High School Physical Education Settings 149

JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, 2005, 24, 149-164

© 2005 HUMAN KINETICS PUBLISHERS, INC.

Physical Activity Levels in Coeducational

and Single-Gender High School
Physical Education Settings
James C. Hannon
University of Utah
Thomas Ratliffe
Florida State University
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of coeducational (coed)
and single-gender game-play settings on the activity levels of Caucasian and
African American high school physical education students. Students partici-
pated in flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer units. Classes were as fol-
lows: there were two coed classes, two coed classes were split into male and
female teams for game play, one class was exclusively female, and one class
was exclusively male. Digi-walker pedometers were worn by students to moni-
tor activity levels calculated as steps per minute. High school males, on aver-
age, had higher step counts than females in all settings, and Caucasian stu-
dents were more active, on average, than African American students. There
were no differences in activity levels for females between coed and single-
gender game-play settings. There was some evidence, however, that in ulti-
mate Frisbee and soccer units, male students in males-only classes were less
physically active than were males in coed and split coed classes. Teacher in-
teraction rates and team-sport preferences rather than the gender composition
might have contributed to differences in activity levels of the classes.
Key words: high school students, pedometers, adolescent females
Low levels of physical activity have been reported in a growing number of
children and adolescents, with this problem being most prevalent among preado-
lescent and adolescent girls (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000; Sarkin, McKenzie,
& Sallis, 1997). A study by Sallis et al. (1997) showed that as early as 4th and 5th
grade, girls show lower baseline levels of physical activity than boys. As reported
by Heath, Pratt, Warren, and Kann (1994), the U.S. National Risk Behavior Sur-
vey conducted in 1990 assessed more than 11,000 students in Grades 9 through 12
on the criterion of vigorous activity for at least 20 min per day for a minimum of 3
days per week. Results showed that the proportion of girls who were active de-
creased from 31% in 9th grade to 17% in 12th grade. Conversely, 50% of all boys
met the physical activity criterion. Bradley, McMurray, Harrell, and Deng (2000)

Hannon is with the University of Utah, Department of Exercise and Sport Science,
250 S. 1850 E., Room 241, Salt Lake City, UT 84112; Ratliffe is with Florida State Univer-
sity, Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education, 0128 Tully Gym-
nasium, Tallahassee, FL 32306.
149
150 Hannon and Ratliffe

reported that, beginning in the seventh and eight grades, more than half of the girls
(55.7%) reported mostly sedentary activities. This percentage increased with each
grade through high school.
As alarming as the lack of physical activity is among female youth, even
more startling is the fact that African American female adolescents tend to be the
most inactive among all subpopulations of female youth (Sopko, Obarzanek, &
Stone, 1992). Recently, African American females have been identified as the least
active among high school students (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
1996; Kimm et al., 2002). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1992)
reported that the rate of moderate to vigorous physical activity was lower in Afri-
can American girls (17.4%) than Caucasian girls (27.5%) and Latino girls (20.9%).
Bradley et al. (2000) reported that, beginning as early as the fourth and fifth grades,
African American girls reported being sedentary more than Caucasian girls (47.54%
vs. 37.5%) and maintained this pattern through the 9th- and 10th-grade years
(77.78% vs. 60.22%). Unfortunately, research on African American adolescent
females’ activity levels is limited.
It has been hypothesized that the perceived lack of physical activity could be
related to unpleasant experiences in the physical education setting (Taylor, et al.,
1999). Research indicates this is particularly true among adolescent females in
coeducational (coed) physical education classes (Osborne, Bauer, & Sutliff, 2002;
Taylor et al., 1999). It has long been recognized that physical education has the
potential to influence students’ physical activity levels (Sallis & McKenzie, 1991).
Unfortunately, dividing students equally by gender in activity courses is no assur-
ance that their participation will be equitable in terms of opportunity and physical
activity level (Chepyator-Thompson & Ennis, 1997). Since Title IX mandated coed
physical education classes, researchers have hypothesized that girls’ low activity
levels might be the result of unpleasant experiences and lack of opportunity attrib-
utable to male dominance (Carroll & Loumidis, 2001; Nilges, 1998). Interviews
conducted with both physical education teachers and students indicate that girls
might accumulate more physical activity in single-gender physical education classes
(Osborne et al., 2002; Taylor et al., 1999).
Olafson (2002) conducted individual interviews and focus-group interviews
with adolescent girls about their experiences in school. The girls indicated that
physical education is frequently embarrassing for them. Girls-only physical edu-
cation was mentioned by many participants as a possible way to increase partici-
pation and enjoyment of physical education. Girls stated they would be more
comfortable being active in a girls’ only class. Cockburn (2001) conducted a sur-
vey of ninth-grade girls’ feelings towards coed physical education. Almost one
third of respondents said they were discouraged by being in class with boys. Simi-
larly, almost a quarter said they would be encouraged by being in a class with just
girls. Taylor et al. (1999) focused solely on Latino and African American adoles-
cent girls’ feelings towards physical education. Results of focus-group interviews
indicated that girls viewed physical education classes as inequitable and unpleas-
ant. When the boys and girls played team sports together, the girls complained that
the boys took the ball away and kept them from getting it. The girls thought it was
a good idea to have physical education separate from the boys. This way they
could have more opportunities to participate.
Few studies have actually measured students’ physical activity levels in coed
and single-gender settings in physical education. Schmitt (2002) compared the
High School Physical Education Settings 151

