UNIT 3 , DIFFERENT STAGES OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introtlirction
3.2 Prenatal Dcvelopment
3.3 111Etncy
3.4 Babyhood
3.5 Early Childhood
3.6 Late Cllildhood
3.7 Adolescence
3.8 Adulthood
3.9 Middle Age
3.10 Old Age
3.1 1 Let Us Surn Up
3.12 Key Words
3: 13 Suggested Readings
3.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims at enabling you to understand and appreciate the life-long process
of personality development. The different stages of human development are
outlined so as to familiarize you with each stage and its characteristic mechanism
of development.
After reading this unit you should be able to:
know the different stages of human developme~lt;
explain the characteristics of each stage;
know the normal development process and differentiate it from abnormal
situations;
specify the difficulties and hazards in each stage;
be familiar with the milestones/developmental tasks at each stage; and
be aware of the various sources of happiness at all stages of development.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Human development characteristically passes through different stages. These
stages are orderly and sequentially linked with the preceding and succeeding
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stages. Features unique to each stage, change from stage to stage. They also
Hunlan Growth and vary from person to person thus making us unique in our own way. bor sol, "r
Development of us, these factors may move on smooth1y while others may experience ups
and downs. These factors and the way they are established in each person
mark the foundation of the human personality. Let us familiarize ourselves
with some important concepts which are used in analyzing the journey of life.

1) Growth: It refers to the increase in size, number of cells and it is

quantitative improvement. It is not based on what the person or organism
learns but only on maturation.
2) Maturatiott: It refers to those changes which primarily reveal on unfolding
of genetically endowed physical capacities of the organism. Like' a bud
opens and blossoi~~s into a flower, maturation brings out the full potential.
It is not dependent on any special training or environment.
3) Developnzent: It can be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent
changes leading towards the goal of maturity (Hurlock, 1964). It means
qualitative changes which are directed towards maturation. Development
is considered as a function of or a product of mat~~ration and learning.
Development follows an observable pattern which can be predicted.
Researchers have identified two principles of development. They are:
Ceplralo-caudal prirtciple: This states that development spreads over the body
from head to foot. Changes in structure and function can first be observed in
the head, then trunk and finally, the legs.
Proxi~~zodistalprinciple: According to this principle, development proceeds
from near to far, from the midpoint of the body to the extremities.
Stages of development
Vely broadly the stages of development may be categorized in two main types:
A) Prenatal development
B) Postnatal development.
Prenatal development includes all the changes that take place in the womb of
the mother. Therefore it is also called "intra-uterine development" where the
uterus is the environment. Postnatal development on the other hand, refers to
all the stages that follow after the birth till the very end of life.
Check Your Progress I
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) How do growth, maturation and development differ? Mention any one
feature.
 2) Explain Cephalo Caudal and Proximo distal laws. Different Stages of
Human Development
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3.2 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

The development of a person begins much before hislher birth and the stage
of development before birth is prenatal development stage. The sperm or
spennatozoan from father unites with a cell called egg or ovum in the mother.
The sperm enters into the layers of walls surrounding the egg and unites with
it. This process is called fertilization or conception. As a result a single cell is
produced which is called zygote and this is how life begins - as a single cell
which cannot even be seen with eyes takes up the journey of development
finally to become a complete person! Don't you think it is wonderfully intricate
and a beautiful marvel of creation?

Prenatal development covers the period from fertilization to birth. It comprises

t three stages:

1) The period of the zygote: from fertilization to end of two weeks.

2) Period of the embryo: 2 weeks to 2 lunar months.

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3) Period of the fetus: end of 2 months till birth.
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i) The period of zygote: It continues to move down the ovarian tube or

oviduct to the uterus. For 4-5 days it floats freely in the uterine cavity.
Around the lothday after fertilization the zygote digs into the wall of the
uterus and attaches itself firmly, a process called implantation. The wall
of the uterus envelops it. Rapid mitotic cell division takes place and the
single cell zygote after repeated divisions resembles a ball with two layers
of cells.

ii) Theperiod of the embryo: It extends from 2 weeks to 2 months. During

this time the embryo is like a miniature human being. Cell differentiation
takes place, that is, from one cell, different types of cells arise. External
features such as head, face, hands, fingers, legs can be clearly seen and
interior organs such as heart lungs and brain are formed. The embryo
turns within the ut'erus and the heart beat can be heard. The first twelve
weeks are very crucial because, it is during this period, the important
organs are formed.

iii) The ihird stage is the period of the fetus: It extends from the beginning
of the third month till birth. The body proportions increase as growth
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continues. Activity of the fetus can be felt. All the internal organs are
Human Growth and formed and by 5"' month they assume actual proportions. Between 2-4Ih
Development month the nervous system develops. On completion of 9 months or 270
days, the fetus is ready for birth.
Irtfluertces durirtg Prertatal stage: There are several factors which affect the
development during the prenatal stage. These factors are collectively called as
teratogens.

1) Materrtal Nutritiort: In order to grow, the fetus needs nutrients which in

turn come from the mother. Mother's dietary intake must be balanced.
Care must be given to include vitamins and minerals (such as calcium,
phosphate, iron) water, proteins, fats and not carbohydrates alone.
Vegetables, green leaves, seasonal fruits, pulses and cereals in addition to
milk, eggs and meat or fish provide a diet adequate for the baby and the
mother.
2) Materrtal age: Between the ages of 21 to 29 years is the ideal age of the
mother to have children. Below this bracket the mother is too immature
physiologically and psychologically with a high risk of infant death.
Beyond 30, risk of incidence of mental retardation and other genetic
abnormalities is very high.
3) Rest artd exercise of tlte motlter: These are essential specially during
pregnancy. When the mother is tired and over worked the fetal activity
increases and beyond limits it can cause still birth or irritability of the
child. At the same time mother must have adequate exercise.
4) Rh blood group: Majority of us are Rh+ while some have Rh- blood
group. If the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+ then it is an incompatible
condition. The mother must be aware of it and at the time of delivery, if
precautions are not adequate then complication such as jaundice can occur
and may result in infant death.

