Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Production of bricks from waste materials – A review

Lianyang Zhang ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

 A wide variety of waste materials have been researched for production of bricks, including mainly fly ash and slags.
 Methods for producing bricks from waste materials can be divided into 3 categories: firing, cementing and geopolymerization.
 Commercial production of bricks from waste materials is still very limited due to different reasons.
 Further research and development is needed to promote wide production and application of bricks from waste materials.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Bricks are a widely used construction and building material around the world. Conventional bricks are
Received 17 February 2013 produced from clay with high temperature kiln firing or from ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete,
Received in revised form 27 April 2013 and thus contain high embodied energy and have large carbon footprint. In many areas of the world,
Accepted 5 May 2013
there is already a shortage of natural source material for production of the conventional bricks. For envi-
Available online 10 June 2013
ronmental protection and sustainable development, extensive research has been conducted on produc-
tion of bricks from waste materials. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of research on
Keywords:
utilization of waste materials to produce bricks. A wide variety of waste materials have been studied
Bricks
Waste materials
to produce bricks with different methods. The research can be divided into three general categories based
Firing on the methods for producing bricks from waste materials: firing, cementing and geopolymerization.
Cementing Although much research has been conducted, the commercial production of bricks from waste materials
Geopolymerization is still very limited. The possible reasons are related to the methods for producing bricks from waste
Sustainable development materials, the potential contamination from the waste materials used, the absence of relevant standards,
and the slow acceptance of waste materials-based bricks by industry and public. For wide production and
application of bricks from waste materials, further research and development is needed, not only on the
technical, economic and environmental aspects but also on standardization, government policy and pub-
lic education related to waste recycling and sustainable development.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
2. Review of research on utilization of waste materials to produce bricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
2.1. Production of bricks from waste materials through firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
2.2. Production of bricks from waste materials through cementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
2.3. Production of bricks from waste materials through geopolymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
3. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
4. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

⇑ Tel.: +1 520 6260532; fax: +1 520 6212550.

E-mail address: [email protected]

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.05.043
644 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

