Context will determine whether to translate with the active or passive voice. For example, Luke
7:14:
(Then He came and touched the open coffin, and those who carried [him] stood still.
And He said, “Young man, I say to you, arise!”).
7
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 135
73
Voice
74
Mood
Mood is that aspect of the verb that expresses the action in reference to reality. The word mood
comes to the English from the Latin mŏdus meaning “a measure, a standard of measure,” and
speaks of the “mode, way, or manner,” in which the action occurs. There are four moods in the
Greek: the indicative expresses the action as really taking place; the subjunctive expresses the
action as potentially taking place; the optative expresses the action as a wish (potential but
weaker than the subjunctive, but possible); and the imperative expresses a command or intention.
It should be noted that the mood expresses the action in relation to reality, whether it is an
objective fact or not is not the point but rather how the matter is conceived.
Drs. Dana & Mantey express it best when they write, “In the expression of the verbal idea
it is necessary to define its relation to reality: that which has, will, or does now exist. For
instance, it is impossible to present the thought of a child running without affirming either the
fact of his running – in present, past, or future, or the possibility of his running. To say, “The
child runs,” places the statement in the first category; to say, “If the child runs,” presents the
second. This affirmation of relation to reality is mood.”1
The mood has traditionally been catagorized into two groups: (1) that which is actual; and
(2) that which is possible as follows:
Actual Possible
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 165
Mood
The indicative mood possesses the following properties respecting the tense:
(1) Time: (a) the present and perfect denote present time; (b) the imperfect, aorist, and
pluperfect denote past time; and (c) the future denotes future time.
(2) Progress: (a) the present and imperfect denote action in progress; (b) the perfect and
pluperfect denote completed action.
Declarative indicative. The most common usage of the indicative is the declarative, also referred
to as the statement of fact, asserting the action or condition exists. For example, John 1:1:
(In the beginning was the
Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God). Matt. 16:16:
(And Simon and Peter answered and said,You
are the Christ, the Son of the living God).
Interrogative indicative. An interrogative indicative is used when the speaker wants to ask a
simple question and expect a declarative indicative in the answer2. The interrogative indicative
is often found with the interrogative particle . For example, Matt. 27:11:
Cohortative indicative. The future indicative is sometimes used to express a command. For
example, James 2:8:
(If, however, you are fulfilling the royal law according to the
Scripture, “You shall love your neighbor as yourself,” you are doing well). 1 Peter 1:16:
(Because it is written, be holy, because I am
holy).
Potential indicative. At times the indicative is used to express some form of potential action.
Under this category are found three types: obligation, wish, and condition.
2
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 449
76
Mood
1. Indicative of obligation. When the indicative is used with the verbs (it is necessary) or
(I ought) the meaning is one of obligation. For example, 1 John 4:11
(Beloved, if God so
loved us, we also ought to love one another).
3. Indicative of condition. When the indicative is used in either a First or Second Class
Condition, the idea is one of condition. For example, John 11:21:
(The Martha said to Jesus,
Lord, if you had been here, my brother would not have died). A second class condition is
the condition of impossibility.
Deliberative subjunctive. The deliberative subjunctive asks either a real or rhetorical question. In
other words, when interrogation does not assume an answer in actual fact, but represents
deliberation or a rhetorical device3. The deliberative is used to ask a question where the audience is
expected to think about the answer4. For example, when the speaker asks for guidance as in Mark
6:37:
; (But He answered them,
“you give them [something] to eat! And they said to Him, “Shall we go and buy two hundred
denarii of bread and give it to them to eat?”). An example of a rhetorical subjunctive is Rom. 6:1:
; ; (What shall we say then? Shall
we continue in sin that grace may abound?)
3
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 171
4
This definition captures the essence and is derived from William Mounce, Basics of Biblical Greek (Grand
Rapids:Zondervan Publishing, 1993), p. 287
77
Mood
Hortatory subjunctive. A hortatory subjunctive is used when the speaker seeks to exhort others to
action. Since there is no first person imperative the first person plural is used with the
subjunctive and the result is like an imperative and is usually translated “let us.” An example is
found in 1 John 3:18: .
(Little children, let us not love in word or in tongue, but in deed and in truth.)
Subjunctive of emphatic negation. When the speaker wants the strongest possible negation in
Greek, the double negative idiom is used with the subjunctive and can be translated
“never,” or “by no means,” This has a special theological impact as the following examples
illustrate: John 10:28:
(And I give them eternal life and they will never
perish; and no one will snatch them out of My hand). Matt. 24:35:
(Heaven and earth shall pass away, but My
words will never pass away). Rom. 4:8:
(Blessed is the man whose sin the Lord will never count).
Subjunctive in clauses. The subjunctive is found in certain clauses in order to emphasize certain
characteristics of the action.
1. Purpose/Result clause. The purpose clause expresses the purpose of the main clause of the
sentence, whereas, the result clause expresses a result. A purpose clause and a result clause
may be formed by use of + subjunctive. An example of a purpose clause is Matt. 12:10:
; (And His disciples asked Him, Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he
would be born blind?)
2. Third class condition. A conditional sentence contains two parts. The first is the condition “if…”
The second is the fulfillment “then.…” The clause containing the supposition is called the protasis
(“if” - the subordinate clause). The clause containing the statement based on the supposition is called
the apodosis (“then” - the main clause). The third class condition contains the conjunction with
the subjunctive in the protasis and any mood or tense in the apodosis. The third class condition is the
condition of certainty or probable future fulfillment based on the condition. An example is John 6:51:
78
Mood
(I am the living
bread that came down from heaven. If anyone eats this bread, he will live forever; and the bread that
I will give is My flesh, which I will give for the life of the world).
3. Temporal clause. A temporal clause limits the action in relation of time. A temporal clause
uses a temporal adverb + subjunctive. The adverbs or results in the
meaning “until” or the conjunction results in the meaning “whenever.” Examples are
Matt. 5:11:
(Blessed are you when they revile you and persecute
you, and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of Me). Mark 13:30:
(Truly, I say to you, this
generation will not pass away until all these things come to pass.)
4. Relative clause. A relative clause expresses probable condition based on a generic subject.
The relative clause is formed by the addition of the relative pronoun + or +
subjunctive. This construction forms the wonderful familiar idiom “whosoever” or
“whoever.” For example John 4:14:
(Whosoever drinks of the water that I will give him will never thirst again.
Optative of wish or prayer. The optative is the common usage of the verb for expressing a wish.
An example is Rom. 3:3-4: ;
;
(For what if some did not
believe? Will their unbelief make the faithfulness of God without effect? May it never be!
Indeed, let God be true but every man a liar. As it is written: “That you may be justified in your
words, and may overcome when you are judged.” ). An example of a prayer is found in 1 Thes.