physical activity levels of elementary school age boys and girls in coed and gender-
segregated physical education classes during an ultimate Frisbee unit using Polar
heart-rate monitors. Three days were spent in coed classes and three were spent in
gender-segregated classes. Heart rate was recorded by participants during each
lesson at the start, middle, and end of class. Girls spent less time in their target
heart-rate zone in the segregated setting than in the coed setting. Conversely, boys
spent more time in their target heart-rate zone in the segregated setting than in the
coed setting. These results suggest that girls are slightly more physically active in
coed settings and boys are slightly more physically active in segregated settings.
McKenzie, Prochaska, Sallis, and LaMaster (2004) found similar results for male
and female physical activity using the System for Observing Fitness Instruction
Time (SOFIT). Results indicated that boys-only and coed classes provided more
moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) than girls-only classes. Boys ac-
cumulated similar amounts of MVPA in boys-only and coed classes. Girls tended
to accumulate more MVPA in coed versus girls-only classes. Boys accumulated
more MVPA than girls during coed classes.
The evidence thus far seems to indicate that girls are more active in coed
versus single-gender settings (McKenzie et al., 2004; Schmitt, 2002). This is con-
trary to what one might expect based on interview research and anecdotal reports
(Taylor et al., 1999). Results from McKenzie et al. and Schmitt indicate boys ac-
cumulate similar amounts of physical activity regardless of the setting. No studies
to date have assessed the physical activity levels of African American students in
coed and single-gender groupings. No studies to date have followed separate groups
of students across several activity units. It is possible that physical activity levels
will vary by setting depending on the type of activity students are participating in.
It is also possible that there will be differences in activity levels between Cauca-
sian and African American students. Therefore, a study that collects and analyzes
physical activity measures for African American and Caucasian students across
several activity units in coed and single-gender groupings is needed to add to the
limited research data.
Recent studies of physical activity in single-gender game-play situations have
used males and females in the same class segregated exclusively for game play
(Hannon & Ratliffe, 2004; Schmitt, 2002). It is possible that the females’ activity
levels could have been influenced by the presence of males in the playing area.
Research suggests that females are subject to sexual objectification and the male
gaze when males are present (Olafson, 2002). Females are also in competition for
interaction and feedback from teachers when males are present (Davis, 2000). In
order to assess truly the potential of single-gender physical education for increas-
ing the activity levels of students, research using classes that include exclusively
females and exclusively males is needed. In this situation, the males and females
would be in separate areas and out of sight of each other. Using three settings in
this study was intended to examine physical activity levels for all conditions. In
addition, no studies of physical activity in coed and single-gender settings have
taken into consideration the effects of variables such as teacher interaction and
student preferences. It is possible that physical activity could be affected more by
variables external to the setting itself. The purpose of this study was to compare
activity levels, as measured by pedometer steps per minute, of high school Caucasian
and African American females and males participating in coed and single-gender
settings during ultimate Frisbee, soccer, and flag football team-sport activity units.
152 Hannon and Ratliffe

