1 / i n t r oduc t ion

Introduction to Precious Metals

Metallurgy for Jewelers & Silversmiths

Mark Grimwade
 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Introduction to Precious Metals

Metallurgy for Jewelers and SIlversmiths
by Mark Grimwade

Copyright 2009 Mark Grimwade

Brynmorgen Press
Brunswick, Maine 04011 USA
www.brynmorgen.com

ISBN: 978-1-929565-30-6

First printing

Editors Tim McCreight All rights reserved. No part of this publication

Abby Johnston may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
Illustrations Michael Deles or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
Proofreading Jay McCreight including photocopying, recording, or any storage
Index Margery Niblock and retrieval system except by a reviewer who
wishes to quote brief passages in connection
with a review written for inclusion in a magazine,
newspaper, web posting, or broadcast.

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 Table of Contents

Introduction xi

Chapter 1 Physical Properties of the Precious Metals 16

Chapter 2 Mechanical Properties of the Precious Metals 26

Chapter 3 Chemical Properties of the Precious Metals 39

Chapter 4 Occurrence, Extraction, and Refining 44

Chapter 5 Alloying Behavior 56

Chapter 6 Principles of Solidification 72

Chapter 7 Principles of Working and Annealing 83

Chapter 8 Silver and Its Alloys 91

Chapter 9 Gold and Its Alloys: the Karat Golds 100

Chapter 10 The Platinum Group Metals and Their Alloys 116

Chapter 11 Melting, Alloying, and Casting 126

Chapter 12 Working and Annealing Practice 144

Chapter 13 Joining Techniques 165

Chapter 14 Electroplating and Allied Processes 180

Chapter 15 The Use of Powder Metallurgy in Jewelry Manufacture 193

Chapter 16 Surface Decoration and Other Decorative Techniques 200

Chapter 17 Assaying and Hallmarking 207

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Foreword

If you work with precious metal, you need to read this book. If you make jewelry and
haven’t studied metallurgy, reading this book will be like an awakening into a new world of
understanding and possibilities that you never imagined.
My father was a master goldsmith who learned his skill through an Old World style
apprenticeship, in St. Louis, Missouri with his European-trained uncle. By refining,
alloying, and milling metals, he learned the nature of metals at their most basic level. Before
an apprentice could work with precious metals, he learned about annealing, hardening, and
tempering, always under the watchful care of a master intent on passing on his craft. In my
father’s case, the apprenticeship required a nine-year commitment.
For better or worse, that kind of hands-on practical education is not part of the modern
world. While we can argue that much has been lost in giving up the apprenticeship system,
we can also acknowledge that the conservatism it fostered stifled innovation.
What has taken its place, fortunately for us, is a science that is broader, richer, and far
more precise than it was in my father’s time. The last century saw the development of the
electron microscope, lasers, and perhaps more fundamentally, an international scientific
community with unprecedented ability to share information. The precise measurements,
mathematics, and nomenclature of science allow us to replace trial and error with research.
The need to connect an apprentice to a master has been replaced by a network of universities
and polytechnics with the result of huge leaps forward in our understanding of the world
around us.
A genuine understanding of materials and the physics and chemistry related to them
not only allows, but fosters innovation. Among the many examples that come to mind,
I think of the well-known jewelry artist Steven Kretchmer who invented and patented a
platinum alloy with steel-like spring qualities for tension set stones. In an inspiring merger
of technology, art, and innovation, Kretchmer harnessed the best of all three to create
something radically new for the field of jewelry.
What remains, then, is the need for a guide to lead artists and manufacturers into the
fascinating world of metallurgy. I can think of no one I’d rather follow than Mark Grimwade.
Mark has a rare gift as an educator. He presents complex metallurgical concepts in ways that
goldsmiths can understand and apply. During the 15 years that his lectures opened the Santa
Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, the room was always packed. It is a

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tribute to Mark that the metallurgists attending the symposium (some with PhDs) never
missed his lectures, and jewelers like me who listened to him year after year always learned
something useful. After his lectures the comments I heard usually mentioned a new sense of
empowerment, and also regret about not studying metallurgy at the start of a career.
Since his Introduction to Precious Metals was published in 1985, Mark has refined and
expanded the content, making the information even more useful to people who work with
precious metals. Since that book went out of print, several of his friends, me included, have
urged him to update his work and make it available again. Nothing like it is available for
jewelers, and his clear writing style makes him uniquely qualified for the job. The book you
hold in your hands is exactly what we had in mind—all the features of the original book and
now about a third larger with even more information. This is a reference book you will use
often. If you’re like me, you’ll turn to it for the answer to a specific problem and soon find
yourself reading further than you intended, probing the inner structures of metals.