3:11:
(Now may our God and Father Himself, and our Lord Jesus Christ, direct our way
to you.).
79
Mood
Optative of deliberation. The optative is often used in questions where the speaker is pondering
the meaning of a thing. An example is Luke 1:29:
(But when she saw [him], she was troubled at his saying, and
considered what manner of greeting this might be).
(Then certain Epicurean and Stoic philosophers encountered him. And some
said, “What would he wish to say?” Others said, “He seems to be a proclaimer of foreign gods,”
because he preached to them Jesus and the resurrection.) Drs. Dana & Mantey write, “Expressed
fully the example would read, What would he wish to say, if he could say anything? These
optatives occur as the fulfillment of a condition which is implied, and in the great majority of
instances we can supply from the context the implied condition.”6
Imperative of command. The imperative of command is the most common usage. Examples are
as follows:
Matthew 28:19:
(Go therefore, disciple all the nations,
baptizing them in the name of the Father, and the Son and the Holy Spirit.)
5
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 484
6
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 174
80
Mood
1 John 4:1:
(Beloved, do not believe every
spirit, but test the spirits, whether they are of God; because many false prophets have gone into
the world.)
Imperative of entreaty. When the speaker wants to convey a force of urgency or a request, the
imperative of entreaty is used. Examples are:
John 4:7: (A
woman of Samaria came to draw water. Jesus said to her, “Give me to drink.”).
Luke 11:1:
Imperative of permission. The imperative of permission is used when the speaker wants to grant
permission to do a thing. An example is 1 Cor. 7:36b:
(If she is past the flower of youth, and thus
it must be, let him do what he wishes. He does not sin; let them marry.)
1 Cor. 7:15:
(But if the unbeliever departs, let him depart; a
brother or a sister is not under bondage in such. But God has called us to peace.)
7
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 143
81
Mood
Imperative of condition. The imperative may be used as a condition of the form: if X, then Y will
happen. The imperative is found in the X (the protasis) and is usually of the form imperative +
+ future indicative. Examples are found as follows:
John 2:19:
(Jesus answered and said to them, “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.” Has
the sense, “if you destroy this temple, then in three days I will rase it up.”)
82
Tense
Tense is by far the most important component of the expression as it defines the action in both
time and manner. The word tense comes from the Latin tempŭs meaning, “a portion of time.”
The aspect of time of action is important, but also is the manner of action (also defined as kind).
For Greek, time is understood to be past, present or future, but Greek offers a more precise
element with respect to temperal distinction called “kind of action.” Kind of action, expressed by
progress, is defined as continuous, complete, or undefined.
1. Continuous action. Continuous action is expressed in the Greek for the most part by the
present tense with the indicative. However, continuous action can also be expressed in past
time by use of the imperfect tense.
2. Completed action. Action expressed as complete from the viewpoint of present time is found
in the perfect tense. Action expressed as complete from the viewpoint of past time is found in
the pluperfect.
3. Undefined action. The aorist tense in the indicative mood expresses undefined action in past
time. The aorist can also express the action as just occurring with no time reference.
The tenses of the indicative mood in general define the action of the verb in both time and
progress; whereas, the other moods define the action primarily respecting progress.
Present Tense
The present tense in the Greek can express past, present, or future time. Dr. Young identifies the
three time aspects as follows: “The present indicative has a past reference in John 1:29
(On the next day he saw Jesus coming to
him), a present reference in Acts 16:18
(I command you in the name of Jesus Christ to come out of her), a future reference in Luke 19:8
where Zacchaeus told the Lord (I will give to the poor), and a timeless
reference in John 3:18 (the one who believes in him will never
1
be judged).”
It is the primary idea of the present tense to represent the action with a time aspect in the indicative mood.
Iterative present. The iterative present uses the present tense to express the action as a
reaccurance at secussive intervals or repeated action. The action may be habitual or a custom and
can be interpreted as “always,” “keep on,” or “normally.” Examples are 1 Cor. 15:31:
1
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994) p. 105
2
Some call this the descriptive present.
Present Tense
(I affirm, by the boasting in you which I have in Christ Jesus our Lord, I die daily). 1
Thes. 5:17: (Pray without ceasing), meaning have a regular prayer
life.
1 John 3:9:
(Whosoever has been born of God
does not sin, for His seed remains in him; and he cannot sin, because he has been born of God.);
means “no one who is born of God habitually sins.” This is a habitual present since 1 John 1:8-
10 makes it clear that Christians right now have sin.
Futuristic present. The futuristic present is used when the author wants to present an event that
has not yet occurred and the reader is to understand that the event is certain to take place and in
fact is in progress. This useage expresses the theological doctrine of the soverignity of God and
His soverign control of all. An example is found in Matt. 26:2:
(You know that after
two days is the Passover, and the Son of man will be delivered up to be crucified). Another
example is John 14:3:
(And if I go to prepare a
place for you, I will come back and receive you to myself; that where I am, you may be also).
Gnomic present. The gnomic present is used when the author wants to make a general statement
of fact in a timeless fashion. An example is Matt. 7:17:
(Even so, every good tree bears good fruit, but
a bad tree bears bad fruit). Another example is found in John 3:8:
3
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994), 110
85
Present Tense
(The wind blows where it wishes, and you hear the sound of
it, but cannot tell where it comes from where it goes. So is everyone who is born of the Spirit).
Tendential present4. The tendential present is used when the author wishes to show the action
that is proposed or attempted, though it is not actually taking place. An example is John 10:32:
(Jesus answered them, “Many good works I have shown you from My Father. For
which of those works do you stone me?”). Another example is found in Gal. 5:4:
(You have become estranged
from Christ, you [attempt to] be justified by law; you have fallen from grace).
Static present. The static present is used when the author wants to represent a condition which is
to be forever taken as fact. An example is 2 Peter 3:4:
;
(and saying, “Where is the promise of His coming? For since the fathers fell asleep, all
things remain as [they were] from the beginning of creation.”). Another example is found in 1
John 3:8:
(He who sins is of the devil,
for the devil has sinned from the beginning. For this purpose the Son of God was manifested,
that He might destroy the works of the devil).
4
Also called a Conative Present.
86
Imperfect Tense
The Greek imperfect expresses action as going on or continuous action in past time. The
imperfect denotes an incomplete action and along with the present tense is called imperfective
aspect. The action is on going and is not yet brought to its intended accomplishment.
Repeated (iterative) imperfect. The repeated or iterative imperfect describes action as recurring
at successive intervals or repeated action in past time. Like the present tense, the activity may be
a custom or a habit. An example is found in Mark 15:6:
(Now at the feast he was accustomed to releasing one prisoner to
them, whomever they requested).
