High Voltage Direct

Current Transmission –
Proven Technology
for Power Exchange
2
 Contents

Chapter Theme Page

Contents 3
1 Why High Voltage Direct Current? 4
2 Main Types of HVDC Schemes 6
3 Converter Theory 8
4 Principle Arrangement of an 11
HVDC Transmission Project
5 Main Components 14
5.1 Thyristor Valves 15
5.2 Converter Transformer 18
5.3 Smoothing Reactor 21
5.4 Harmonic Filters 22
5.4.1 AC Harmonic Filter 23
5.4.2 DC Harmonic Filter 25
5.4.3 Active Harmonic Filter 26
5.5 Surge Arrester 28
5.6 DC Transmission Circuit
5.6.1 DC Transmission Line 31
5.6.2 DC Cable 33
5.6.3 High Speed DC Switches 34
5.6.4 Earth Electrode 36
5.7 Control & Protection 38
6 System Studies, Digital Models, 45
Design Specifications
7 Project Management 46

3
1 Why High Voltage Direct Current ?

1.1 Highlights from the High Line-Commutated Current Sourced Self-Commutated Voltage Sourced
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) History Converters Converters
The transmission and distribution of The invention of mercury arc rectifiers in Voltage sourced converters require
electrical energy started with direct the nineteen-thirties made the design of semiconductor devices with turn-off
current. In 1882, a 50-km-long 2-kV DC line-commutated current sourced capability. The development of Insulated
transmission line was built between converters possible. Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) with high
Miesbach and Munich in Germany. voltage ratings have accelerated the
At that time, conversion between In 1941, the first contract for a commer- development of voltage sourced
reasonable consumer voltages and cial HVDC system was signed in converters for HVDC applications in the
higher DC transmission voltages could Germany: 60 MW were to be supplied lower power range.
only be realized by means of rotating to the city of Berlin via an underground
DC machines. cable of 115 km length.The system The main characteristics of the voltage
with ± 200 kV and 150 A was ready for sourced converters are a compact design,
In an AC system, voltage conversion is energizing in 1945. It was never put four-quadrant operation capability and
simple. An AC transformer allows high into operation. high losses.
power levels and high insulation levels
within one unit, and has low losses. It is Since then, several large HVDC systems Siemens is offering voltage sourced
a relatively simple device, which requires have been realized with mercury arc converters for HVDC applications with
little maintenance. Further, a three-phase valves. ratings up to 250 MW under the trade
synchronous generator is superior to a name HVDC plus Power Link Universal
The replacement of mercury arc valves Systems.
DC generator in every respect. For these by thyristor valves was the next major
reasons, AC technology was introduced development. The first thyristor valves This paper focuses upon HVDC trans-
at a very early stage in the development were put into operation in the late mission systems with high ratings, i.e.
of electrical power systems. It was soon nineteen-seventies. with line-commutated current sourced
accepted as the only feasible technology converters.
for generation, transmission and distri- The outdoor valves for Cahora Bassa
bution of electrical energy. were designed with oil-immersed
thyristors with parallel/series connection
However, high-voltage AC transmission of thyristors and an electromagnetic firing
links have disadvantages, which may system.
compel a change to DC technology:
Further development went via air-
• Inductive and capacitive elements of insulated air-cooled valves to the air-
overhead lines and cables put limits insulated water-cooled design, which is
to the transmission capacity and the still state of the art in HVDC valve design.
transmission distance of AC trans-
mission links. The development of thyristors with higher
• This limitation is of particular signi- current and voltage ratings has eliminated
ficance for cables. Depending on the the need for parallel connection and
required transmission capacity, the reduced the number of series-connected
system frequency and the loss eva- thyristors per valve. The development of
luation, the achievable transmission light-triggered thyristors has further
distance for an AC cable will be in the reduced the overall number of
range of 40 to 100 km. It will mainly components and thus contributed to
be limited by the charging current. increased reliability.
• Direct connection between two AC Innovations in almost every other area
systems with different frequencies is of HVDC have been constantly adding
not possible. to the reliability of this technology with
• Direct connection between two AC economic benefits for users throughout
systems with the same frequency or the world.
a new connection within a meshed
grid may be impossible because of
system instability, too high short-circuit
levels or undesirable power flow
scenarios. HVDC = high voltage direct current
DC = direct current
Engineers were therefore engaged over AC = alternating current
generations in the development of a IGBT = insulated gate bipolar
technology for DC transmissions as a transistor
supplement to the AC transmissions.

4
1.2 Technical Merits of HVDC 1.3 Economic Considerations 1.4 Environmental Issues
The advantages of a DC link over an AC For a given transmission task, feasibility An HVDC transmission system is basi-
link are: studies are carried out before the final cally environment-friendly because
decision on implementation of an HVAC improved energy transmission possi-
• A DC link allows power transmission or HVDC system can be taken. Fig.1-1 bilities contribute to a more efficient
between AC networks with different shows a typical cost comparison curve utilization of existing power plants.
frequencies or networks, which can between AC and DC transmission
not be synchronized, for other reasons. considering: The land coverage and the associated
• Inductive and capacitive parameters right-of-way cost for an HVDC overhead
do not limit the transmission capacity • AC vs. DC station terminal costs transmission line is not as high as that
or the maximum length of a DC • AC vs. DC line costs of an AC line. This reduces the visual
overhead line or cable. The conductor • AC vs. DC capitalised value of losses impact and saves land compensation for
cross section is fully utilized because new projects. It is also possible to in-
there is no skin effect. The DC curve is not as steep as the AC crease the power transmission capacity
curve because of considerably lower line for existing rights of way. A comparison
For a long cable connection, e.g. beyond costs per kilometre. For long AC lines between a DC and an AC overhead line
40 km, HVDC will in most cases offer the cost of intermediate reactive power is shown in Fig.1-2.
the only technical solution because of compensation has to be taken into
the high charging current of an AC cable. account.
This is of particular interest for trans-
mission across open sea or into large The break-even distance is in the range
cities where a DC cable may provide the of 500 to 800 km depending on a number
only possible solution. of other factors, like country-specific cost
elements, interest rates for project
• A digital control system provides financing, loss evaluation, cost of right
accurate and fast control of the active of way etc.
power flow.
• Fast modulation of DC transmission
AC- DC-
power can be used to damp power tower tower
oscillations in an AC grid and thus
improve the system stability.
Fig. 1-2: Typical transmission line structures
for approx. 1000 MW

There are, however, some environmental

issues which must be considered for the
Costs Total AC Cost converter stations. The most important
ones are:
• Audible noise
Total • Visual impact
DC Cost • Electromagnetic compatibility
• Use of ground or sea return path
in monopolar operation
AC Losses DC Losses
In general, it can be said that an HVDC
system is highly compatible with any
environment and can be integrated into
it without the need to compromise on
DC Line
any environmentally important issues of
today.
AC Line
DC
Terminals

AC
Terminals

Break-Even Transmission
Fig. 1-1: Distance Distance
Total cost/distance

5
2 Main Types of HVDC Schemes

2.1 DC Circuit 2.2 Back-to-Back Converters 2.3 Monopolar Long-Distance

Transmissions
The main types of HVDC converters are The expression Back-to-back indicates
distinguished by their DC circuit arrange- that the rectifier and inverter are located For very long distances and in particular
ments. The following equivalent circuit in the same station. for very long sea cable transmissions, a
is a simplified representation of the return path with ground/sea electrodes
DC circuit of an HVDC pole. Back-to-back converters are mainly used will be the most feasible solution.
for power transmission between adjacent
AC grids which can not be synchronized.
They can also be used within a meshed
grid in order to achieve a defined power

AC System 1

AC System 2
HVDC
± Id ± flow. Cable/OHL
Ud1 Ud2
Electrodes

HVDC

AC System 2
AC System 1

Fig. 2-1: Equivalent DC circuit

Fig. 2-4: Monopole with ground return path
The current, and thus the power flow, is
controlled by means of the difference In many cases, existing infrastructure or
between the controlled voltages. The environmental constraints prevent the
current direction is fixed and the power use of electrodes. In such cases, a
direction is controlled by means of the metallic return path is used in spite of
voltage polarity. The converter is de- Fig. 2-2: Back-to-back converter increased cost and losses.
scribed in the next section.
AC System 1

AC System 2
HVDC
Cable/OHL

LVDC

Fig. 2-5: Monopole with metallic return path

HVDC = high voltage direct current

DC = direct current
AC = alternating current
Ud = DC voltage 12-pulse
Fig. 2-3: Back-to-back converter Id = DC current
Station Vienna Southeast OHL = overhead line
LVDC = low voltage direct current

6
 2.4 Bipolar Long-Distance 2.4.1 Bipole with Ground Return 2.4.2 Bipole with Dedicated Metallic
Transmissions Path Return Path for Monopolar Operation
A bipole is a combination of two poles This is a commonly used configuration If there are restrictions even to temporary
in such a way that a common low voltage for a bipolar transmission system. The use of electrodes, or if the transmission
return path, if available, will only carry a solution provides a high degree of distance is relatively short, a dedicated
small unbalance current during normal flexibility with respect to operation with LVDC metallic return conductor can be
operation. reduced capacity during contingencies considered as an alternative to a ground
or maintenance. return path with electrodes.
This configuration is used if the required
transmission capacity exceeds that of a
single pole. It is also used if requirement
to higher energy availability or lower load HVDC HVDC
Cable/OHL Cable/OHL
rejection power makes it necessary to

AC System 2
AC System 1

AC System 2
AC System 1
split the capacity on two poles. Electrodes
LVDC
During maintenance or outages of one Cable/OHL
pole, it is still possible to transmit part
of the power. More than 50% of the HVDC HVDC
transmission capacity can be utilized, Cable/OHL Cable/OHL
limited by the actual overload capacity
of the remaining pole.
Fig. 2-6: in bipolar balanced operation (normal) Fig. 2-9: in bipolar balanced operation (normal)
The advantages of a bipolar solution over
a solution with two monopoles are Upon a single-pole fault, the current of
reduced cost due to one common or no the sound pole will be taken over by the 2.4.3 Bipole without Dedicated
return path and lower losses. The main ground return path and the faulty pole Return Path for Monopolar Operation
disadvantage is that unavailability of the will be isolated.
return path with adjacent components A scheme without electrodes or a
will affect both poles. dedicated metallic return path for
monopolar operation will give the lowest
HVDC initial cost.
Cable/OHL
AC System 2
AC System 1

Electrodes
HVDC
Cable/OHL

AC System 2
AC System 1

HVDC
Cable/OHL

Fig. 2-7: in monopolar ground return

operation (converter pole or OHL outage) HVDC
Cable/OHL
Following a pole outage caused by the
converter, the current can be commutated Fig. 2-10: in bipolar balanced operation (normal)
from the ground return path into a
metallic return path provided by the Monopolar operation is possible by
HVDC conductor of the faulty pole. means of bypass switches during a
converter pole outage, but not during an
HVDC conductor outage.
HVDC
Cable/OHL A short bipolar outage will follow a
converter pole outage before the bypass
AC System 2
AC System 1

Electrodes
operation can be established.