5) Addictions: If the mother is addicted to alcohol, cigarettes or drugs the

waste material is passed onto the fetus. Risk of irritability, low birth weight
or prematurity, even still birth or child being born with addictions are
vely high.
6) Materrzal diseases: The diseases of the mother can significantly affect
the fetus. Specially during the initial critical times during pregnancy.
German measles or Rubella can cause deafness, mental retardation or
even heart trouble. AIDS, Syphilis or other sexually transmitted diseases
can cause miscarriage.
7) Materrtal stress: When the mother has emotional problems, tensions and
anxieties, blood supply to the fetus is not adequate, but is diverted.
Therefore growth is hindered. This also can result in prematurity, still
birth or the child being irritable.
Prenatal development comes to an end with the onset of the birth process.
Birth can be normal and -spontaneous or assisted. The fetus may suffer
difficulties and complication, specially lack of oxygen or anoxia. In case of
colnplication assistance is required as in assisted birth such as instrumental
birth or caesarian section. In such assisted birth care must be ensured for the
health of the new born.
 Check your 'progress I1 Different Stages of
Human Development
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

1) Trace the 3 stages of Prenatal development brietly.

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2) What are some of the major factors the mother should observe during her
pregnancy?

INFANCY
The steady prenatal development fixes an end and a shock at the time of
birth. The fetus is now in a drasticall) different environment and further
development depends on how well he/she can adjust. Normal new born lets
out a lusty cry which signals that the newborn now breaths on its own. The

. lungs that have been inactive get filled and that makes the baby cry. However,
if there is any delay in the birth cry, it means that the baby is not breathing.
This delay can affect the oxygen supply to the brain and if not restarted, the
child may be l-etarded or even die. The weight of the new born must be noted.
Average birth weight is around 2.5 kg below which, it is called low birth
weight. Consequently the newborn has to struggle much more to reach
norrnalcy and face life.
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During this stage, adjusting to the new non-uterine environment becomes the
major goal or focus in the life of the neonate. Adjusting to room temperature.
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breathing independently, sucking and swallowing the milk, elimination of body
, waste are prime areas that the new born needs to master. The newborn goes
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through a wake-sleep cycle. It consists of wakefulness and activity for about
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50 to 60 minutes followed by sleep for three to four hours.
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I Characteristics of Infancy
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I Infancy is the shortest of all developmental stages. Since the environment
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changes are drastic, the infant needs to make radical adjustment. There is a
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slight weight loss during infancy which is also considered as a plateau in
Human Growth and development or stagnation. Infants' adjustment is also an indication or a preview
Development to future development. There are several hazards or dangers facing the infant.
These hazards are physical and psychological in nature. Getting adjusted to
the new environmental conditions such as respiratory, digestive and vascular
functions themselves become a threat for the infant.
Check Your Progress I11
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Explain why birth cry is important.

2) How does the infant adjust to the postnatal environment?

BABYHOOD
Babyhood is the stage that follows infancy and extends between two weeks
to two years. The characteristics of babyhood are as follows.

1) Development during babyhood is the foundation for the development

during the entire life span.

2) During babyhood rapid physical and intellectual development takes place

as evidenced by increase in height, weight and body proportions.

3) Increased independence and individuality mark babyhood.

4) Socialisation begins during babyhood as the baby shows increasing desire

to be a part of the social group of the family and extend the basic
relationship with the mother or mother substitute to others as well.

5) Sex-role typing begins during babyhood. Boys and girls are dressed sex.
approptiately and are treated in subtly different ways. Culturally relevant
sex-appropriate clothes, games, behaviour or even interacticns are
gradually brought in.
t 6) There are hazards faced by a baby which may be physical or psychological. . Different Stagcs of
, Physical hazards such as in illness, accidents and psychological hazards Human Devclopmcnt
can interfere with positive development of the baby.
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During babyhood, the baby is expected to learn to walk by two years, to take
11 solid foods, to gain partial control over elimination, learn the foundation of
receptive and expressive speech and to emotionally relate to parents and others.
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Pltysical Developmerit: Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height
and weight increase. The birth weight is doubled by four months and tripled
by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four months is 23 to 24
inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches.
Social smile which is a response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone
which happens around 2 months. Also, the baby car1 roll over from side to
back at 2 months and from back to side at 4 months. At 6 months, it can roll
over completely. The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting positions and
sits'up without support around 8 months. Hands and palm scoop up an object
which is called palmers scoop, around 5 months.,Around 9 months it can us,e
the fingers in a pincer-grip to pick up even fine objects.
The baby hitches or moves in a sitting position around six months, crawls and
creeps around 8 months. Walks on all fours, pulls up and stands by 10 months.
Helshe learns to stand with support by 11 months and without support, for
longer time arounda year. Also helshe learns to walk with support initially
and without support around 14 months. These milestones, which indicate
movement, are also called as motor development. The motor skills of babyhood
are not integrated initially but when they are integrated later, they are of
importance to the baby and it's developing personality.
Speech Developnierit: As the baby develops, the important bridge into the
world of other is also developed in the form of speech which aids
communication. It has two aspects : receptive speech to understand what others
are commuiiicating and expressive speech to make oneself understood. The
baby begins to babble or produces several sounds. Then she moves on to the
stage of monosyllables (eg: Ma,Ma,Da,Da.Na,Na etc.) which gives way to
two-syllables stage. Before two years, the baby speaks with words made of
two syllables forliied in a sentence which typically has no grammar.
Erriotiorial arid Social Developmertt: Babyhood emotions such as joy, affection,
curiosity, fear and anger are often expressed explosively and are out of
proportion to the stimuli. They are also short lived. These emotions get
conditioned or established much more in later years.
Beginning with a social smile babies learn to respond to the social environment
and are the foundations of the social skills valued greatly in later years.
Play Developmerit: Play activities may be classified on the basis of the content
of play, what the child does. In terms of content, the play activity may be sense
pleasure play, skill play, dramatic play, ritual and competitive gatnes. The second
classification of play is in terms of the social character of play that is, who is the
child playing with and the nature of their relationship: Under this p4a3 with
adult, solitiuy play, parallel play, associative play and cooperative play are the
differe~ t types.
Human Growth and Persorzality Developmertt: The personality of the individual already begins to
Development take shape. The core of the personality, namely the self concept is formed.
Other personality traits are strengthened or weakened depending on interaction
with environment which are called as quantitative changes. The roots of these
can be observed during babyhood.
Hazards Irt Babyhood: There are several hazards the baby needs to overcome.
Physical hazards range from mortality as in cot or crib death, due to various
illnesses, accidents or malnutrition.
Psychological hazards include delay in motor or speech development and their
subsequent disadvantages. Delay in development hinders social relation and
in turn becomes a threat to emotional development.
Social hazards are lack of opportunities and experiences to learn to become
social. Hazards in personality development result because self concept is largely
a mirror image of what babies believe significant.people in their lives think of
them. Unfavourable attitudes reflected in resentfulness, negativism or withdrawal
behaviour from parents and others, therefore, can cause damages to the
developing personality.
Check Your Progress IV
Note :. a) Use the space provided for your answers