Imperfect Tense
Tendential imperfect. The tendential imperfect denotes an action that has started, attempted or
proposed, but whose end was not attained. The translator might use the words “trying,” or
“attempting.” An example is found in Matt. 3:14:
(And John was preventing Him, saying,
“I need to be baptized by You, and are You coming to me?”).
Voluntative imperfect. The voluntative imperfect denotes a desire or wish that is not being
realized. An example is found in Gal. 4:20:
(But I would like to be present with you now and to change
my tone; for I have doubts about you). Dr. Young identifies Romans 9:3 and says “
(I could wish that I be
accursed from Christ for the sake of my brothers). Paul recognizes that it would be impossible
for him to be consigned to damnation in place of his fellow Jews because God would never
condemn a believer and because only Christ could die in place of another.”1
1
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville: BRoadman & Holman, 1994), 116
88
Future Tense
The Greek future expresses action primarilly as the English future does, that is, action that will
take place in future time. However, as with all the tenses in Greek, the future may also take one
other aspects depending upon the speakers expectation of a possible event.
Progressive future. The progressive future expresses the action as progressive in the future. For
example, in Phil. 1:18
(What then? Only in every way,
whether in pretense or in truth, Christ is preached; and in this I rejoice, yes, and will I continue
to rejoice). 2 Thes. 3:4
(And we have confidence in the Lord concerning you, both that you do and will
continue to do the things we command you).
Aorist Tense
Imperative future. The imperative future expresses the action as a command. As Dana and
Mantey point out, “since a command necessarily involves futurity, this is a very natural idiom.”1
Examples as Matt. 1:21
(And she will bring forth a Son, and you shall name him
Jesus, for He will save His people from their sins). Matt. 22:37
(Jesus said to him, “You shall love your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all
your mind.”). 1 Peter 1:16 (because it is
written, “You shall be holy, because I am holy.”). And negative commands as in Rom. 7:7
Deliberative future. The deliberative future is used in questions where the answer has some
uncertainty. These question may be real or rhetorical. An example of a real question is found in,
Rom. 6:2: ; (Certainly not!
How shall we, who are died to sin, live any longer in it?). An example of a rhetorical question is
found in Rom. 9:14: (What will we say
then? [Is there] unrighteousness with God?). Dr. Young identifies, “rhetorical questions that
challenge the readers or listeners to ponder the implications of the question and to respond
appropriately, as in Hebrews 2:3: ‘How shall we escape ( if we neglect so great
salvation?’ The rhetorical question actually expresses an implicit statement, ‘We will surely not
ecsape.’”2
Gnomic future. The gnomic future expresses a statement of fact that is true for all time. An
example is found in Gal. 6:5: (For each one will bear
his own burden.” Rom. 5:7:
(For scarcely for a righteous man will die; yet perhaps for a good man
someone would even dare to die).
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York: Macmillan, 1994), p. 192
2
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), p. 118
90
Aorist Tense
Aorist Tense
The Greek aorist expresses action primarily as the English simple past tense. The aorist is
sometimes called a timeless tense, because the time aspect is only found in the indicative and the
participle. The aorist denotes the action simply as occurring without reference to it progress. The
aorist denotes the action as an event without defining the manner of its occurrence or its
completeness. It expresses the fact of the action or event without regard to its duration.
Dr. Young presents the aorist this way: “It would be better to view the aorist as
grammaticalizing the speaker’s perception of an event in its entirety or as a single whole… the
difference between the perfective aspect (aorist) and the imperfective aspect (present and
imperfect) is the difference between viewing an entire parade from a helicopter (perfective) and
viewing one float at a time pass by from the curb or grandstand (imperfective). The event does
not have to be objectively completed in order to be perceived as a whole (e.g., futuristic
aorists).”3
3
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), p. 122
91
Aorist Tense
(But the death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over those who had not sinned according
to the likeness of the transgression of Adam).
Acts 11:26:
Ingressive (inceptive) aorist. The ingressive aorist expresses the action or event from its
inception, from its beginning or entrance of the action or state. An example is found in 2 Cor.
8:9:
(For you know the grace of our Lord
Jesus Christ, that though He was rich, yet for your sakes He became poor, that you through His
poverty might become rich). Matt. 22:7:
(But the king became
angry and he sent out his armies, destroyed those murderers, and burned up their city).
Culminative aorist. The culminative (consummative) aorist expresses the action from the point
of view of its cessation or completion with continuing results. Thus, it is normally translated as
the perfect tense. The culminative aorist is normally used with verbs of effort or process where
the end result is attained. Examples are found in Phil. 4:11: ’
(Not that I speak from want; for I have learned to be
content in whatever circumstances I am). 1 John 2:11:
(But the one who hates his brother is in darkness and walks in the darkness,
and does not know where he is going because the darkness has blinded his eyes).
Gnomic aorist. The gnomic aorist is used to expresses a generally accepted fact. Examples are 1
Peter 1:24:
(For, all flesh is like grass and all its glory like the flower of
grass. The grass withers and the flower fades away). Gal. 5:24:
(Now those who belong to Christ
Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires).
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Aorist Tense
Epistolary Aorist. An epistolary aorist is used by the author to place himself at the viewpoint of
his reader to express an act or event that is present or future, but will be past for the reader. Dr.
Wallace clarifies, “This is the use of the aorist indicative in the epistles in which the author self-
consciously describes his letter from the time frame of the audience.”4 An examples is Phil 2:28:
(Therefore I have sent him the more eagerly, that when you see him again you may rejoice, and
I may be less sorrowful).
Dramatic aorist. The dramatic aorist is used as a device for emphasis to express a present reality
with the certitude of a past event. The English translation can be expressed using the word “just,”
or “just now,” as the action has just recently occurred. An example is found in Mark 5:35:
(While He was still speaking, they came from the house of the
synagogue official, saying, “your daughter has died; why trouble the Teacher anymore?”).
Another example is Matt. 26:65:
; (Then the
high priest tore his robes, saying, “He has blasphemed! What further need do we have of
witnesses? Behold, you have now heard the blasphemy.”).
Futuristic aorist. The futuristic aorist is used to describe an event that has not taken place yet is
seen as already completed (sometimes called proleptic). Examples are found in John 13:31:
(Then when he had gone out, Jesus said, “now the Son of Man is glorified and God is glorified
in him.”) Rom. 8:30:
(and whom He predestined, those He also
called, and whom He called, these He also justified, and whom He justified He also glorified).
4
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 562
93
Perfect and Pluperfect Tense
The Greek perfect tense expresses a completed act with continuing results. The word perfect
comes from the Latin perficere meaning “to bring to an end, complete, finish.” The perfect and
pluperfect are similar and are identical in aspect though different in time. That is to say, both the
perfect and pluperfect indicative speak of the event as accomplished in the past and the results
existing afterwards, but the perfect sees the results existing in the present, while the pluperfect
sees the results existing in the past. However, make no mistake, the perfect is the tense of
completed action. The action is seen as coming to a state or point of completion with the result
existing in its finished state.