HVDC
Cable/OHL

Fig. 2-8: in monopolar metallic return

operation (converter pole outage)

7
3 Converter Theory

3.1 Bridge Circuit Function The angle between the time at which 3.2 12-Pulse Group and Converter
the valve voltage becomes positive and Transformer
Current flows through the valves when the firing time (start of commutation) is
the voltage between the anode and referred to as the firing delay. Fig. 3-2 HVDC converters are usually built as 12-
cathode is positive. For the valve to shows that for a firing delay of 90°, the pulse circuits. This is a serial connection
commutate the current, there must be average voltage equals zero. i.e. the of two fully controlled 6-pulse converter
a positive potential (voltage), and the positive and negative areas of the curve bridges and requires two 3-phase sys-
thyristor must have firing pulses. In the – voltage against time – cancel each tems which are spaced apart from each
reverse direction, i.e. when the potential other out. No active power flows through other by 30 electrical degrees. The phase
between anode and cathode is negative, the converter. difference effected to cancel out the
a firing pulse has no effect. The flow of 6-pulse harmonics on the AC and DC
current in a valve ends when the voltage When the firing delay is greater than side.
between anode and cathode becomes 90°, the negative voltage/time areas
negative. The instant when current begins dominate, and the polarity of the average
to flow through a valve, or to commutate direct voltage changes. Due to physical
from one valve to another, can be delayed reasons, the direction of the current does
by postponing the firing. This method not change. (The thyristor valves conduct 3 1
2
permits the average value of the outgoing current only in one direction.) When the
voltage of the rectifier to be changed. direction of energy flow is reversed, the
The firing pulses are generated by syn- delivery changes to the supply side. The
chronizing the network using an elec- rectifier becomes an inverter which
tronic control device. These pulses can be delivers energy to the AC network.
displaced from their ”natural firing“ point, 4
which is the point where the two phase The average value of the direct voltage
voltages intersect. The method of firing- as a function of the firing delay is given
by: 1 Valve Branch
pulse displacement is called phase 2 Double Valve
control. Udiα = 1.35 * UL * cos α
UL = secondary side line voltage 3 Valve Tower
4 6-pulse Bridge
α = firing angle
γ = extinction angle
Fig. 3-3: Arrangement of the valve branches
in a 12-pulse bridge
DC current in each valve and phase
1 3 5 1
0°
L1 L2 L3 Udi
60°
0° 120° Ud ωt α = 0°
6 2 4 6 2
0°
Id
i1
i2
ωt α = 60°
i3
60°
i4
i5
i6 ωt α = 90°
90 ° γ = 90°
i
L1
i
L2
iL 150° ωt
3 α = 150°
Id γ = 30°
1 3 5

L1
180° ωt
L2 Ud α = 180°
γ = 0°
L3

4 6 2
Fig. 3-1: Six-pulse converter bridge Fig. 3-2: DC voltage of bridge converter
8 as a function of α
 3.3 Reactive Power as a Function
α = 60° of Load
The curve of reactive power demand of
an HVDC station with changing active
power P can be calculated from equation:
Udi α
Q = P * tan [ arc cos ( cos α - dx)]
In Fig. 3-5, the reactive power demand
ωt of a converter is presented under three
different control methods.
If the terminal DC voltage Ud and the
firing angle α (or the extinction angle γ
of an inverter) are held constant, curve
(1) will be obtained. If, however, Uv is
Secondary Voltage held constant (Udi = const regulation), a
of the Transformer linear curve such as (2) is obtained. The
Basic AC Current power of a converter can also be changed
α
when the (nominal) current is held con-
stant by varying the DC voltage. Curve (3)
shows the reactive power demand for
this control method. It is important to
ϕ note that the entire area between curves
(1) and (3) is available for reactive power
control. Each point within this area can
be set by the selection of firing angles
α and ß (or γ).

Fig. 3-4:
Current displacement with angle control
Q/PN
HVDC DC Circuit 1.2
UdN = PdN Rec /IdN 3
1.0
UdN => nominal DC voltage 12-pulse
IdN => nominal DC current 0.8

PdNRec => nominal DC active power

0.6
at the rectifier
0.4 2

0.2 1
P/PN

0.5 1.0

1 Ud = const; α = const ( = const)

2 Ud = const; Uv = const
3 Id = const

Fig. 3-5:
Reactive power demand of an HVDC converter

dx = relative inductive voltage

drop
Uv = valve voltage
Ud = DC voltage 12-pulse
α = firing angle
ß = 180°-α
γ = extinction angle

9
3 Converter Theory

3.4 Reactive Power Control

420 kV 50 Hz 420 kV 50 Hz
The possibility of electronic reactive
power control as demonstrated in the
preceding section is used only to a very
limited degree in HVDC technology. This
is due to economic reasons. Both control
reactive power and commutation reactive
power are increased by the reduction of
the DC voltage and the corresponding
increase of current. However, load losses
increase with the square of the current.
Q = 103 Mvar Q = 103 Mvar
For this reason, application is limited to
the light loads where the necessary filter
circuits produce a considerable overcom- Q = 103 Mvar Q = 103 Mvar
pensation for the reactive power required
by the converter.
Q = 103 Mvar Q = 103 Mvar
Fig. 3-6 depicts the reactive power control
of the Dürnrohr HVDC link. In this system, Fig. 3-6: Reactive-power compensation and
a compensation to ± 60 Mvar was spe- control of an HVDC back-to-back link
cified. Compliance with the Q limit is
achieved by load-dependent switching Q (Mvar)
of a capacitor bank and one of the two 100

high-pass filters. Electronic reactive

power is used only in the light load range. 80
Normally, there is a difference between
the connect and disconnect points of
Normal load
Normal minimum load
Reduced minimum load

Over load

the reactive power elements. This pro- 60

vides a ”switching hysteresis” which
prevents too many switching operations
40
or even a ”pumping”.

20

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 P (MW)

P
____
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 P
N

- 20

- 40

- 60
Electronic Capacitor bank
reactive-power
regulation
High-pass f ilter 2
- 80

High-pass f ilter 1
- 100

Reactive-Power Balance
UAC in p.u. (AC bus voltage)
– cap. reactive-power reactive-power reactive-power reactive-power
+ ind converter AC filters reactors capacitors

QNetwork = + QConv – QFK*UAC 2 + QL*UAC 2 – QC*UAC 2

10
10
 Principle Arrangement of an HVDC Transmission Project 4

The Principle Arrangement of an HVDC

Transmission Project is reflected on the
Moyle Interconnector project. The HVDC
stations between Northern Ireland and
Scotland are operating with the following
highlights:
• Direct light triggered thyristor valves
for the complete HVDC system, with
1872 thyristors in total, with 20% better
reliability and all valve components free
from oil.
• Triple tuned AC filter in both stations.
• Unmanned stations, fully automatic
remote operation and automatic load
schedule operation.
• Hybrid optical ohmic shunt for DC
current measuring unit.
• Low noise station design for:
– AC filter capacitor and reactors
– converter transformer
– converter valve water cooling system
– DC hall with smoothing reactor
• Station design for DC see/land cable
with integrated return conductor and
fibre optic cable for control and
communication.

Date of contract 09/99

Delivery period 27 months

System Data
Transmission capacity 2 x 250 MW
System voltages 250 kV DC
275 kV AC
Rated current 1000 A
Transmission distance 63.5 km

M oy l e I n t erco n n e c t o r

Ballycronan Auchencrosh
More

Overhead Line
Underground
round U
Underground
Cables Ca
Cables

Converter Station Converter Station

Existing 275-kV Undersea Cables Existing 275-kV

Transmission Transmission
System System
Alternating Direct Alternating
Current Current Current

Northern Ireland Scotland

11
11
4
4. Principle Arrangement of an HVDC Transmission Project

LL
14

HA

LL
HA
DC

E
LV
VA
NG
DI
IL
BU
L
RO
4
DC

NT
kV

CO
0
25

EA
AR
ER
RM
O
SF
1

AN
TR
R
TE
ER
3 2 16
NV

14
CO

NK
BA
OR
CIT
PA
CA
T
UN

6 14 15
SH

10
8
9
250 DC Power Cable. HVDC Station Auchencrosh
63,5 km to HVDC Station
Ballycronan More
Northern Ireland Smoothing Reactor
AC-Filter

Pole 1, 250 MW
AC-Filter
Thyristor
Valves
C-Shunt

Thyristor
Valves AC-Filter

Pole 2, 250 MW
AC-Filter
Smoothing Reactor
AC-Filter

AC Bus

12
 11
TER
FIL
AC
ST
TER
FIL

9
8
10
AC
TT

15

275
kV A
C SW
ITCH 5
YAR 6 7
D 5 6 5
6

9
10 275 kV O
HL
8
10 13
9
12

14

1 Quadruple Thyristor Valve

2 Converter Transformer
3 Air Core Smoothing Reactor 10 Current Transformer
4 Control Room and Control Cubicle 11 Voltage Transformer
5 AC Filter Capacitor 12 Combined Current-Voltage Transformer
6 AC Filter Reactor 13 Capacitive Voltage Transformer
7 AC Filter Resistor 14 Surge Arrester
8 Circuit Breaker 15 Earthing Switch
9 Disconnector 16 AC PLC Filter

13
5 Main Components

Components 5.1.1 Introduction

Siemens is a leading supplier of HVDC The thyristor valves make the conversion
systems all over the world. Our compo- from AC into DC and thus are the central
nents are exceeding the usual quality component of any HVDC converter
standards and are system-tailored to the station. The thyristor valves are of the
needs of the grid. indoor type and air-insulated. Siemens
has more than 30 years experience in
the development and manufacturing of
thyristor valves and has maintained the
technical leadership by introducing new
innovative concepts such as the corrosion-
free water cooling and the self-protecting
direct-light-triggered thyristor. This directly
reflects in the high reliability of these
valves.

valve valve valve

valve valve valve

valve valve valve

valve valve valve

12-pulse group

Multiple
valve unit –
quadruple Valve
valve branch

Fig. 5.1-1: Principle circuit diagram

of a 12-pulse group consisting of three
quadruple valves

Fig. 5.1-2: General arrangement of

a 500 kV MVU (valve tower)

14
 Thyristor Valves 5.1

5.1.2 Valve Design

The modular concept of the Siemens
thyristor valves permits different
mechanical setups to best suit each
application: single, double, quadruple
valves or complete six-pulse bridges –
either free – standing or suspended from
the building structure.
For seismic requirement reasons which
exist in some regions of the world,
the standard Siemens valves for long
distance transmission are suspended
from the ceiling of the valve hall. The
suspension insulators are designed to
carry the weight and additional loads
originating for example from an unbal-
anced weight distribution due to insulator
failure, an earthquake or during main-
tenance. Connections between modules
(piping of cooling circuit, fibre optic ducts,
buswork, and suspension insulator
fixtures) are flexible in order to allow
stress-free deflections of the modules
inside an MVU (multiple valve unit)
structure. Figure 5.1-2 shows a typical
quadruple valve tower for a 500 kV DC
system. Each valve is made up of three
modules. Four arresters, each related to
one valve, are located on one side of the
valve tower. Ease of access for main-
tenance purposes, if required, is another
benefit of the Siemens valve design.
By varying the number of thyristors per
module and the number of modules per
valve, the same design can be used for
all transmission voltages that may be
required.