— Eddie Bell,
Technical Director, Rio Grande and Neutec/USA
and Founder of The Santa Fe Symposium

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Preface

In 1970, I was asked by Peter Gainsbury, then Director of Design and Technology for the
Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths in the UK, to give a series of lectures on Basic Metallur-
gy for Silversmiths and Jewelers for people in the trade and college students in the London
area. This exposed me to the world of the artist/craftsperson and manufacturers of jewelry
and precious metalware of which I knew little but which was to be my good fortune. The
challenge was and remains the task of explaining to those with little scientific background
the underlying physical, chemical, and metallurgical principles and accompanying technol-
ogy for the materials and processes they were familiar with. Eventually, this led to the pub-
lication in 1985 of a book called Introduction to Precious Metals.
Since then, I have witnessed a revolution in the manufacture of jewelry and decorative
metalware. First, an industry that hitherto had been somewhat secretive became more open
to sharing knowledge and ideas. At the forefront has been the Santa Fe Symposia on Jew-
elry Manufacturing Technology, co-founded by Eddie Bell and Dave Schneller in 1987. This
has been the major forum for the dissemination of knowledge about the industry for over
twenty years. Secondly, advances in process technology and equipment have enabled both
manufacturers and craftspersons to explore new fabrication techniques, e.g. rapid prototyp-
ing, electroforming, precious metal clays, etc.
This book is a revision and enlargement of the original book and is intended specifi-
cally for jewelers and metalsmiths. The opening chapters are devoted to the properties of
the precious metals and their occurrence and extraction and these are followed by chapters
on the metallurgical principles underlying melting, solidification, working, annealing, and
alloying behavior. The precious metals and their alloys in relation to their use for jewelry
and decorative metalware are discussed. The remaining seven chapters are concerned with
processing technology, assaying and hallmarking.
I have deliberately avoided the use of specific references throughout the text as it is not
always easy to track down original sources. Instead, I have adopted the policy of including
‘Further Reading’ sections where appropriate at the end of chapters and a Bibliography at
the end of the book. However, my task would have been impossible without the informa-
tion that I have gained from the many contributors to the Santa Fe Symposia and to those I
have met on my travels around the World on behalf of the World Gold Council. They are too
numerous to mention by name but my heartfelt thanks go to all of them.

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 In particular, I am indebted to Eddie Bell for inviting me to speak at many Santa Fe Sym-
posia and for his friendship, to Robert Owen and Dr Christopher Corti, both formerly of the
World Gold Council, for asking me to be one of their consultants, notably in the developing
gold markets in the World, to the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths for the experience I
have gained in acting as their metallurgical consultant for over 21 years, to Dr. John Wright
for helpful discussions, and to the many friends and colleagues I have met in the forty years
I have been associated with jewelry and precious metalware. My special thanks must go to
Tim McCreight, not only for his very generous review of the original book, but for giving me
the impetus to produce a new book and agreeing to publish it.
I dedicate the book to my wife Pamela for her love, support and encouragement during
fifty years of marriage. It was she who sat me down one evening and told me in no uncertain
terms that I had to get on with it.

­
— Mark Grimwade

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I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