1. Introduction strength, water absorption and bulk density of brick samples pre-
pared at different conditions. Based on the results, they recom-
Bricks have been a major construction and building material for mended a tailings:fly ash:clay ratio of 84:6:10, a forming water
a long time. The dried-clay bricks were used for the first time in content of 12.5–15%, a forming pressure of 20–25 MPa, and a firing
8000 BC and the fired-clay bricks were used as early as 4500 BC temperature of 980–1030 °C for 2 h, to produce good quality
[1,2]. The worldwide annual production of bricks is currently about bricks.
1391 billion units and the demand for bricks is expected to be con- Lingling et al. [9] investigated the production of fired bricks by
tinuously rising [3,4]. Conventional bricks are produced from clay using class F fly ash to replace clay at high volume ratios. Brick
with high temperature kiln firing or from ordinary Portland ce- samples were prepared by mixing fly ash and clay at designed pro-
ment (OPC) concrete. Quarrying operations for obtaining the clay portion, casting the mixture into bricks, drying the bricks at ambi-
are energy intensive, adversely affect the landscape, and generate ent condition for 2 days, at 60 °C for 4 h and at 100 °C for 6 h, and
high level of wastes. The high temperature kiln firing not only con- firing the dried bricks in an electric furnace at 100 °C/h below
sumes significant amount of energy, but releases large quantity of 500 °C, 50 °C/h from 500 °C to highest temperature (1000, 1050,
greenhouse gases. Clay bricks, on average, have an embodied en- or 1100 °C), and at the highest temperature for 8 h. Tests were con-
ergy of approximately 2.0 kWh and release about 0.41 kg of carbon ducted on the fired bricks to evaluate their compressive strength,
dioxide (CO2) per brick [5,6]. It is also noted that there is a shortage water absorption, bulk density, apparent porosity, cracking due
of clay in many parts of the world. To protect the clay resource and to lime, frost and frost-melting. The results showed that when high
the environment, some countries such as China have started to percentages of fly ash were used, a firing temperature about
limit the use of bricks made from clay [7–9]. 1050 °C should be adopted. The fired bricks with high percentages
The OPC concrete bricks are produced from OPC and aggregates. of fly ash had high compressive strength, low water absorption, no
It is well known that the production of OPC is highly energy inten- cracking due to lime, and high resistance to frost-melting. The
sive and releases significant amount of greenhouse gases. Produc- study also indicated that the properties of fired bricks were im-
tion of 1 kg of OPC consumes approximately 1.5 kWh of energy and proved by using pulverized fly ash (i.e., by decreasing the particle
releases about 1 kg of CO2 to the atmosphere. Worldwide, produc- size of the fly ash).
tion of OPC is responsible for about 7% of all CO2 generated [5,10– Kute and Deodhar [13] studied the bricks manufactured in lab-
12]. So the production of OPC concrete bricks also consumes large oratory using class F fly ash and clay. The brick samples were pre-
amount of energy and releases substantial quantity of CO2. In addi- pared by mixing different amount of fly ash with clay and sufficient
tion, the aggregates are produced from quarrying and thus have quantity of water, and then compressing the mixture in a mold.
the same problems as described above for clay. The molded bricks were dried in air for 2 days and then fired in a
For environmental protection and sustainable development, laboratory furnace respectively at 850 and 1000 °C for 24 h. Labo-
many researchers have studied the utilization of waste materials ratory tests were conducted to evaluate the compressive strength
to produce bricks [8,9,13–15,17–66,80–85]. A wide variety of and water absorption of the produced bricks. The results indicated
waste materials have been studied, including fly ash, mine tailings, that the inclusion of fly ash in general increased the compressive
slags, construction and demolition (C&D) waste, wood sawdust, strength and decreased the water absorption of bricks. The highest
cotton waste, limestone powder, paper production residue, petro- compressive strength of 12.4 MPa (an average of eight samples)
leum effluent treatment plant sludge, kraft pulp production resi- was obtained at 40% fly ash content, with the corresponding water
due, cigarette butts, waste tea, rice husk ash, crumb rubber, and absorption being 13.8%.
cement kiln dust. Different methods have been used to produce Chou et al. [14,15] conducted systematic study on utilization of
bricks from waste materials. class F fly ash to replace part of the clay and shale in production of
This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the research on bricks using the conventional kiln firing procedure. Paving bricks
utilization of different types of waste materials to produce bricks. with up to 20 vol.% of fly ash and building bricks with up to
The advantages and disadvantages of different methods for utiliz- 40 vol.% of fly ash were successfully produced in commercial-scale
ing waste materials to produce bricks are described. The concerns production test runs, with the properties exceeding the ASTM com-
related to production of bricks from waste materials are also mercial specifications. They also conducted leaching study on the
discussed. fired bricks from commercial-scale production following US EPA
Method 1320 [16]. The results indicated that the amounts of lea-
ched metals were well below the US EPA’s regulatory thresholds.
2. Review of research on utilization of waste materials to Kayali [17] studied the performance of FlashBricks, bricks pro-
produce bricks duced from fly ash. The bricks were produced by mixing fly ash
with water and a small amount of commercially protected addi-
The extensive research on utilization of waste materials to pro- tive, molding the mixture, drying the formed units for 3 days,
duce bricks can be divided into three general categories based on and then firing them for hours. The FlashBricks were about 28%
the production methods: firing, cementing and geopolymerization, lighter than clay bricks and had a compressive strength greater
as detailed below. than 40 MPa. Other important performance parameters such as
water absorption, modulus of rupture, bond strength and durabil-
2.1. Production of bricks from waste materials through firing ity also exceeded those pertaining to clay bricks.
Menezes et al. [18] evaluated the possibilities of using granite
This method uses waste material(s) to substitute a portion or sawing wastes as alternative raw materials in the production of
entire amount of clay and follows the traditional way to kiln fire ceramic bricks and tiles. The results showed that the granite saw-
the material(s) to produce bricks. Many researchers have studied ing wastes had physical and mineralogical characteristics that
the production of bricks from waste materials based on firing were similar to those of conventional raw materials for ceramic
(see Table 1). bricks and tiles and could be used to partially replace the conven-
Chen et al. [8] studied the feasibility of utilizing hematite tail- tional raw materials to produce ceramic bricks and tiles meeting
ings and class F fly ash together with clay to produce bricks. Brick the Brazilian standardizations.
samples were prepared by using 77–100% tailings, 0–8% fly ash and Lin [19] studied the utilization of municipal solid waste inciner-
0–15% clay. Tests were performed to determine the compressive ator (MSWI) slag to partially replace clay for the production of fired
 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655 645

Table 1
Studies on production of bricks from waste materials through firing.