Method
Participants and Setting
Participants were 209 high school students enrolled in six intact physical
education classes. The study was conducted at an ethnically diverse, low to middle
socioeconomic status Northwestern Florida high school. The school enrollment
totaled 1455 students (684 males, 771 females). Racial and ethnic distribution of
the students was as follows: 47.84% Caucasian, 46.74% African American, 2.96%
Hispanic, 1.24% Asian, 1.10% Multicultural, and 0.14% American Indian. Sixty
percent of students qualified for the free or reduced-cost lunch program. The par-
ticipant characteristics of height, weight, body composition, age, gender, and race
were obtained from existing school records before data collection and a beginning-
of-the-semester fitness assessment.
Three experienced physical education teachers, one female and two males,
conducted all physical education classes. The female teacher was in her mid-fifties
with 32 years of physical education teaching experience. One male teacher was in
his early forties with 19 years of physical education teaching experience. Both
graduated from an accredited physical education program at a large Southeastern
United States university certified to teach K–12 physical education. The other male
teacher was in his late forties with 27 years of physical education teaching experi-
ence in Puerto Rico and the United States and a Doctorate degree in physical edu-
cation from a large Southeastern United States university.
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the University Institu-
tional Review Board, the school district, the school administration, and the teach-
ers before the start of the study. The students and parents provided written informed
consent before participation in the study.

Instrumentation
Digi-walker pedometers (Yamax SW-701) were used to monitor activity levels
during participation in each physical education class over the three activity units.
Pedometers have been shown to be a reliable and valid way of measuring activity
levels of adolescents in a field setting (Kilanowski, Consalvi, & Epstein, 1999).
The Yamax SW-701 has been shown to be the most accurate of the pedometers
available (Schneider, Crouter, Lukajic, & Bassett, 2003). The Yamax SW-701
records steps, calculates distance traveled based on individual stride length, and
estimates caloric expenditure based on total body weight. For the purpose of this
study, only step-count data were considered. Before using the pedometers, a shake
test consistent with a procedure described by Sidman, Vincent, Corbin, Pangrazi,
and Vincent (2001) was used to test calibration and validate that the pedometers
worked reliably. This test consisted of placing the pedometers vertically in the box
supplied by the manufacturer and giving them 100 shakes. The error between shakes
and recorded steps was then examined for each pedometer. Deviation from the 100
shakes for all pedometers was less than 3%. Results of the procedure demonstrate
that the pedometers used provided accurate step-count data.
A modified version of a portion of the Observational Recording Record of
Physical Educator’s Teaching Behavior (Stewart, 1989) was used to monitor the
type and rate of teacher–student verbal interactions. The instrument was originally
designed to monitor instructional climate, interaction, teacher behavior, or any
combination thereof. Original observer reliability for the interaction portion of the
High School Physical Education Settings 153

instrument was calculated at 91%. For the purposes of this study, the instrument
was used to monitor type of interaction (individual, group, or class) and who the
interaction was with or directed at (male, female, Caucasian, African American).
Before data collection, observers received training on how to use the instrument
and practiced live observation and recording. Interobserver reliability was calcu-
lated on three occasions. Observers scored 91%, 100%, and 100% interobserver
reliability with the master coding done by the lead researcher. These data were
collected to provide information that could help explain any differences among
the treatment groups.
At the conclusion of the study, the students were asked to complete a survey
composed of questions in a 3-point Likert-type format. Each item had three an-
swer choices including (1) I like it, (2) I neither like nor dislike it, and (3) I dislike
it. The questionnaire was designed using several questions to determine the stu-
dents’ views toward specific team sports and their views toward coed and single-
gender physical education settings. The queries relevant to this study can be found
in Tables 1, 2, and 3.