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Introduction

Gold, silver, and platinum are all regarded much more recent. Although platinum
as precious metals. In particular, gold and was used by the Pre-Columbian Indians of
silver have been highly prized by mankind South America to make small ornaments, it
for thousands of years. Early civilizations was not until the 18th century that its true
associated the yellow color of gold with the worth was recognized. The other PGMs are
sun, and for the Egyptians, gold was the palladium, now used as a jewelry metal in its
symbol of their sun god Ra. Just as gold was own right, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium,
associated with the fire of the sun, so the and osmium.
brilliant white color of silver was related But what is it that makes these metals
to the moon. The original Latin name for so precious? First, they have a remarkable
silver was luna meaning “moon,” although resistance to attack by their environment.
this was changed later to argentum meaning Whereas the base metals readily combine
“white and shining.” with other substances to form oxides,
Throughout the ages, fabulous treasures sulfides, silicates and other minerals, the
have been made by artists and craftspersons precious metals, or “noble metals” as they
exploiting the natural beauty of these are sometimes called, can occur naturally
metals. Alchemists spent their lives in in the uncombined state as lode deposits in
search of the Philosopher’s Stone which was rocks, or as placer deposits in the gravel beds
said to possess the property of converting of rivers and streams and in alluvial sands.
base metals, i.e., the non-precious metals, Secondly, gold and silver, although
to gold, and although their efforts proved not platinum, were widely distributed
to be fruitless in that direction, they were throughout the world, which explains why
instrumental in laying the foundations of so many different civilizations discovered
the science of chemistry. Indeed, it was the these naturally occurring “native” metals.
discovery of the precious metals and copper It was relatively easy to extract the gold
7000–9000 years ago and the craft skills and silver and the early metalworkers soon
developed by the early civilizations, such as discerned another important property,
the Egyptians, that can be said to have laid namely the ease with which they could
the foundations of metallurgy. be fabricated into shapes for decorative
The discovery of platinum and the purposes and their inherent aesthetic
other platinum group metals (PGMs) is beauty. Nevertheless, such deposits were

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

rare, and accordingly, gold and to a lesser for artistic purposes. The Romans were
extent, silver attained a great value and excellent silversmiths as is shown by a visit
became a symbol of wealth. Unfortunately, to the British Museum to see the Mildenhall
these deposits have been largely exhausted and Water Newton hoards dating from the
including those found during the great gold Roman occupation of Britain in the 1st-4th
rushes in Canada, the USA, and Australia centuries AD.
in the 19th century. Consequently, mining Today, we find that beautiful works of
for the precious metals is now a large art in gold, silver, and platinum are being
commercial undertaking. made not only using the traditional skills
Apart from their use for jewelry and of the goldsmith, but also incorporating
decorative metalware, gold and silver soon modern technology in their manufacture.
assumed a monetary role because their In addition to their use in the decorative
indestructibility and rarity made them arts and for monetary and investment
suitable for trading and accumulating purposes, there is an ever-expanding need
wealth. This monetary usage persisted for the precious metals in industry and
for over 2000 years, culminating in the medicine. These applications will not be
Gold Standard in the 19th and early 20th discussed further in this book except to note
centuries. Today, the price of gold is allowed here that since the 1950s, gold has played an
to fluctuate depending on market forces but important role in the electronics industry.
the central banks of many countries still hold The manufacture of high-grade optical glass,
reserves of gold. Further discussion on this and control of atmospheric pollution from
aspect is outside the scope of this book but automobiles and industrial plants would
an insight into the marketing and financial be impossible without platinum. Also, the
dealings in gold may be found in The Gold photographic industry has depended on
Companion (see Further Reading). silver although the use of digital cameras
People in Europe, North America, has made a difference in recent years; the
and Japan now tend to buy jewelry for standard of dentistry has benefited greatly
adornment, whereas in many other from the use of all the major precious
countries, such as the Middle East and India, metals; and drugs based on gold, silver, and
jewelry is purchased also as an investment. platinum compounds are widely used in
Gold has inspired artists and medicine.
craftspersons throughout the ages to produce Figure A shows the usage of gold in
jewelry, ornaments, and priceless works of 2006 in various fields of activity. Note the
art. One has only to think of the tomb of very high proportion used for karat gold
Tutankhamen, the riches of the Ancient jewelry, investment coins, and bullion bars.
Greeks, Etruscans and Thracians among Figures B, C, and D show the consumption
many others, to realize the skills that these of silver, platinum, and palladium in the
early metalworkers possessed. At a later various categories, respectively. Although
period in the world’s history, but separated platinum and palladium are important
from that of the Mediterranean World, the jewelry metals, by far, the major usage is as
Mexican civilizations, e.g., the Aztecs, and catalysts in the automobile and petroleum
the Mohica, Chimu, and Inca cultures of industries.
Peru were equally adept in working gold.
Silver has also been used for centuries

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 i n tr oduc t ion

De-Hedging, 1%
De-Hedging, 10%

Jewelry &
Other, 13% Silverware,
Industrial, 25%
47%
Coins, 4%
Investment, 19%
Jewelry, 58% Investment, 7%

Photography, 16%

Figure A Gold usage in various activities Figure B Silver usage in various

in 2006. activities in 2006.