No. Waste material (wt.%) Brick size (mm) Drying/firing condition Tests conducted Reference
1 Hematite tailings (77–100%) and 50  50 Dried in an oven at 105 °C for 6–8 h and then fired Compressive strength, water [8]
class F fly ash (0–8%) (cylinder) in an electric furnace at 6 °C/min until 850–1050 °C absorption, bulk density
for 2 h
2 Class F fly ash (0, 50, 60, 70, and 60  60  25 Dried at ambient condition for 2 days, at 60 °C for Compressive strength, water [9]
80 vol.%) 4 h and at 100 °C for 6 h, and fired in an electric absorption, bulk density, apparent
furnace at 100 °C/h below 500 °C, 50 °C/h from porosity, cracking due to lime, frost
500 °C to 1000, 1050 or 1100 °C, and at the highest and frost-melting
temperature for 8 h
3 Class F fly ash (0%, 20%, 40%, and 95  45  45 Dried in air for 2 days and then fired in a laboratory Compressive strength, water [13]
60%) furnace at respectively 850 and 1000 °C for 24 h absorption
4 Class F fly ash (0–60 vol.%) Various sizes Following the process of a commercial clay brick Compressive strength, water [14,15]
plant absorption, leaching
5 Fly ash (100%) - Dried for 3 days and then fired at 1000–1300 °C for Compressive strength, water [17]
hours absorption, modulus of rupture,
density, bond strength, durability
6 Granite sawing wastes (0–60%) Various sizes Fired at different temperatures between 750 and Compressive strength, water [18]
1200 °C absorption, modulus of rupture
7 Municipal solid waste incinerator 50  25  50 Air-dried at room temperature for 24 h, oven dried Compressive strength, water [19]
slag (0–40%) at 80 °C for 24 h, and finally fired at 800, 900, or absorption, density, firing
1000 °C for 6 h shrinkage, weight loss on ignition,
TCLP
8 Gold mill tailings (0–75%) 100  100  76 Dried at room temperature for 2 days, in the sun for Compressive strength, water [20]
3 days, and then fired in an electric furnace at 750, absorption, linear shrinkage
850, or 950 °C for 9 h
9 Kaolin fine quarry residue (50%), 50  50  50 Dried in an electric dryer at 80 °C for 24 h, and then Compressive strength, water [21]
granulated blast-furnace slag (10– fired at different temperatures of 1100, 1125, 1150 absorption, bulk density
40%), granite–basalt fine quarry and 1175 °C at 5 °C/min and 4 h soaking time in a
residue (10–40%) muffle furnace under oxidizing condition
10 Paper production residues (0%, 10%, 85  85  10 Held overnight at room temperature followed by Compressive strength, water [22]
20%, and 30%) drying at 45 °C for 1 h in an oven, then fired in an absorption, bulk density, apparent
electrical furnace at 2.5 °C/min until 600 °C and porosity, thermal conductivity
then at 10 °C/min until 1100 °C, for 1 h
11 Cigarette butts (0%, 2.5%, 5% and 300  100  50 Dried at 105 °C for 24 h, and then fired in a furnace Compressive strength, water [23]
10%) at 1050 °C absorption, density, thermal
conductivity, leaching
12 Rice husk ash (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 50  50  50 Dried in the sun at 30 °C for 8 days, at 105 °C for Compressive strength, water [24]
20%) 24 h in an oven, and then fired in a furnace absorption, density
continuously at 250, 500, 750 °C for 2 h each and
finally at 1000 °C for 2, 4 or 6 h
13 Petroleum effluent treatment plant 280  130  170 Dried at room temperature and then fired in a coal- Compressive strength, water [25]
sludge (41%) fired Bulls trench commercial brick kiln along with absorption, leaching
usual commercial bricks at 1000–1100 °C
14 Kraft pulp production residue 33  40 Dried at 21 °C for 72 h and then at 105 °C in the Compressive strength, water [26]
(2.5%) (cylinder), oven, and subsequently fired at 2 °C/min until absorption, density
25  25  150 600 °C and then at 5 °C/min until 900 °C for 30 min
15 Waste tea (5%) 100  70  40 Dried at 21 °C for 72 h and then at 105 °C in the Compressive strength, water [27]
oven, and subsequently fired at 2 °C/min until absorption, density
600 °C and then at 5 °C/min until 900 °C for 2 h
16 River sediments (15%) 60  220  220 Dried through a tunnel drier up to 80 °C and then Compressive strength, water [28]
fired through a tunnel kiln with a maximum absorption, porosity, firing
temperature of 1000 °C shrinkage, leaching, permeability,
freeze–thaw
17 PC and TV waste glass (<2%) 100  20  10 Dried at ambient temperature in a non-controlled Bending strength, water absorption, [29]
atmosphere for 48 h and then in an electric oven at open porosity, bulk density, firing
100 °C overnight, and finally fired in an electric shrinkage, leaching
chamber kiln at 100 °C/h until 900, 950 or 1000 °C
for 4 h
18 Municipal solid waste incineration – Dried at around 60 °C and then fired at 950 °C Compressive strength, water [30]
fly ash (20%) absorption, shrinkage, leaching
19 Sawdust (0–10%), spent earth from 30  10  60 Fired in a laboratory furnace at 3 °C/min up to 950 Compressive strength, water [31]
oil filtration (0–30%), compost (0– or 1050 °C for 4 h absorption, bulk density, apparent
30%), or marble (0–20%) porosity
20 Foundry by-products (0–50%) 150  30  15 Fired in a laboratory muffle at 2 °C/min up to 850, Flexural strength, water absorption, [32]
950 or 1050 °C for 3.5 h density, apparent porosity
21 Waste marble powder (20–100%) 41  8  8 Fired in an electrical furnace at 5 °C/min up to at Flexural strength, water absorption, [33]
900, 1000 or 1100 °C for 3 h bulk density, porosity
22 Waelz slag and waste foundry sand 100  80  20 Dried at 96–104 °C and fired in an industry tunnel Flexural strength, water absorption, [34]
(20–40%) kiln to a maximum temperature of 850 °C (heating density, open porosity, leaching
rate 0.85 °C/min, cooling rate 1.14 °C/min, and
soaking time of 1 h)
23 River sediment (100% or 50%) 54  54  Dried in an oven at temperature gradually Compressive strength, water [35]
(5–10) increasing from 25 to 110 °C until no change in absorption, firing shrinkage,
mass, and then fired in an electric laboratory freeze–thaw
furnace at different temperatures from 900 to

(continued on next page)

