LESSON 1: GENERAL CONCEPTS

1. Introduction to electric circuits

2. Definition of circuit or electrical network
3. Excitations and responses. Waveforms
4. Operation regime in electric circuits
5. Kinds of circuit
6. Elements in circuits. Classification

Sources of excitation

Passives elements. Ohm’s law

Association of elements. Generalized Ohm’s law
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Electromagnetismo y circuitos eléctricos. Jesus Fraile Mora. Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid. Servicio de Publicaciones.

Problemas resueltos de Tecnología elèctrica. Moreno, Bachiller, Bravo. Ed. Thomson

Circuitos eléctricos. Edminister. Serie Schaum. Ed. Mc Graw Hill.

Foundations of electrical engineering. H.R. Cogdell. Prentice hall international Editions

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

GENERAL CONCEPTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Circuit Theory considers the quasi steady-state of the currents in the circuit,
which means that the dimensions of the circuit are small compared with the
wavelength of the signals, i.e., the disturbance is instantaneously spread over
the circuit.

• In Circuit Theory the basic laws are Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law
(Kirchhoff’s current law –KCL- and Kirchhoff voltage law -KVL).
• Initially Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws were applied to circuits with steady
current with no time variation (direct current –dc-).
• Later, with the introduction of alternating current (electromechanical
generators) these law were adapted by the use of complex domain and vector
diagrams.

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. CONCEPT OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A circuit or electrical network is a collection of electrical components which
can give rise to electric current.
An electric circuit or electrical network is a collection of electrical components
designed to generate, consume (resistances) or store (inductors and capacitors)
electric energy.
An electric circuit can be symbolized thus:

Electric Response
Excitation
circuit

The electric circuit is subjected to input stimuli known as “excitations”

produced by excitation sources and produces a “response”. The “responses”
are currents and voltages.
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
2.1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (I)

The main variables that take part in the study of the electrical circuits are:
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
Electric current
The electric current represents the variation of electric charges over time that
is produced in the transversal section of a conductor:

dq (t )
i (t ) =
dt
Higher potential Lower potential

Unit: Ampere (A)

The direction of conventional current is defined arbitrarily to be the direction of the

flow of positive charges from a point with high potential to another point with low
potential (opposite direction to the flow of electrons in the conductor).

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 GENERAL CONCEPT
2. 1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (II)

Electric current

In generators: current flows from lower

potential to higher potential

In passive elements: current flows from

higher potential to lower potential

a a
The arrow shows the
direction of the current
i = 5A i = -5A
b b
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. 1. Variables used in the study of electric circuits.
Convention of signs (III)

Voltage. Potential difference. Voltage drop

Potential difference between two points: work performed to move the unit
charge between these points
dw
v= Unit: Volt (V)
dq

Convention of the V: The potential difference in any circuit element is

symbolized using an arrow. The tip of the arrow shows the point with higher
potential
+ -
V
Convention of the U: The potential difference in any circuit element is
symbolized using an arrow. The tip of the arrow shows the point with lower
potential
+ -
U
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. 1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (IV)

Electromotive force (generator)

Generators keep the potential out of balance and allows the circulation of current.
The magnitude characteristic is the emf.
W P⋅t P Unit: Volt (V)
E= = =
q q I

Representation of emf: An arrow, the tip shows the point with higher potential
+ + - I

E V
Example 1: Receptor Example 2: Generator
A A
I

V=10V V=10V

I Current from B to A
B Current from A to B B
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. 1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (V)

Electric dipole

Element or group of elements with

2 accessible terminals

A dipole can be a receptor: A dipole can be a generator:

I I
+ +

V V

_ _

The current comes in by The current comes out by

the terminal with higher the terminal with higher
potential potential ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. 1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (VI)

Electric power Electric power: work performed per unit of time

dw dw dq dq
p(t ) = = v= =v = i= = v (t ) ⋅ i (t )
dt dq dt dt

As the power depends on the voltage and current, it is necessary to consider the
direction of both:

Direction of current and

voltage: RECEPTOR
If p (t ) > 0 The dipole absorbs power (it acts as
receptor)
I

v(t) DIPOLE If p(t ) < 0 The dipole generates power (it acts as
generator)

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
2. 1. Variables used in the study of the electric circuits.
Convention of signs (VII)

Electric power Example

i(t) v (t ) = V = − 100 V
i (t ) = I = 10 A
v(t) DIPOLE

p(t ) = P = V ⋅ I = − 100 ⋅ 10 = − 1000 W

The dipole generates power (it acts as

Direction of the current generator)
and voltage: RECEPTOR

Negative values are practically never used for power. The concept used
is generated power or consumed power.