Table 1 Students’ Feelings Toward Coed and Single-Gender Physical

Education (N = 177)

I neither like
I like it nor dislike it I dislike it

When I participate in coed PE activities

(both boys and girls mixed together on teams)
Males
Caucasian 54.3% 37% 8.7%
African American 58.1% 37.2% 4.7%
Females
Caucasian 54.8% 35.5% 9.7%
African American 56.1% 31.6% 12.3%

When I participate in single-gender PE activities

(only boys or only girls teams)
Males
Caucasian 39.1% 47.8% 13.1%
African American 32.6% 51.2% 16.2%
Females
Caucasian 29% 35.5% 35.5%
African American 33.3% 43.9% 22.8%

Note. Males: Caucasian (n = 46), African American (n = 43); females: Caucasian (n = 31),
African American (n = 57).
154 Hannon and Ratliffe

Table 2 Students’ Most Preferred Activity (N = 177)

Flag Ultimate
football Frisbee Soccer

Males
Caucasian 52.2% 30.4% 17.4%
African American 83.7% 7% 9.3%
Females
Caucasian 16.1% 25.8% 58.1%
African American 54.4% 29.8% 15.8%

Note. Males: Caucasian (n = 46), African American (n = 43); females: Caucasian (n = 31),
African American (n = 57).

Table 3 Students’ Feelings Toward Flag Football, Ultimate Frisbee, and

Soccer (N = 177)

I neither like
I like it nor dislike it I dislike it

Flag football
Males
Caucasian 69.6% 15.2% 15.2%
African American 79.1% 6.9% 14%
Females
Caucasian 35.5% 45.2% 19.3%
African American 61.4% 19.3% 19.3%

Ultimate Frisbee
Males
Caucasian 56.6% 21.7% 21.7%
African American 34.9% 34.9% 30.2%
Females
Caucasian 32.3% 41.9% 25.8%
African American 33.3% 26.3% 40.4%

Soccer
Males
Caucasian 50% 32.6% 17.4%
African American 23.3% 27.9% 48.8%
Females
Caucasian 58.1% 19.4% 22.5%
African American 33.3% 36.8% 29.9%

Note. Males: Caucasian (n = 46), African American (n = 43); females: Caucasian (n = 31),
African American (n = 57). .
High School Physical Education Settings 155

Research Design and Data-Collection Procedures

A quasi-experimental design was used to investigate the effects of three dif-
ferent gender settings (coed, coed split for game play, and gender separate) on the
pedometer step counts of high school students enrolled in physical education team-
sport classes. Adolescent females and males enrolled in high school flag football,
ultimate Frisbee, and soccer physical education classes were used as participants
for this study. These team-sport activity units constitute the regular fall semester
curriculum in physical education. Before the start of data collection, the teachers
and researcher met to discuss class procedures and game rules. Lessons were de-
veloped to assure similarity among all classes. Classes met for 90 min daily in a
block schedule format. Step counts for all students were monitored during game
play by using pedometers for at least six lessons in each unit. Two coed classes
remained coed during game play and two coed classes were split at the beginning
of each class into male and female teams for game play. In the third setting, males
and females were in separate areas with one class exclusively female, and one
class exclusively male throughout the entire study. The intent of using three set-
tings in this study was to investigate physical activity levels for all gender combi-
nations. One coed class, one split coed class, and the female-only class were taught
by the female teacher. One coed class was taught by a male teacher. The other split
coed class and the males-only class was taught by the other male teacher.
Before the start of data collection, the students were taught to attach the
pedometers properly. Students were instructed to clip the pedometer on the waist-
band of their shorts or warm-up pants at the midline of the hip. The researchers
and teachers observed each student to be sure they attached the pedometers cor-
rectly. The students practiced picking up, attaching, wearing, and returning their
pedometer for one lesson before data collection. Students were assigned a number
that correlated with the number on their pedometer and used the same pedometer
throughout the entire study. The outside cover of each pedometer was covered in
solid white or yellow tape and numbered. The students were instructed not to open
the secured cases and were told that if they opened the case, the information could
not be used. Students were told that the researchers were interested in information
about their physical education classes, and that they would be wearing an object to
help collect this information. At the conclusion of the study, the students received
information on how much activity they accumulated, in the form of steps, during
each physical education class.
Before the start of each class, one of the researchers completed the follow-
ing protocol: (a) reset all pedometers to zero, (b) put boxes containing pedometers
on a bleacher or bench in the activity area for easy access, (c) put up numbered
signs to identify pedometer numbers included in each box, and (d) put up a class
list with students names and assigned pedometer numbers.
Before the start of data collection, teachers agreed to an approximate length
of 30 min for game play in each class. Students picked up and attached their pe-
dometers immediately before game-play activity as instructed by their teachers.
Every class was observed by one or more of the researchers and notes were taken
to verify that the lesson organization and type of activity conducted by each teacher
for each group was similar. The observer also watched to be sure students were not
opening pedometer cases or shaking pedometers.
During the middle 10 min of each allocated 30-min session, one or more
researchers recorded teacher verbal interactions with students. The teachers were
156 Hannon and Ratliffe