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

I) Mention the major characteristics of babyhood.

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2) Why are developmental tasks so important?

3.5 EARLY CHILDHOOD

Childhood extends from 2 to 12 years and is generally divided as early and
late childhood. Early childhood can be taken to range from the completion of
2 years to 6 years. In this section, the skills acquired by the child, speech
development and play development, personality development are outlined.
Further the hazards during early childhood in various developmental areas are
 discussed. Happiness during childhood is derived from parental acceptance Different Stages of
Human Development
and ways of extending acceptance are presented.
Early childhood is also called as preschool stage. The young child is eager to
gain control over knowledge about the environment. Helshe tries to explore
the environment, hence this stage is called the exploratory stage. Every object
or situation holds such wonder for the young child that helshe is full of questions
about what, why and how-giving rise to the name 'questioning age'. They
tend to imitate others usually the adults around them. Thus this age is called
the 'imitative age'. Their play activity includes a great deal of creativity and
imagination, so this stage also earns the additional name 'creative age'.
Physical Development
Compared to the rapid physical development in babyhood, there is a slow
down. Body proportions are evened out and the head heavy look is lost. Weight
gain of about 2 Kg per year and an additional 3 inches of height are gained on
an average. Milk teeth are lost and the chubbiness of babyhood is replaced by
a gaunt look. Because of all these developments the child looks rather
unattractive. .-- -

Skills of Early Childhood

The young children learn and master a variety of skills because their immense
curiosity gets them to manipulate and learn; they feel no inhibition or fear of
ridicule as older children would; in addition, their bodies are pliable and fingers
dexterous and they are 'teachable'- an essential quality for learning skills.
Depending on the environmental opportunities and the family background
children learn a variety of skills.
The hand skills of self feeding and dressing become perfect during childhood.
Bathing, dressing, combing hair or even finer motor skills required for tying
shoe laces are all learnt. Catching and throwing a ball, use of scissors, painting,
colouring, use of crayons, drawing all become a part of early childhood years.
With the foundational skill of walking firmly established, young children move
onto additional skills. Hopping, skipping, jumping, running, climbing up and
' down the stairs show the progress made by the child. Cycling, swimming,

skating, walking on walls are all activities enjoyed greatly by children at this
stage. Handedness is established and the child now shows a clear left or right
hand preference by the end of early childhood.
Speech Development
Both receptive and expressive communication improve as babbling of babyhood
and crying are largely reduced. Normal speech development gains significant
strides where they learn proper pronunciation, making of sentences (even though
with poor grammar) and building of vocabula~y.Also the content of speech
takes a tum. From talking about self, self interests and self needs the child moves
on to socialized speech around six years wherein others and their concerns are
spoken of.
Emotional Development
Emotions during early childhood are intense with frequent emotional outbursts.
These are associated with temper tantrums, intense fears or jealousies and can
be traced to the cause of long and tiring play and too little food intake.
Human Growth and Play
Development
The beginning of early childhood finds children playing extensively with toys
but slowly they grow out of it towards the completion of this stage. The number
of toys or play equipment, the opportunities for manipulation, well developed
motor skills, creativity, higher IQ-all these factors or their lack influence the
pattern of playing. Play includes a great deal of imitation and dramatizing. For
example, young children behave like mothers, teachers and others. The
imaginative play often merges reality and fantasy and is enjoyed by young
children.
Relationship with Significant Others
Parental relatiortship: Children experience it with their father and mother or
parent-substitute. Poor relationships lead to devastating effects since young
children depend on parents to a great extent. Besides the security of the child
is centered around the parents. Therefore, poor relationship with parents, or
their absence or death can severely traumatize the young child and affect the
developing personality.
Siblirtg relationsltip: The child progressively moves on to independence and
is no longer the 'baby'. Siblings often start frictions when a young child wants
hisher way. This is called sibling rivalry. However, siblings may also enjoy a
good relationship. Specially when the older children serve as role models for
the young children to learn socially approved and sex appropriate behaviour
through imitation.
Personality Development
Shaping of the self concept which is the core of personality takes place within
the family. Because the social world of the child is the parents, siblings and
relatives who stay with the child and what they feel about the child is mirrored
and the child accepts that as the self. Peer members too have an effect on the
self concept which stems from their attitude towards the child which may
reinforce and establish or contradict and damage the influence the family has
on the child.
Hazards of Early Childhood
Unlike earlier stages, physical hazards such as illness, accidents or
awkwardness have physical as well as psychological repercussions. Mortality
rate reduces steeply as compared to earlier phases. Young children are highly
susceptible to infections and illnesses. With improved health care facilities
'generally illnesses are taken care of. Accidents of everyday such as cuts, bruises,
falls or burns are common and are more common among boys than girls.
Serious or prolonged illness restricts the child and deprives h i d h e r of
opportunities and hence affects himiher psychologically by affecting adjustments
made by the child.
A preschooler who frequently experiences negative or unpleasant emotions
such as anger with few pleasant emotions, faces major emotional hazards of
developing a negative disposition. Early in childhood children must learn to
establish an emotional linkage between themselves and significant others in
their environment caued as 'empathic complex'. Failure to establish empathic
colnplex becomes yet another emotional hazard. Children need ,to establish a
 warm and stable relationship with the mother. which is then extended to other Different Stages of
relationships. Human Development

There are also several situations, which threaten the degree of social adjustment
of the child. Such situation arise from:
a) Speech or behaviour of the child, if unpopular, then heishe is isolated and
lacks the opportunity to learn in the peer group. situation.

b) Children placed under strong pressure to play in a sex appropriate way

may over do and become rejected.