15
5.1 Thyristor Valves

5.1.3 Thyristor Development 5.1.4 LTT (Light-Triggered Thyristor)

Thyristors are used as switches and thus It has long been known that thyristors
the valve becomes controllable. The can be turned on by injecting photons
thyristors are made of highly pure mono- into the gate instead of electrons. The
crystalline silicon. The high speed of use of this new technology reduces the
innovation in power electronics technol- number of components in the thyristor
ogy is directly reflected in the develop- valve up to 80%. This simplification
ment of the thyristor. The high perform- results in increased reliability and
ance thyristors installed in HVDC plants availability of the transmission system.
today are characterized by silicon wafer With LTT technology, the gating light
diameters of up to 5’’ (125 mm), blocking pulse is transmitted via a fibre optic cable
through the thyristor housing directly to Fig. 5.1-4: Valve module with direct-light-triggered thyristor
the thyristor wafer and thus no elaborate
Thyristor Current
(IdN)
Thyristor Blocking
Voltage (UDRM)
electronic circuits and auxiliary power
LTT 8 supplies are needed at high potential.
kA kV The required gate power is just 40 mW.
The forward overvoltage protection is
integrated in the wafer. Further benefits
6 Thyristor Blocking 6 of the direct light triggering are the
Voltage
unlimited black start capability and the
operation during system undervoltage
or system faults without any limitations.
4 4 In case of electrically triggered thyristors
(ETT), this is only possible if enough firing
Thyristor Current for
energy is stored long enough on the
Long-Distance Transmission thyristor electronics.
2 2
Direct light-triggered thyristors with Fig. 5.1-5: Silicon wafer and housing of a direct-
integrated overvoltage protection (LTT) light-triggered thyristor, fibre optic cable for gating
is a proven technology meanwhile and
the Siemens standard. In 1997, it has
1970 1980 1990 2000 2003 been implemented successfully for the Light Pipe
first time (Celilo Converter Station of the
Fig. 5.1-3: Thyristor development Pacific Intertie). It shows excellent per-
voltages up to 8 kV and current carrying formance and no thyristor failures or
capacities up to 4 kA DC. Thus no parallel malfunction of the gating system have Cu Si
thyristors need to be installed in today’s been recorded. BPA has emphasized its
HVDC systems for handling the DC confidence in this technology in 2001 by
awarding Siemens the contract to replace Cu Mo
current. The required DC system voltages
are achieved by a series connection of all mercury arc valves with direct-light-
a sufficient number of thyristors. triggered thyristor valves. Furthermore,
this valve technology is used for the Fig. 5.1-6: The optical gate pulse is transmitted
Moyle Interconnector (2 x 250 MW), directly to the thyristor wafer
which went into service in 2001 and is
on contract for the 3000-MW, ± 500-kV
Guizhou-Guangdong system.
Monitoring of the thyristor performance
is achieved by a simple voltage divider
circuit made from standard off-the-shelf
resistors and capacitors; monitoring
signals are transmitted to ground poten-
tial through a dedicated set of fibre optic
cables as for the ETT. However, all elec-
tronic circuits needed for the evaluation
of performance are now located at
Cu = Copper ground potential in a protected environ-
Si = Silicon ment, further simplifying the system.
Mo = Molybdenum The extent of monitoring is the same as
LTT = Light-triggered thyristors for the ETT.
ETT = electrically triggered It can be expected that this technology
thyristors will become the industry standard in
HVDC thyristor valves of the 21st century,
paving the way towards maintenance-
16 free thyristor valves.
5.1.5 Valve Cooling 5.1.6 Flame Resistance
Siemens has used the parallel water Much effort has been invested by
cooling principle for more than 25 years. Siemens to minimize the fire risk:
No corrosion problems have ever been
encountered. • All oil has been eliminated from the
valve and its components. Snubber
The thyristors are stacked in the module capacitors and grading capacitors use
with a heat sink on either side. The water SF6 as a replacement for impregnating
connection to the heat sinks can be oil.
designed in parallel or series as shown • Only flame-retardant and self-extin-
in figure 5.1-7. The parallel cooling circuit guishing plastic materials are used.
provides all thyristors with the same • A wide separation between the
cooling water temperature. This allows a modular units ensures that any local
better utilization of the thyristor capability. overheating will not affect neighbouring
Siemens makes use of this principle, components.
which offers the additional advantage • Careful design of the electrical
that electrolytic currents through the heat connections avoids loose contacts.
sinks – the cause for electrolytic corrosion
– can be avoided by placing grading The past has shown that Siemens HVDC
electrodes at strategic locations in the installations have never been exposed
water circuit. Siemens water cooling also to a hazardous valve fire. The tests
does not require any de-oxygenizing performed on actual components and
equipment. samples in the actual configuration as
used in the valve indicate that the im-
proved design indeed is flame-retardant
and the risk of a major fire following
a fault is extremely low or even non-
existent.

Fig. 5.1-8: Converter valves

d Sylmar HVDC station, Los Angeles, USA
b a c

a c
b

Fig. 5.1-7: Piping of module cooling circuit –

parallel flow (top); series flow (bottom)
a) thyristor; b) heat sink; c) connection piping;
d) manifold

15
17
5.2 Converter Transformer

Siemens supplies transformers which Project: Tian Guang

meet all requirements concerning power, HVDC bipolar long-
voltage, mode of operation, low noise distance transmission
level, connection techniques, type of PN = 2 x 900 MW
cooling, transport and installation. They Ud = ± 500 kV
also comply with special national design Transformers:
requirements. SN = 354/177/177 MVA
1-ph/3-w unit
All over the world, power transformers UAC = 220 kV
from Nuremberg enjoy a great reputation.
What the Nuremberg plant manufactures
reflects today’s state of the art and
testifies to the highest levels of quality
and reliability. Our quality management
system is certified to DIN 9001, the
world’s most stringent standard. Our
accredited test laboratories likewise meet
the latest specifications.

Fig. 5.2-1: Converter transformer for the Tian Guang

HVDC project during type test

Converter transformer for the Three Gorges

HVDC project 284 MVA, 1-ph/2-w unit

16
18
5.2.1 Functions of the HVDC 5.2.2 Transformer Design Variations
Converter Transformer
There are several aspects which play a
The converter transformers transform role in selecting the transformer design:
the voltage of the AC busbar to the
required entry voltage of the converter. Transportation Weight and Dimensions
The 12-pulse converter requires two In systems of high power, weight can
3-phase systems which are spaced apart be an important consideration, in
from each other by 30 or 150 electrical particular where transportation is difficult.
degrees. This is achieved by installing a The relative transportation weights of
transformer on each network side in the the 4 major design types are
vector groups Yy0 and Yd5. approximately as follows:
At the same time, they ensure the
voltage insulation necessary in order to Single-phase – two-winding transformer 1
make it possible to connect converter Single-phase – three-winding transformer 1.6
bridges in series on the DC side, as is
necessary for HVDC technology. The Three-phase – two-winding transformer 2.2
transformer main insulation, therefore, Three-phase – three-winding transformer 3.6
is stressed by both the AC voltage and
the direct voltage potential between The transport dimension and the weight
valve-side winding and ground. The of the converter transformer depends
converter transformers are equipped with on the limitations for street, railway and
on-load tap-changers in order to provide shipping, especially in the case of
the correct valve voltage. bridges, subways and tunnels.

Transformer Rating 5.2.3 HVDC Makes Special Demands

on Transformers
STrafo Rec (6-pulse) = √2 * IdN * Usec Rec
HVDC transformers are subject to
IdN nominal DC current
operating conditions that set them apart
Usec Rec Transformer-voltage
from conventional system or power
valve side (Rectifier)
transformers. These conditions include:
STrafo Inv (6-pulse) = √2 * IdN * Usec Inv
• Combined voltage stresses
Usec Inv Transformer voltage • High harmonics content of the
valve side (inverter) operating current
• DC premagnetization of the core
The valve windings which are connected
to the rectifier and the converter circuit
are subject to the combined load stress
of DC and AC voltage. Added to this
stress are transient voltages from outside
caused by lightning strikes or switching
operations.
The high harmonics content of the
operating current results from the virtually
quadratic current blocks of the power
converter. The odd-numbered harmonics
with the ordinal numbers of 5, 7, 11, 13,
17 … cause additional losses in the
windings and other structural parts.

17
19
5.2 Converter Transformer

5.2.4 Main Components of the Windings Bushings

Converter Transformer
The large number of parameters con- Compared to porcelain, composite
Core cerning transport limitations, rated power, bushings provide better protection
transformer ratio, short-circuit voltage, against dust and debris. A 15% higher
HVDC transformers are normally single- and guaranteed losses require significant DC voltage testing level compared to the
phase transformers, whereby the valve flexibility in the design of windings. windings underscores the particular
windings for the star and delta connection safety aspect of these components.
are configured either for one core with In concentric winding arrangements, star
at least two main limbs or separately for or delta valve windings lying directly on Special Tests for HVDC Transformers
two cores with at least one main limb, the core have proven optimal in many
depending on the rated power and the cases. The line winding, normally with a Special tests for verifying operating
system voltage. Appropriately sized return tapped winding, is then mounted radial functionality are required for HVDC
limbs ensure good decoupling for a outside this core configuration. transformers. The applicable international
combined arrangement of windings. standards are subject to constant further
The valve windings with high insulation development. Separate tests with DC
The quality of the core sheets, the levels and a large portion of current voltage, switching and lightning impulse
lamination of the sheets, and the nominal harmonics make particular demands on voltages cover the range of different
induction must all conform to special the design and the quality of the winding voltage loads. The 2-MV DC voltage
requirements covering losses, noise level, manufacturing. Together with its generator in the Nuremberg Transformer
over-excitation, etc. Special attention pressboard barriers, each limb set, in- Plant is well-suited for all required DC
must be paid to the DC premagnetization cluding a valve, an overvoltage and a voltage and reverse poling tests. The
of the core due to small asymmetries tapped winding, forms a compact unit, most important criterion is partial
during operation and stray DC currents which is able to cope with the demand discharge. A maximum of 10 discharges
from the AC voltage network. The effects made by voltage stress, loss dissipation, over 2000 pC during the last 10 minutes
of DC premagnetization must be and short-circuit withstand capability. of the test is permitted.
compensated by appropriate design and
manufacturing efforts (e.g. additional core Tank
cooling ducts, avoidance of flux pinching
in the core sheet). The unconventional tank design in HVDC
transformers result from the following
requirements:
• The valve-side bushing should extend
into the valve hall
• The cooling system is mounted on the
opposite side to facilitate rapid trans-
former exchange
For HVDC transformers with delta and
star valve winding in one tank, the valve
bushing must be arranged so that their
ends conform to the geometry of the
thyristor valve towers. This frequently
leads to very high connection heights
and the need to mount the oil expansion
tank at a significant height.
In close cooperation with the equipment
design department, the engineering
specialists at the Nuremberg Transformer
Plant have always been able to find a
design suited to every customer
requirement.

20
 Smoothing Reactor 5.3

5.3.1 Functions of the Smoothing smoothing reactors is often selected The wall bushing in composite design
Reactor in the range of 100 to 300 mH for long- is the state-of-the-art technology which
distance DC links and 30 to 80 mH for provides superior insulation perform-
• Prevention of intermittent current back-to-back stations. ance.
• Limitation of the DC fault currents
• Prevention of resonance in the 5.3.3 Arrangement of the
DC circuit Smoothing Reactor
• Reducing harmonic currents including
limitation of telephone interference In an HVDC long-distance transmission
system, it seems quite logical that the
Prevention of intermittent current smoothing reactor will be connected in
series with the DC line of the station pole.
The intermittent current due to the This is the normal arrangement.
current ripple can cause high over-volt- However in back-to-back schemes, the
ages in the transformer and the smoothing smoothing reactor can also be connected
reactor. The smoothing reactor is used to the low-voltage terminal.
to prevent the current interruption at
minimum load. 5.3.4 Reactor Design Alternatives
Limitation of the DC fault current There are basically two types of reactor
design:
The smoothing reactor can reduce the • Air-insulated dry-type reactors
fault current and its rate of rise for • Oil-insulated reactors in a tank
commutation failures and DC line faults.
The reactor type should be selected taking
This is of primary importance if a long the following aspects into consideration:
DC cable is used for the transmission. • Inductance
For an overhead line transmission, the • Costs
current stress in valves is lower than the • Maintenance and location of spare
stress which will occur during valve short units
circuit. • Seismic requirements
Fig. 5.3-1: Oil-insulated smoothing reactor –
Prevention of resonance in the An advantage of the dry-type reactor is Three Gorges project
DC circuit that maintaining spare units (to the extent • Inductance: 270 mH
necessary) is not very expensive because • Rated voltage: 500 kV DC
The smoothing reactor is selected to avoid they usually consist of several partial • Rated current: 3000 A DC
resonance in the DC circuit at low order coils. However for very large inductances
harmonic frequencies like 100 or 150 Hz. it is possible to have more than one unit
This is important to avoid the ampli- and it could be a problem if much space
fication effect for harmonics originally is not available.
from the AC system, like negative se-
quence and transformer saturation. In high seismic regions, setting them on
post-insulators or on an insulating plat-
Reducing harmonic currents form is a possible problem. Oil-insulated
including limitation of telephone smoothing reactors are then the preferred
interference solution.
Limitation of interference coming from The oil-insulated reactor is economical
the DC overhead line is an essential for very high power (Id2 * Ldr).
function of the DC filter circuits. However, It is the best option for regions with high
the smoothing reactor also plays an seismic requirements.
important role to reduce harmonic
currents acting as a series impedance. One bushing of the oil-insulated
smoothing reactor penetrates usually
5.3.2 Sizing of the smoothing Reactor into the valve hall, while the other
bushing is normally in a vertical position.
While the current and voltage rating of For the air-insulated dry-type smoothing
the smoothing reactor can be specified reactor, a wall bushing is needed to
based on the data of the DC circuit, the connect with the valves.
inductance is the determining factor
in sizing the reactor.Taking all design
Fig. 5.3-2: Air-insulated smoothing
aspects above into account, the size of reactor – Tian Guang project
• Inductance: 150 mH
• Rated voltage: 500 kV DC
• Rated current: 1800 A DC

