Eeguc Unit I
Eeguc Unit I
Eeguc Unit I
UNIT II ILLUMINATION
Introduction - definition and meaning of terms used in illumination engineering - classification of
light sources - incandescent lamps, sodium vapour lamps, mercury vapour lamps, fluorescent
lamps – design of illumination systems - indoor lighting schemes - factory lighting halls - outdoor
lighting schemes - flood lighting - street lighting - energy saving lamps, LED.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
Source
1-φ and 3-φ, 50-Hz AC supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low power drives
are generally fed from 1-φ source; however, the high power drives are powered from 3-φsource;
some of the drives are powered from a battery
Power modulator
Power modulator performs the following functions:
It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor is impart speed−torque characteristics
required by the load.
It regulates source and motor currents within permissible values, such as starting, braking, and
speed reversal conditions.
Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking.
Converts source energy in the form suitable to the motor.
Electrical motors
Motors commonly used in electric drives are DC motors, induction motors, synchronous motors,
blushless DC motors, stepper motors, and switched reluctance motors, etc.
In olden days, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for constant speed drives
but not for variable speed drives, because of poor efficiency and are too expensive.
But in nowadays, AC motors employed in variable speed drives due to the development of
semiconductors employing SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and GTOs.
Load
It is usually a machinery, such as fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines, designed to
perform a given task, usually load requirements, can be specified in terms of speed and torque
demands.
Control unit
Control unit controls the function of power modulator.
The nature of control unit for a particular drive depends on the type of power modulator used.
When semiconductor converters are used, the control unit will consists of firing circuits.
Microprocessors also used when sophisticated control is required.
Sensing unit
Sensing unit consists of speed sensor or current sensor. The sensing of speed is required for the
implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is usually sensed using tachometers
coupled to the motor shaft. Current sensing is required for the implementation of current limit
control.
Advantages of electric drives
Dr.Pauls Engineering College EEE Department
EE6801 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
There are a number of inherent advantages that the electric drive possesses over the other forms
of conventional drives are:
They have comparatively long life than the mechanical drive.
It is cleaner, as there are no flue gases, etc.
It is more economical.
They have flexible control characteristics.
There is no need to store fuel or transportation.
It requires less maintenance.
Do not pollute environment.
It is the reliable source of drive.
Available in wide range of torque, speed, and power.
High efficiency.
Electric braking system is much superior and economical.
Smooth speed control is easy.
They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
They can operate in all the quadrants of speed torque plane.
Being compactness, they require less space.
They can be controlled remotely.
Disadvantages of electric drives
The two inherit disadvantages of the electric drive system are:
The non-availability of drive on the failure of electrical power supply.
It cannot be employed in distant places where electric power supply is not available.
If there is any fault in the main motor, all the machines connected to the motor will fail to operate;
thereby, paralyzing a part of industry until the fault is removed.
It is not possible to install any machine at a distant place.
The possibility of the installation of additional machines in an existing industry is limited.
The level of noise produced at the work site is quite large.
The speed control of different machines using belts and pulleys is difficult.
The flexibility of layout is lost due to line shaft, belts, and pulleys.
Individual drive
In individual drive, a single electric motor is used to drive one individual machine. Such a drive is
very common in most of the industries.
Advantages
o It is more clean and safety.
o Machines can be located at convenient places.
o If there is a fault in one motor, the output and operation of the other motors will not be effected.
o The continuity in the production of the industry is ensured to a higher degree.
o Individual drive is preferred for new factories, as it causes some saving in the cost.
Disadvantage
o Initial cost will be high.
o Power loss is high.
Multi-motor drive
In multi-motor drives, several separate motors are provided for operating different parts of the
same machine.
Ex: In traveling cranes, three motors are used for hoisting, long travel, and cross-travel
motions. Multi-motor drive is used in complicated metal cutting machine tools, rolling mills,
paper making machines, etc.
3. State the factors considered for the choice of electric drives.
There are certain factor that governs or influences, the selection choice electrical drives. They are:
1. Availability of Electrical Supply
The electric drive is a drive system with electrical motor as a prime mover.
The selection of electrical drive is based on the availability of electrical supply.