not informed that interactions were being recorded so as not to affect their normal
supervision style. The middle 10 min of class was selected because research indi-
cates active supervision (i.e., interaction rate) is associated with increased MVPA
in physical education (Schuldheisz & Van der Mars, 2001). Previous research has
demonstrated that many physical education teachers tend to regress into a passive
supervision style of silent observation after the start of physical activity (Anderson
& Barette, 1978). The researchers walked around the field in close proximity to
the teachers in order to record each verbal interaction. Recorded interactions were
limited solely to students engaged in game play. Any interactions with students
sitting out or students from another class were not recorded.
Immediately following the end of activity, participants were instructed to
remove their pedometers and return them to the appropriate boxes. Between classes
the researcher recorded step counts from each pedometer on a data sheet. Each
pedometer was then reset to zero and returned to the properly numbered box and
slot. The same protocol was used for each class throughout the study.
Upon completion of the last activity unit, students were asked to complete a
brief survey. Instructions on how to complete the survey were read aloud to each
class and an opportunity was provided for students to ask questions before com-
pleting the survey. If a student was unable to answer a question, unable to follow
and/or understand directions, or had any other specific or general questions re-
garding the survey, he or she was instructed to ask the researcher for clarification.
Students were told that this was an opportunity to express their own personal views
and opinions. Students were also told that the survey was to be completed indi-
vidually and that talking amongst themselves was prohibited until all surveys had
been completed and returned to their teacher or one of the researchers.

Data Analysis
Statistical analysis for all data in this study was conducted on a personal
computer using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS®) software (version
12.0, Chicago, IL, USA). Data were entered into an Excel® spread sheet and con-
firmed by another researcher in order to assure reliability of the results. If a student
was found to have tampered (removed or opened the pedometer) with the equip-
ment, his or her data were deleted from the final results for that particular lesson. A
trend analysis was used to determine the minimum number of lessons in which a
student had to participate in order to use their data. A day-by-time linear regression
showed no trend in pedometer step counts by lesson for each student. This justi-
fied use of all data regardless of the number of lessons a student participated in.
Activity step counts were converted to steps per minute to account for indi-
vidual variances in the amount of daily game-time activity. Data from ethnic or
racial groups other than Caucasian and African American were discarded because
of low numbers. Because a potential teacher effect was present, three separate
factorial ANCOVA’s including the teacher as a covariate were conducted—one for
each team-sport activity—in order to investigate differences among groups. The
factors were instructional setting (coed, split coed, single gender), gender (male,
female), and race (Caucasian, African American). Not all students appear in all
three analyses because of failure to participate in a unit or withdrawal from school.
An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.
Descriptive statistics were used to determine the average per-class frequency
of teacher verbal interactions with students. Means were also used to summarize
High School Physical Education Settings 157

survey data. Data were presented as percentages of the three answer choices, “I
like,” “I neither like nor dislike,” and “I dislike.”

Results
Physical Activity by Steps per Minute
Step count means and standard deviations for each separate team-sport ac-
tivity are listed in Tables 4, 5, and 6. The data are organized according to instruc-
tional setting and presented according to gender and race. Results for flag football,
ultimate Frisbee, and soccer indicated no significant difference in steps per minute
among instructional settings when controlling for teacher effect. The flag football
analysis detected a main effect on steps per minute for gender, F(1, 192) = 171.92,
p < .001, and race, F(1, 192) = 10.14, p = .002, when controlling for teacher effect.
The ultimate Frisbee analysis detected an overall significant main effect for gen-
der, F(1, 182) = 76.23, p < .001, and race, F(1, 182) = 35.04, p < .001, when
controlling for teacher effect. The soccer analysis also detected significant overall
main effects for gender, F(1, 182) = 37.82, p < .001, and race, F(1, 182) = 35.64, p
< .001, when controlling for teacher effect. Examination of descriptive statistics
further indicates that, regardless of the type of activity, males were more active
than females, and Caucasian students were more active than African American
students.