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c) Young children, who face unpleasant social situations because of their
age, sex or race, shun all social relations in order to protect themselves.

d) Those children who play extensively with imaginary playmates or pets.

tend to be dominating. This may result in social maladjustment.
e) Children who have too many playmates all the time, do not learn how to
handle the situation when they are alone and hence become lonely.

II Moral Development
Ardund early childhood the young ones learn approved and unapproved
behaviour. They must be trained appropriately thus aiding moral development.

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It is based on:
1) Parents who teach children right from wrong must be consistent, otherwise
the child gets confused.
2) A mistake must not be appreciated, approved or smiled upon - it reinforces
learning of wrong behaviour.

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3) Too much punishment wrecks havoc with the child. Praise, awards and
rewards for good behaviour and rare and consistent punishment develop
i moral fiber.
4) The system must not be authoritarian but based on love and acceptance
of the child.
Parents who teach the children right from wrong must be consistent. Children
get confused when adults teach them that what was wrong yesterday is
considered right today, and hence over looked. Inconsistency between two
adults also confuse children. If the mistake of the child is punished by parents
but approved and appreciated by others, specially peers, then the child has a
positive attitude towards wrong behaviour. Often delinquency arises out of
such behaviour. Therefore not only the mistake, but also the attitude towards
it needs to be checked.

i Happiness
A child who is happy develops to be a well adjusted person. To a great extent, _
parents must take responsibility for accepting the child, a key factor in
happiness. They need to ensure that acceptance is perceived by the child. It is
done through the followjng ways:
1) Parents must accept the child, regardless of the looks, timing of birth,
sex, or hislher strengths and weaknesses. They must warmly welcome
Humall Growth apd 2) Parents must provide the basic needs of the child. Proper food and nutrition
Developnient helps the child to feel accepted and wanted. Keeping himlher clean and
away from dangers such as electric shock, fire, accidents etc by providing
a safe environment translate as acceptance in the mind of a young ch-ild.
3) Parents must take time out and spend with the child. Involving in the
child's activities and enhancing the opportunities provided to grow and
develop are important ways of extending acceptance to the child.
4) Parents must talk to the child making eye contact. When talked to, the-
child not only learns the language but feels psychologically secure and
accepted.
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5) Encouragement, specially when the child is fast picking up motor and
speech ski1Is makes the child feel happy and accepted.
6 ) Age appropriate, interest based responsibilities must be shared with the
child. A child's help when taken to water a plant or clean the house; the
child gains acceptance and feels part of the social group of family.
7) Demonstrating affection by a hug or a kiss or picking up the child in
addition to feeling accepted, helps the child to feel connected.
8) Parents must take time to teach the child right from wrong, acceptable
froin unacceptable behaviour. This entire process is called disciplining
the child. In order to discipline, parents must explain and show the correct,
behaviour. Also they must be consistent - between themselves and between
two points of time. Frequent piinishment would take away the effect and
desensitize the child. This should only be a last resort.
Punishment should always be proportionate to the mistake and must be just.
The child must know why helshe is being punished.
Check Your Progress V
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.
I) What other terms are used to describe ear~~childhood?

2) Describe the developlnental tasks of early childhood.