There are three-types electrical supplies, namely AC supply, DC supply, and Rectified DC
supply.
If AC supply is available. Then AC drive is selected motor. An AC drive consists of AC motor as
a drive motor .
If DC supply is available, then DC drive is selected .DC drive consist of DC motor as a drive
motor. Hence nature of electrical supply available governs selection of electric drive.
2. Nature of Operation characteristics of Electric drive motors
The electric drive motor has different types of operating characteristics such as
1) Starting characteristics
2) Running characteristics
3) Speed control characteristics
4) Braking characteristics
For example the running characteristic of electric drive motor shows how the motor behaves
where it is loaded .In some cases if the load is increased , the speed of the motor is drastically
reduced .so such motors are not selected for constant speed applications.
3. Economic Consideration
The electrical motor is selected based on two economic considerations, namely
a) Initial cost:
The initial cost is nothing out capital cost. This is the cost occurred during purchase and erection.
b) Running cost :
This is the cost running the electric drive E.G. maintenance cost, fuel cost etc.
4. Type of the Drive system
Type of the Drive system available also governs the choice of electric motor. There are three
types of drive system namely Group drive, Individual diver and Multi motor drive. Assume that at
any particular location, different small loads are available. Since the loads are separate unit, it can
be driven by single large motor (group drive). So here a DC motor or an AC motor is selected
with huge HP rating.
5. Types of Load
The type of load available, also governs the selection of electric drive. Generally the loads are
classified based on the Torque characteristics .Torque is the twisting force required to drive
(rotate) the load, based on the Torque characteristics loads are classified as follows.
1. Load requiring constant Torque with speed
2. Load requiring increasing Torque with speed
3. Load requiring high starting Torque (high inertia load)
Assume that load cannot with high inertia available .
This high inertia loads cannot be accelerated or decelerated quickly .
They require high starting Torque.
Therefore motor with high starting torque such as DC series or three phase slip ring induction
motor is selected. Thus type of load influence the choice of electric motor.
6. Mechanical considerations
(i) Type of enclosure
(ii) Type of bearings
(iii) Type of Transmission devices
7. Environmental Considerations
(i) Noise pollution (ii)Environmental Pollution
8. Load – With standing Capability of motors
The size and rating required for the drive motor influence the selection of the electric drive motor.
The size of the motor describes load- withstanding capability .when the motor is loaded, the line
current drawn by the motor increases.
As a result losses increases and more heat is developed.
If the heat is hot dissipated then insulation in the motor fails leading to complete breakdown of
the motor.
Here duty cycle of the load and the Torque requirement are important factors in deciding size and
rating of the motor.
4. What are the various types of electric braking used in traction? Discuss in detail.
Braking:
Braking is very frequent in electric drives to stop a motor in a reasonably short time.
For example a planar must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes must
quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes it is necessary to stop the motor in
order to prevent accident
There are two types of braking:
Mechanical braking:
The motor in this case is stopped due to friction between the moving part of the motor and
the brake shoe that is stored energy is dissipated as heat by a brake shoe or brake lining
which rubs against a brake shoe or brake lining which rubs against a brake drum.
Electrical braking:
In this method of braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts that is motor is converted into
electrical energy which is consumed in a resistance as heat or alternatively it is returned to the
supply source.
During braking operation a motor has to function as a generator.
The motor can be held at stand still. In other words the electric braking cannot hold the
motor at rest.
Thus it becomes essential to provide mechanical brakes in addition to electric braking.
Various types of electrical braking are:
a) Plugging
b) Rheostatic braking
c) Regenerative braking
Plugging:
This is a simple method of electric braking and consists in reversing the connections of the
armature of the motor so as to reverse its direction of rotation which will oppose the
original direction of rotation of the motor and will bring it to zero speed when mechanical
brakes can be applied.
1) DC motors
2) Induction motors
3) Synchronous motors
Plugging applied to DC motors:
To reverse a DC motors, it is necessary to reverse the connections of the armature while
the connections of the field are kept the same.
The direction of m.m.f remains the same even during braking periods.