N.B. De-hedging is a strategy to

protect grantors of options on buying
and selling gold.

Other, 13%
Jewelry,
Electronics, 5% 13%
Other,
Glass Manufacture, 6% Jewelry, 22% 16%

Electronics,
15% Autocatalyst,
56%
Autocatalyst, 54%

Figure C Platinum usage in various Figure D Palladium usage in various

activities in 2006. activities in 2006.

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Aims and Objectives us to discover the arrangement of atoms

The purpose of this book is to: in a crystal lattice and to understand the
way in which metal crystals are deformed
• Assist jewelers and goldsmiths to develop during mechanical working processes, such
an awareness of the physical, chemical, as the production of sheet, wire or tube, or
and metallurgical nature of the metals raising a bowl in the studio. Sophisticated
and alloys with which they are working. instruments capable of measuring a
The term “goldsmith” includes those who wide range of physical and mechanical
work also with other precious metals. characteristics of metals are also of relatively
•  Promote an appreciation of what is recent origin.
happening when metals and alloys are The contemporary metalsmith can
cast and/or worked and annealed. rightly claim that in a practical sense, his
•  Help in understanding why alloying or her profession has been highly regarded
affects the properties of pure metals such from as early as about 4000 BC as outlined
as their strength, ductility (malleability), by the examples given above coupled
resistance to chemical attack, color, etc. with the writings of people like the 12th
•  Enable jewelers and goldsmiths to century monk Theophilus and the great
recognize the causes of some of the Italian goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini. The
defects and failures that can occur during metalsmith then may ask quite reasonably
processing, so that when they do arise, “With all this wealth of knowledge and
it is easier to prevent their occurrence, expertise that has been passed down to us
or to determine a remedy, or at least to through the centuries, why should it be
know when advice should be sought on necessary or advantageous to study the basic
metallurgical questions. metallurgical principles underlying the use
of the precious metals and their alloys?”
Since this book is written primarily for
Practical experience in working with
jewelers and goldsmiths, it will concentrate
metals is undoubtedly the best teacher, but
on the precious metals and their alloys
it is when things go wrong that the exact
and on the process technology used in
nature of the problem may not be easily
the production of jewelry and decorative
understood without some knowledge of
metalware.
metallurgy and process technology. For
The scientific approach to an
example, when castings have unacceptable
understanding of the nature of metals and
levels of porosity, or fracture has occurred
alloys and of their physical, chemical, and
either when working the metal or even after
metallurgical properties is of relatively
sale to a customer. I am reminded of a motto
recent origin. It is only about 150 years
that hung on the wall at the back of a large
ago that the metallurgical microscope was
hall in a polytechnic in Chenai (South India)
developed enabling humans to explore the
that had a jewelry school. It read:
microstructure of metals and so to discover
the effects of alloying on microstructure and “Theory without practice is fruitless, but
mechanical properties. Also, it is only within practice without theory is rootless.”
the 20th century that the advent of X-Ray
diffraction analysis and the development This may be particularly true when one
of the electron microscope have permitted considers the impact of modern technology

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 i n tr oduc t ion

on the jewelry trade. For example, even metallurgical origin, then they are in a better
in small-scale manufacturing companies, position to ask an expert for help.
investment casting machines are producing This book is roughly in three parts.
a hundred or more ring shanks or other The opening chapters are concerned with
small objects in one cast, furnaces with the physical, chemical, and mechanical
protective gas atmospheres are used for characteristics of metals and their alloying
heat treating and soldering large numbers behavior. The second part deals specifically
of items, and mechanical processes are with the precious metals and their alloys and
used in the manufacture of semi-finished their relevance to jewelry and decorative
products such as sheet, strip, rod, and wire. metalware. The third part concentrates on
In these circumstances, it is imperative for the practical aspects of manufacture and
economic reasons that any problems are process technology.
rapidly dealt with. Similar arguments can be Throughout this book the values for
applied equally to the metalsmith working weight, length, strength, etc. are generally
at the bench on an item that has been given in SI (scientific international) units
commissioned. unless stated otherwise, i.e., tonnes or
It is not the intention of the author grams, millimeters or meters, newtons per
to expect every jeweler and goldsmith to square millimeter, etc. However, the weight
become a fully-fledged metallurgist but of a precious metal is often expressed in troy
simply to provide some understanding of ounces, which is traditional and persists
the principles underlying the materials to the present. This is different from the
and processes they use to make jewelry and imperial system with which many may
silverware. They may not always have an be familiar, namely, “avoirdupois.” A troy
answer to all the problems they meet, but if ounce is equivalent to 31.1035 grams and one
they recognize that they are likely to have a metric ton (tonne) contains 32150.72 troy
ounces.