646 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

Table 1 (continued)

No. Waste material (wt.%) Brick size (mm) Drying/firing condition Tests conducted Reference
1000 °C with variations in heating rate and holding
duration at the maximum temperature
24 Sugarcane bagasse ash waste (up to 25 mm Dried at 110 °C for 24 h and then fired in an electric Linear shrinkage, water absorption, [36]
20%) (diameter) kiln at 1100 °C (24 h cold to cold) apparent density, tensile strength

clay bricks. Brick samples were heated to temperatures between Aeslina et al. [23] investigated the recycling of cigarette butts
800 and 1000 °C for 6 h at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Physical, (CBs) into fired clay bricks. The CBs were disinfected by heat at
mechanical and leaching tests were conducted on the brick sam- 105 °C for 24 h and then mixed with soil at four different percent-
ples. The results indicated that the heavy metal concentrations in ages. The mixture was placed in molds and compacted manually at
the leachate met the regulatory thresholds. Increasing the amount the optimum moisture content which was found from standard
of MSWI slag resulted in a decrease in the water absorption rate compaction tests. The specimens were dried at 105 °C for 24 h, re-
and an increase in the compressive strength of the bricks. The moved from the molds and fired in a furnace at 1050 °C. The fired
absorption rate and compressive strength of the bricks sintered specimens were tested for density, strength, thermal conductivity
at 1000 °C met the Chinese National Standard (CNS) building and leachate characteristics. The results indicated that cigarette
requirements for second-class bricks. The addition of MSWI slag butts could be regarded as a potential addition to raw materials
also reduced the degree of firing shrinkage. So the MSWI slag used in the manufacturing of light fired bricks.
was suitable for partial replacement of clay in production of fired Rahman [24] made fired bricks using clay–sand mixes with dif-
clay bricks. ferent percentages of rice husk ash. The firing durations at 1000 °C
Roy et al. [20] studied production of bricks by mixing different were respectively 2, 4 and 6 h. The effects of rice husk ash content
amount of gold mill tailings (0–75%) with black cotton soils or red on workable mixing water content, Atterberg limits, linear shrink-
soils. The soil-tailings bricks were dried at room temperature for age, density, compressive strength and water absorption of the
2 days and in the sun for another 3 days, and then fired in an elec- bricks were investigated. The results indicated that (1) the inclu-
tric furnace respectively at 750, 850, and 950 °C. The fired bricks sion of rice husk ash increased the compressive strength of bricks,
were tested to evaluate their compressive strength, water absorp- (2) the optimum firing duration was 4 h at 1000 °C, and (3) the
tion and linear shrinkage. The results indicated that 65%, 75%, 50% bricks made of clay–sand–rice husk ash mixes could be used in
and 45% of tailings could be used respectively with the four differ- load bearing walls.
ent types of soils studied to produce bricks that pass the criteria in Sengupta et al. [25] studied the utilization of petroleum effluent
terms of compressive strength, water absorption and linear treatment plant sludge in preparing environmentally acceptable
shrinkage. masonry bricks in a commercial brick plant. The sludge was mixed
El-Mahllawy [21] investigated the production of bricks using thoroughly with soil and sand at a ratio of 0.46:1:0.12. Mixtures
kaolin fine quarry residue (KFQR) combined with granulated were homogenized and used to prepare bricks by adopting the pro-
blast-furnace slag (GBFS) and granite–basalt fine quarry residue cedure as practiced in common masonry brick manufacturing. The
(GBFQR). Brick specimens were prepared by mixing 50% of KFQR, bricks were air dried at ambient condition to optimum moisture