1 Cor. 15:3-4:
(For I delivered to you as of the first importance what I also received, that Christ
died for our sins according to the Scriptures, and that He was buried, and that He was raised on
the third day according to the Scriptures.).
Perfect & Pluperfect Tense
Consummative perfect. The consummative perfect emphasizes the completed action of a past act
that had continued for a while but has now come to an end. An example is 2 Tim. 4:7:
(I have fought the good fight, I
have finished the course, I have kept the faith). Another example is John 1:34:
(And I have seen, and I have testified that
this is the Son of God).
Iterative perfect. The iterative perfect emphasizes the “recurrent intervals” rather than continuous
progress. For example, 1 John 1:1
(That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes,
which we looked upon, and our hands have handled, concerning the Word of life). The perfects
are expressing the abiding effects of hearing and seeing.
Dramatic perfect. The dramatic prefect is used when the author wishes to describe a past event in
a vivid though realistic way. Since the perfect represents an existing state, this usage is the most
forceful way of expressing an historical event viewing an existing state. An example is John
1:15: ‘
(John testified concerning him and
cried out, saying. “This was He of whom I said, ‘He who comes after me is preferred before me,
for He was before me.’”). Another example is found in Rev. 5:7:
(Then He came and took the scroll out of the right hand
of Him who sat on the throne).
Intensive pluperfect. The intensive pluperfect emphasizes the result of the action that existed in
past time. Drs. Dany and Mantey write, “Here stress is laid upon the reality of the fact, which
enables it to be presented with more force than could be done with the aorist, but the only device
for construing it in English is the simple past.” An example is found in Luke 4:41:
95
Perfect & Pluperfect Tense
96
The Infinitive
The infinitive is called a verbal noun. In fact, the word infinitive comes from the Latin infīnītus
meaning, “infinite” with respect to time, and “boundless” with respect to size or degree.
Infinitives possess tense and voice like a verb and its noun characteristics come from the main
verb, context, and the accompanying articles. Additionally, infinitives can take an object and can
be modified by adverbs.
As a noun As a verb
It is used as an object
It is qualified by adjectives
Drs. Dana and Mantey write, “Intelligent expression inevitably occasions at times the
naming of an action with substantival relations in a sentence. Here we have noun and verb
occupying common ground. This may be sometimes expressed by an ordinary noun of action,
but is more forcefully expressed by a verbal substantive, which doubtless reached its highest
known stage of development and variety of usage in the Greek language….No idiom is more
decidedly peculiar to the language than this substantive character of the infinitive. Frequently it
Infinitive
occurs in constructions where its idiomatic nature is so fully demonstrated that even the novice
cannot fail to discern it. A splendid example may be seen in Heb. 2:15: ‘Who, because of the fear
of death, were subjects of bondage , through all their lives.’ Here the
infinitive is accompanied by a preposition, modified by an adjective, defined by the article,
and used in the genitive case: distinctive and essential characteristic of a pure noun. Though this
particular example is the most elaborate infinitive construction in the New Testament, yet it is
without any doubt typical Greek usage.”1
i. Purpose. The infinitive can be used to express the purpose or aim of the action or state of the
controlling verb. This is the most common verbal usage of the infinitive. Purpose may be
expressed with the simple infinitive, the infinitive with , the infinitive with the
prepositions , , or with or .
(For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve and
to give life a ransom for many).
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), pp. 208,209
98
Infinitive
(and rose up and thrust Him out of the city; and they led Him to
the brow of the hill on which their city was built, in order that to throw Him down the
cliff.)
ii. Result. The infinitive can be used to express the result of the action or state of the controlling
verb.
(By faith Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out to the place which he was to
receive as an inheritance; and he went out, not knowing where he was going).
(For since the creation of the world His invisible [attributes] are
clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, His eternal power and
Godhead, As a result they are without excuse,)
iii. Time. The infinitive can be used to express the relative time of the main verb in relation to the
action expressed by the infinitive.2 “But ‘temporal relations are only vaguely expressed by
the infinitive’ (R. 1091). It does not have within itself any significance of time, but may
derive a temporal meaning from the context and its use with a preposition or particle.”3
2
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 166
3
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 215
99
Infinitive
b. Contemporaneous time. The infinitive with the preposition and locative ( ) forms
the infinitive in contemporaneous time. Contemporaneous time means the action of the
main verb takes place at the same time as the infinitive and is expressed with the words
“when, while, as, just as.” An example is found in Matt. 13:4:
(And as he sowed,
some [seed] fell by the wayside; and the dirds came and devoured them.)
c. Subsequent time. The infinitive with the preposition forms the infinitive in
subsequent time. Subsequent time means the action of the main verb takes place after the
infinitive and uses the word “after.” An example is found in Matt. 26:32:
(But after I have been rised, I will go
before you to Galilee).
iv. Cause (or reason). The accusative infinitive with the preposition expresses the infinitive
of cause or reason. An example is found in John 2:24:
(But Jesus did not commit Himself to them because
He knew all men).
v. Means. The instrumental infinitive with the preposition expresses the infinitive of
means (similar to the contemporaneous infinitive). An example is found in Acts 3:26:
II. Infinitivies functioning as nouns (Substantival Uses). Sometime the infinitive can function in its
context as a noun. It can functions as a subject, object, indirect object, instrument, apposition,
and substantive modifier.
i. Subject. The infinitive can function as the subject of a finite verb. An example is found in
Rom. 7:18:
(For I know that in me, that is, in
my flesh, nothing good dwells; for to will is present with me, but [how] to perform what is
good [is] not).
ii. Object. The infinitive can function as the object of the finite verb. An example is found in
Mark 12:12:
(And they sought to lay hold of
100
Infinitive
Him, but they feared the multitude, for they knew He had spoken the parable against them.
So they left Him and went away).
iii. Indirect object. The infinitive can function as an indirect object the same as a dative noun.
“This use of the infinitive conveys a mild telic force, being used to express ‘that for which or
with reference to which the action or state of the governing verb is performed or exists.’”4
An example is Luke 10:40:
;
(But Martha was distracted with all her preparations; and she came up to
[Him], and said, Lord, do you not care that my sister left me to do all the serving alone?
Then tell her to help me.”) .
iv. Instrument. The infinitive can function as a noun in the instrumental case. This usage seeks
to define more closely the content of the action. An example is Heb. 5:5:
vi. Modifier. The infinitive can function as an adjective. This usage is also called epexegtical.