 Different Stages of
3.6 LATE CHILDHOOD H uinan Development

The period of late childhood ranges from 6 years to the attainment of sexual
matui-ity, around 12- 13 years. During this stage children develop marked
negativism and because of their desire for independence seldom obey the
parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of knowledge
essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance
ilnd children of this age 'crowd together or 'gang LIP',thus earning the name
gang age'.
)evelopmen tal Tasks
The peer members accepting the older child is an important aspect. Within the
peer relationship the older child learns several social skills, which as
developlnental tasks, provide happiness when successful or frustration if failed.
The older child's accomplishments during this stage include the followings.
Learns to get along with age mates.
Develops the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic.
Develops concepts necessary for everyda); living.
Develops a conscience, a sense of morality and values.
Develops attitude towards social groups and institutions.
Learns physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
Begins to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles.
Physical Development
There is relatively uniform but slow physical development. The weight gain is
almost even throughout late childhood and the child gains 2-3 inches every
year. Body pmportionsare more elongated with long arms and legs giving an
awkward appearance. Face also becomes angular with the loss of fat.'Teeth
that begin to fall during the sixth year are all replaced with permanent teeth
except for the wisdom teeth.
Skills of Late Childhood
Children develop a numbers of skills during this stage. These-skills also differ
from boys to girls.
Self help skills of eating, dressing, bathing grooming become almost as
adept as that of an adult, with very little concentration required.
Social skills include helping others. Cleaning and helping in daily activities
at home and helping teacher at school, sharing responsibilities with age
mates at play are important achievements of the child.
School skills of writing reading, drawing, painting, clay modeling,
crayoning become n1ol.e proficient.
Play skills such as throwing and catching the ball, bicycling, skating and
swi~nniinggre developed. Fine motor skills of painting and needlework
are well developed among girls while boys achieve gross motor skills of
tllrowing a ball, kicking football or jumping.
Human Growtlt and Speech Improvement
De\~elopmcnt
Older children are increasingly aware of speech.as a tool for beingaccepted
by their peer group members. Therefore speech is conscicusly improved from
immature, unacceptable ways of communication such as crying and gesturing
which are avoided. Proper pronunciation and grammar are learnt. Children
take interest in telling jokes or narrating events or riddles. Parents and teachers
also contribute to speech improvement by encouraging them. Radio and
television serve as models for speech. There is marked improvement in
vocabula~yas names of colours, numbers, money concepts, time concepts are
included. Secret codes used by the gang often become part of older child's
communication patterrl.
Emotions During Late Childhood
Older children learn to control emotional outbursts as these are looked down
upon by peer members, as immature and inappropriate behaviour. Happy and
pleasant expressions on the other hand are expressed freely as seen in laughing,
giggling or jumping. While the child tends to curtail expressions of negative
emotions, helshe may show moodiness or resort to sulking. In expressing
emotions, sex appropriateness can be noticed. Boys tend to show anger 'or
curiosity while girls experience fears, worries and feelings of affection.
Social Development
The older child shows strong desire to be an accepted member of the peer.
group. Staying at home or playing with siblings are disliked by them. The
gangs are not delinquent groups but play groups. Their main activity is to play
games, sports or simply chatting. The gangs are also strictly segregated, that
is, members of a gang often come from the same sex. Those who are accepted
by the gang members gain social status and feel self confident while the
opposite is true of those who are rejected.
Play activities
Play for the older child is not a mere amusement, it is the chief instrument of
socializing which provides opportunities for social skills. Various games, sports
or activities such as collecting items (shells, stamps and pictures) are enjoyed.
While these activities may be used, acceptance and popularity are the social
goals of play.
Zrnprovernerzt of urtderstarzdirtg
The older child is now in a stage where concepts become specific and concrete.
They reflect a stage of cognitive development termed as 'concrete operations'.
The school plays an important role in building, improving and clarifying
concepts. The child begins to undelstand social dimensions in concepts - types
of groups, differences, similarities etc are perceived by the child.
Moral Behaviour
The code of conduct and morality learnt at home is now extended to the social
group. The child makes a conscious choice to be part of the peer group. Moral
code is developed on the basis of general rather than specific situations.
Discipline also helps in this process. Use of rewards, punishment and consistent
application of rules enable the child to develop moral behaviour.
 Personality Development Different Stages
Human Developmc
The older child enters the school and the social horizon is broadened beyond
family members. Now the child views himself/herself not only through the
eyes of parents but also teachers, classmates and peers .Thus the child's self
concept, mirrored by people around is revised: child's personality traits also
undergo changes.
Hazards in Late Childhood
The child is susceptible to many physical and psychological hazards. They
include illness and accidents which are the physical hazards encountered by
older children. Improved medicare takes care of several illnesses but accidents
are a major cause of death among older children. Children who experience
lack of peer acceptance are ciissatisfied leading to personality maladjustments
in later life.
Happiness in Late Childhood
The older child experiences happiness from several sources. Play time is eagerly
awaited. But for occasional difficulties, if the home atmosphere is relaxed,
then the child loves the family and derives satisfaction from them, an added
source of happiness. Social acceptance becomes a major factor in establishing
happiness in late childhood.
Check Your Progress VI
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers

I b) Check your answers with 'hose provided at the end of this unit.
1) Describe the skills of late childhood.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................
2); Mention a few characteristics of the 'gang age'.
...................................................................................................................

3.7 ADOLESCENCE

I Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage

between childhood and adulthood ch&-acteristically possessing qualities of both
Human Growth and stages, although not fully in either of them. The age range is from 12-19 ye,ars.
Development It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes taking place
including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence. Consequently
there are also psychological and social changes. Adolescence is a crucial stage
for the person. In addition, i t usually encounters problems of different kinds.
Adolescents are vely sensitive. This must be understood and handled with
utmost responsibility. The developmental tasks for adolescents are as follows.
a Coming to ternis with ones own body and accepting the changes.
Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
a Selecting and training for a career.
a Desiring, accepting and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
a Achieving emotional and economic independence.
a Gaining self identity.
Physical Changes
The most important change that takes place during adolescence is sexual
maturity which occurs a1 pirAerty. The body prepares for it for about two years
(prepilbescence or prepuberty) followed by adjusting and becoming fully
functional over another two years (post pubescencelpost puberty). Changes in
height, weight are rapid referred to as 'growth spurt'. Puberty marks 'menarche'
or beginning of the menstrual cycle among the girls and nocturnal emissions
among the boys. The changes during puberty are both internal and external.
Internally the endocrine system produces hormones which trigger the
reproductive cycle. Chief among then1 are Estrogen and Progesterone among
females and Androgens and Testosterone among males. External changes
include secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair (growth of beard
and moustache) among the males and development of breasts among the
females. Consequently, the body form assumes the adult figure and voice
changes are accompanied.
Emotionality and Social Behaviour
Stanley Hall had ternled adolescence as the stage full of 'storm and stress'.
The hormones, the growth spurt and the reproductive maturity all these are
not merely physical for they also have an emotional impact. The emotional
pattern of the adolescent is called 'heightened emotionality' wherein the person
is irritable, moody, irl-ational or feels intensely. However, maturity sets in as
adolescence makes way for adulthood and the person le:irns to adjust
appropriately.
The peer group influence increases. The adolescent begins to notice and take
interest in the opposile sex. Making friends and adjusting to new social situations
in school, search for career are learnt during this time. Great deal of interest is
shown in personal grooming, looks and clothes. Adolescents also ponder over
several philosophical issues and try to find an answer to questions such as
"Who am I? What is the purpose of life?", The search for identity when it
takes a meaningful turn, enables the adolescent to adjust well and in contrast.
in identity, crisis leads to confusion and diffidence in f ~ t u r e .
Moral Developnient Different Stages o f
Human Dcvelopment
By acjolescencc, thc mechanism of metal code should bc developed. Morality
niust be rooted in internal control ~undnot external agencies S L I C ~ilS fear,
punishment and social conscqucnces. While these factors deter the adolescent
helshe learns to decide on hi.s/her own.
Hazards in Adolescence
While illness rates may be low. accidents and conflicts leading to suicide are
high. Psychological hazards arise o i ~ of
t inability to make the transition into
maturity. Social disupp~.ovalis still a mii.jor source of hazard specially with the
opposite sex.
Happiness
Adolescents are happy based on their social ~uidfiumily acljustments. Choosing
and training for a career contributes to a happy state of mind. 11' the career
aspirations a1.c rc:llistic ancl :~chievablc,then the aclolcscents have reasons to
be well acljustecl :~ndhappy.
Check Your Progress VII
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers.

b) Check Y O L Ianswers
~ with those provided at the end of this unit.