21
5.4 Harmonic Filters

The filter arrangements on the AC side Fig. 5.4.1-1:

of an HVDC converter station have two Harmonic Order Different harmonic
filter types

Filter Impedance
main duties:
• to absorb harmonic currents generated 1000
by the HVDC converter and thus to 800
reduce the impact of the harmonics 600
on the connected AC systems, like AC 400
voltage distortion and telephone 200
interference 0
• to supply reactive power for compen- Single - 0 10 20 30 40 50
sating the demand of the converter tuned
station
Each filter branch can have one to three Harmonic Order
tuning frequencies. Figure 5.4.1-1 shows
different harmonic filter types with their Filter Impedance
impedance frequency characteristics. 1000
800
600
400
200
0
Double- 0 10 20 30 40 50
tuned

Harmonic Order
Filter Impedance

800
600
400
200
0
Triple- 0 10 20 30 40 50
tuned

Fig. 5.4.1-2:
AC filters and capacitor banks
of Gezhouba/Shanghai

22
 AC Harmonic Filter 5.4.1

5.4.1.1 Design Criteria for AC Filters related to the harmonic voltage on the There are basically two methods to
converter station busbar. The purpose of include the network impedance in the
Reactive Power Requirements the filter circuit is to provide sufficiently filter calculations:
The reactive power consumption of an low impedances for the relevant harmo-
nic components in order to reduce the • to calculate impedance vectors for all
HVDC converter depends on the active relevant harmonics and grid conditions
power, the transformer reactance and harmonic voltages to an acceptable level.
• to assume locus area for the imped-
the control angle. It increases with in- The acceptance criteria for the harmonic ance vectors
creasing active power. A common re- distortion depend on local conditions and
quirement to a converter station is full regulations. A commonly used criterion The modelling of a complete AC network
compensation or overcompensation at for all harmonic components up to the with all its components is very complex
rated load. In addition, a reactive band for 49th order is as follows: and time-consuming. For this reason, the
the load and voltage range and the locus method is very often used. It is
permitted voltage step during bank Dn individual harmonic voltage based on a limited number of measure-
switching must be determined. These distortion of order n in percent of ments or calculations. Different locus
factors will determine the size and the fundamental AC busbar voltage areas for different harmonics or bands
number of filter and shunt capacitor (typical limit 1%) are often determined to give a more
banks. precise base for the harmonic perform-
Drms total geometric sum of individual ance calculation.
Harmonic Performance Requirements voltage distortion Dn (typical limit
2%) A typical locus area is shown in
HVDC converter stations generate fig. 5.4.1-4. It is assumed that the im-
characteristic and non-characteristic The BTS Telephone Interference Factor pedance vector will be somewhere inside
harmonic currents. For a twelve-pulse (TIF) and the CCITT Telephone Harmonic the perimeter of the coloured area.
converter, the characteristic harmonics Form Factor (THFF) are determined with
are of the order n = (12 * k) ± 1 (k = 1,2,3 weighted factors in order to evaluate the The impedance vector of the filter is
...). These are the harmonic components voltage distortion level on the AC busbar transformed into the Y plane for each
that are generated even during ideal with respect to the expected interference harmonic frequency.
conditions, i.e. ideal smoothing of the level in nearby analogue telephone
systems. The IT product is a criterion for With both the network and the filter
direct current, symmetrical AC voltages, impedances plotted in the admittance
transformer impedance and firing angles. harmonic current injected into AC over-
head lines. The criteria based on tele- plane, the shortest vector between the
The characteristic harmonic components filter admittance point and the network
are the ones with the highest current phone interference are in many cases
irrelevant, because modern digital tele- admittance boundary gives the lowest
level, but other components may also possible admittance value for the parallel
be of importance. The third harmonic, phone systems are insensitive to har-
monic interference. combination of the network and the filter.
which is mainly caused by the negative This value is used to determine the
sequence component of the AC system, highest possible harmonic voltage.
will in many cases require filtering. Network Impedance

An equivalent circuit for determination The distortion level on the AC busbar

of harmonic performance is given in depends on the grid impedance as well
figure 5.4.1-3. The most commonly used as the filter impedance. An open circuit
criteria for harmonic performance are model of the grid for all harmonics is not
on the safe side. Parallel resonance
between the filter impedance and the
grid impedance may create unacceptable
amplification of harmonic components
for which the filters are not tuned. For Ymin = 1/Rmax Ymax = 1/Rmin
Ih ZF Uh ZN this reason, an adequate impedance
model of the grid for all relevant har-
monics is required in order to optimize
the filter design. Yf
Harmonic Filter Network
Current Impedance Impedance
Source Yres

Fig. 5.4.1-4 Circle of network admittance and

Fig. 5.4.1-3: Equivalent circuit for calculation
the resonance conditions
of harmonic voltages and currents in the
AC system
Ih = harmonic source current
Zf = filter impedance
ZN = network impedance
Uh = harmonic voltage

23
5.4.1 AC Harmonic Filter

The selective resonance method repre- Requirements to Ratings • Filter Energization

sents a reasonable compromise. It takes The AC filter is assumed to be
into consideration the fact that the Steady-State Calculation energized at the moment for the
highest voltage distortion (highest har- The voltage and current stresses of AC maximum AC bus peak voltage. This
monic voltage) occurs with a parallel filters consist of the fundamental case is decisive for the inrush currents
resonance between filter and AC network. frequency and harmonic components. of AC filters.
It is unrealistic however, to assume that Their magnitudes depend on the AC
such a parallel resonance takes place at • Fault Recovery after Three-Phase
system voltage, harmonic currents, Ground Fault
all frequencies. Normally it is sufficient operating conditions and AC system
to consider in the calculation of total Various fault-clearing parameters
impedances. The rating calculations are should be investigated to determine
distortion and TIF value only two maxi- carried out in the whole range of
mum individual distortions from the the maximum energy stresses for AC
operation to determine the highest filter arresters and resistors. The worst-
resonance calculation. The AC network is steady-state current and voltage stresses
assumed to be open for the remaining case stresses are achieved if the
for each individual filter component. HVDC converters are blocked after
harmonic currents.
fault initiation, while the AC filters
The filter calculations must reflect de- Transient Calculation remain connected to the AC bus after
tuning caused by AC network frequency The objective of the transient rating fault clearing and recovery of the AC
deviations and component parameter calculation is to determine the highest system voltage. In this case, a tempo-
deviations. Production tolerances, tempe- transient stresses for each component rary overvoltage with high contents of
rature drift and failure of capacitor ele- of the designed filter arrangement. The non-characteristic harmonics will occur
ments are the main contributors to results of the transient calculation should at the AC bus due to the effects of
parameter deviations. contain the voltage and current stresses load rejection, transformer saturation
for each component, energy duty for filter and resonance between filter and
resistors and arresters, and the insulation AC network at low frequency.
levels for each filter component.
To calculate the highest stresses of both
lightning and switching surge type,
different circuit configurations and fault
cases should be studied:
• Single-Phase Ground Fault
The fault is applied on the converter
AC bus next to the AC filter. It is
assumed that the filter capacitor is
charged to a voltage level corres-
ponding to the switching impulse
protective level of the AC bus arrester.
• Switching Surge
For the calculation of switching
surge stresses, a standard wave of
250/2500 µs with a crest value equal
to the switching impulse protective
level of the AC bus arrester is applied
at the AC converter bus.

Fig. 5.4.2-1 DC filter of Guangzhou/China

24
 DC Harmonic Filter 5.4.2

5.4.2.1 DC Filter Circuits 5.4.2.2 Design Criteria for DC Filter The equivalent disturbing current com-
Circuits bines all harmonic currents with the aid
Harmonic voltages which occur on the of weighting factors to a single inter-
DC side of a converter station cause AC The interference voltage induced on the ference current. With respect to tele-
currents which are superimposed on the telephone line can be characterized by phone interference, it is the equivalent
direct current in the transmission line. the following equation: to the sum of all harmonic currents. It
These alternating currents of higher also encompasses the factors which
frequencies can create interference in m
determine the coupling between the
neighbouring telephone systems despite
limitation by smoothing reactors.
Ieq =
√ ∑ (H
1
µ * Cµ * Iµ(x) )
2
HVDC and telephone lines:
DC filter circuits, which are connected Vin(x) = Z * Ieq • Operating mode of the HVDC system
in parallel to the station poles, are an (bipolar or monopolar with metallic or
effective tool for combating these pro- where ground return)
blems. The configuration of the DC filters • Specific ground resistance at point x
very strongly resembles the filters on the
AC side of the HVDC station. There are Vin(x) = Interference voltage on the The intensity of interference currents is
several types of filter design. Single and telephone line at point x strongly dependent on the operating
multiple-tuned filters with or without the (in mV/km) condition of the HVDC. In monopolar
high-pass feature are common. One or Hµ = Weighting factors which reflect operation, telephone interference is
several types of DC filter can be utilized the frequency dependence of significantly stronger than in bipolar
in a converter station. the coupling between tele- operation.
phone and HVDC lines
Cµ = “C message“ – weighting
factors
Iµ(x) = Resulting harmonic current
of the ordinal number µ in the
HVDC line at point x as the
vector sum of the currents
caused by the two HVDC
stations
Ieq = Psophometric weighted
equivalent disturbing current
Z = Mutual coupling impedance
between the telephone and
HVDC lines

25
5.4.3 Active Harmonic Filter

Active filters can be a supplement to A transformer matches the voltage and

passive filters due to their superior per- current levels at the converter output
formance. They can be installed on the and provides the required insulation level.
DC side or on the AC side of the convert- The goal of the scheme is to inject har-
er. The connection to the high-voltage monics in the network with the same
system is achieved by means of a passive amplitude and the opposite phase of the
filter, forming a so-called hybrid filter. This harmonics at the measurement point in
arrangement limits the voltage level and order to cancel them.
the transient stresses on the active part,
so that comparatively low equipment The filter for AC application comprises
ratings can be used. Appropriate design three single-phase systems controlled
allows the exploitation of the positive by a common digital control system. A
characteristics of both passive and active major difference is the measurement:
filters. Additionally, the passive part instead of measuring the line current,
can be used as a conventional passive the active filter at Tjele measures and
filter if the active part is by-passed for eliminates harmonics at the 400 kV AC
Fig. 5.4.3-1: Active DC filter on site
(Tian Guang HVDC project) maintenance purposes. busbars of the station. This has the ad-
vantage that the harmonic control requi-
res just one measurement point, compa-
red to a current measuring scheme,
Main Components which would require to measure the
400 kV Bus No.Component current at several points and combining
the measured signals. The other advan-
Capacitive Existing 1 IGBT converter tage is that the active filter works just
Potential Optical Passive like a passive filter ideally should do, i.e.
Transformer
Interface Filter 2 Reactor for inductivity
From the ZF2 adapting eliminating the voltage in the bus, thus
Other Phases
Underground
representing no change in philosophy.
Active AC Filter Cable
3 Thyristor switch for con-
To/From Main verter overvoltage and The active filter is fully assembled in a
Common Simadyn D Components overcurrent protection transportable container and is tested at
cubicle of the Other
Control and Auxiliary (control and
protection) Phases (in 4 Transformer the factory as a complete system before
Equipment the Container) shipping. Fig. 5.4.3-5 shows the installed
2 5 Low-pass filter active AC filter (in the container) at the
IGBT
1 3 4 5 6 7 6 Vacuum switch Tjele substation.
conv. LP 8 9
7 ZnO arrester
8 Isolators and grounding
switches
9 LC branch for deviating
Main Components
(one Set for Each Phase) the 50-Hz current
component
Fig. 5.4.3-2: Single-line diagram
of the active AC filter.
All phases have the same topology.
The Siemens active filters use voltage-
sourced IGBT converters with a high
switching frequency to produce an output
voltage up to approximately 700 Vpeak,
containing harmonics up to the 50th as
required. A powerful high-speed con-
trol and protection system processes
the currents and/or voltages measured
at the network by appropriate sensors
and produces the control pulses for the
IGBT’s.