An example is found in Mark 2:10:
(But so that you may know that the Son
of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins – He said to the paralytic).
ii. Infinitive absolute. The infinitive can function as an interjection of greeting. This usage is
common with greeting in the New Testament. An example is James 1:1:
(James, a
bond-servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes who are dispersed
abroad, Greetings.).
4
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 218
101
The Participle
A participle is a form of a verb that can function independently as an adjective. The word participle
comes from the Latin particeps meaning “sharing,” “participating.” The Greek participle is said to be
a declinable verbal adjective, meaning it has characteristics of both a verb and an adjective. As a
verb, the participle has voice and tense. As an adjective, the participle is declined and agrees in
gender, number, and case, with that which it modifies.
Verbal Properties
The adverbial use of the participle expresses the how, when, why and on what occasion the action takes
place.
1. Tense. Tense has to do with both time of action and kind of action. Kind of action is found in the
participle itself. Time of action is derived from the main verb not the participle.
(a) Present participles reflect continuous action indicating action simultaneous with the main verb
(b) Aorist and perfect participles indicates action which is prior or antecedent to the action of the
main verb
(c) Future participles indicate action that is following or subsequent to the action of the main verb
2. Voice. Voice is the same as with the verb, namely, identifying the relationship of the action to the
subject:
(c) Middle means the action is returning to the subject, or acting on itself
3. Modifiers:
Participle
Adjectival Properties
The adjectival use of the participle agrees with the noun it modifies in: (a) gender; (b) number; and (c)
case. It may function adjectivally:
(a) attributively
(b) predicatively
1. Attributive usage. The participle can modify the noun in the attributive position with or without the
article. An example is found in Matt. 2:7:
’ (Then Herod, when he had secretly called the wise
men, determined from them the time of the appearing star).
2. Predicate usage. The participle can be used like an adjective in the predicate position after a verb of
being. An example is found in Heb. 4:12:
3. Substantive usage. The participle can function like an adjective when it is not accompanied by a
noun. An example is found in Acts 10:35:
(But in every nation the one fearing him and works
righteousness is accepted by Him).
1. Temporal participles. The participle can be used in a temporal clause. With this usage the temporal
words “when, after, or while” are used at the beginning of the adverb clause. The specific adverbial
word used is determined by the context, not necessarily by the tense of the participles. Present
103
Participle
participles, however, most likely conveys the sense of “while” (during which time). Aoist participles
mostly convey the idea of “when” (at which time). An example is found in Acts 19:2:
(He said to them, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” So they said to
him, “No, we have not even heard whether there is a Holy Spirit.”). Heb. 9:12:
(and not through the blood of goats and calves, but through His own blood,
He entered once into the holy place, after obtaining eternal redemption).
2. Purpose participles. The participle can be used to describe the purpose of the action of the main verb.
Purpose participles use the words “to,” “in order to,” “for the purpose of,” “so that.” An example is
found in Luke 10:25:
(And behold, a certain lawyer stood up to test him, saying, “Teacher,
what must I do to gain eternal life?” ).
3. Result participle. The participle can be used to express the result of the action of the main verb. The
result participle uses the words “so that,” or “with the result that.” An example is found in John 5:18:
4. Causal participle. The participle can function to express cause of action of the main verb. The causal
participle uses the words “because,” or “since.” An example is Matt. 22:29:
(Jesus answered and said
to them, “You are deceived, because you do not know the Scriptures nor the power of God.)
5. Conditional participles. The participle can be used to express the condition of the action of the main
verb. Dr. Young provides clarification as he says, “The conditional participle states a condition that,
when fulfilled, issues into a certain consequence indicated by the main clause.” 1 The conditional
participle uses the word “if.” An example is found in Acts 15:29:
(that you abstain from
things offered to idols, from blood, from things strangled, and from sexual immorality. From which,
if you keep yourselves, you will do well.)
6. Concessive participle. The participle can express concession, being used with or without the
concessive particple “if.” The concessive particle adds the word “although,” or “though.” An example
is found in John 9:25:
(He answered and said, “Whether He is a sinner [or not] I do not know. One thing I
know: that although I was blind, now I see). Phil. 2:6:
(Although he existed in the very nature of God, he did not consider
equality with God something to be grasped).
1
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 155
104
Participle
7. Instrumental participle. The participle can be used to express the means by which the action of the
main verb is accomplished. The instrumental participle adds the words “by,” or “by means of.” An
example is found in Acts 22:16: ;
(And now why are you waiting? Arise and be baptized, and
wash away your sins by means of calling on His name).
8. Modal participle. The participle can be used to express the manner in which the action of the main
verb is accomplished. The modal participle answers the question “how did the action take place?” An
example is found in Mark 1:22:
(And they were astonished at His teaching, for He was
teaching them as having authority). This participle answers the question: how did he teach? With
authority.
9. Circumstantial participle. The participle can be used to express an action or circumstance that
accomplishes the action of the main verb. Dr. Young suggests, “the best translation in English is to
transform the participle into a finite verb of the same mood as the leading verb and insert “and”
between the two verbal expressions. This usage of the participle is a idiom that has no exact English
parallel. An example is found in Mark 16:20:
(But they went forth
preaching everywhere, the Lord working with them and confirming the word through the
accompanying signs).
10. Imperatival participle. The participle can function like an independent verb as an imperative. An
example is found in Rom. 12:9:
(Let love be without hypocrisy. Hate the evil. Cleave to the good).
11. Indicative participle. The participle can function like an independent indicative verb. An example is
found is Rom. 5:11:
(And not only that, but [we] also rejoice in God
through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have received the reconciliation).
12. Periphrastic participle. The participle can be used with a finitie verb to form a compound tense called
periphrastic (Greek “around” + “I explain”). Dr. Wallace says, “This participle is called
periphrastic because it is a round-about way of saying what could be expressed by a single verb.”2
The finite verb is by far the most common verb used with an accompanying participle.
a. Present periphrastic. The present periphrastic is formed using the present of eimi with the
present participle. This form expresses durative force. An example
is found in Col. 1:6:
(which has come to you, as it has also in all the world and
2
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 647
105
Participle
it is bearing fruit, as it is also among you since the day you heard
and knew the grace of God in truth).
b. Imperfect periphrastic. The imperfect periphrastic is formed by using the imperfect of eimi
with the present participle. This form expresses durative in force,
but not always. An example is found in Luke 19:47:
’
(And
he was teaching daily in the Temple).
c. Perfect periphrastic. The perfect periphrastic is formed by using the present of eimi with the
perfect participle. The sense of this construction is intensive with a
consummative force. An example is found in Eph. 2:8:
(For by grace you have been saved through faith, and not
of yourselves it is the gift of God).
d. Future periphrastic. The future periphrastic is formed by using the future of eimi with the
present participle. This form expresses the action as durative in
future time. An example is found in Luke 5:10:
(and so also were James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were
partners with Simon. And Jesus said to Simon, “Do not be afraid.