I) Why is adolescence an intermediary stagc?

2) Explain the concept of 'storm and stress' during adolescence.

...................................................................................................................

ADULTHOOD
Adulthood is the stage whcrc growth is complete and the person assumes
various responsibilities. Stiirting around I 8 yea-s. i l exlends till middle age
which is around 45 yciirs. Thc dcvelopme~italtusks lor this stage of life are as
follows:
Hulnan Crowtl~and Like all earlier stages adult too has cc~.taindcvclopmental tasks, except they
Development are referred to as 'Vital roles". All of 11socci~py;i 'st;iti~s',a position, socially
recognized and regi~larizcd.For example, 11iestatus of being n son, an officer
orland a captain. According to tlie status one occupies, one needs to perform
certain duties or li~lfilcer-tain responsibilities, which are termed as 'roles'. A
role is the dynamic side of the status. Tiking the exa~iiplefurther, the son
takes care of the parents or tlie captain lcads rhc team. The roles of the adult
are so iniportant that they are called as vital roles and each adult performs
these roles. These roles include the rolc of a worker. a spouse and a parent.
Role of Worker
Having selected and trained for a career during adolcscencc, the adult takes
up the important task of getting a job and settling in it. As one settles, one
experiences job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Proportionate to the job
satisfaction (also called as vocational a?iustment) one will find adLiustnientin
life. The vocational a~justrnentdepends on the following factors.
a Reasons why the job was selected
a Preparation for working
a Training and qualificntion
a Experience and expcrtisc, skill in pcrforrnance
a Personal interest
a Willingness to lean1 and adjust 'the attitude'

a Money
If these factors are niolr: or less balanced, then the adult is vocationally adjusted.
Not only for the person, but also for thc fanlily, ad-justment is required. For
exaniple if he is a travelling executive away on long tours, the family must
find a way of adjusting to the circums~ances.It is found that Gne who balances
the financial demands, is often well adjusted as an adult.
Marriage Partner
Taking up the ~.esponsibility of a spouse and fullilling this role greatly contributes
to a pel-son's life, happiness and acljustment. Marital ad-justn~ent depends mainly
on the following factors:
a Age at marriage
a Type of marriage-arranged or love marriage
a Courtship or prior knowledge about tlie partner
a Similarities1diffe1-encesin backgrounds
a Sharing of interests
a Willingness to make the marriage work and having a positive attitude
Marriages are made in heaven says the proverb. But the couple rnilst work at
keeping it healthy on earth! Success in marriage must be achieved in several
aspects or areas. Basically both partners need to be satisfied in marriage. Marital
faithfulness and trust establishes the foundation in marriagc. Colnmunication Different Stages of
between the partners is a key area. Ful-thel; a loving rcspect for each other and Human Development
mutual desire for harmony between husband and wife become crucial. Besides,
the coi~pleneed to adapt to each other's interests, work demands and personality.
Another area is sexual satisfaction. Handling of money, spending and saving,
if not done in a mature manner can cause havoc in marriage. Adjustment in
these areas can truly make marriage a source of happiness.
Parental Role
As the family grows and children are added, one must realize that it involves
gl-eat responsibility. Ad.justment to parenthood depends on several factors
including the desire for children, number of children, time when they are born,
sex of children, spacing between children, ability to SLIP POI-^ them, child rearing
practices used by parents, acceptance of children.
Children can'contribute greatly to the emotional well being of parents if brought
LIPwith loving care provided with overall ,acceptance. The parental role must
be played with commitment and creativity. Adjustment to parenthood may
become elusive if children are rebellious, sick or uncaring. Those who are
childless by choice, although enjoy greater freedom, forfeit the joys of child's
affection and companionship.
Check Your Progress VIII
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers

b) Check your answers with those psovided at the end of this unit.

1) Briefly explain the vital roles of an adult.

3.9 MIDDLE AGE

Middle age is an intermediary stage between adulthood and old age. Beginning
around 45 years it ends when old age begins. It is a pesiod of transition from
adulthood to old age. It is charactel-izcd by achievements. professional and
otherwise. It is a time when life is evaluated by introspection. It is callcd Empty
nest period. as children leave home. Many observers view it as a time of
stress, often ternled as 'Middle age' crises.
The developmental tasks of the middle aged adult are centered around success
in careel; adjusting well in marriage and tinding satisfaction in children. At
work the person attains great achievements and experiences a climax. Depending
on the foundations. the ma;.riage may be shaken up or strengthened. The
relationship with children assumes a new dimension as they too start early
adult life.
Human Growtll and Physical Changes
Developmert
With active reproductive stage behind them, Inen and women undergo the
experience of a physical decline. Women go through menopause, the end of
menstural cycle. As n result, she cannot have children any more. With the
in women several other features
decline in hormones leading to n~erio/~lwrlr.se
appear. Weight gain around the abdomen, joint pains, changes in appearance
with grey hairs and sagging muscles, problems with teeth and vision, slow
down the pace of life. Me11too experience reduced sexual drive and motivation,
hence they lnay question their own virility. As the youthfulness begins to fade
away refocusing the relationship between husband and wife become essential.
Emotional Changes
The drastic physical changes brought in by reduced hormones, lead to
emotional ups and downs. Periods of moodiness, loneliness or blues affect
the middle age adult. The feelings of reduced function, unattractiveness and
the like cause negative feelings and stress which if left uncared for, can
escalate to full blown crisis situation. Eniotional stability can be achieved in
nieaningfi~lwork, interests and relationships. Frequently people tuln to religion
and God for peace, strength and meaning.
Social Changes
During middle age social activities and responsibilities assume increased
significance. Children and their families are a source of satisfaction. Friends
and peel- group members are very important in helping one realize helshe is
not alone.
Happiness comes fro111accepting the journey of life with its many twists and
ti~ms.Developing and experiencing career goals and achieving them, renewed
family intimacy and social contributio~isprovide added value to the person.
Check Your Progress IX
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers

b) Check Y O L I;IIISWC~S
~ with those provided at the end of this unit.
Explain the concept of:
1) Middle age crises