26
One harmonic controller is dedicated to
each harmonic selected for elimination
by the action of the active filter. In these
harmonic controllers, the particular Voltage on the To the IGBT
400-kV Busbar Converter
harmonic is isolated and expressed by
a complex signal in the frequency domain.
This is done through multiplication by
sin (hωt) and cos (hωt), where h is the Optical Self-Tuning IGBT
order of the harmonic, ω the network Input system control
angular frequency and t the time. These
two orthogonal signals are produced by
a module synchronized by the funda- LP PI
Filter Controller Σ
mental component of the filter current.
The signal pair obtained after the
mentioned multiplication and filtering To Other From Other
feeds a complex controller with PI Harmonic Harmonic
cos (hωt)
characteristic. The output of the controller Controllers Synchronization sin (hωt)
Controllers
is then shifted back to the time domain
by multiplication by cos (hωt) and sin (hωt).
Harmonic Controller
The process is essentially linear, so that
all harmonic controllers can operate
Fig. 5.4.3-3: Principle block diagram of the harmonic control
simultaneously and the sum of all har-
monic controller outputs gives the wave-
form required by the active filter. This
signal is then given to the IGBT control
module, which includes a pulse width
modulator besides functions for pro-
tection and supervision of the converter.

Harmonic voltages at the 400-kV bus …with active filter control (23th, 25th,
(L1) without and… 35th, 47th and 49th harmonics)
Fig. 5.4.3-4: Plots from measurement:
left without, right with active filter control

Fig. 5.4.3-5: Installation of the active AC filter, 400-kV

substation Tjele (Denmark)

27
5.5 Surge Arrester

Siemens surge arresters are designed

optimally to the following requirements:
Excellent pollution performance for Arrester Voltage Referred Rated Voltage ÛR
to Continuous Operating Continuous Operating
coastal and desert regions or in areas Voltage Û/ÛC
with extreme industrial air pollution. Voltage ÛC

High mechanical stability, e.g. for use

in seismic zones. 2
Extremely reliable pressure relief
behaviour for use in areas requiring
special protection.

What is more, all Siemens surge arresters

are sized for decades and the material 1
used provides a contribution towards the 20 °C
protection of the environment. 115 °C
The main task of an arrester is to protect 150 °C
the equipment from the effects of over-
voltages. During normal operation, it should 0
have no negative effect on the power 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104
system. Moreover, the arrester must be
Current through Arrester Ia [A]
able to withstand typical surges without
incurring any damage. Non-linear resistors
with the following properties fulfil these Fig. 5.5-1: Current/voltage characteristics of a non-linear MO arrester
requirements:
• Low resistance during surges so that
overvoltages are limited
• High resistance during normal operation
in order to avoid negative effects on the
power system and
• Sufficient energy absorption capability
for stable operation
MO (Metal Oxide) arresters are used in
medium-, high-and extra-high-voltage
power systems.
Here, the very low protection level and
the high energy absorption capability
provided during switching surges are
especially important. For high voltage
levels, the simple construction of MO
arresters is always an advantage.

Arresters with Polymer Housings

Fig. 5.5-2 shows two Siemens MO
arresters with different types of housing.
In addition to what has been usual up to
now – the porcelain housing – Siemens
offers also the latest generation of high-
voltage surge arresters with polymer
housing.

Fig. 5.5-2: Measurement of residual voltage

on porcelain-housed (foreground) and
polymer-housed (background) arresters

28
Fig. 5.5-3 shows the sectional view of For terminal voltage lower than the
such an arrester. The housing consists of permissible maximum operating voltage
a fibre-glass-reinforced plastic tube with (MCOV), the arrester is capacitive and
insulating sheds made of silicon rubber. carries only few milli-amps. Due to its
The advantages of this design which has extreme non-linear characteristics, the
the same pressure relief device as an arrester behaves at higher voltages as
arrester with porcelain housing are low-ohmic resistor and is able to dis-
absolutely safe and reliable pressure charge high current surges. Through
relief characteristic, high mechanical parallel combination of two or more
strength even after pressure relief and matched arrester columns, higher energy
excellent pollution-resistant properties. absorption capability of the ZnO arrester
The very good mechanical features mean can be achieved.
that Siemens arresters with polymer
housing (type 3EQ/R) can serve as post Routine and type tests have been
insulators as well. The pollution-resistant determined in accordance with the
properties are the result of the water- international standards:
repellent effect (hydrophobicity of the IEC 60060 High-voltage test techniques
silicon rubber). IEC 60071 Insulation coordination
The polymer-housed high-voltage arrester IEC 60099 Surge arresters
design chosen by Siemens and the high-
quality materials used by Siemens
provide a whole series of advantages
including long life and suitability for
outdoor use, high mechanical stability Fig. 5.5-3: Cross-section of a polymer-housed
and ease of disposal. arrester

Flange with Gas Diverter Nozzle

Seal

Pressure Relief Diaphragm

Compressing Spring

Metal Oxide Resistors

Composite Polymer Housing

FRP Tube/Silicon Sheds

29
5.5 Surge Arrester

AC Filter Bank 9 10 DC to DC line 10

1 DC

Aa
AC V D D
2 Filter 4 AC Bus 5 11

A V
DC 12
3 7 C Filter
V
Fdc2
Fac1 Fac2 6 Fdc1
A V
8 Neutral

Valve Hall Boundary E Cn E

Neutral 8

Arrester Type Location Main Task

AC bus arrester ’A’ The ZnO arrester will be installed close to Limit the overvoltages on the primary and secondary
the converter transformer line side bushing side of the converter transformer

AC filter bus The ZnO arrester will be installed at the Protect the AC filters busbar against
arrester ‘Aa’ busbar of the AC filter banks lightning surges

Valve-arrester ‘V’ 3-pulse commutation group The main events to be considered with respect to
arrester discharge currents and energies are:
a) Switching surges from the AC system through
converter transformer
b) Ground fault between valve and HV bushing of
converter transformer during rectifier operation

Converter group 12-pulse converter group Protection against overvoltages from the
arrester ‘C’ AC and DC side

DC bus arrester ‘D’ At the HV smoothing They will protect the smoothing reactor and the
reactor and at the DC lines converter station (e.g. DC switchyard) against
overvoltages coming from the DC side

Neutral DC bus Neutral DC bus The neutral bus arresters protect the LV terminal of
arrester ‘E’ the12-pulse group and the neutral bus equipment

AC filter arrester AC filter The operating voltage for the AC filter arresters consists
‘Fac‘ of low fundamental frequency and harmonic voltages.
Overvoltages can occur transiently during faults

DC filter arrester DC filter The operating voltage for the DC filter arresters consists
‘Fdc‘ of low DC component and harmonic voltages.
Overstresses may occur transiently during DC bus
fault to ground

30
 DC Transmission Circuit 5.6

5.6.1 DC Transmission Line 5.6.1.1 Towers

DC transmission lines could be part of Such DC transmission lines are mechani-
overall HVDC transmission contract either cally designed as it is practice for normal
within a turnkey package or as separately AC transmission lines; the main
contracted stand-alone item, later inte- differences are:
grated into an HVDC link. • The conductor configuration
• The electric field requirements
As an example of such a transmission • The insulation design
line design, an existing bipolar tower for
the 300-kV link between Thailand and 5.6.1.2 Insulation
Malaysia is shown in Fig.5.6.1-1 and a
bipolar AC transmission tower of Tian The most critical aspect is the insulation
Guang is shown in Fig. 5.6.1-2. design and therefore this topic is
described more detailed below:
For DC transmission lines, the correct
insulation design is the most essential
subject for an undisturbed operation
during the lifetime of the DC plant.

Design Basics
• The general layout of insulation is
based on the recommendations of
IEC 60815 which provides 4 pollution
classes.
• This IEC is a standard for AC lines. It
has to be observed that the creepage
distances recommended are based on
the phase-to-phase voltage (UL-L). When
transferring these creepage distances
recommended by IEC 60815 to a DC
line, it has to be observed that the DC
voltage is a peak voltage pole to
ground value (UL-G). Therefore, these
creepage distances have to be multi-
plied by the factor √3.
• Insulators under DC voltage operation
Fig. 5.6.1-1: are subjected to more unfavourable
DC transmission line conditions than under AC due to higher
(bipolar tower 300-kV link) collection of surface contamination
caused by constant unidirectional
electric field. Therefore, a DC pollution
factor as per recommendation of
CIGRE (CIGRE-Report WG04 of
Cigre SC33, Mexico City 1989) has
to be applied.
The correction factors are valid for por-
celain insulators only. When taking com-
posite insulators into consideration,
additional reduction factors based on the
FGH report 291 “Oberflächenverhalten
von Freiluftgeräten mit Kunststoffge-
häusen“ must be applied.

Fig. 5.6.1-2:
DC transmission tower
(bipolar) Tian Guang
(South China)

31
5.6.1 DC Transmission Line

Types of Insulators Long-Rod Porcelain Type Composite Long-Rod Type

There are 3 different types of insulators Positive Aspects: Positive Aspects:
applicable for DC transmission lines: • Long-term experience/track record • Small number of insulators in one string
• Cap and pin type • Good mechanical strength • Up to 400 kV per unit possible
• Long-rod porcelain type • Puncture-proof • Good mechanical strength, no chipping
• Composite long-rod type • Good self-cleaning ability of sheds possible
• Less intermediate metal parts • Very light – easy handling during
In detail: • Due to caps on both insulator ends not construction and maintenance, logistical
Cap and Pin Type subjected to pin corrosion because of advantages in areas with poor access
low track current density • Puncture-proof
Positive Aspects: • Moderate price • Good self-cleaning behaviour –
• Long-term experience/track record hydrophobicity of surface which offers
• Good mechanical strength Negative Aspects: advantages of less creepage distance
• Vandalism-proof • Heavy strings up to pollution class II
• Flexibility within the insulator string • String not very flexible • Very good RIV and corona behaviour
Negative Aspects: • Under extreme vandalism failure of • Good resistance against vandalism
• Very heavy strings string possible • Shorter insulator string length
• Insulator not puncture-proof • Very competitive price
• Poor self-cleaning ability
• Loss of strength/reliability due to Negative Aspects:
corrosion of pin in polluted areas caused • Relatively short track record in DC appli-
by high track current density (this is cation (since 1985 first major application
extremely important for DC lines) in the USA)
• Many intermediate metal parts • Less tracking resistance against flash-
• High RIV and corona level over (can be improved by means of
• For DC applications, special shed design corona rings)
and porcelain material necessary
• Very expensive