From now on you will catch men”).
e. Future perfect periphrastic. The future perfect periphrastic is formed by using the future of
eimi with the perfect participle. This form expresses the action as
like the English future perfect. An example is found in Heb. 2:13:
2. Genitive absolute participle. The genitive absolute participle functions adverbially. Its construction is
unconnected with the rest of the sentence in that its subject – the genitive noun or pronoun is different
106
Participle
from the subject of the main clause.3 An example is found in Matt. 9:18:
3
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 655
107
Miscellaneous Elements
Under the heading of miscellaneous elements are the conjunction, the particle, and the adverb.
The reason for this division is that these fundamental elements of New Testament Greek may
cross their functional line into the other. The conjunction sometimes functions like a particle;
likewise, the particle sometimes functions as a conjunction.
The Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that ties two words, phrases, clauses, sentences or paragraphs together in
some way. The word comes from the Latin coniungĕre meaning, “to join together.” Drs. Dana
and Mantey well observe when they write,
Coordinating conjunctions like “and,” “but,” and “or”, connect words, clauses, sentences, or
paragraphs of equal structural rank together in some way. Subordinating conjunctions like
“when,” “because,” and “if,” connect dependent clauses to independent clauses. An independent
clause can stand alone as a complete sentence, while a subordinate clause cannot. Dr Young
provides the following example, “’Mary went to the store because they needed food.’ The first
clause ‘Mary went to the store’ can stand alone, but the second clause ‘because they needed
food’ cannot. It is a subordinate clause and is introduced by a subordinate conjunction
(because).”2
1
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 239
2
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 179
Conjunction
Root meaning: but (stronger than ). is a stong adversative conjunction (but), but may
function as contrast, emphasis, exclusion, or transition.
Contract – but, however (Mark 5:39).
Emphasis – indeed, now, then (1 Cor. 4:15).
Exclusion – except (Mark. 4:22).
Transition – now (Mark 16:6-7).
Root meaning: so, then. introduces a conclusive statement. This inferential conjunction
draws a conculsion that is more subjective than or , but may also function as emphasis.
Conclusion – so, then, therefore (Rom. 7:21).
Emphasis – indeed (Acts 12:18).
Root meaning: but. is used as an adversive or contrastive conjunction. When the conjunction
is combined with introduces the first element and the second and is translated, “on the
one hand .. on the other hand.”
Contrast – but, however, yet, on the other hand (Matt. 5:22).
Addition – and (James 1:13).
Transition – and, moreover, then, now (Rom. 3:2).
Explanation – now (John 6:6).
Emphasis – indeed, certainly (2 Cor. 10:2).
Root meaning: therefore, wherefore. is the strongest inferential conjunction. Its significance
is seen by the compounds built using the word. For example, is made to be even stronger
than alone and means, “for which very reason,” “on which very account” (cf. 1 Cor. 8:13).
Another example is the compound meaning “because” and “for” (cf., Luke 1:13; 2:7; Rom.
1:19, 21).
Root meaning: if. (a compound of and ) is used with the subjunctive and indicative and
expresses uncertainty or indefiniteness. The word introduces a hypothetical condition whose
outcome is not as certain as one introduced with .
Condition – used with the subjunctive in the third class condition.
110
Conjunction
Root meaning: if, whether. is a conditional but may also be used to introduce indirect
questions. When introduces direct questions it should not be translated at all (cf. Luke 22:49).
Condition – if (Gal. 3:29).
Grounds – since (grounds for a conclusion or exhortation, Col. 3:1).
Concession – although ( introduces a concession clause, Luke 18:4-5).
Complement – that (complement noun clause, 1 John 3:13).
Questions – no translation (Matt. 12:10).
Emphasis – indeed, surely (Eph. 3:2).
Root meaning: either…or. is called a correlative and can be used as a pair or by itself.
Correlative: either…or (Matt. 12:33).
Root meaning: and. is the basic grammatical word to join two coordinate elements together.
The three fundamential functions are: (1) transitional or continuative – “and;” (2) adjunctive –
“also;” and (3) ascensive – “even.” The New Testament usage of has the added complexity
of the Hebrew waw (“and”) of the Old Testament.
Addition – and, even, also (joining two coordinate or correlative elements together).
Emphasis – indeed, certainly (1 Cor. 14:19).
Reason – because (Mark 8:3).
Contrast – but, however (James 4:2).
Purpose – in order that (Matt. 5:15).
Condition – if (Matt. 26:15).
Consequence – then (the apodosis of a conditional, Rev. 14:9-10).
Concession – through (Luke 18:7).
Time – when (Mark 15:25).
Sequential – then (John 4:35).
Relative – who (Luke 6:6).
Conclusion – then (Matt. 3:14).
111
Conjunction
Root meaning: because. is used as a conjunction introducing an objective clause after verbs
of knowing, saying, seeing, and feeling.
Reason – because (John 1:30).
Grounds – since (Luke 13:2).
Noun clauses – that (1 John 1:5).
Result – that, with the result that (John 7:35).
Root meaning: therefore. is used as an inferential conjunction describing that what follows is
the logical conclusion from what precedes.
Conclusion – therefore, so, consequently (Rom. 12:1).
Transition – now, then (John 4:28).
Response – so (John 1:39).
Emphasis – certainly, indeed, really (John 20:30).
Contrast – but, however (John 9:18).
112
The Particle
A Greek particle has undefined limits within the New Testament and includes the odd elements
of the language. Sometimes a particle can act as an adverb, conjunction, interjections and even as
a preposition. The word comes from the Latin partĭcŭlae meaning, “a small part, particle,
portion.” Particles can be classified into three basic groups: those that are emphatic or intensive,
those that are connecting, and those that are interjections.
Emphatic Particles
(amen) is a transliteration of the Hebrew !Ima “to be firm.” The word is translated as
“truly, verily, amen.” When is found at the beginning of a discourse it is translated
“surely, truly, of a truth” (cf. John 3:3). When is found at the end of the discourse it is
translated, “so it is, so be it, may it be fulfilled” (1 Cor. 14:16). It was a custom, which passed
over from the synagogues to the Christian assemblies, that when he who had read or discoursed,
had offered up solemn prayer to God, the others responded Amen, and thus made the substance
of what was uttered their own (Rom. 15:33).1
1
Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
Particle
The particle is translated “indeed, even, in fact, at least,” but is sometimes left untranslated.
is often found with other emphatic particles like for emphasis (e.g.,
“wherefore indeed” Mat. 7:20)
This expression is rare but clearly emphatic as it is translated as “assuredly,” or “above all” (cf.