Further Reading
T. Green, The Gold Companion, Published by
MKA Finance S.A., Geneva, Switzerland,
Revised Edition 1997.

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Chapter One
Physical Properties of the Precious Metals

The eight individual pure precious metals are although copper is regarded as a base metal,
chemical elements, i.e., they cannot be split as distinct from the precious metals silver
up into simpler substances. All the atoms and gold, its behavior is similar in many
of an element have a similar structure but respects and, as will be seen in Chapter 5, it
are different to atoms of another element. only just misses out on being a precious or
There are 92 elements naturally occurring noble metal.
in the earth’s crust and atmosphere ranging Horizontal rows, known as Periods,
from the gas hydrogen (H), with atomic no. also have important features in common.
1, to the metal uranium (atomic no. 92). In Note, particularly that the six platinum-
addition, there are a number of man-made group metals (PGMs) form a block in the
elements produced in atomic reactors center of the table together with iron (Fe),
having atomic numbers greater than 92 but cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni). This block is
they need not concern us here. referred to a Group VIII.
Each element is numbered in ascending
The Periodic Table of Elements order from top to bottom and from left to
In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri right. This is the atomic number, mentioned
Mendeleev published the Periodic Law above, and it tells us something about the
that states “the properties of elements are nature of the atoms of each element. An atom
in periodic dependence on their atomic consists of a nucleus made up of electrically-
weights.” Many physical and chemical positive charged particles called protons and
properties of elements obey this law and electrically-neutral particles called neutrons,
it was possible for Mendeleev to arrange together, with electrically-negative charged
the known elements in the form of a table, particles called electrons. For simplicity,
a modern version of which is shown in the electrons can be considered to orbit the
Figure 1.1. nucleus in a series of layers or shells. Since
Vertical columns, known as Groups the atom is electrically neutral overall, the
contain elements that show a strong family number of protons is equal to the number
resemblance with regards to their physical of electrons, and this number is the atomic
and chemical characteristics. For example, number. Hence, for example, gold with
Group 1b consists of the elements copper atomic number 79 will have atoms with 79
(Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au), and protons in their nuclei and 79 electrons in

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Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII I II III IV V VI VII

a a a a a a a b b b b b b B 0
Period 1 2
1 H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Co Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba *R.E. Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 90 91 92 Transuranic Elements
7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U

Figure 1.1 - The Periodic Table of Elements * Rare Earth Metals

a series of shells around each nucleus. The It is interesting to note that when
atoms of one element, therefore, differ from Mendeleev constructed his Periodic
those of another and, because many physical Table there were a number of gaps due to
and chemical properties such as color, undiscovered elements. The publication of
chemical reactivity, and reflectivity depend the Table and Law enabled researchers to
on the atomic structure, these characteristics predict and find many of these elements,
vary from one element to another. The germanium (Ge) being a case in point.
periodicity discovered by Mendeleev and It will be apparent that there should
others arises from the fact that similarities be an increase in the weight of each atom
in electron orbit configuration periodically (atomic weight) with atomic number since
reoccur with ascending atomic number, the number of protons, electrons, and
hence, the similarities in certain properties incidentally, neutrons are increasing almost
in elements within a group. without exception. The atomic weight of
The elements are assigned chemical an atom is almost entirely made up from
symbols. Metals that have been known the nucleus, i.e., the weights of the protons
before Roman times have symbols relating and the neutrons. This is because the weight
to their Latin names. For example, the of an electron is only about 1/1800 of that
symbol for copper is Cu from the Latin word of the electrically equivalent proton. A
cuprum, gold is shortened to Au from aurum, neutron has about the same weight as a
and silver is shortened to Ag from argentum. proton. Atomic weight is on a comparative
The same is true for iron (Fe) and lead (Pb). scale using the standard of 12 as the weight
About ¾ of the 92 elements are metals and of a carbon atom, which has 6 protons and
they are characterized by their ability to give 6 neutrons in its nucleus. Table 1.1 gives the
up their outermost electrons and the way atomic numbers and weights of the precious
their atoms bond together. The remaining metals with their atomic sizes assuming the
elements are gases and non-metals. atoms are spheres of a certain radius. The

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Element Chemical Atomic Atomic Atomic

Symbol Number Weight Radius (nm)*
Silver Ag 47 107.87 0.1443
Gold Au 79 196.97 0.1442
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 0.1340
Rhodium Rh 45 102.91 0.1369
Palladium Pd 46 106.40 0.1347
Osmium Os 76 190.20 0.1337
Iridium Ir 77 192.20 0.1356
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 0.1386

Table 1.1 Atomic characteristics of the precious metals.