2) Empty nest syndrome

 Different Stages o f
Human Development

3.10 OLD AGE

I

While it is [rile that a pcrson can feel and behave very old age 45, another one
at age 85 may Icad :in active life enjoying good health. Old age, often referred
to as the cvcning of life. begins around 65 years. The old person is called as
senior citizen. Old agc is a period of dcclinc in physical strength and social
participation. It is not welcomed unlike other phases of life. The adjustment of
older people is often poor. The problems of old age steni from disability,
I
diseases, dependence and dcath.
Physical Changes
As strength dcclincs , rhe various organs and organ systems slow down.
Diabetes, hcarr conditions, osteoporosis and such disc:iscs arc common during
old age. Disabilities in walking, seeing, hearing etc restrict the person in several
ways. These disabilities niake the person dependent on others.
Psychological Changes
An old pcrson is oficn isolated. The disease iuid disabilities producc a strong
fcelini ol' inadcquncy and the dcpcndence makcs the person fcel worse. They
arc given to depression ;und moodiness. Death of the spoi~scplunges the person
into dc\p;~irmaking hinilher lecl tot~~lly
at a loss. Mc~iioryfails thc old person
which creates further problems. Feiir of death can be a dominant emotion.
Wonics ahout wlicrhc~.Iiclshc would be invalid, a burden to others is very
com Iiion.
Social Changes
i

! Older people rctirc oftcn from work. Their busy lifc si~ddenlycomcs to a
halt. Rc-employment possibilities may not be bright enough. Thus, the old
person finds too liii~chtinie at hand, with too little work and reduced mobility
very frustrating. Redirecti~igand remodeling the entire life style with
meaningful activities bcco~nenecessary. The peer groi~pnnembcrs are no
longer acccssiblc dilc lo vurious reasons. Thc social status of a widow or
widower is not ;I pleasant one either. Dependent on orhers for evcn small
things, mobility, money imd moorings. the social life ofthe old person shrinks
draslici~lly.
As an individual helshc needs to take personal responsibility for self that is a
milcsronc. The developmental tasks become the individual life and existence,
rather than the orhers i n rhe social circle.
Happiness in old age is centered aroilnd children ;uitl ihcir wclfirlr. Simple
cvcnts i~ndmcmorics, \11;1rcd l,ovc iuid concern, providc feelings of satisfaction
ro the old person.
Human Growth and Check Your Progress X
Development
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answers

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

1) Show how disability, disease, dependence and death affect the old person.

LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have outlined the stages of human development, prenatal stage,
infancy, babyhood, early and late childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middle
age and old age. In each stage we have examined the characteristics, the
milestones, the physical and psychosocial development. Sources of happiness
are also mentioned.

KEY WORDS
Growth . : Growth refers to increase in size, number of cells
and a quantitative improvement, based on
maturation.
Maturation : Maturation refers to those changes which
primarily reveal an unfolding of potential,
genetically provided physical capabilities of a
person.
Development : Development is a progressive series of changes
which are orderly, sequential, coherent,
predictable, forward, directional, and qualitative
in nature.
Developmental tasks : Developmental tasks are demands on the person
placed by the society. Successful completion
leads t o happiness while failure leads to
frustration. These are milestones which the
journey of personality development crosses.
Prenatal development : Development that takes place before even the
birth of a person, which occurs within the womb
of the mother. While the hereditary factors
predominate prenatal development,
environmental factors also have an important role
to play.
Fertilization : It is also called as conception. It is the union of Different Stages of
the two cells, the sperm from the father and the Human Development
ovum of the mother to produce a single cell,
namely zygote. Life of a person begins with this
single cell, called zygote.
Peer group : It refers to a person's age mates from school and
neighbourhood with whom helshe has close
interaction. Such relationships when positive,
buildup and develop the personality while
negative peer group influence often, leads to
deviant behaviour and maladjustment.
Parenting : It includes the various responsibilities carried out
by the parents or parent substitutes. Accepting
the child enables one to have better parenting
skills.
Puberty : It is the attainment of sexual maturity when the
person becomes capable of reproducing. The age
range is 12 years to 14 years and it is associated
with growth spurt.
Self concept : It is what a person thinks, feels and assumes
what helshe is, often reflected from comments
and behaviour from those around. Hence, the
development of self concept is mirrored by the
people around. It is considered to be the central
element of personality.
Vital roles of an adult The person needs to fulfill various roles or
responsibilities in keeping with hislher social
position. These responsibilities during adulthood
become very important. Therefore they are
termed as adult vital roles.

3.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Havighurst R. J. (1953), Human Development and Education, Longmans,
New York.
Hurlock Elizabeth B. (1964), Child Development, 6'h Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill. New York.
Hurlock Elizabeth B. (1980), Developmental Psychology, 5" Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill. New Delhi.
Kuppuswamy B. (1974), A Text book of Child Behaviour & Development,
Konark Publishers. New Delhi.
Stone L. Joseph & Joseph Church (1973), Childhood & Adolescence, 3rd
Edition, Random House, New York.
Thompson; George G. (1981), Child Psychology, Sujeet Publications, New
Delhi.
Human Growth and
Development
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress I
1) How do growth, maturation and development differ? Mention any one
feature.
a) Growth is an increase in the number of cells. It is quantitative.
b) Maturation is the unfolding of genetically given capacities at the right
time- not based on learning.
c) Development is qualitative change, often based on learning and
interaction with the environment.