10–40% of GBFS and 10–40% GBFQR, and then placing the mixture content and fired in a coal-fired Bulls trench commercial brick kiln
into a 50 mm cubic mold and applying a forming pressure of along with the usual commercial bricks. The firing temperature
22 MPa. The formed specimens were dried in an electrical dryer ranged from 1000 to 1100 °C. The physical, chemical and mechan-
at 80 °C for 24 h, and then fired at different firing temperatures ical properties of the bricks were evaluated. The results indicated
of 1100, 1125, 1150 and 1175 °C at 5 °C/min firing rate and 4 h that (1) the addition of the sludge reduced the requirement of pro-
soaking time in a muffle furnace. Tests were performed to assess cess water and fuel, (2) the fired bricks containing the sludge
the physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of the fired met all the requirements of the Indian Standard Specification,
bricks against the requirements of the Egyptian standard specifica- and (3) most of the toxic metals were fixed in the vitrification pro-
tion (ESS). The results showed that the bricks containing 50% KFQR, cess and the leachate values met the US EPA’s requirement for
20% GBFQR and 30% GBFS fired at 1125 °C exhibited the most sat- recycling of hazardous materials.
isfying properties that meet the ESS requirements. Demir et al. [26] investigated the potential of utilizing kraft
Sutcu and Akkurt [22] studied production of porous and light- pulp production residues in clay bricks. Different amounts of resi-
weight bricks with reduced thermal conductivity and acceptable dues were mixed with raw brick clay to produce bricks. Shaped
compressive strength by using paper processing residues as an brick samples were dried at laboratory conditions (21 °C and 40%
additive to earthenware bricks. Mixtures containing brick raw relative humidity) for 72 h and then dried to constant weight at
materials and the paper processing waste were prepared at differ- 105 °C in the oven. The dried samples were fired in a laboratory
ent proportions (up to 30% by weight). The granulated powder type electrically heated furnace at a rate of 2 °C/min until 600 °C
mixtures were compressed in a hydraulic press under a pressure and then at a rate of 5 °C/min until 900 °C for 30 min. The effect
of 10 MPa. The pressed specimens were held overnight at room of including the sludge on shaping, plasticity, density, porosity,
temperature followed by drying at 45 °C for 1 h in an oven, and water absorption and mechanical properties were investigated.
then fired in a laboratory-type electrical furnace at a rate of The results indicated that 2.5–5% residue additions were effective
2.5 °C/min until 600 °C and subsequently at a rate of 10 °C/min un- for the pore forming in clay body with acceptable mechanical
til 1100 °C for 1 h. Tests were performed to evaluate the dilatomet- properties. It was concluded that kraft pulp residues can be utilized
ric behavior, drying and firing shrinkages, loss on ignition, bulk in brick clay as an organic pore-forming agent.
density, apparent porosity, water absorption, thermal conductivity, Demir [27] studied the utilization of processed waste tea (PWT)
compressive strength and freeze–thaw performance of the fired together with clay to produce bricks. The effects of PWT addition
brick specimens. The results indicated that the paper processing on the durability and mechanical properties of bricks were investi-
waste could be utilized together with brick raw materials to pro- gated. Due to the organic nature of PWT, pore-forming (fired body)
duce porous and lightweight bricks with reduced thermal conduc- and binding (unfired body) ability in clay body was investigated.
tivity and acceptable compressive strength. Different amounts of PWT were added to the clay to produce
 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655 647