Heb. 6:14).
is used with other words to form the strong affirmative particle meaning “indeed,” “really,”
or “completely” (cf., Rom. 8:17).
2
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), 260
114
Particle
is an enclitic particle dealing with time and translated “once,” “formerly,” “at some time,”
“at any time.” The word is derived from “where?” and “not only … but also,” or “both
… and” (cf. Heb. 1:5).
is used with another word to form an emphatic particle translated “certainly,” “truly” (cf.
James 2:8).
Connecting Particles
is a widely used particle with a wide array of meaning. Fundamentally, “the word is used to
differentiate the word or clause with which it occurs from that which follows.”3 is translated
“truly,” certainly,” and “although.” Dr. Young writes, “The clause in such cases often had a
concessive force. Depending on the focus, the construction can be translated with either
“although” introducing the clause or “but” introducing the clause.”4
is an enclitic particle of connection. The word is translated as “not only … but also,” or
“both … and.”
Interjection Particles
3
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 261
4
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 200
115
Particle
is an interjection denoting wonder and amazement. The word is translated as “aha!” “ah!”
or “ha!”
Negative Particles
There are two negative particles in Greek, and . While is primarily used with the
indicative and used with the other moods, participles, and infinitives5, there are always
exception.
is used before words beginning with a consonant, before words beginning with a vowel
that has a smooth breathing, and before words beginning with a vowel that has a rough
breathing. is the stronger of the two negatives ( and ) and as Dr. Robertson says, it is
“the clear-cut, point-blank negative, objective, final.”6
Statement of fact. Drs. Daney and Mantey say, “In addition to its regular use with the indicative
is frequently found in the papyri with the participle, apparently for the reason that it is the
proper negative for a statement of fact.”7
5
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 201
6
A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Nashville:
Broadman, 1934), p. 1156
7
Dana and Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York:Macmillan, 1954), p. 264
116
Particle
is the weaker negative particle used for negating potential statements. Dr. Robertson writes,
“In a word, is just the negative to use when one does not wish to be too positive. Leaves
8
the question open for futher remarks or entreaty. closes the door abruptly.”
Particle of qualified negation. is the particle of qualified negation. is mostly used with
moods other than indicative, thus emphasizing uncertainity.
Questions. In questions where the expected answer is no, is used. Dr. Young provides the
helpful example, “Most languages have a way of tagging yes/no questions, so that the speaker
can convey to the listener what kind of reply is expected (i.e., a leading question). An example in
English would be, “You want to pass the test, don’t ou?” or “You don’t want to fail, do you?” In
the first the speaker elicits a positive answer and in the second a negative answer.”9
The double negative is used to express an emphatic denial or prohibition. The double negative
can be translated, “by no means,” or “in no way” (cf., Matt. 5:20).
8
A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Nashville:
Broadman, 1934), p. 1156
9
Richard Young, Intermediate New Testament Greek (Nashville:B & H Publishers, 1994), p. 202
117
The Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. Adverbs modifying verbs,
adjectives or other adverbs serve to define with exactness the thought and express the
relationship of time, place, manner, or degree.
Adverbs of time. Adverbs of time answer the question “when?” There are many adverbs of time,
some examples are: , “once;” , “immediately;” , “now;” , “again;” ,
“formerly;” , “early;” , “then.” In general, adverbs of time have the following suffixes:
(1) as in , “when;” , “at some time;” , “then.” The correlative adverbs of time
are:
now when
Adverbs of place. Adverbs of place answer the question “where?” Adverbs of place have the
following suffixes: (1) denites “whence” and includes, , “from this place;” ,
“from above.” (2) – denotes “where,” and includes: “there;” , “last year;”
, “where.”
Place
Adverbs
thence whence
thither
hither
Adverbs of manner. Adverbs of manner answer the question “how?” Adverbs of manner have the
following suffixes: (1) ; , “justly;” , “quickly.”
Adverbs used as prefixes. Certain adverbs are built with prefixes. (1) negative prefix and
(from , “without”); “unmarried;” , “unknown;” , “unworthy;”
, “without water.” (2) prefix expresses difficulty or trouble; , “hard
to be born;” , “hard to understand.” (3) prefix expresses “well,” or “good;”
, “well born;” , “good thinking, good will;” , “good speech, praise.”
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Types of Clauses
Clauses
A clause is a group of phrases that includes at least a subject and a predicate. The word “clause”
comes from the Latin claudĕre “to shut,” or “to close.” For example “Christ died” forms a
clause because it contains a subject “Christ” and a predicate “died.” In the statement “He chose
us” also forms a clause containing a subject “He” a predicate “chose” and an object “us.” There
are two basic classifications of clauses: independent and dependent.
Along with the category of independent and dependent clauses, the clause can function in
various ways. Dr. Wallace identifies the following seven functions of anindependent clause:
2.
This chapter details some of the most common types of clauses found in Koine Greek.
Causal Clause
A causal clause provides the reason or ground for the action. Causal clauses are introduced by
the particles There are two different types
of causal clauses: coordinate causal clauses and subordinate causal clauses.
1. Coordinate causal clause. The coordinate causal clause uses the conjunction to connect
two coordinate clauses which speak of some relation of cause and effect, or reason and
conclusion. An example is, “For God is my witness” (Rom.
1:9)
2. Subordinate causal clause. Subordinate causal clauses are identified in the following four
ways.
(iii)By use of the participle. The genitive participle can express cause as well as the participle
in agreement with some other word in the clause. When the causal participle is used with
the action denoted by the participle is the “supposed or alleged cause of the action of
the principle verb.”1 An example is “Because he did not
wish to make her a public example.” (Matt. 1:19)
(iv) By use of the relative pronoun. The relative pronoun may be used to express cause or
reason. An example is:
“Beware of false prophets who come to you on sheep’s
clothing.” (Matt. 7:15)
1
Dana & Mantey, p. 275
121
Clauses
Comparitive Clause
The comparative clause introduces an analogous thought in order to emphasize the thought
presented in the main clause. As Drs. Dany and Mantey write, “To say, ‘The believer is baptized
as the Savior was,’ is to describe the believer’s baptism; while to say, ‘The believer shall be
raised even as Christ was raised,’ is to emphasize the certainity of the resurrection.”2
Comparitive clauses use the comparitives: and
Examples are:
Conditional Clause
Conditional clauses are classified on the basis of the their reference to reality. There are
four types of conditional sentences in the Greek: 1st through 4th class conditions.
i) First Class Condition. This condition is called the condition of reality. The first class
condition uses the indicative mood with the conditional particle in the protasis and any mood in
the apodosis and is the condition of reality. An example, Gal. 5:18:
“But if you are led by the Spirit (and you are), you are not under
the law.”
ii) Second Class Condition. This is the condition of impossibility or contrary to fact. The
second class condition uses the indicative mood with the conditional particle in the
protasis and the particle with the indicative mood in the apodosis. This condition can
further be specified as present or past time.