*One nanometer = 10-9 meters.

alloying behavior of metallic elements is oxygen; the water molecule is two atoms
partly determined by the atomic radii and of hydrogen to one atom of oxygen. Water
the atomic size mismatch of the elements coming out of a tap will consist of a very
present in the alloy. These factors also large collection of those molecules. A solid
influence the strength of the alloy. chemical compound can be considered to
be molecular in the sense that they exist in
Crystal Structure certain atom combinations. For example,
For our purposes, we can consider atoms the compound calcium sulphate hemi-
to be very small spheres, the radii of hydrate (CaSO₄• ½H₂O), better known
which depend on the individual element. as gypsum (an important constituent
Obviously, to make a lump of metal that can of lost wax investment powder) has the
be handled, a very large number of atoms combination of one atom of calcium to one
must be brought together and bonded in atom of sulfur and four atoms of oxygen
some way. with half a molecule of water. Even so, it will
Before going on to discuss bonding have a crystal structure as all true solids do.
and crystal structure it is important to On the other hand, pure metals and most
distinguish between atoms and molecules. alloys exist as a collection of atoms and
Too often, I hear jewelers and metalsmiths not as specific combinations of atoms. The
refer to the molecules of a metal when only exception is in the case of intermetallic
they should be talking about atoms. Metals compounds (see later in Chapter 6) where
do not exist in molecular form in the way it is true that the compound has a fixed, or
that gases such as oxygen and hydrogen nearly-fixed, ratio of atoms of one metal to
or substances like water and certain another.
chemical compounds do. Molecules are Let us now return to the subject of
generally specific combinations of atoms crystal structure of metals and alloys.
e.g., oxygen gas consists of molecules At very high temperatures, a metal will
each containing two atoms of oxygen; vaporize. Its atoms will be far apart and
ozone gas has molecules of three atoms of will not take up any structural form. As the

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.2 Atomic arrangement of a) Gases, b) Liquids, and c) Solids; the three
states of matter.

temperature is lowered, the vapor condenses that are ionic- or covalent-bonded may be
to a liquid in the same way that water vapor strong and hard but they are not ductile and
condenses to steam (minute water droplets) will shatter if subjected to a sufficiently high
and liquid water. In a quantity of liquid, force as in a hammer blow.
the atoms are loosely held together in a There are fourteen ways in which
random fashion. There is a rudimentary spheres can be packed together to form a
structure of small clusters of atoms that regular geometric array. The vast majority
are continually breaking up and the atoms of metals fall into one of three categories.
move relatively easily to form new clusters. The precious metals, with the exceptions
As the temperature drops still further, of osmium and ruthenium, have a lattice
the liquid freezes to form a solid and all in which the unit cell or basic building
the atoms take up positions in a regular block is known as face-centered cubic
geometric array known as a “lattice” to (f.c.c.). This structure has an atom at each
form a crystal structure characteristic of that corner of the cube and one in the center
particular substance. A two-dimensional of each face (Figure 1.3). If other similar
representation is shown in Figure 1.2. cells are added on in all three directions
All true solids have a regular crystal ad infinitum, a single metal crystal can be
structure whether they are metals or non- built up that is sufficiently large enough
metals. The main factor that distinguishes to handle (Figure 1.4). It will be noticed
metals from non-metals is the manner in that the corner and face atoms are shared
which their atoms are bonded in the lattice. between adjacent cells.
Metals have a special form of bonding known Apart from gold (Au), silver (Ag),
as “metallic bonding” in which the atoms are platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), iridium
not so tightly held as in chemical compounds (Ir) and rhodium (Rh), other f.c.c. metals
(ionic bonding) or as in carbon in the form include aluminium (Al), copper (Cu),
of diamonds (covalent bonding). With nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). For reasons that
metallic bonding, the outermost electrons are too complex to discuss in this book, the
of the atoms float throughout the lattice as f.c.c. metals have very good malleability
an electron cloud. It is this type of bonding and ductility as will be recognized from the
that is responsible for the characteristics of above list. Osmium (Os) and ruthenium
ductility (malleability), toughness and good (Ru) are exceptions in that their lattice is
electrical and thermal conductivity. Solids close-packed hexagonal (c.p.h.). The c.p.h.