Example/Comparison of Insulator Application for a 400 kV Transmission Line

Cap and Pin Porcelain Long-Rod Composite Long-Rod

Insulator string length 5270 mm 5418 mm 4450 mm

31 insulators 4 insulators 1 insulator

Creepage per unit 570 mm 4402 mm 17640 mm

Weight of string 332 kg 200 kg 28 kg

Breaking load 160 kN 160 kN 160 kN

32
 DC Cable 5.6.2

5.6.2.1 General Application for 2) Oil-Filled Cable 2) Lapped Thin Film Insulation
DC Cables In comparison to mass-impregnated
cables, the conductor is insulated by As insulating material a lapped non-
An important application for HVDC are paper impregnated with a low-viscosity impregnated thin PP film is used instead
transmission systems crossing the sea. oil and incorporates a longitudinal duct of the impregnated materials. The tests
Here, HVDC is the preferred technology to permit oil flow along the cable. Oil- for the cable itself are completed. Now
to overcome distances > 70 km and trans- filled cables are suitable for both AC and the tests for the accessories such as
mission capacities from several hundred DC voltages with DC voltages up to joints are under process.
to more than a thousand MW (for bipolar 600 kV DC and great sea depths. Due This type of cable can sustain up to 60%
systems). For the submarine transmission to the required oil flow along the cable, higher electrical stresses in operation,
part, a special cable suitable for DC the transmission line lengths are however making it suitable for very long and deep
current and voltage is required. limited to <100 km and the risk of oil submarine cables.
leakage into the environment is always Another area of development are the
5.6.2.2 Different Cable Types subject to discussions. cable arrangements. For monopolar
For HVDC submarine cables there are transmission systems, either the return
different types available. 5.6.2.3 Future Developments for path was the ground (’ground return‘) or
HVDC Cables a second cable. The first solution always
1) Mass-Impregnated Cable provokes environmental concerns where-
This cable type is used in most of Most of the research and development
activities for new cable types are done as the second one has excessive impact
the HVDC applications. It consists on the costs for the overall transmission
of different layers as shown in with the insulation material. These
include: scheme.
Fig. 5.6.2.2-1. Therefore, a new cable was developed
The conductor is built of stranding copper 1) XLPE with an integrated return conductor. The
layers of segments around a central cable core is the traditional design for a
To overcome the disadvantages of the mass-impregnated cable and the return
circular rod. The conductor is covered by above mentioned cable types, extensive
oil and resin-impregnated papers. The conductor is wound outside the lead
R&D was conducted by the cable sheath. The conductor forms also part of
inner layers are of carbon-loaded papers suppliers. The result is the XLPE cable.
whereas the outer layer consists of the balanced armour, together with the
XLPE means ‘cross-linked polyethylene‘ flat steel wire layer on the outside of the
copper-woven fabrics. and forms the insulation material. The
The fully impregnated cable is then lead- return conductor insulation.
conductor is the segmented copper This cable type was installed between
sheathed to keep the outside environ- conductor insulated by extruded XLPE
ment away from the insulation. The Scotland and Northern Ireland for
layers. The insulation material is suitable 250 kV and 250 MW. R&D is ongoing to
next layer is the anti-corrosion protection for a conductor temperature of 90°C and
which consists of extruded polyethylene. increase the voltage as well as the capa-
a short-circuit temperature of 250°C. city of the cable with integrated return
Around the polyethylene layer galvanized Although the main application for XLPE
steel tapes are applied to prevent the conductor.
cables is the land installation and the off-
cable from permanent deformation shore industry, XLPE with extruded
during cable loading. Over the steel tapes insulation material for HVDC systems of
a polypropylene string is applied followed lower transmission capacities are under
by galvanized steel wire armour. development.
The technology is available for voltages
up to 500 kV and a transmission capacity
of up to 800 MW in one cable with instal-
lation depths of up to 1000 m under sea
level and nearly unlimited transmission
lengths. The capacity of mass-impreg-
nated cables is limited by the conductor
temperature which results in low overload
capabilities.

1 Conductor of copper-shaped wires

2 Insulation material
3 Core screen
4 Lead alloy sheath
5 Polyethylene jacket
6 Reinforcement of steel tapes
7 Bedding
8 Armour of steel flat wires

Fig. 5.6.2.2-1: Mass-impregnated cable

33
5.6.3 High Speed DC Switches

5.6.3.1 General 5.6.3.2 Types and Duties of the High-Speed DC Switches

Like in AC substations, switching devices Type Duties
are also needed in the DC yard of HVDC
stations. One group of such devices can HSNBS The HSNBS must commutate some
be characterized as switches with direct (High-Speed Neutral Bus Switch) direct current into the ground electrode
current commutation capabilities, path in case of faults to ground at the
commonly called ”high-speed DC station neutral.
switches”. HSGS The HSGS is needed to connect the
Siemens standard SF6 AC circuit-breakers (High-Speed Ground Switch) station neutral to the station ground grid
of proven design are able to meet the if the ground electrode path becomes
requirements of high-speed DC switches. isolated.
MRTB If one pole of a bipolar system has to be
(Metallic Return Transfer Breaker) blocked, monopolar operation of the
HVDC
second pole is achieved automatically,
Overhead Line but with return current through ground
(refer to Fig. 5.6.3-1). If the duration of
AC System 2
AC System 1

Electrodes ground return operation is restricted, an

alternate mode of monopolar operation
is possible if the line of the blocked pole
HVDC can be used for current return. This mode
Overhead Line is called metallic return (refer to Fig.
5.6.3-1). The MRTB is required for the
transfer from ground to metallic return
Bipolar without interruption of power flow.
GRTS The GRTS is needed for the retransfer
(Ground Return Transfer Switch) from metallic return to bipolar operation
HVDC via ground return, also without
Overhead Line interruption of power flow.
AC System 2
AC System 1

Electrodes

HVDC
Overhead Line

Monopolar ground return

HVDC
Overhead
overhead Line
line
AC System 1

AC System 2

Electrodes

HVDC
Overhead
overhead Line
line

monopolar metallic return

Monopolar

Fig. 5.6.3-1: HVDC system configurations

MRTB at Tian Guang/China DC switchyard

34
32
5.6.3.3 Design Considerations The ground resistance Re is normally much With reference to Fig 5.6.3-4, the principle
lower than the metallic resistance Rm. of commutation is as follows: At t0,the
Details regarding the duties of ”HSNBS” Therefore, during the transitional steady- contacts of the breaker separate, thereby
and ”HSGS” are not discussed here but state condition with both MRTB and GRTS introducing an arc into the circuit. The
the more severe requirements for “MRTB“ closed, most of the current is flowing characteristic of this arc sets up an oscilla-
and ”GRTS“ are explained. through ground which determines the tory current (frequency determined by
commutation requirements for MRTB and Lp Cp) which is superimposed on the
Fig. 5.6.3-2 shows the disposition of MRTB GRTS. I3 may reach values of up to 90% current I1. As Rp is very small, the oscillation
and GRTS. Rm and Lm represent resistance of the total current I0 and I4 values of up is not damped but increases. As soon as
and inductance of the transmission line. to 25% of I0. the current I1 passes through zero (refer
Re and Le comprise resistances and The following considerations refer to MRTB to t1 in Fig. 5.6.3-4), the breaker current is
inductances of the ground return path. only. From the above it can be concluded interrupted. I3 ,however, remains unchanged
that the commutation duties for transfer now charging the capacitor Cp until it
from ground to metallic return (MRTB) are reaches a voltage limited by the energy
much heavier than from metallic to ground absorber. This voltage acts as a counter
I4 Rm Lm
return (GRTS). voltage to reduce the current I3 and to in-
Fig. 5.6.3-3 shows the basic MRTB circuit. crease the current I4 (refer to Fig. 5.6.3-4
GRTS An energy absorber and the LpCp resonant and Fig. 5.6.3-3). When the absorber
I3 Re Le circuit (Rp represents the ohmic resistance limiting voltage has been reached, the
I0
of that branch only) are connected in current I3 flows into the absorber which
MRTB parallel to the main switch (MRTB) which dissipates an amount of energy deter-
is a conventional SF6 -type AC breaker. mined by the counter voltage to bring I3
to zero. When I3 has dropped to zero, I4
equals I0 and the current commutation
from ground to metallic return has been
Fig. 5.6.3-2: Equivalent circuit relevant to completed. It should be noted that the
MRTB and GRTS operation current I0 of the system (refer to Fig. 5.6.3-2)
did not change, i.e. the power transmission
was never interrupted.
I4 Rm Lm
There are also MRTB principles other than
Lp Cp the explained one which are based on
GRTS Rp Lp Cp complex resonant circuits, externally exci-
I3 Re Le ted with additional auxiliary power sources.
I0
With respect to reliability and availability,
MRTB the advantage of the above principle with
I3 I1 Uarc
Energy Absorber passive resonant circuit which is used by
Siemens is quite evident. The nozzle
system and specifically the flow of SF6
I1 gas in the Siemens standard SF6 AC
Fig. 5.6.3-3: Details of the MRTB circuit
breakers result in an arc characteristic
t0 t1 t which ensures reliable operation of the
tc passive resonant circuit. One unit of a
Uabsorber standard three-phase AC breaker is used.
Uarc Extensive series of laboratory tests have
I3 shown the capabilities of Siemens SF6
breakers for this application. Furthermore,
such switches are successfully in operation
in various HVDC schemes.

Fig. 5.6.3-4: Principles of MRTB operation

33
35
5.6.4 Earth Electrode

5.6.4.1 Function of the Earth 5.6.4.2.2 Vertical Land Electrode

Electrode in the HVDC System
If the ground strata near the surface have
Earth electrodes are an essential Fill a high specific resistance, but
component of the monopolar HVDC underneath, there is a conductive and
transmission system, since they carry 1.5 – 2.5 m
sufficiently thick stratum at a depth of
Crushed several tens of meters, the vertical deep
the operating current on a continuous
Stone electrode is one possible solution.
basis. They contribute decisively to the
Conductor Figure 5.6.4-3 shows, as an example,
profitability of low-power HVDC systems, (Iron)
since the costs for a second conductor one of the four deep electrodes at Apollo,
Coke Bed
(with half the nominal voltage) are (0.5 x 0.5m2) the southern station of the Cahora Bassa
significantly higher, even for transmission HVDC system.
over short distances, than the costs for
Fig. 5.6.4-1: Cross section through a horizontal Manhole
the earth electrodes. land electrode Flexible
Earth electrodes are also found in all Connection
bipolar HVDC systems and in HVDC As shown in figure 5.6.4-1, the electrode Feed Cable
multi-point systems. As in any high- conductor itself, which is generally made Concrete
voltage system, the power circuit of the of iron, is laid horizontally at a depth of Cover
approximately 2 m. It is embedded in
HVDC system requires a reference point
coke which fills a trench having a cross
for the definition of the system voltage section of approximately 0.5 x 0.5 m2.
80 m
as the basis for the insulation coordination Graphite Rod
and overvoltage protection. In a bipolar The advantage of this design becomes
apparent in anodic operation. The passage Crushed
HVDC system, it would conceivably be Stone
possible to connect the station neutral of the current from the electrode
conductor into the coke bed is carried Borehole ø:
point to the ground mat of the HVDC
10
m

primarily by electrons, and is thus not 0.57 m

station to which the line-side star points associated with loss of the material. Coarse Grain
of the converter transformers are also Graphite
40 m

connected. But since the direct currents Conductive

Several typical patterns of horizontal
Layer
in the two poles of the HVDC are never land electrodes are illustrated in
absolutely equal, in spite of current figure 5.6.4-2
balancing control, a differential current
flows continuously from the station Fig. 5.6.4-3: Vertical electrode at Apollo, the
neutral point to ground. It is common a) b) Southern Cahora Bassa HVDC station
practice to locate the grounding of the
station neutral point at some distance
(10 to 50 kilometres) from the HVDC c) d) e) f)
station by means of special earth a) Line Electrode
electrodes. b) Multi-Line Electrode
c) Ring-Shaped Electrode
5.6.4.2 Design of Earth Electrodes d) Ring-Shaped Electrode
with second ring
Earth electrodes for HVDC systems may e) Star-Shaped Electrode
be land, coastal or submarine electrodes. f) Forked Star Electrode
In monopolar HVDC systems, which exist Fig. 5.6.4-2: Plan view of a typical design of
almost exclusively in the form of sub- horizontal land electrodes
marine cable transmission systems, there
are fundamental differences between
the design of anode and cathode
electrodes.