Series motors:
Total voltage of V+ Eb is available across the armature terminals which causes a current I
to flow around the circuit.
When Eb = V then the voltage across the armature is 2V and at the time of braking twice
the normal voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the armature at this time in
order to limit the current.
While the motor is being braked, the current is still being drawn from the supply.
This method requires energy from the supply for its action and not only the kinetic energy
of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being dissipated.
Speed and braking torque
Electric braking to torque
TB α ФI ------------------------------- (1)
TB = K ФI ---------------------------- (2)
Where K is a constant
Current = V+ Eb/ R ------------------ (3)
Eb= K1N Ф -------------------------- (4)
N is the speed K1 is a constant
Rheostatic braking
Dr.Pauls Engineering College EEE Department
EE6801 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply with the switch S connected to
position 1 as shown in figure. S is a single pole double throw switch and can be connected
either to position 1 or to position 2. One end of an external resistance Rb is connected to
position 2 of the switch S as shown.
Let with S in position 1, motor runs at n rpm, drawing an armature
current Ia and the back emf is Note the polarity of Eb which, as usual for motor mode in
opposition with the supply voltage. Also note Te and n have same clockwise direction.
Now if S is suddenly thrown to position 2 at t = 0, the armature gets disconnected from the
supply and terminated by Rb with field coil remains energized from the supply.
Since speed of the rotor cannot change instantaneously, the back emf value Eb is still
maintained with same polarity prevailing at t = 0-. Thus at t = 0+,
armature current will be Ia = Eb/(ra + Rb) and with reversed direction compared to direction
prevailing during motor mode at t = 0-
Obviously for t > 0, the machine is operating as generator dissipating power to Rb and now
the electromagnetic torque Te must act in the opposite direction to that of n since Ia has
changed direction but has not As time passes after switching, n decreases reducing
K.E and as a consequence both Eb and Ia decrease. In other words value of braking torque
will be highest at t = 0+, and it decreases progressively and becoming zero when the machine
finally come to a stop.
Regenerative braking:
This method is better than the first and second methods of braking since no energy is wasted and
rather it is supplied back to the system. This method is applicable to following motors:
1) D.C motors
2) Induction motors
D.C motors:
Shunt motor:
In a DC machine where energy will be taken from the supply or delivered to it depends upon
the induced e.m.f, if it in less than the line voltage the machine will operate as motor and if it
is more than the line voltage, the machine will operate as generator.
The e.m.f induced in turn depends upon the speed and excitation that is when the field
current or the speed is increased the induced e.m.f exceeds the line voltage and the energy
will be field into the system.
This will quickly decrease the speed of the motor and will bring it to rest.
Series motor:
In this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in the armature
would cause a reversal of polarity of the series field.
In the case of induction motors, the regenerative braking is inherent, since an induction
motor act as a generator when running at speeds above synchronous speeds and it feeds
power back to the supply system. No extra auxiliaries are needed for this purpose.
This method is however very seldom used for braking but its application is very useful to
lifts and hoists for holding a descending load at a speed only slightly above the
synchronous speed.
5. Explain briefly about the characteristics and application of various electrics drives
A preventive coil is employed for reducing the circulating current flowing on account of
short circuiting of a section of the winding of the transformer between the tappings.
Preventive coil is inserted between the terminals of two groups consisting of tapings 1,3,5
and 2,4,6 as shown in figure.
The motor is connected to the centre point of the preventive coil. Two contractors
connected to the adjacent tappings (1 and 2 or 2 and 3 or 3 and 4 or 4 and 5 or 5 and 6) are
closed on each notch of the controller.
Each contractor carries approximately one half of the total current required.
For changing over voltage from one value to another one contractor is opened and another
contractor belonging to the same group is closed.
An important advantage of this method is that each notch provides a running position, so
that many running speeds are available. They are usually provided between 6 and 12
tappings.
For large capacity traction motors, a large number of contractors are to be employed
simultaneously so that the current is divided between them and each contractor has not to
deal more than a pre-specified design value.
Rheostatic Control
Pole changing control
Cascade control
Combination of cascade and pole changing control.
Types of motors:
D.C series motor.
A.C series motor. 3Φ Induction motor.