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

lattice (Figure 1.5) often displays limited state. At approximately 1400°C (2552°F)
ductility. Indeed, osmium and ruthenium it changes back again to the b.c.c. form
are notoriously difficult to fabricate and, and remains so up to the melting point of
consequently, their industrial uses are 1535ºC (2795°F). It is the ferrite to austenite
somewhat limited. Other examples of c.p.h. change that is responsible for the fact that
metals are zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and steels, which are alloys of iron, can be heat
magnesium (Mg). treated and hardened. Titanium is c.p.h.
A third common occurrence category up to 885°C (1625°F) where it changes to
is the body-centered cubic lattice (b.c.c.). b.c.c.. These metals are said to undergo an
Again, the unit cell is a cube with an atom “allotropic transformation.”
at each corner but with an atom also at However, it is the precious metals and
the center of the cube instead of in each their f.c.c. crystal structures that mainly
face (Figure 1.6). Examples of b.c.c. metals concern us. What then is the difference
are chromium (Cr), tungsten (W) and between their f.c.c. lattices? Because the
molybdenum (Mo). sizes of their atoms vary from one metal
A few metals can display more than one to another, the dimensions of the unit cell
type of crystal structure. The most notable will also vary. The length of a cube edge
examples are iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti). for gold for instance, will be different from
Iron is b.c.c. (ferritic) up to 910°C (1670°F) that of platinum or silver. Crystallographers
where it changes to f.c.c. (austenitic) simply can measure the cell dimensions by X-
by the atoms moving positions in the solid Ray diffraction analysis and refer to the
dimensions as the “lattice parameters” for the
particular metal. It is only necessary to quote
the cube edge parameter “a” for the f.c.c. and
b.c.c. metals whereas the c.p.h. metals have
the parameter “a” for the length of the side
of the hexagon and the “c”parameter for the
height of the cell (Table 1.2).

b Corner Atoms Face-Centered Atoms

Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (f.c.c.) Figure 1.4 A block of eight face-centered
cell represented by a) points and b) spheres cubic cells illustrating the way a
where each face- centered atom touches its crystal is built up.
nearest corner atoms.

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 1 | ph y sic a l prope rt i e s of t h e p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Figure 1.5 The close packed hexagonal (c.p.h.) cell. All atoms on the base and the top planes are
in contact with each other on that plane and the atoms on the intermediate plane nest on three
of the six niches so formed.

a b

Figure 1.6 The Body Centered Cubic (b.c.c.) Cell. The center atom touches each corner atom,
but these do not touch each other.

Density
The density of a substance is defined as its that gold, osmium, iridium, and platinum
weight per unit volume and it is usually are regarded as heavy metals (Table 1.3).
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter Temperature also affects the density value
(g cm–3) although the preferred International because the crystal structure expands on
System of Units (SI unit) is kg m–3. Density is heating. Density values are usually quoted
a function of both atomic weight and crystal for measurements taken at 0°C or 2o°C
structure. Therefore, elements with high (32°F to 68°F) on fully annealed metal.
atomic weights usually have high densities, To put the importance of density into
particularly if their atoms are closely packed context, consider an item of jewelry made
together in the lattice. Both the f.c.c. and in either sterling silver or 22 karat gold.
the c.p.h. structures represent the closest Each contains almost identical amounts of
form of atomic packing of all types of lattice. silver or gold at ~92.5%. The density of gold
Consequently, it is not surprising to find is nearly twice that of silver, hence the item

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 I n troduc tion t o p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Metal Structure Lattice