bricks. The test brick specimens were produced by the extrusion added marble dust had positive effect on the physical, chemical
method. The specimens were tested following the standard test and mechanical properties of the produced industrial brick.
methods. The results indicated that the inclusion of PWT signifi- Quijorna et al. [34] studied the utilization of Waelz slag and
cantly increased the compressive strength of the unfired and fired foundry sand to partially replace clay in the production of red clay
brick samples. As a result, it was concluded that PWT can be uti- bricks. A semi-scale industrial trial was conducted by incorporat-
lized in unfired and fired building bricks by taking advantage of ing 20–40% additions to produce bricks and then evaluating their
low cost and environmental protection. physico-chemical, mechanical and environmental properties. The
Samara et al. [28] investigated the use of polluted river sedi- results indicated that the incorporation of Waelz slag and foundry
ments after treatment in brick production by conducting a full- sand was beneficial for improved extrusion properties during
scale industrial experiment at a brick factory. The polluted sedi- forming, lower water absorption of the sintered brick due to re-
ment was first stabilized by the NovosolÒ process and then intro- duced connected porosity, significant reduction in CO2 and NOx
duced in the mix-design by replacing 15% of quartz sand used in emissions during firing, and improvements in potential leachabil-
normal brick production. Approximately 15,000 perforated sedi- ity of some pollutants in relation to samples containing only Waelz
ment-amended bricks were produced and the bricks were sub- slag or foundry sand. However, it was necessary to limit the addi-
jected to different qualification tests. The results indicated that tion of Waelz slag to less than 30% in order to meet regulatory
the use of treated sediment resulted in significant increase in com- leaching limits for Mo. Other physico-chemical and mechanical
pressive strength and firing shrinkage and decrease in porosity and parameters were not significantly affected by the addition of these
water absorption. The leaching tests showed that the quantities of industrial by-products.
heavy metals leached from crushed bricks were within the regula- Mezencevova et al. [35] conducted a laboratory-scale study to
tory limits. assess the feasibility of producing fired bricks by using dredged
Dondi et al. [29] studied the feasibility of utilizing PC and TV sediments as the sole raw material or as a 50% replacement for nat-
waste glass in production of clay bricks. The results indicated that ural brick-making clay. Brick samples were produced by firing at
addition of up to 2% of waste glass to the clay did not bring about temperatures between 900 and 1000 °C. The test results indicated
significant changes to the properties of bricks. For low carbonate that the physical and mechanical properties of the dredged sedi-
bricks, no significant release of Pb, Ba, and Sr was observed during ment bricks generally complied with ASTM criteria for building
the firing and leaching processes. However, for high carbonate bricks.
bricks, some Pb volatilization during firing and Sr leaching were Faria et al. [36] investigated the recycling of sugarcane bagasse
observed. One main constraint for the utilization of the PC and ash waste as a method to provide raw material for clay brick pro-
TV waste glass is that the glass must have a particle size below duction. Brick samples were produced by using up 20% of sugar-
the limit of the pan mills used in brick production (<1 mm). cane bagasse ash waste to replace natural clay, and then tested
Haiying et al. [30] investigated the utilization of municipal so- to determine their physical and mechanical properties. It was
lid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash in production of ceramic found that the sugarcane bagasse ash waste was mainly composed
bricks. It was found that the optimal mixture ratio of materials, of crystalline silica particles and could be used as a filler in clay
MSWI fly ash:red ceramic clay:feldspar:gang sand, was bricks.
20:60:10:10, and the optimal sintering temperature was 950 °C.
The results as a whole suggested that utilization of MSWI fly 2.2. Production of bricks from waste materials through cementing
ash in production of ceramic bricks constituted a potential means
of recycling MSWI fly ash. This method does not need kiln firing but relies on cementing
Eliche-Quesada et al. [31] studied the application of a variety of from the waste material itself or other added cementing materials.
waste materials together with clay to produce lightweight bricks: Again, many researchers have studied the utilization of waste
sawdust, spent earth from oil filtration, compost and marble. Brick materials to produce bricks based on cementing (see Table 2).
samples were fabricated respectively with 0–10% sawdust, 0–30% Roy et al. [20] also used gold mill tailings to make bricks by
spent earth from oil filtration, 0–30% compost, and 0–20% marble. mixing them with OPC in different proportions. The cement-tail-
A 54.5 MPa compression pressure was applied during the molding ings bricks were cured by immersing them in water for different
process. The brick samples were fired in a laboratory furnace at a periods of time and their compressive strengths were determined.
rate of 3 °C/min up to respectively 950 and 1050 °C for 4 h. The re- The bricks with 20% of cement and 14 days of curing were found to
sults showed that the bricks fired at 1050 °C had higher compres- be suitable. The cost analysis revealed that the cement-tailings
sive strength, lower porosity and water absorption than those at bricks would be uneconomical compared to the soil-tailings bricks
950 °C. The optimum amount of waste material which should be (see the related review in the previous section).
used was 5% sawdust, 15% spent earth from oil filtration, 10% com- Malhotra and Tehri [37] investigated the development of bricks
post, or 15% marble. from granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of the iron and
Alonso-Santurde et al. [32] studied the production of bricks by steel industry. The slag was first mixed with hydrated lime and
mixing green and core foundry sand with clay in proportions 0– then the lime–slag mixture with Badarpur sand thoroughly. Brick
50% and firing at 850–1050 °C. Brick specimens were prepared specimens were made by pressing the mixture in a hydraulic ma-
and evaluated physically and mineralogically. It was found that chine at a pressure of 4.9 MPa and then curing the molded speci-
the clay–foundry sand bricks fired at 1050 °C had better physical mens at 270–272 °C and 95% humidity over a period of 28 days.
property values while the mineralogy was not significantly af- The cured bricks were tested for compressive strength (in satu-
fected. The optimum amount of foundry sand to produce bricks rated conditions), bulk density and water absorption properties.
was found to be 35% green sand and 25% core sand. The study revealed that good quality bricks could be produced
Bilgin et al. [33] investigated the usability of waste marble dust from a slag–lime mixture and sand.
as an additive material in industrial brick. Waste marble dust and Poon et al. [38] studied the production of concrete bricks and
industrial brick mortar were mixed in different proportions to pro- paving blocks using recycled aggregates obtained from construc-
duce brick specimens for evaluating the effect of marble dust com- tion and demolition (C&D) waste together with OPC and/or fly
position on the physico-mechanical properties of bricks. The brick ash. A series of tests were carried out to determine the properties
specimens were pressed and sintered at three different tempera- of the bricks and blocks prepared with and without recycled aggre-
tures, 900, 1000 and 1100 °C. It was found that the amount of gates. The test results showed that the replacement of coarse and
648 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