Table 4 Students’ Steps per Minute during Flag Football Game Play by
Setting (Mean ± SD)

Coed Single
Coed (split) gender

Males
Caucasian 94.6 ± 12.8 97.7 ± 17.6 99.7 ± 16.7
(n = 19) (n = 15) (n = 19)
African American 84.3 ± 9.3 93.2 ± 23.6 84.6 ± 21.8
(n = 17) (n = 8) (n = 19)
total 89.7 ± 12.3 96.1 ± 19.5 92.2 ± 17.7
(n = 36) (n = 23) (n = 38)
Females
Caucasian 61.2 ± 18.6 53.4 ± 17.4 63.2 ± 22.9
(n = 12) (n = 19) (n = 4)
African American 54.1 ± 14.0 48.6 ± 17.2 54.5 ± 13.8
(n = 18) (n = 21) (n = 21)
total 57.0 ± 16.1 50.9 ± 17.2 55.9 ± 15.3
(n = 30) (n = 40) (n = 25)

Note. Significance: p < .05.

158 Hannon and Ratliffe

Table 5 Students’ Steps per Minute During Ultimate Frisbee Game Play
by Setting (Mean ± SD)

Coed Single
Coed (split) gender

Males
Caucasian 108.9 ± 9.4 105.5 ± 18.3 101.5 ± 23.2
(n = 18) (n = 14) (n = 19)
African American 98.4 ± 13.9 90.9 ± 33.6 73.8 ± 25.1
(n = 16) (n = 7) (n = 19)
total 104.0 ± 12.7 100.7 ± 24.6 87.3 ± 27.7
(n = 34) (n = 21) (n = 38)
Females
Caucasian 81.6 ± 29.0 72.5 ± 22.2 85.7 ± 34.8
(n = 9) (n = 16) (n = 5)
African American 60.8 ± 17.9 60.2 ± 17.7 60.8 ± 17.5
(n = 18) (n = 21) (n = 19)
total 67.7 ± 23.8 65.5 ± 20.4 66.0 ± 23.6
(n = 27) (n = 37) (n = 24)

Note. Significance: p < .05.

Table 6 Students’ Steps per Minute During Soccer Game Play by Setting
(Mean ± SD)

Coed Single
Coed (split) gender

Males
Caucasian 93.3 ± 20.1 93.4 ± 20.9 83.4 ± 17.4
(n = 17) (n = 15) (n = 19)
African American 79.2 ± 20.1 85.0 ± 35.9 67.3 ± 19.0
(n = 17) (n = 7) (n = 19)
total 86.3 ± 21.1 90.7 ± 26.0 75.4 ± 19.7
(n = 34) (n = 22) (n = 38)
Females
Caucasian 67.4 ± 23.7 70.2 ± 26.19 2.6 ± 24.5
(n = 10) (n = 17) (n = 4)
African American 49.4 ± 13.9 51.5 ± 18.15 1.5 ± 14.0
(n = 19) (n = 19) (n = 19)
Total 55.6 ± 19.9 60.2 ± 23.5 58.7 ± 22.3
(n = 29) (n = 36) (n = 23)

Note. Significance: p < .05.

High School Physical Education Settings 159

Physical Educator’s Teaching Behavior

Frequencies data in Table 7 depict that when total average interactions were
considered, regardless of type, the girls-only class tended to accumulate the most
teacher interactions and the boys-only class tended to accumulate the fewest inter-
actions. Examination of the data revealed that females tended to accumulate slightly
fewer teacher interactions compared with males during flag football and soccer
coed game play, with equal amounts of teacher interactions during ultimate Frisbee
in the coed game-play setting. Data further revealed that females tended to accu-
mulate more teacher interactions than males during flag football, ultimate Frisbee,
and soccer in the split coed game-play setting.