Speed controlling techniques:
1. D.C series motor.
Rheostatic control. Series parallel control. Field control. Buck and Boost control. Metadyne
control. Thyristor control.
Three phase induction motor:
2. A.C series motor.
Tap changing method.
3. 3Φ Induction motor.
Rheostatic control.
Pole changing control. Cascade control.
Combination of cascade and pole changing control.
7. Explain the various types of electric traction system.
The various systems of traction commonly used are,
Steam engine drive.
Internal combustion engine drive.
Internal combustion electric drive.
Petro-electric traction.
Battery electric drive.
Electric drive.
Steam engine drive:
Steam engine drive, though losing ground gradually due to various reasons; it is still the
amply adopted means of propulsion of railway work in underdeveloped countries.
In this type of drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the necessary
motive power.
Advantages
Simplicity in design.
Simplified maintenance.
Easy speed control.
Simplicity of connections between the cylinders and the driving wheels.
No interference with communication network.
Low capital cost as track electrification is not required.
The locomotive and train unit is self contained; therefore, it is not tied to a route.
It is cheap for low density traffic areas and in initial stages of communication by rail
Operational dependability.
Disadvantages
Low thermal efficiency.
Due to the reason of low adhesion coefficient, powerweight ratio of steam
locomotive is low.
It has strictly limited overload capacity.
Dr.Pauls Engineering College EEE Department
EE6801 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
Steam locomotive cannot be put into service at any moment as time is required for
raising of steam.
Owing to high centre of gravity of steam locomotive, speed is limited.
Steam locomotive requires more repair and maintenance.
Extensive and costly auxiliary equipment.
Since driving wheels are very close, hence more concentrated adhesive weight is
required.
Bigger sizes of running sheds and workshop are required.
Internal combustion engine drive:
This drive is widely used for road transport. The motive power is derived from petrol
to diesel.
It has an efficiency of about 25 percent when operating at normal speed. Various
example are buses, cars, trucks etc.,
Advantages
Low initial investment.
It is self-contained unit and, therefore, it is not tied to any route.
Easy speed control.
Very simple braking system.
It is cheap drive for the outer suburbs and country districts.
Disadvantages
than that of electrical equipment of a
tram car or a trolley bus.
Internal combustion electric drive:
In an I.C engine electric drive the reduction gear and gear box are eliminated as the diesel as the
diesel engine is to drive the D.C. generator coupled to it at a constant speed. This type of drive is
finding considerable favour for railway work and locomotives of this type are being widely used.
Advantages
eam to diesel
electric traction.
any route.
is available for hauling for about 90% of its working days.
Disadvantages
Limited overload capacity.
High running and maintenance cost.
Higher dead weight of locomotives; more axles required comparatively.
Comparatively costlier than steam or electric locomotives.
In such drives, regenerative braking cannot be used.
The life of the diesel engine is comparatively shorter.
There is a necessity to provide special cooling system for the diesel engine in addition to
motor-generator set.
Petrol-electric traction:
This system, due to electric conversion, provides a very fine and continuous control which
makes the vehicle capable of moving slowly at an imperceptible speed and creeping up the
steepest slope without throttling the engine.
In case of electric traction provision of a negative booster is essential. By avoiding the flow
of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of underground pipe work and
interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.
Whereas steam locomotives can use their steam for heating the compartments in cold
weather very cheaply, the electric locomotives have to do it at an extra cost.
In cold countries a service locomotive is required to run up and down the line in order to
prevent the formation of layer of ice on the conductor rails.
8. Draw the Speed time curve of traction and also explain the various periods and the action
It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time in seconds along
x- axis. The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be obtained by
determining the area between the curve and the time axis corresponding to this interval.
A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve consists of five
sections.
1. Notching up period (0 to t1):
During this period of run (0 to t1), starting resistance is gradually cut so that the motor
current is limited to a certain value and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased
and the traction motor accelerates from rest.
To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved from one notch to another.
Hence this period is called notching up period.
The acceleration is almost uniform during this period. Therefore speedtime curve is a
straight line (OA).
Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose due to highstarting torque
When DC series motor is fed from AC supply, it works but not satisfactorily due to some of
the following reasons:
If DC series motor is fed from AC supply, both the field and the armature currents reverse
for every half cycle. Hence, unidirectional torque is developed at double frequency.
Alternating flux developed by the field winding causes excessive eddy current loss, which
will cause the heating of the motor. Hence, the operating efficiency of the motor will
decrease.
Field winding inductance will result abnormal voltage drop and low power factor that leads
to the poor performance of the motor.
Induced emf and currents flowing through the armature coils undergoing commutation will
cause sparking at the brushes and commutator segments.
Three-phase induction motor
The three-phase induction motors are generally preferred for traction purpose due to the
following advantages.
Simple and robust construction.
Trouble-free operation.
The absence of commutator.
Less maintenance.
Simple and automatic regeneration.
High efficiency.
Three-phase induction motors also suffer from the following drawbacks.
Low-starting torque.
High-starting current and complicated speed control system.
It is difficult to employ three-phase induction motor for a multiple-unit system used for
propelling a heavy train.
Three-phase induction motor draws less current when the motor is started at low
frequencies.
When a three-phase induction motor is used, the cost of overhead distribution system
increases and it consists of two overhead conductors and track rail for the third phase to feed
power to locomotive, which is a complicated overhead structure and if any person comes in
contact with the third rail, it may cause danger to him or her.
Linear induction motor
It is a special type of induction motor that gives linear motion instead of rotational motion,
as in the case of a conventional motor.
In case of linear induction motor, both the movement of field and the movement of the
conductors are linear.
A linear induction motor consists of 3-φ distributed field winding placed in slots, and
secondary is nothing but a conducting plate made up of either copper or aluminum
The field system may be either single primary or double primary system.
In single primary system, a ferro magnetic plate is placed on the other side of the copper
plate; it is necessary to provide low reluctance path for the magnetic flux. When primary is
excited by 3-φ AC supply, according to mutual induction, the induced currents are flowing
through secondary and ferromagnetic plate.
Now, the ferro magnetic plate energized and attracted toward the primary causes to unequal
air gap between primary and secondary. This drawback can be overcome by double primary
system. In this system, two primaries are placed on both the sides of secondary, which will
be shorter in length compared to the
Synchronous Motor
The synchronous motor is one type of AC motor working based upon the principle of
magnetic lacking.
It is a constant speed motor running from noloadto full load.
The construction of the synchronous motor is similar to the AC generator; armature winding
is excited by giving three- phase AC supply and field winding is excited by giving DC
supply.
The synchronous motor can be operated at leading and lagging power factors by varying
field excitation.
The synchronous motor can be widely used various applications because of constant speed
from no-load to full load.
High efficiency.
Low-initial cost.
Power factor improvement of three-phase AC industrial circuits. other dep ending upon the
use of the motor.
11. Explain the effective efforts required to run a train on track?
Tractive Effort (Ft)
It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as „tractive effort‟. It is denoted with the symbol Ft.
The tractive effort is a vector quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive.
It is measured in newton.
The net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train
to run on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
o Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
o To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
o To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).
Tractive effort
The effective efforts required to run a train on track is
i) Tractive effort needed to provide acceleration (Fa)
ii) Tractive effort needed to overcome the train resistance (Fr)
iii) Tractive effort needed to overcome gradients (Fg)
12. Write in detail the recent trends available in electric traction system.
Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is
suspended with no support other than magnetic fields.
Magnetic pressure is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational and any other
accelerations.
Earnshaw's theorem proves that using only static ferromagnetism it is impossible to stably
levitate against gravity, but servomechanisms, the use of diamagnetic
materials,superconduction, or systems involving eddy currents permit this to occur.
In some cases the lifting force is provided by magnetic support levitation, but there is a
mechanical bearing little load that provides stability. This is termed pseudo-levitation.
Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, magnetic bearings and for product display
purposes.
Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation):
With a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, pseudo-levitation is relatively
straightforwardly achieved.
If two magnets are mechanically constrained along a single vertical axis, for example, and
arranged to repel each other strongly, this will act to levitate one of the magnets above the other.
Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile
member, such as a string or cable.
Another example is the Zippe-type centrifuge where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive
magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below.
Diamagnetism:
In electric traction, it is desirable that the train accelerates and decelerates at a constant rate for
the comfort of the passengers.
Using thyristors, this objective can be met in the following way:
When the speed goes down during breaking the generator voltage decreases. For a particular
braking torque a particular armature current is required.
This is achieved by increasing the field excitation to a relatively high value.
If, however, the generator voltage exceeds the supply voltage, in dynamic braking, this increase
is permissible as the armature is not connected to the supply and the energy of the generator can
be dissipated in the braking resistors, external resistances in series with the armature are
connected in case of regenerative braking to absorb the voltage difference between the armature
voltage and supply voltage.
With this, of course, part of the generated power is wasted in the external resistors and the
efficiency of the overall system is decreased.
Various methods of speed control and electric braking employing thyristors have already been
studied in power electronic subjects.
In addition to ordinary phase control methods, cycle selection methods of control of SCR for
varying the voltage applied to the traction motors are also employed.
In this method the required average voltage is obtained by accepting or rejecting a certain
numbers of complete half cycles.
In practice, at the start only one half out of eight is accepted and as the speed builds up, it is
gradually raised to 2/8, 3/8 and finally 8/18 for full power operation.
This method is advantageous due to low frequency harmonics, low rate of rise of current, better
power factor etc.
In chopper control of traction motors, at start, the ‘on’ period of pulse is kept very short which
lengthens during the period of controlled acceleration.
Thus the average voltage applied across the traction motors is gradually increased keeping the
mean value of the input current close to the desired value.Fig. shows a typical thyritorised dc
traction system supplying a group of four separately excited motors.
The armatures are supplied from half controlled bridge converters. However, it is desirable to
feed the field windings through fully controlled bridge converters so as to reduce the ripple in
the field current.
Low ripple in the field current ensures low iron losses in the machines. However, if regenerative
braking is required then the armature should be supplied from fully controlled bridges.
Freewheeling diodes are connected as illustrated to ensure good waveform of armature current.
The armatures are connected in series – parallel arrangement to ensure good starting and
running characteristics.
It is seen that armatures are supplied by three bridges connected in series.
For starting first only bridge A is triggered and firing angle is advanced as speed builds up.
When bridge A is fully conducting (i.e. when α=0), bridge B is triggered and then bridge C is
triggered.
During starting field currents are set to maximum to provide high starting torque.
The use of three bridges ensures better power factor than would be possible with a single
bridge.
13. Briefly explain how the current collection system works in the traction motor.
There are mainly two systems for locomotives, tramways or trolley buses.
Conductor rail system.
Overhead system.
Conductor Rail System:
It is employed at 600V for suburban services since it is cheaper, inspection and maintenance
easier. The current is supplied to the electrically operated vehicle. The insulated return rail is
elimination to electrolytic action due to currents on other public services buried in the
cicinity of railway tunnels. A special steel alloy (iron 99.63%, carbon 0.05%, manganese
0.2%, phosphorus 0.05%, silicon 0.02% and sulphur 0.05%) is used.
It has a resistance of about . The conductor rail is not fixed rigidly to the insulators in order
to take care of the contraction and expansion of rails.
The current can be collected at about 300 to 500A. At least two shoes must be provided on
each side to avoid discontinuity in the current flow and for voltage 1200V.
Overhead System:
This system is adopted when the trains are to be supplied at high voltage of 1500V or above.
This system is used for ac railways and also used with dc tramways, trolley buses and
locomotives operating at voltages 1500V and above with return conductor. Three types of
current collectors are commonly used.
Trolley Collector:
It is employed with tramways and trolley buses.
It consists of a grooved gun metal wheel or grooved slider shoe with carbon insert carried at
the end of a long pole.
The other end of this pole is hinged to a swiveling base fixed to the roof of the vehicle.
The necessary upward pressure for the pole and current collector is achieved by springs.
As two trolley wires are required for a trolley bus, a separatetrolley collector is provided for
each wire.