Table 2
Studies on production of bricks from waste materials through cementing.

No. Waste material Cementing Brick size (mm) Curing condition Tests conducted Reference
(wt.%) material
1 Gold mill tailings OPC 100  100  76 Cured in water for different periods of time Compressive strength [20]
(0–75%)
2 Granulated blast Hydrated lime 190  90  90 Cured at 95% humidity and at a Compressive strength, bulk density, [37]
furnace slag temperature of 270–272 °C for 28 days water absorption
(5–35%)
3 Recycled OPC alone or both 225  105  75 Bricks: cured in air at room temperature for Compressive strength, density, drying [38]
aggregates OPC and fly ash 28 days; Blocks: cured in a steam bath at shrinkage
(replacing 25– 65 °C for 6 h and then further cured in air at
100% of natural room temperature until 28 days
aggregates)
4 Class F fly ash Calcined 220  110  75, Covered with wet gunny bags for a week Compressive strength, water [39]
(60–90%) phosphogypsum 150  150  150 and then cured in water filled tanks at absorption, density, durability
and mineral lime (hollow block) 23°2 °C
5 Class C fly ash Fly ash itself 200  100  55 Cured in a moist room at 23 ± 2 °C and Compressive strength, water [40]
(100%) relative humidity not less than 95% absorption, modulus of rupture, freeze–
thaw
6 Class C fly ash Fly ash itself 200  100  55 Cured in a wet environment (curing Compressive strength, water [41–45]
(100%) chamber) at room temperature for over absorption, permeability, freeze–thaw,
2 weeks leaching
7 Copper mine OPC 190  90  90 Placed in well ventilated room at ambient Compressive strength, water absorption [46]
tailings (8%, 12% temperature for 24 h and then cured in
and 15%) water
8 Class F fly ash Hydrated lime 45 (diameter) Pre-cured for about 24 h and then steamed Compressive strength, water [47]
(50–80%) autoclaved at pressure 0.5–2 MPa for 3– absorption, unit weight, thermal
12 h conductivity
9 Wood sawdust OPC 105  95  75 Cured at room temperature for 24 h, in Compressive strength, water [48]
and limestone lime-saturated water tank at 22 °C for absorption, flexural strength, unit
powder 28 days, and then dried in ventilated oven weight, UPV test
(86–89%) at 105 °C for 24 h
10 Cotton waste OPC 105  95  75 Cured at room temperature for 24 h, in Compressive strength, water [49,50]
and limestone lime-saturated water tank at 22 °C for absorption, flexural strength, unit
powder 28 days, and then dried in ventilated oven weight, UPV test, thermal conductivity
(84–89%) at 105 °C for 24 h
11 Waste glass OPC Various Cured at room temperature for 24 h, in Compressive strength, water [51,52]
powder and lime-saturated water tank at 22 °C for absorption, flexural strength, unit
limestone 28 days, and then dried in ventilated oven weight, UPV test, abrasion resistance,
powder (89%) at 105/115 °C for 24 h freezing–thawing resistance, thermal
conductivity
12 Crumb rubber OPC 105  100  75 Cured in air for 6 h, in lime-saturated water Compressive strength, water [53]
(0–29%) tank at 22 °C for 28 days, and then dried in absorption, flexural strength, freeze–
ventilated oven at 65 °C for 48 h thaw resistance, unit weight, UPV test
13 Class F fly ash Hydrated lime 15  65  10 Put in moist chamber at 98% RH for 3 days, Compressive strength, water [54]
(95% and 100%) and then autoclaved at 125–135 °C & absorption, bulk density, leaching
0.14 MPa pressure for 4 h
14 Stockpiled OPC, lime, and/or 90  65  90 Placed at 23 °C and 100% RH room for 1 day, Compressive strength, water absorption [55]
circulating class F fly ash and then cured in air at room temperature density
fluidized bed for different period of time
combustion ash
(58.3–100%)
15 Low-silicon Fly ash, slag, 240  115  53 Sealed in plastic bag for 6 h, and then cured Compressive and bending strengths, [56]
tailings (83%) clinker dust and in autoclave for certain period of time freeze–thaw resistance, dry shrinkage
some activators
16 Limestone Class C fly ash 105  75  225 Cured at room temperature for 48 h, in Compressive strength, water [57]
powder and class itself water tank at 22 °C for 7, 28 and 90 days, absorption, flexural strength, density,
C fly ash (100%) and then dried in ventilated oven at 105 °C UPV test, thermal conductivity
for 24 h
17 Sludge from OPC, ground 40  40  160 Cured at 20 °C in 100% humidity for 24 h, Compressive strength, freeze–thaw [58]
dyestuff-making silicate cement and then cured in water at 20 °C for 28 days resistance, leaching
wastewater clinker, alumina
coagulation (33– cement, or slag
50%) cement
18 Low SiO2 content Lime 100  100  50 Heated-up for 2 h to 170–190 °C, stayed for Compressive strength, freeze–thaw [59]
copper tailings 5–8 h, and then cooled-down for 3 h resistance
(0–88%)
19 Limestone Class C fly ash 225  105  75 Cured by spraying additional water on the Compressive strength, flexural strength, [60]
powder, class C and/or silica fume surface at room temperature for 48 h, and density, water absorption, porosity,
fly ash, and silica then cured in water for different times thermal conductivity
fume (100%)
20 Recycle paper OPC 230  105  80 Solar dried Compressive strength, water [61]
mill waste absorption, specific weight, voidage,
(80–95%) moisture content
21 Hematite tailings Lime 50  23 Pre-cured for about 24 h, and then steam Compressive strength, flexural strength, [62]
(70%) (cylinder) autoclaved for certain period of time freeze–thaw resistance
 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655 649

Table 2 (continued)

No. Waste material Cementing Brick size (mm) Curing condition Tests conducted Reference
(wt.%) material
22 CFBC fly ash OPC or lime 50  50 Cured at 25–30 °C temperature and 80–90% Compressive strength, water [63]
(77–100%) and (cylinder) humidity for a certain period of time, and absorption, dry-shrinkage, bulk density,
slag (0–20%) 240  115  53 then autoclaved for 3–8 h freeze–thaw resistance
23 Waste OPC and hydrated 240  115  53 Wet cured for 1 day, dried at 180 °C for 2 h, Compressive strength, bending [64]
phosphogypsum lime immersed in water for 1 h, and naturally strength, water absorption, freeze–
(75) cured thaw resistance
24 Coal combustion OPC 140  140  90 Moistened through water spraying and Compressive strength, unit weight [65]
residues (70%, covered by a black plastic sheet
90vol.%)
25 Fly ash, quarry OPC 200  90  60 Covered with wet burlap overnight, and Compressive strength, water [66]
dust, and billet then cured in plastic storage boxes at 22 °C absorption, modulus of rupture, UPV,
scale (85% and and 95% RH efflorescence and durability
90%)