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
3. EXCITATIONS AND RESPONSES.
WAVEFORMS (I)
Excitation: Causes an unbalance in a circuit; its effects are known as
responses.
Example: e( t ) = 10e − 5t
10 V
e(t)

The most interesting waveforms are:

Continuous waves: The characteristic magnitude does not change its direction

Alternating waves: The characteristic magnitude changes its direction

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
3. EXCITATIONS AND RESPONSES.
WAVEFORMS (II)
CONTINUOUS WAVES:

v(t) i(t) v(t) Always <0

Constant
t
magnitude-direct
current (dc)

t t t

ALTERNATING WAVES:
Alternating
sinusoidal-
alternating Triangular
v(t) wave
current (ac)

t t t
Positive and
negative values
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
4. OPERATING REGIMES IN AN
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT (I)
TRANSIENT RESPONSE: The magnitudes in the circuits change
progressively to a certain value, which is maintained (example: switch
on/switch off a light)

i(t) permanent
Steady response v(t)
2A

t
Regimresponse
Steady permanent
≈ ms (ms)
transitoriresponse
Transient

STEADY RESPONSE (PERMANENT, STATIONARY OR FORCED): The

electric magnitudes maintain their values (equilibrium state)

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
4. OPERATING REGIMES IN AN
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT (II)
DYNAMIC RESPONSE: This is not often found and happens when the
transient response never finishes.
The response will be: (although the
Example: Let us suppose an ideal LC imput signal is d.c)
circuit (with no resistive element) )
i(t)

v(t) t

Regim response
Dynamic dinamic
In a real LC circuit (L is real, with a
resistive element) The value of the signal decreases with the
i(t) increase of the time

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
5. TYPES OF CIRCUIT

1st classification:

- ELECTRIC: Elements R, L, C
- ELECTRONIC: Electronic elements can be in the circuit
- MAGNETIC: Magnetic elements can be in the circuit

2nd classification:

- LINEAR: The responses are proportional to the excitations (electric

circuits)
- NON LINEAR: The responses are not proportional to the excitation
(electronic and magnetic circuits)

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. ELEMENTS IN CIRCUITS.
CLASSIFICATION (I)

- ACTIVE ELEMENTS: Elements with capacity to produce electric energy

by transforming another type of energy.
- PASSIVE ELEMENTS: Elements which can disperse or store energy from
the active elements.

Example:
A transformer is a passive element because it produces electrical energy from
electrical energy. It transforms the values in voltage or current
An electrical battery is an active element because it transforms chemical
energy in electric energy

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. ELEMENTS IN CIRCUITS.
CLASSIFICATION (II)

Another classification:

- EXCITATION SOURCES: Some elements (e.g. transistor) would also

be included.
- Independent excitation sources
- Dependent excitation sources
- PASSIVE ELEMENTS: Elements which can disperse or store energy from
the excitation sources.

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 1. Excitation sources (I)

- INDEPENDENT: The characteristic magnitude (variation law) does not

depend on other magnitudes in the rest of the circuit.
- DEPENDENT: The characteristic magnitude (variation law) depends on a
voltage or current in another part of the circuit.

Independent excitation source:

- INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE
- INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE

Dependents excitation source:

- DEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE: The electromotive force (emf) depens on
the voltage or current from another part of the circuit
- DEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE: The current depends on the voltage or
current from another part of the circuit
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 1. Excitation sources (II)

- INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE - INDEPENDENT CURRENT

SOURCE: Characterized by the emf SOURCE: Characterized by the
current

+
E I i(t)
E
v(t)

- DEPENDENT VOLTAGE - DEPENDENT CURRENT

SOURCE: Characterized by the emf SOURCE: Characterized by the
current
+
e = k ⋅ v1
i = 10 ⋅ v3
e = k '⋅i2
i = k ⋅ i1

Dependent voltage source Dependent current source

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 1. Excitation sources (III)

- EXAMPLE: A dependent current source can be a transistor working in

amplification

IC
IC = β ⋅ I B
IC = β ⋅ I B

IB

- EXAMPLE:
R 4VC Dependent voltage source:
+ the emf depends on the
+ voltage in the capacitor
E VC C L

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 2. Passive elements. Ohm’s law (I)

- RESISTANCE/RESISTOR:
i R (t ) R
v R (t ) = R ⋅ i R (t )

v R (t )
- INDUCTOR: Inductor opposes sudden variations in current,
generating overvoltages
i L (t ) L
di L (t ) 1
v L (t ) = L ⋅ → i L (t ) = ∫ v L (t ) ⋅ dt
dt L
v L (t )
- CAPACITOR: Capacitor opposes sudden variations in voltage,
generating overcurrents
iC (t ) C
1 dv (t )
vC (t ) = ∫ iC (t ) ⋅ dt → iC (t ) = C ⋅ C
C dt
vC (t )
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 2. Passive elements. Ohm’s law (II)