Bow Collector:767i/
The low collector consists of light metal strip or low 0.6 or 0.9 m wide pressing against the
trolley wire and attached to a framework mounted on the roof of vehicle.
Collection strip is made of soft material such as copper, aluminum or carbon that it should
wear instead of trolley wire as it is easy to replace worn out collection strip than trolley
wire. c)
Pantograph Collector:
The pantograph is employed in railways for collection of current where the operating speed
is as high as 100 or 130 kmph and current to be collected are as large as 2000 or 3000A.
pantograph are mounted on the roof of the vehicles and usually carry a sliding shoe for
contact with the overhead trolley wire.
The contact shoes are usually about 1.2m long. There may be a single shoe or two shoes on
each pantograph. Materials used for pantograph is oftern steel with wearing plates of copper
or bronze inserted. The pressure varies from 5 to 15kg.
14. Explain briefly about the Series-Parallel Speed control of DC Series Motor
To control the DC series motor this is another way called series parallel technique. This is the
method normally used in traction by connecting two or more than that of the series motor are
couple mechanically at the same load.
Whenever the series motors are connected in sequence (series) like shown in the figure, each
and every armature of the motor receive the one-half of the rated voltage.
Thus the speed will be less. If the series motors are connected in parallel, each and every
armature of the motor receives the full normal voltage and hence the speed is also high.
Thus we can achieve the two speeds (low or high) by connecting the motor either in series or
parallel. Note for the same load on the pair of motors, the speed of the system would run nearly
4 times once motors are in parallel as while they are in series.
Characteristic of DC Series Motor
Series Parallel and Resistance Control Method
This series parallel method is generally employed with the resistance control. For example
two series motor are mechanically coupled to drive a vehicle.
At cessation, through a starting resistance the motors are connected in series.
The series motors are taking place up in series respectively and the starting resistance is
gradually cut out step by step in rise the speed.
When the total resistance is cutout step by step the voltage supplied to each one of the motor
is about one-half of the line voltage and the speed is also increased about one-half times.
Further to increase the motor speed, then each motors are to be connected in parallel and the
resistance to be connected in series at the same time.
The starting resistance is again gradually reduced till full speed of the motor is achieved. At
that moment field control is attained.
TWO MARKS
Efficiency is more
Without wasting energy, more than one economical speed is possible
The energy lost in the starting resistance is low
23. What are the factors affecting specific energy consumption
Distance between the stops
Train resistance
Acceleration and retardation
Gradient
Type of train equipment.
Continuity in the production of the industry is ensured to a higher degree.
24. State the merits and de merits of electrical braking.
Merits:
Less maintenance
No dirt
Regenerative braking
Possible Demerits:
Motor should have suitable braking characteristics.
No holding torque
During failure of supply mechanical braking needed
25. Give the merits and demerits of group drive.
Merits:
Initial cost of installing the drive is low
In certain industry processes one process is connected to another process and it will be
advantageous if all these interconnected processes are stopped simultaneously.
Demerits:
If at certain instance all the machines are not in operation, then the motor will be working at low
capacity
It is not possible to install any machine at a distance place.
The possibility of installation of additional machines in an existing industry is limited
26. With respect to the traction systems, explain the term ‘free running’
There are five distinct periods in the running of train
Notching up period
Acceleration period
Free running period
Coasting period
Braking period
In traction system, free running is the status of train run which indicates the train runs at constant
speed attained at the end of speed curve running.
Free running period: During this period on level track the power output from the driving axle
balances the rate at which energy is expended against the resistance to motion. At the end of speed
curve running train reaches maximum speed
27. What is the voltage level used in traction distribution network?
DC system: 1500 V to 3000 V (AC source is 33KV)
25 KV single phase AC systems: voltage level used to 300V to 400 V at 25 or 16.67 Hz
Three phase system: voltage level used is 300 V to 3600V at normal frequency or 16.67 Hz
Finally the distribution network is fed at voltage varying between 15Kv to
25Kv at normal frequency at 50Hz.The ac supply is stepped down and converted to dc.
28. What type of motor is used for electric traction? Why?
Series and compound motors are employed in d.c traction systems.
D.C series motor
Advantages
High starting torque