Survey Instrument Results

Descriptive statistics are displayed according to similarity of question con-
tent. Survey data are presented as percentages of “I like,” “I neither like nor dis-
like,” and “I dislike” as related to students’ responses. Table 1 presents students’
feelings towards coed and single-gender physical education. Results showed that
the majority of Caucasian and African American males and females like coed physi-
cal education. In contrast, only about one third of Caucasian males, African Ameri-
can males, Caucasian females, and African American females reported liking
single-gender physical education. More importantly, about one third of Caucasian
and one quarter of African American females reported disliking single-gender physi-
cal education.
The data in Table 2 presents students preferences for specific activities. The
data in Table 3 presents students feelings towards participating in flag football,
ultimate Frisbee, and soccer game play. Flag football was reported as the activity
most liked and preferred by Caucasian males, African American males, and Afri-
can American females. Soccer was the most liked and preferred activity by Cauca-
sian females. The two most disliked activities were soccer, by African American
males, and ultimate Frisbee, by African American females.

Discussion
Activity Levels by Gender and Race
Results from this study indicate that high school males, on average, get more
physical activity than females in physical education classes. This was true for each
team-sport activity in coed and single-gender settings. This finding supports pre-
vious research in which physical activity was measured by accelerometer activity
counts that found males to be more active than females across all physical educa-
tion classes (LeMura, Andreacci, Carlonas, Klebez, & Chelland, 2000). These re-
sults might have been influenced by the type of activities used in the study. Kulinna,
Martin, Lai, Kliber, and Reed (2003), using heart-rate monitors to measure physi-
cal activity, found that males were more active than females during high school
team-sport activities. Previous studies have also found gender differences in activ-
ity preferences, with males demonstrating a strong preference for team sports and
females preferring individual activities with an aesthetic orientation (Fromel,
Formankova, & Sallis, 2002). In the survey used in the current study, an over-
whelming majority of Caucasian males and African American males indicated they
 160

Table 7 Average Teacher Interactions per Lesson by Setting, Activity Type, and Student Gender (Mean ± SD)

Flag football Ultimate Frisbee Soccer Total

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Coed 2.5 ±1 .8 .92 ± .90 1.5 ± 1.6 1.5 ± 1.6 3.9 ± 3.3 1.8 ± 1.9 2.6 ± 4.5 1.4 ± 1.5
Coed (split) .91 ± 1 8.3 ± 7.9 1.1 ± 1.5 4.5 ± 4.3 4.3 ± 4.9 8.7 ± 8.1 2.1 ± 3.3 7.1 ± 7
Single gender .33 ± .82 20.2 ± 8.1 .83 ± .98 13.8 ± 8.3 4.8 ± 6.6 21 ± 11.2 2 ± 4.2 18.1 ± 9.2
Total 1.5 ± 1.7 7.3 ± 9.1 1.2 ± 1.5 5.2 ± 6.4 4.3 ± 4.6 8.2 ± 9.7 — —
Hannon and Ratliffe
High School Physical Education Settings 161

liked team-sport activities. In comparison, relatively few Caucasian females and

African American females indicated they liked team sports. Had activities such as
aerobic dance or gymnastics been used, results might have been different.
Results showed that race contributed to differences in physical activity lev-
els. Caucasian students were consistently more active than African American stu-
dents during each team-sport activity and in each instructional setting. This finding
is consistent with previous research in the area of female and male youth physical
activity levels (Bradley, et. al. 2000; Sopko et. al. 1992). The reason for this result
is unclear. Even during flag football, the activity most preferred by both African
American males and females, Caucasian students accumulated more steps per
minute. Thus, activity preference might not be a good explanation for the group
differences. Further research is needed exploring activity levels of high school
students by race before any conclusive statements can be made.