Example: overvoltages/overcurrents

- INDUCTOR:
A variation in current (10 A) is produced in 1 µs:
i L (t ) L ∆IL 10
VL = L ⋅ = L −6 = L ⋅ 107 V → Sobretensio
Overvoltage
∆t 10
v L (t )
- CAPACITOR:

A variation in voltage (10 V) is produced in 1 µs

iC (t ) C ∆ VC 10
IC = C ⋅ = C − 6 = C ⋅ 107 A → Sobrecorrent
Overcurrent
∆t 10
vC (t )
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 2. Passive elements. Ohm’s law (III)
Other elements of circuits:
- SHORT-CIRCUIT: Element of a circuit which does not present any
resistance to the current

R= 0

- OPEN CIRCUIT: Element of a circuit which presents infinite resistance to

the current

R= ∞

- SWITCH: Element of a circuit equivalent to an open circuit when it is

opened and a short-circuit when it is closed

R= ∞
R= 0

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 2. Passive elements. Ohm’s law (IV)

Other elements of circuits

- EARTH: Circuit element with voltage = 0 .

Vt = 0

- GROUND: Circuit element with voltage not necessarily 0, but used as

reference voltage

VVoltage not necessarily ==0 0

no necessariament

Potencial de referencia
Reference potential

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (I)
Concept of node and branch in a circuit
BRANCH: Any element or association of elements that have two terminals
R E
C +

NODE: Point of intersection of 2 or more branches

R E L
+
node
C
node node

R node
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (II)
Series configuration
Two or more elements are associated in series when the current is the same in
all the elements. The potential difference in the association is the sum of the
potential difference of every element.

i (t ) R e( t ) L
+
A B
v R (t ) ve (t ) v L (t )

v AB (t )
iR ( t ) = ie (t ) = i L (t ) = i (t )
v AB ( t ) = v R ( t ) + ve (t ) + v L ( t )
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (III)
Series configuration

Resistors connected in series:

i (t ) R1 Rn

v R1 (t ) v Rn (t )

v (t )

n
RT = ∑ Ri = R1 + R2 + ....+ Rn
i =1

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6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized

Ohm’s law (IV)
Series configuration

Inductors connected in series:

Autoinduction coefficient
i (t ) L1 Ln

v L1 ( t ) v Ln (t )

v (t )

n
LT = ∑ Li = L1 + L2 + ....+ Ln
i =1

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (V)
Series configuration
Capacity
Capacitors connected in series:

i (t ) C1 Cn

vC1 (t ) vCn (t )

v (t )
n
1 1 1 1 1
CT
= ∑C = +
C1 C2
+ ....+
Cn
i =1 i
1
CT = n
1
∑C
n =1 n
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (VI)
Parallel configuration
Two o more elements are associated in parallel when each one has the same
voltage and the total current is the sum of the individual currents.

iC ( t ) C

i (t ) iR (t ) R
A B
i0 (t )

v (t )
i (t ) = iC (t ) + iR (t ) + i0 (t )
v AB ( t ) = vC (t ) = v R (t ) = vi0 (t )
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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (VII)
Parallel configuration
Resistors connected in parallel:
i1 (t ) R1

v R1 (t ) 1 n
1 1 1 1
i2 ( t ) R2 RT
= ∑
i =1 Ri
= +
R1 R2
+ ....+
Rn
1
A B RT = n
v R2 ( t ) 1
∑
i =1 R i

in ( t ) Rn

v Rn ( t )
v (t ) ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (VIII)
Parallel configuration
Inductors connected in parallel:
i1 (t ) L1

v L1 ( t ) n
1 1 1 1 1
i2 ( t ) L2
LT
= ∑
i =1
= +
Li L1 L2
+ ....+
Ln
A B 1
v L2 (t ) LT = n
1
∑
i =1 Li
in ( t ) Ln

v Ln (t )
v (t ) ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (IX)
Parallel configuration
Capacitors connected in parallel:
i1 (t ) C1

vC1 (t )
i2 ( t ) n
C2 CT = ∑ Ci = C1 + C2 + ....+ Cn
A vC2 (t ) B i =1

in ( t ) Cn

vCn ( t )

v (t ) ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (X)
Mixed configuration
Element with series configuration and elements with parallel
configuration in the same circuit

R1

R2 ⋅ R3
R2 R3 RT = R1 + ( R2 / / R3 ) = R1 + R + R
2 3

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 GENERAL CONCEPTS
6. 3. Association of elements. Generalized
Ohm’s law (XI)
Generalized Ohm’s law (time domain)

i (t ) R L C

A B
v R (t ) v L (t ) vC (t )

v (t )

di ( t ) 1
v (t ) = v R (t ) + v L (t ) + vC (t ) = R ⋅ i (t ) + L + ∫ i (t ) ⋅ dt
dt C

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