5.6.4.2.1 The Horizontal Land Electrode

If a sufficiently large area of flat land with
relatively homogeneous ground charac-
teristics is available, the horizontal ground
electrode is the most economical form
of a land electrode.

36
5.6.4.2.3 Cathodic Submarine Electrodes
The design and construction of the Electrode
cathodic submarine electrodes of a Module
monopolar HVDC system with sub-
marine power transmission cable do not
present any particular problems. Since Feed
there is no material corrosion, a copper Cable
cable laid on the bottom should theo-
retically suffice. The length of the cable
must be designed so that the current Coke Bed Graphite Rod
Concrete Cover
density on its surface causes an electrical
field of < 3 V/m in the surrounding water,
which is also safe for swimmers and
Cable
divers. 0.5 – 1 m

5.6.4.2.4 Anodic Submarine Electrodes

2–5m
Figure 5.6.4-4 shows an example of a
0.5 – 1 m
linear submarine electrode for anodic
operation. The prefabricated electrode
modules are lowered to the ocean floor Fig. 5.6.4.-4: Linear submarine electrode
and then connected to the feed cable. (anodic operation)
When the submarine electrodes are
divided into sections which are con- 5.6.4.2.5 Anodic Coastal Electrode
nected to the HVDC station by means
of separate feed cables, the electrode The conventional design of a coastal
can be monitored from the land. electrode is similar to that of a vertical
land electrode. Graphite rods surrounded
by a coke bed are installed in boreholes
which are sunk along the coastline.
The advantage of the coastal electrodes
is easy accessibility for inspection,
maintenance and regeneration, if
necessary.
A coastal electrode can also be con-
figured in the form of a horizontal land
electrode if the ground has the necessary
conductivity or if the necessary con-
ductivity can be achieved by irrigating
the trench with salt water. In either case,
it is assumed that even with a coastal
electrode, the current flow to the
opposite electrode takes place almost
exclusively through the water.

37
5.7 Control & Protection

5.7.1 General
The control system plays an important The Control and Protection System is
role in the successful implementation of based on Siemens standard products.
a high-voltage DC current transmission. This makes sure that many years of
Reliability through redundant and fault- experience and thousands of applications
tolerant design, flexibility through choice contribute to today's control and pro-
from optional control centres and high tection development. At the same time
dynamic performance were the prere- the system performance has been in-
quisites for the development of our control creased substantially by the use of latest
and protection system. Continuous technology CPUs.
feedback during 30 years of operational
experience and parallel use of similar The control is divided into the following
technology in related applications yielded hierarchical levels:
the sophisticated technology we can • Operator control system
offer today. • Control and protection systems level
• Field level (I/Os, time tagging,
Main objectives for the implementation interlocking)
of the HVDC control system are reliable
energy transmission which operates
highly efficient and flexible energy flow
that responds to sudden changes in
demand thus contributing to network
stability.

Fig. 5.7.1-1:
HVDC control hierarchy, one station
(bipolar HVDC transmission scheme,
redundancy is not shown in this figure)

GPS

Operator Control Level Master AC/DC Remote Interstation

Workstations Clock I&M Control Interface Telecom

Local Area Network

Control Level Pole 1 Pole 2

Digital Station Control Control
Controls Control & VBE & VBE
Telecontr. Telecontr.

Field Bus

Optical Fibre

Process
Level Measured Measured Measured
Values AC Filter AC Feeder Transformer 1 DCYard Values Valves Values Transformer 2 DC Yard

38
In the following, functions, tasks and
components are described to provide an
overview.

5.7.1.1 High Availability

The main design criteria for Siemens
HVDC systems is to achieve maximum
energy availability. That as well applies Internet
to the design of the control and pro- Internet
tection systems. A single fault of any
piece of equipment in the control and
protection systems may not lead to a
loss of power. Therefore, the major control
and protection components are
configured as redundant systems.

5.7.1.2 Self-Testing Features

All control and protection systems are
equipped with self-diagnostic features
that allow the operator to quickly identify
and replace the defective part to recover 5.7.1.5 Modular Design Fig. 5.7.1-2: Remote access connection
redundancy as soon as possible.
The control and protection systems use
multiprocessor hardware. This means
5.7.1.3 Low Maintenance
that the computing capacity can be
With today’s digital systems there is no scaled according to the needs.
requirement for routine maintenance.
Therefore, the most economic solution
However, should it be necessary to
can be found in the first place, while
replace single modules, the design is
additional computing capacity can be
such, that there is no operational impact
added at any time later, should it be
on the HVDC system. This is achieved
needed.
by designing all major components as
redundant systems, where one channel
5.7.1.6 Communication Interfaces
can be switched off without impact on
the other channel. The control and protection systems as
well as the operator control system
5.7.1.4 Best Support – Remote Access communicate via either Ethernet or
Profibus protocols. For remote control
As an optional feature, the control system
interface, a number of major protocols
can be accessed from the remote via
is available. Other protocols can be
the Internet. This allows plant monitoring,
implemented as an option.
detection of faults and from remote
locations. To ensure the data security, a
VPN (Virtual Private Network) encrypted
connection is used. Furthermore, a
password protected access makes sure
that only authorized personnel have
access.
With the use of a standard web browser,
main diagnosis data can be monitored.
Expert access to the control components
is also possible. This remote access
feature provides excellent support for
the commissioning and maintenance
personell by our design engineers.

39
5.7 Control & Protection

5.7.2 Control Components Pole 1 Energy Transfer Control Location Control Level Runbacks Power Swing Pole 1
Mode Pole 1 DC-Sequences Stabilization
DEBLOCKED P = const. DC - WS STATION ENABLED ENABLED DEBLOCKED
5.7.2.1 Operator Control System Pole 2 Energy Transfer Control Location System Configuration Runups Power Swing Pole 2
Mode Pole 2 DC-Power/Current Damping
The tasks of a modern operations and DEBLOCKED P = const. DC - WS BIPOLAR ENABLED ENABLED DEBLOCKED
monitoring system within the HVDC System Overview
Bipole Control
Date 03
Time 13
- 16 - 94
: 42 : 17
control system include the following:
Station A Station B
• Status information: clear and
Ud = 500 kV Ud = 470 kV
structured overview of the system for Pact = 900 MW Pact = 900 MW
the operator α = 15
Pmax = 1300 MW
Iact = 1800 A
Pmax = 1300 MW
Iact = 1800 A γ
= 18
• Operator guidance: prevent Iset = 1800 A
Iramp = 500 A/min
BP Pact =
BP Pset =
1800 MW
1800 MW
Iset = 1800 A
Iramp = 500 A/min
maloperation, explain conditions I= 0A
Imax = 1980 A BP Pramp = 500 MW/min Imax = 1980 A
I= 0A
• Monitoring of the entire installation
and auxiliary equipment
• Graphic display providing structural Pact = 900 MW
α = 15 Pact = 900 MW γ = 18
overview of the entire system Pmax = 1300 MW
Iact = 1800 A
Pmax = 1300 MW
Iact = 1800 A
• Support of operating personnel through Iset = 1800 A
Iramp = 500 A/min
Iset = 1800 A
Iramp = 500 A/min
integrated operator guidance Imax = 1980 A Imax = 1980 A
Ud = 500 kV Ud = 470 kV

F1 Control Level F2 Energy Transfer Mode F3 BP Power Setting Values

Fig. 5.7.1-3: Operator workstation, typical F4 Power Direction F5 Current Setting Values F6 Reduced Voltage
screen layout for a bipolar HVDC system F7 Bipole Block F8 Modulation Enable/Disable F9 Emergency Stop
overview F10 Power Ramp Stop F11 Operator Notes F12 MENU

• Troubleshooting: support operator EVENT SELECTION SORTING HVDC Transmission System EVENTS JUMPERED 05-03-94
with clear messages that allow quick TRIP+WARN+STAT
DISPLAY SELECTION
TIME EVENT RECORDING AND ALARM SYSTEM
DISPLAY RANGE
0 EVENTS
ACKNOWLEDGE
16:40:12

resume of operation ONLINE ACTUAL DISPLAY FROM 1100 TO 1118 OF 1118 EVENTS NUMBER OF ALARMS: 1

• Display and sorting of events time DATE TIME NR. GROUP EVENT DEVICE DESCRIPTION STATUS
tagged via global positioning system 05-11-93 16:38:42:4220396 12 S =XJ12 OLC: START SEQUENCE RUN
(GPS), automatic generation of 05-11-93 16:38:42:4230400 12 s =XJ12 olc: status standby -
05-11-93 16:38:42:7270949 27 S =JS11 CA01Q0 BREAKER COMMAND ON
process data reports 05-11-93 16:38:42:8620946 27 S =XS11 CA01Q0 BREAKER ON ON

• Display and storage of messages 05-11-93 16:38:42:9410949 27 s =XS11 cac01q0 breaker command off
+
05-11-93 16:38:43:5790769 20 W =XJ11 OLC: C-BANK OFF BLOCKED
concerning events, alarms and 05-11-93 16:39:05:0820397 12 S =XJ12 OLC: STATUS BLOCKED +

disturbances 05-11-93 16:39:05:1280396 12 s =xj12 olc: start sequence stop

05-11-93 16:39:42:0600396 12 S =XJ12 OLC: START SEQUENCE RUN
05-11-93 16:39:42:0610397 12 s =xj12 olc: status blocked -

05-11-93 16:39:42:2270806 21 W =XX11 TELE: H1 MESSAGE TRANS FAULT +

05-11-93 16:39:43:5590806 21 w =xx11 tele: h1 message trans fault -
05-11-93 16:39:52:4700981 29 S =JS11 CA03Q0 BREAKER COMMAND ON
05-11-93 16:39:52:5560978 29 S =XS11 CA03Q0 BREAKER ON
05-.11-93 16:39:52:5610301 09 s =v05 clc: converter blocked -
05-11-93 16:39:52:5610300 09 S =V05 CLC: CONVERTER DEBLOCKED +
05-11-93 16:39:52:5960781 20 w =XJ11 ca03q0 breaker command off
05-11-93 16:39:52:9790981 29 s =js11 OLC: Q-BAND UNDERFLOW +

05-11-93 16:39:53:0210398 12 S =XJ12 OLC: STATUS DEBLOCKED +

05-11-93 16:39:53:0640396 12 s =XJ12 olc: start sequence stop
05-11-93 16:39:55:7030781 20 s =XJ12 olc: q-band underflow -

F1 PAGE UP F2 PAGE DOWN F3 ACKNOWLEDGE

Fig. 5.7.1-4: Sequence of events recording F4 EVENT SELECTION F5 SORT SELECTION F6 PRINTOUT SELECTION
(SER), screen layout for display of SER F7 EVENT ARCHIVE F8 JUMPER EVENT F9 REMOVE EVENT
information F10 INITIATE GEN STATUS F11 RETURN TO PRESENT CONDITIONS F12MENU

40
• Analysis of operating mode based HVDC Date: 18.08.1999
on user-defined and archive data Trend Display 13:11:56
(trend system)

Pole 1

Pole 2

F1: DISPLAY F2: PARAMETER SET F3: PRINT

CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
Fig. 5.7.1-5: Trend system, F4: SELECT F5: ARCHIVE F6: ARCHIVE
example for different F7: F8: FREEZE F9: FREEZE
trend displays F10: DEFAULT F11: ONLINE F12: MENU

5.7.2.2 Control and Protection

Systems Level
The major tasks in this level are: duplicated sensor head redundant channel
• Measuring of actual values Shunt
• Transmission of required amount of
power Analog / Digital Optical Digital control/
• Protection of equipment and personnel
protection
Digital / Optical Signal fibre Digital system
Measuring of Actual Values
To determine the actual values, the hybrid
Id Electrical Energy Optical Energy
optical DC measuring system is used. Power fibre
This system measures the voltage drop
on a shunt in the high-voltage busbar, Optical Energy Electrical Energy Power supply
converts this voltage into a light telegram Sensor Head
and transfers it to the controls via fibre
optics. Sensor Head Box at high voltage level Measuring at control systems

The scheme is designed completely Fibre optic cable

redundant, therefore loss of a signal does
not lead to an impact on power
transmission. This measuring principle The even more obvious advantages of Fig. 5.7.1-6: Principle of the hybrid optical
greatly contributes to an increased such a scheme: measuring scheme
availability of the control and protection • Reduced weight (100 kg)
scheme. • Passive system (linear response)
• Reduced EMC (due to fibre optics)
• Integrated harmonic measurement
(Rogowsky coil) for use in active filters
or harmonic monitoring schemes.