Activity Levels in Coed

Versus Single-Gender Settings
Contrary to what was expected, there were no significant differences in ac-
tivity levels for African American and Caucasian females in coed and single-gender
settings during flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer game play. Results of the
only known previous studies (McKenzie et al., 2004; Schmitt, 2002) indicated that
females accumulated higher levels of physical activity in coed settings. These studies
were different than the current study in that they did not use pedometer step counts
to measure physical activity, took place in middle to high socioeconomic school
settings, and did not report measures of teachers’ interactions with students or
information on student preferences. Studies have demonstrated that higher rates of
teacher interactions with students result in significant increases in MVPA levels
(Schuldheisz & Van der Mars, 2001; Van der Mars, Vogler, Darst, & Cusimano,
1998). In this study, teacher interaction rates per lesson for females tended to be
higher in the split-coed than the coed group and tended to be highest in the females-
only group. This indicates that steps per minute might have been higher in the coed
setting for females if rates of interaction with the teacher were higher. Previous
research has suggested that female students have had unpleasant experiences in
coed physical education as a result of lack of opportunity (Carroll & Loumidis,
2001; Osborne, et al., 2002). In this study, both Caucasian and African American
females indicated that they liked coed physical education and only about a third of
Caucasian and African American females indicated that they liked single-gender
physical education. Results from this study support the continued practice of in-
volving females in coed physical education to improve physical activity levels and
enjoyment.
Results for males indicated no significant differences in activity levels for
African American and Caucasian students in coed and single-gender settings dur-
ing flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer game play. Previous studies found
that males accumulated similar amounts of activity regardless of setting (Schmitt,
2002). An initial analysis revealed a significant gender-by-setting interaction for
soccer, and the interaction approached significance for ultimate Frisbee. When the
teacher was entered into the model, however, the interactions were not significant,
indicating that the effect was attributable to the teacher rather than to the setting. In
each case, the coed settings resulted in higher average steps per minute. A trend
toward lower activity levels among African Americans in the males-only setting
162 Hannon and Ratliffe

tended to make the greatest contribution to these differences. The examination of

teacher interaction rates in the present study provides one possible explanation for
the observed differences. Students in the males-only setting accrued almost no
teacher interactions per lesson for flag football, ultimate Frisbee, and soccer. The
teacher indicated that he believed boys would just play hard naturally. In addition,
survey results showed that nearly half of African American males disliked soccer
game play, and a third disliked ultimate Frisbee game play. Students’ lack of activ-
ity enjoyment might require greater active teacher supervision to maintain activity
levels throughout 30 min of game play. Another contributing factor might have
been class-type preference. When surveyed, over half of Caucasian and African
American males indicated that they liked coed physical education. Similar to re-
sults for the female students, only about a third of Caucasian and African Ameri-
can males liked single-gender physical education. Results of this study support the
use of coed settings to improve male students’ physical activity levels and enjoy-
ment of physical education.

Limitations
Generalizations of the results of this study should not be made to all types of
physical education activities and to all student populations. The physical activity
data were only collected during game play for three team-sport activities. Indi-
vidual activities and different team sports might have yielded different results.
Kulinna, et al. (2003) found that there were gender differences in heart rate as a
result of the type (individual and team) of activity. Additional studies using indi-
vidual activities in addition to team sports are needed. Although the focus of this
study was on game play, other studies investigating activity levels during warm-
up and skill-development tasks would be helpful. Another limitation of this study
was the use of three different teachers. Although the teachers were prepared so that
they would conduct classes in a similar manner, the interaction patterns of the
teachers varied. A research design that compares the same teachers with the same
students in all gender settings would be an improvement.

Conclusions
In summary, the results of this study suggest that student physical activity
levels might be influenced more by how a teacher conducts the class and interacts
with students rather than by the specific gender composition of the class. Results
of this and other studies using physical activity as the dependent variable support
the philosophy of Title IX: to provide equal participation opportunities for both
males and females in high school physical education. The varied gender interac-
tions that students engage in when in coed settings also support two national con-
tent standards for physical education (National Association for Sport and Physical
Education, 2004): Standard (5) Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior
that respects self and others in physical activity settings; and Standard (6) Values
physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and/or social
interaction.
Students in this study indicated a preference for coed physical education. In
terms of physical activity levels, males and females accumulated similar or higher
steps per minute in coed settings than in single-gender settings. An appropriate
amount of active supervision in the form of general interaction and performance
High School Physical Education Settings 163

feedback might be a contributing factor to any differences. Overall, issues

surrounding coed and single-gender physical education remain complex. More
research is needed that controls for teacher and instructional variability in order to
isolate the specific effect of coed and single-gender physical education on activity
levels.

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Note
This research was supported by a grant from the Centers for Disease Control Com-
munity Cardiovascular Health Program.