2
ibid., p. 275
3
David Allen Black, It’s Still Greek to Me (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), p. 144
122
Clauses
a) Present time. Present time uses the imperfect tense with both the protasis and
apodosis. An example is found in Luke 7:39:
“If this man were a prophet [but he is not], he would
know who and what sort of woman this is.”
b) Past time. Past time uses either the aorist or pluperfect tese in both the protasis
and apodosis. And example is found in John 11:32:
“If you had been here [but you were not], my brother would
not have died.”
iii) Third Class Condition. This class is the condition of probable future fulfillment based on
the condition. The third class condition contains the conjunction with the subjunctive
in the protasis and any mood or tense in the apodosis. An example is found in Heb. 6:3:
“And this we will do, if God permit.”
iv) Forth Class Condition. The forth class condition is the condition of future possible
fulfillment but less likely than the third class condition. The fourth class condition uses
the optative mood with the conditional particle in the protasis and in the optative
4
mood in the apodosis. A partial example is found in 1 Peter 3:14 :
“But even if you should suffer for righteousness sake, [you
would be] blessed.”
Local Clause
A local clause is introduced by a relative adverb of place and expresses location. Local clauses
are introduced by the following adverbs: , , and . An example is:
“And other fell upon stony soil where it had not
much ground.” Mark 4:5
4
There are no complete 4th class conditions found in the New Testament. 1 Peter 3:14 represents a partial example
in that it does not possess the proper apodosis. The 4th class was more prominate among the cultured class as it was
used with hypothetical statements.
123
Clauses
Temporal Clause
A temporal clause uses temperal adverbs and serves to limit the action of the verb with respect to
time. There are several particles derived from relative adverbs. The time aspect is limited in the
following ways:
1. Antecedent time. When the clause is introduced by the particle “before” the time
limit is prior to the action of the main verb. An example is found in John 14:29:
“I now I have told [Perf. Act.
Ind.] you before it comes to pass, that when it comes to pass, you may believe.”
3. Subsequent time. When the clause is introduced by the particle or “until,” the
time limit is terminus of the action of the main verb. An example is found in Acts 7:18:
. “till another king arose who did not
know Joseph.”
Purpose Clause
A purpose clause expresses purpose. The purpose clause expresses the aim of the action denoted
by the main verb. Drs. Dana & Mantey caution: “Thus to say, ‘Paul went to Berea to preach the
gospel,’ could mean that Paul went in accordance with an actual plan, or that he went so that he
could preach. So purpose clauses may exhit various shades of meaning, ranging from deliberate
design to mere tendency or result.”5
1. The purpose clause may be introduced by the conjunctions and “that, in order
that.” An example is found in 1 John 5:20:
“He has given us a mind that we may know the truth.”
2. The purpose clause may also be introduced by the infinitive. An example is Matt. 5:28:
“Everyone that looks on a woman for the
purpose of lust.”
5
Dana & Mantey, p. 283
124
Clauses
3. The purpose clause may be introduced by the relative pronoun “who, which, that.” An
example is Mark 1:2: “That he may prepare your way”
Relative Clause
A relative clause is introdouced by the relative pronoun . The relative pronoun functions as
the subject, object, or indirection object. An example is found in Rev. 3:11:
“I am coming quickly; hold fast what you have, in
order that no one take your crown.”
Result Clause
A result clause expresses the result of a issues from the action of the main verb. The result is
introduced in the following ways:
1. The infinitive. The result clause can be introduced by use of the infinitive. For example
Rom. 15: 9: “So that the Gentiles might
glorify God for His mercy.”
2. The conjunctions and . The result claise can be introduced by the use of the
conjunctions and . For example: “So that
he gave his only gegotten Son.” (John 3:16)
3. The subjunctive with . The result clause can be introduced by the subjunctive with
. An example is: “I say then, they did not
stumble so that they fell?” (Rom. 11:11)
125
Clauses
126
Bibilography
Intermediate/Advanced Grammars
Robertson, A.T. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament In the Light of Historical Research, Nashville:
Broadman Press, 1934. This grammar is the most complete grammar produced to date.
Dana & Mantey. A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament, New York: MacMillan Publishing,
1958. The classic standard intermediate text used for generations.
Young, Richard. Intermediate New Testament Greek: A linguistic And Exegetical Approach, Nashville:
Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994. This text has, since its introduction in the 1990s, been one of the
most widely respected and used intermediate grammars. This text is a “must have.”
Wallace, Daniel. Greek Grammar Beyond The Basics: An Exegitical Syntax of the New Testament, Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1996. This text is a monumental work in its scholarship and its detailed
breakdown of grammar and number of Scriptural examples is unparralled.
Black, David Alan, It’s Still Greek to Me: An Easy-to-Understand Guide to Intermediate Greek,
Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998. A short 2nd year grammar that gets straight to the point
and appropriate for the level.
Moulton, James. A Grammar of New Testament Greek, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1979. One of
the classics.
Burton, Ernest De Witt. Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek, Grand
Rapids: Kregel, 1900.
Vaughan, Curtis & Gideon, Virtus. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament: A Workbook
Approach to Intermediate Grammar, Nashville: Broadman Press, 1979.
Sharp, Granville. Remarks on the uses of the Definite Article in the Greek text of the New
Testament, Containing many New Proofs of the Divinity of Christ, Atlanta: The Original Word,
1995.
Lexicons
Moulton, Harold. The Analytical Greek Lexicon Revised, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990.
Perschbacher, Wesley. The New Analytical Greek Lexicon, Peabody: Hendrickson, 1990.
Thayer, Joseph. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977.
Bibilography
Bauer, Walter, Arnt, William, Gingrich, Wilber. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament
and Other Early Christian Literature, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. (BAG)
Danker, Frederick, Bauer, Walter, Arnt, William, Gingrich, Wilber. A Greek-English Lexicon of
the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2000. (BDAG)
Louw, Johannes, Nida, Eugene. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic
Domains, New York: United Bible Societies, 1989.
Balz, Horst, Schneider, Gerhard. gen. ed., Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.
Vine, W.E. A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Original Greek Words with their Precise
Meanings for English Readers, Peabody: Hendrickson
Software Applications
1. Seminary Standards: Two resources dominate the language requirements of seminaries. Both
applications are extremely helpful works for their lexical aids.
Bibleworks, www.bibleworks.com
2. Free Application: There are a number of very good free applications available online.
e-Sword, www.e-sword.net
theWord, www.theword.net
128
Bibilography
129