41
5.7 Control & Protection

Power Transmission Protection of Equipment and Personnel Some control actions are initiated by the
protection scheme via signals to the
The pole control system is responsible The DC protection system has the task control systems. With this monitoring
for firing the thyristor valves such that to protect equipment and personnel system, a false trip due to a hardware
the requested power is transmitted. also on a per pole basis.The protection fault of the protection hardware itself is
The pole controls on each side of the systems can be divided into two areas. almost impossible.
transmission link therefore have to fulfil The HVDC-related protection functions
different tasks. The pole control system are referred to as DC protection. These The required functions of the various
on the rectifier side mainly controls the include the classic DC protection functio- protective relays are executed reliably
current such that the requested power nality consisting of converter protection, for all operating conditions. The selected
is achieved, whereas the pole control DC busbar protection, DC filter protec- protective systems ensure that all possi-
system on the inverter side controls the tion, electrode line protection and DC ble faults are detected, selectively cleared
DC voltage such that minimum losses line protection as well as the AC filter and annunciated. The continuously active
are achieved. protection and converter transformer self-monitoring system takes care that
protection. defects of the DC-protection Hardware
The pole control is configured as will be detected.
redundant scheme, so that a failure in The AC protection scheme consists
one channel has no impact on power mainly of the AC busbar, the AC line
transmission. and the AC grid transformer protection.
This channel will be repaired while the The task of the protective equipment is
other channel stays in operation. Then to prevent damage of individual compo-
the repaired channel will resume opera- nents caused by faults or overstresses.
tion. In bipolar schemes, a redundant
pole control system is – of course – Each protection zone is covered by at
assigned to each pole. Failures in one least two independent protective units
pole will not have any impact on the – the primary protective unit and the
remaining pole. secondary (or back-up) protective unit.

Redundant Local Area Network

1 AC-Busbar Protection
2 AC-Line Protection
Red. Field Bus 3 AC-Filter Protection
4 Converter Transformer Protection
5 Converter Protection
Pole Red. Pole 6 DC-Busbar Protection
System 1

System 2

Control System Control 7 DC-Filter Protection

Selection 3
8 Electrode Line Protection
Control 9 DC-Line Protection
Converter Converter
Control Control

9
System 1

System 2

Valve Valve
Base Base 7 6
Electronic Electronic

4
Fibre Optic
Thyristor 5
1
Electronic

12-Pulse Group

Fig. 5.7.1-7: Redundant pole control system Fig. 5.7.1-8: Protection zones, one pole/one
structure (for one 12-pulse group) station
42
All protective equipment in the HVDC
converter station is realized either with
the digital multi-microprocessor system
or with digital Siemens standard protec-
tive relays. ”The DC Protection is of a
fully redundant design. Additionally both
protection systems incorporate main-
and back-up protection functions using
different principles. The AC Protection
consists of a main and back-up system
using different principles. The different
Protection Systems are using different
measuring devices and power supplies.”

5.7.3 Control Aspects

5.7.3.1 Redundancy
All control and protection systems that
contribute to the energy availability are
configured in a redundant setup. This
allows to cover any single fault in the
control and protection equipment without
loss of power.

5.7.3.2 Operator Training

For Siemens HVDC application, an oper-
ator training simulator is available as an Fig. 5.7.1-9: Real-time simulator
option. The simulator allows the operator
to work with the same hardware and 5.7.4.2 Dynamic Performance Test
software than in the real process. This
simulator consists of the original operator The offline simulation with EMTDC is
workstation plus a simulator PC, then already an extremely accurate forecast
runs the HVDC process and feeds the of the real system behaviour. To verify
relevant data to the workstations. the findings and optimize the controller
settings, the control and protection
5.7. 4 Testing and Quality Assurance systems are in addition tested during
the dynamic performance test against a
The design process has a number of real-time simulator. During that phase,
defined review steps that allow to verify the customer may witness these per-
the functionality and performance of the formance tests of the final control and
controls before they are delivered on site. protection software.
Already along with the tender, the use
of accurate simulation tools allows to
answer specific performance issues that
are vital to the customer’s grid.

5.7.4.1 Offline Simulation EMTDC

Siemens uses a simulation tool that
includes a complete control library,
with all details of control and protection
functionality modelled in such detail that
forecast of real system behaviour is 100%
reliable. Therefore it is possible to opti-
mize the application to find the best
economic solution while providing the
optimum performance.

43
 5.7.4.3 Functional Performance Test This is required to assure the systems
being free of transportation damage.
In the functional performance test, the The next station-related tests are the
delivered control and protection hard- subsystem tests. Subsystems consist
ware is installed and tested against a of equipment items which are grouped
real-time simulator. The purpose of the together according to common
FPT is the proper signal exchange functions like AC filter banks or thyristor
between the various control components valve systems. The main task is testing
as well as the verification of the specified the proper function of interconnected
control sequences. This allows optimized systems before switching on high
commissioning time. Furthermore, voltage. Following this, station tests
customer personnel can participate in under high voltage but no energy
this test for operator training and to transfer will take place. Finally, system
become familiar with the control system. and acceptance tests with several
Fig. 5.7.1-11: Example for a functional
performance test setup operating points of energy transfer will
5.7.4.4 On-Site Tests be used for final fine tuning and
On-site tests are basically divided into At the precommissioning stage, the base verification of system performance.
test steps regarding the related station work for commissioning the control
(station A, station B) and into the test system and protection system is re-
steps related to the whole HVDC system quired. The main task is preparation and
(see figure 5.7.1-10). individual testing of any single system.

Hardware
Design
Cubicle
Manufact.
Bid Software Functional On-Site
Stage Contract Design Spec. Design Perf. Tests Tests Operation
Dynamic Perf.
Test (TNA)
EMTDC
C&P Study

Fig. 5.7.1-10: The main steps for the HVDC

control and protection versus the time starting
from the contract award up to the on-site
tests

44
 System Studies, Digital Models, Design Specifications 6

6.1 System Studies 6.2 Digital Models

During the planning stage of a HVDC project preliminary Digital models of HVDC system can be developed
studies are carried out in order to establish the basic according to the specified requirements. Typically a
design of the whole HVDC transmission project. This digital model of dc system is needed for a specific load
includes the co-ordination of all relevant technical parts flow and stability simulation program, while another
of the transmission system like HVDC converters, AC digital model is required for simulation in a typical
and DC overhead lines as well as the submarine cable electromagnetic transients program such as EMTDC.
if applicable. The functionality and settings of HVDC control and
All specified requirements will be taken into account protection system shall be represented in a proper
and are the basis for the preliminary design of the HVDC manner in such models, which allow suitable simulation
transmission link. In addition, special attention is paid of steady state and transient behavior of HVDC system
to improve the stability of both connected AC systems. in the corresponding digital programs. Digital models
Several additional control functions like power modulation, consistent with the actual dc control and protection
frequency control, AC voltage limiter can be included in system are beneficial both for the operation of the HVDC
order to provide excellent dynamic behaviour and to scheme and for the network studies including DC link.
assist the AC systems if the studies show it necessary. Typically such models can be developed on request in
Sub-synchronous oscillation will be avoided by special the detailed project design stage when all major design
control functions if required. All the AC system conditions works of control and protection functions are completed.
and the environmental conditions as given in the relevant
documents will be considered in the design calculations. 6.3 Control and Protection Design Specifications
The final design of the HVDC transmission system
including the operation characteristics will be defined Design Specifications are written for the control,
during the detailed system studies. All necessary studies protection and communication hardware and software.
are carried out to confirm the appropriate performance The control panels are then designed, manufactured
requirements and ratings of all the equipment. inspected and tested in accordance to the design
Due consideration is given to the interaction with the specification. The software for the control and protection
AC systems on both sides, the generation of reactive is also written in accordance to the design specification.
power, system frequency variations, overvoltages, short It is tested using real time simulators in the dynamic
circuit levels and system inertia during all system performance test and functional performance test.
configurations.
Specifications for the topics below are typically written:
Typically the following studies are carried out: a) General Control and Protection
a) Main Circuit Parameters b) Interface Systems
c) Station Control
b) Power Circuit Arrangements
d) Diagnosis Systems
c) Thermal Rating of Key Equipment
e) Pole Control
d) Reactive Power Management
f) HVDC Protection
e) Temporary Overvoltages and Ferro-resonance
g) AC Protection
Overvoltages
h) Metering and Measuring
f) Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination
i) Operator Control
g) Transient Current Requirements
j) Communication
h) AC Filter Performance and Rating
i) DC Filter Performance and Rating
j) AC Breaker and DC High-Speed Switch Requirements
k) Electromagnetic Interference
l) Reliability and Availability calculations
m) Loss Calculation
n) Subsynchronous Resonance
o) Load Flow, Stability and Interaction between different
HVDC Systems
p) Audible Noise

45
7 Project Management

7.1 Project Management in HVDC

Projects
Project Management
The success and functional completion Quality
Assurance Technical Commercial
Procurement
of large projects depends on the struc- Project Manager Project Manager
turing of the project team in accordance
to the related work and manpower
Control &
coordination. Periodically updates and Basic Design Station Design Protection Logistic
adaptation of design guarantee the Engineering Documentation
Training
execution of the project with constant
high quality within the target time frame. Transient
Civil Network
Throughout all production, working Engineering Analyser
process and on-site activities, health, Functional Commercial
safety and environmental protection Main
Components Civil Performance
Test
(HSE) measures s well as application of Construction
Commissioning
commonly agreed quality standards such Installation
as DIN EN ISO 9001 are of prime Communication Financing
Systems
importance to Siemens.

7.1.1 Division Responsibilities Fig.7-1: Project organisation plan

The overall project is divided and
organised according to design activities 7.1.3 Risk reduction 7.1.5 Scheduling
and technical component groups. These
features make it possible to define clear Any risks that could arise due to incorrect The hierarchically structured bar-chart
function packages which are to deadlines, unclear technical concepts or schedule is a high-level control tool in
a great extent homogeneous within excessive costs shall be recognised early project management. The clear structure
themselves and can be processed with enough by a monitoring system so that of sequential processes and parallel
minimised interfaces. counter measures can be taken. This activities is crucial for execution of a
increases contract quality and creates 24 to 36 month duration, according to
7.1.2 Transparency the basis for clear design criteria. the project requirements.
A clear process structure plan (PSP) 7.1.4 Progress Report Deadlines for project decisions –
standardised for HVDC projects makes especially those of the critical path – can
the project contents and sequences Periodically meetings with subcon- easily be identified enabling the project
transparent in their commercial and tractors, in house control working teams manager to make up-to date pre-esti-
technical aspects. Associations and and customer are recorded in progress mates and initiate suitable measures in
interactions are clarified according to reports which form an integral part of due time.
procedure of work. the quality insurance system.

Activity Time

Award of Contract
Engineering/System Studies
Manufacturing
Transportation
Civil Works & Buildings
Erection & Precommissioning
Station Tests
System Tests
Commercial Operation
Fig.7-2: Structured bar-chart timeschedule

46
47

47
Siemens AG
Power Transmission
and Distribution
High Voltage Division
Postfach 32 20
Subject to change without prior notice
91050 Erlangen
Order No. E50001-U131-A92-V2-7600
Germany Printed in Germany
Dispo-Stelle 30000
www.siemens.com/hvdc 61D7085 TV/EV 02032.