2) Explain Cephalo Caudal and Proximo distal laws.

a) Cephalo caudal principle is a law of development where development
progress starting from head moves tail ward.
b) Proximo distal principle states that development starts from a central
axis or midline of the body and progresses towards extremities.
Check Your Progress I1
1) The three stages of Prenatal development are:
Period of Zygote, period of the embryo and period of the fetus.
During the period of the zygote, implantation takes place and rapid cell 1
division occurs. i
During the period of the embryo which is till the end of Pd month, all
internal organs such as brain, heart etc are formed and it is a very crucial
stage. The heart beat can be heard. From the start of the period of fetus,
the baby has grown enough with all external and internal organs fully
developed.
1
Mother's nutrition during pregnancy must be balanced. Her sleep, rest 1
and exercise must be adequate. Infections such as Rubella, Syphilis can
interfere with the baby's development and so, she should be careful. If
she is Rh- and her baby is Rh+ then she must be aware of it and be ready
for immediate medical attention for the baby after delivery. She must not
expose herself to X-rays till the 2ndmonth. Drugs, alcohol and tobacco
can cause serious damage to the baby. Therefore she should avoid them.
She must consult the doctor at least once in 3 months
Check Your Progress I11
1) Birth cry is important because it is the initial sign that the baby is alive
and is capable of breathing independently. Delay in birth cry means that
the infant does not get oxygen and so the brain cells can be damaged if
not cared for immediately.
2) The infant needs to adjust to the postnatal environment where helshe is
independent. Helshe needs to feed, breathe and eliminate on hislher own.
Unlike the uterus , the room temperature is now not the same as the body
temperathre and the baby must adjust to it. The infant must also adjust to
 I
sleep- wake cycle. There is a greater risk of infection and the infant needs Different Stages of
Human Development
to overcome all these in order to develop.
Check Your Progress IV
1) The major characteristics of babyhood are:
Babyhood is the foundational period.
Rapid growth and change marks babyhood. The baby shows decreasing
I dependency.
i
There is increased individuality and creativity.
Babyhood is the beginning of socialization and sex-role typing.
Babyhood is an appealing age, play activity and speech proceed beyond
the rudimentary stage.
2) Developmental tasks are very important because they are the expectations
and demands placed by the society on the individual. A standard is set by
L the society and accordingly, every person must perform. When these
standards are reached, the person is happy. If not, there is frustration and
difficulty with future stages.
Check Your Progress V
The other terms used to refer to early childhood are:
1) Questioning age, Preschool age, Troublesome age, Exploring age and
Imitative age.

2) By the end of early childhood, the normal child can walk; can take solid
I
food, with reasonable stability of physiological functioning. Control over
elimination of waste products becomes a focus, requiring training. A useful
vocabulary is built up for speaking and understanding speech.
Check Your Progress VI
1) Skills of late childhood are:
Self help skills, social skills, school skills and play skills. The older child
becomes adept in self help skills (eating, dressing etc) which by now
become second nature. Social skills such as helping others at home, school
and play, sharing of responsibilities can be observed. School skills of
writing, reading, arithmatic, drawing painting are all well developed.
i Play skills such as throwing, catching the ball, bicycling are groomed.
Among the girls, fine motor skills of painting, needlework are areas where
proficiency is gained. Gross motor skills of throwing back, kicking ball
etc. are better developed among the boys.
b 2) Gang age: Children of this age group form into smaller groups called
gangs. These ax play groups and not delinquent gangs. The gang members
as a rule are either boys or girls only. This demarcation is maintained.
Acceptance by gang members is of utmost value for every child. Within
the gang there are cBde languages, jokes, riddles which are enjoyed.
Human Growtll and Check Your Progress VII
Development
1) Adolescence is a stage between childhood and adulthood, therefore it is
an intermediary stage. We can see the characteristics of a child as well as
the adult features. The adolescents themselves go through a period of
'neither here, nor there' situation which adds to their confusion. Giving
up childhood behaviour and mastering the tasks of the stage helps the
adolescent to move on to adulthood.

2) Adolescence, according to Stanley Hall is a peribd coilsidered to be full

of 'storm and stress'.
This is mainly because of the sea changes taking place in the body. Puberty
and growth spurt trigger several changes i n the body. The primary and
secondary sexual characteristics are well developed. Hormones, both
n~alesand female are intensely affecting both physical growth and
psychological changes. The adolescent experiences heightened
emotionality which includes mood swings, periods of elation, loneliiless
and withdrawal. Ad.justing to all these changes and emerging with adult
characteristics are important in adolescence.
Check Your Progress VIII
1) Adult vital roles:

The vital roles are the developn~entaltasks of the adult. They are inainly
in the areas of work. marriage and parenthood. One must attain adjustment
in all three areas.
Vocational adjustment depends on training, appropriateness of work,
for work, prior experience, work skills and work values that one
possesses.
Marital ad.justment needs to be worked at by both the partner-s in all areas.
While fidelity and friendship can form the foundation, there needs to be
open communication, trust, respect and love for each other.
Adjustment to parenthood 111ust be achieved in accepting the children
and taking care of their development. Wanting children, their gender,
number, spacing , parental age at which children arrive, and parents attitude
towards children, financial positio~iare all factors leading to adjustment
in parenthood.
Check Your Progress IX
1) Middle age crisis:
A person passing through iniddle age experiences a ~qeversalof changes
that took place in adolescence naniely there is a decline in hormonal level.
Among females the occurrence of menopause brings to a close the ability
LO bear children. Among males too there is a decline. As a result the
person feels unattractive, moody and has to realign priorities and evaluate
life. Since ~hesechanges often throw people out of control, the term middle
age crisis is used.
2) Etnpty Nest syndrome occurs when parents, during iniddle age, face a
situation where the children who are now adults themselves, leave home
 for studies, jobs or after marriage. As a rcsi~lt.the home is empty leaving Different Stages of
only the nuclear couple. Depending LIPOII the strength of their relationship Human Development
and finding meaningfi~lactivities, this stage can bc adjusted ( ( \
, Check Your Progress X
I

1) The old person because of the decline in functioning of the organs and
organ systems faces certain diseases. Besides there are disabilities such as
blindness, loss of hearing, orthopedic disabilities ru-ising from broken bones,
joint pains etc. The freedom and liiobility of the person is, consequently,
curtailed. Sometimes helshe may be dependent on others for even basic
daily life needs of eating, bathing and self care. In addition helshe needs
to handle thc death of the spouse or children as well as resolve the area
of one's own death. Fear of death can be a dominant emotion and the
person often requires counseling.