Melting and Boiling Points
parameter (nm) The melting (freezing) temperatures of silver,
Gold f.c.c. 0.40786
gold, palladium, and platinum are of special
interest and of great practical importance
Silver f.c.c. 0.40862
because they are used as primary and
Platinum f.c.c. 0.39229 secondary fixed points on the International
Palladium f.c.c. 0.38029 Practical Temperature Scale from which
Rhodium f.c.c. 0.38906 all temperature-measuring devices are
calibrated. This scale is periodically revised,
Iridium f.c.c. 0.38392
the latest being in 1990, as standards of
a c purity and measuring techniques are
Osmium c.p.h. 0.27340 0.43194 improved. The precious metals are chosen as
Ruthenium c.p.h. 0.27056 0.42816 reference points because they are produced
to a high degree of purity and are free from
Table 1.2 Crystal structure and lattice contamination by oxidation.
parameters.
Boiling points are more difficult to
* The close packed hexagonal (c.p.h.) cell has two determine and a wide variation in values
characteristic dimensions and hence two parameters
must be stated. The parameter for the f.c.c. cell is the has been reported in the technical literature
length of the cube edge. over the years. The values quoted in Table
1.4 are the currently accepted values.
will weigh almost twice as much in 22k gold However, boiling points are of little interest
as in silver. Similarly, a platinum ring of 950 to metalsmiths.
fineness will be heavier than an 18k gold ring
of the same design and dimensions. It is also
an important consideration when costing Metal Melting Boiling
items for manufacture and sale as precious Point (°C) Point (°C)
metal content, density, and price per troy
Gold 1064 2807
ounce have to be taken into account.
Silver 961 2212
Platinum 1772 3827

Metal Density (g cm -³) Palladium 1552 2927

Rhodium 1966 3727
Gold 19.32 Iridium 2410 4527
Silver 10.49 Osmium 3045 5027
Platinum 21.45 Ruthenium 2250 3900
Palladium 12.02
Table 1.4 Melting and boiling points of the
Rhodium 12.41
precious metals.
Iridium 22.65
Osmium 22.61
Ruthenium 12.45

Table 1.3 Density values for the precious

metals at 20°C.

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 1 | ph y sic a l prope rt i e s of t h e p r e c iou s m e ta l s

Optical Properties

Yellow
Indigo

Green
Violet

Blue

Red
Much of the fascination of gold throughout 100
the ages has been due to its beautiful yellow Silver

color and the high luster or reflectivity

that can be retained indefinitely because 90 Gold

of its resistance to corrosive attack by the

environment. Copper is the only metal
besides gold with a characteristic color, 80

Reflectivity, per cent

Rhodium
but unfortunately its lacks the corrosion
resistance of gold. Similarly, the aesthetic
70
appeal of silver largely arises from its brilliant
Platinum
white color and very high reflectivity. It
has the highest reflectivity of all metals. 60
Unfortunately, the tarnishing behavior of
silver limits its usefulness as a reflector.
The colors of gold and copper result 50
from a sharp increase in reflectivity within
a narrow band of increasing wavelength of
40
incident light falling on the surface of the 400 500 600 700 800
metal. Reflectivity (R) is low at the blue end Wavelength nm
of the visible light spectrum, (wavelength Figure 1.7 Reflectivity in precious metals.
less than 500 nanometers (nm)) but rises
dramatically at the yellow-red-infrared end
of the spectrum (500–1200 nm). This change and goldsmith. The effect of alloying on the
in reflectivity is associated with the nature color of the karat gold alloys will be discussed
of the electron configurations in the atomic more fully in Chapter 9. Much interest has
structures of gold and copper but a detailed been shown in standardizing colors for
discussion is beyond the scope of this book. gold alloys. The European watch industry
Figure 1.7 shows the relationship adopted a coding system particularly for
between R (on scale 0 to 1, where one equals electroplated watchcases although it has
100%, and wavelength for gold, silver, also been applied for wrought alloys (Table
rhodium, and platinum. Silver has a high R 1.5). In recent years, a quantitative system
value over the entire visible light spectrum of color measurement has been developed
which accounts for its brilliant white luster. that enables alloy manufacturers and
Of the PGMs, rhodium has the highest jewelers to give a better definition of the
reflectivity, with a mean value of about color of their products. It is the CIELAB
80%. That, coupled with a lack of tarnishing system which measures color in terms of
behavior, makes it eminently suitable as an space coordinates L*, a* and b* using a color
electroplated finish for silver and the so- spectrophotometer. L* measures the black
called white golds. (0) – white (100) coordinate. Metals with
The optical properties of gold are a high reflectivity or whiteness will have
profoundly altered by alloying and this is values approaching 100. The a* coordinate
of considerable importance to the jeweler goes from –a* values representing a green

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