fine natural aggregates by recycled aggregates at the levels of 25% and the results indicated that the produced fly ash bricks were
and 50% had little effect on the compressive strength of the brick environmentally safe.
and block specimens, but higher levels of replacement reduced Morchhale et al. [46] studied the production of bricks by mixing
the compressive strength. Using recycled aggregates as the copper mine tailings with different amounts of OPC and then com-
replacement of natural aggregates at the level of up to 100%, con- pressing the mixture in a mold at a pressure of 15 MPa. The molded
crete paving blocks with a 28-day compressive strength of not less bricks were transferred to a well ventilated room at ambient tem-
than 49 MPa could be produced without the incorporation of fly perature for 24 h and then cured in water for different periods of
ash, while paving blocks for footway uses with a lower compres- time. The cured brick specimens were tested to evaluate their com-
sive strength of 30 MPa and masonry bricks could be produced pressive strength and water absorption. The results indicated that
with the incorporation of fly ash. the produced copper mine tailings-cement bricks satisfied the
Kumar [39] investigated the production of bricks and hollow compressive strength and water absorption requirements as pre-
blocks using class F fly ash together with calcined phosphogypsum scribed in Indian Standard (IS).
and mineral lime. The brick and hollow block specimens were pre- Cicek and Tanrverdi [47] investigated the production of light
pared by mixing different amounts of fly ash (60–90%), calcined weight bricks by using class F fly ash together with sand and hy-
phosphogypsum (5–30%) and mineral lime (5–30%) and then plac- drated lime. Brick samples were prepared under different condi-
ing the mixture in wooden molds. The molded bricks and hollow tions to study the effect of different factors. An optimum raw
blocks were covered with wet gunny bags for a week and then material composition was found to be a mixture of 68% fly ash,
transferred to water filled curing tanks at 21–25 °C. To investigate 20% sand and 12% hydrated lime. The optimum brick forming pres-
the durability, the bricks and hollow blocks were cured in an sure was 20 MPa and the optimum autoclaving time and pressure
aggressive environment of sulfate solution. The cured bricks and were found to be 6 h and 1.5 MPa respectively. The results sug-
hollow blocks were tested to evaluate their compressive strength, gested that it is possible to produce good quality light weight
water absorption, density and durability. It was observed that bricks from fly ash.
these bricks and hollow blocks had sufficient strength for their Turgut and Algin [48] studied the potential use of wood saw-
use in low cost housing development. dust waste (WSW) and limestone powder waste (LPW) combina-
Li and Lin [40] studied the production of bricks by compacting tion together with Portland cement to produce lightweight
class C fly ash, both high grade with LOI (loss on ignition) = 0.03% bricks. Brick samples were prepared by mixing WSW and LPW
and low grade with LOI = 9.1%, mixed with water. They tested with cement at specified proportions and then compacting the
the compacted bricks to evaluate their compressive strength, mod- mixture in a mold for 4 h under specified pressures. The molded
ulus of rupture, freeze–thaw resistance, and water absorption. The brick samples were cured at room temperature for 24 h, in a tank
results indicated that the bricks compacted from fly ash had higher filled with lime-saturated water at 22 °C for 28 days, and then
compressive strength than ordinary commercial bricks, but lower dried in a ventilated oven at 105 °C for 24 h. Tests were conducted
freeze–thaw resistance. So they could be used in certain applica- on the bricks to evaluate their compressive strength, flexural
tions. Analysis was also performed on the production cost for the strength, unit weight, ultrasonic pulse velocity and water absorp-
compacted fly ash bricks and the results showed that the cost tion. The results showed that the produced bricks satisfy the rele-
would be less than 2 cents per brick if the capital cost for a plant vant international standards. The results also showed that the
with a capacity of 100,000 tons per year did not exceed 1 million high-level replacement of WSW with LPW did not exhibit a sudden
dollars. brittle fracture even beyond the failure loads, led to high energy
Liu and his colleagues [41–45] developed a technique to pro- absorption capacity, reduced the unit weight dramatically, and
duce bricks by mixing class C fly ash with approximately 10% introduced smother surface compared to regular concrete bricks.
water, compressing the mixture at a pressure higher than Algin and Turgut [49] tried to use cotton waste (CW) and lime-
6.9 MPa and then curing the formed brick in a wet environment stone powder waste (LPW) together with Portland cement to pro-
(curing chamber) at room temperature for over 2 weeks. This duce lightweight bricks. The study followed essentially the same
method relies on the self-cementing property of class C fly ash method as used in [48] and similar conclusions were drawn (the
which contains a large amount of calcium and thus does not need only difference is that CW instead of WSW was used). Turgut
the usage of other cementing material. The produced bricks had [50] studied the thermal conductivity of the bricks produced from
high compressive strength, good water absorption property and CW and LPW.
low permeability. To enhance the freeze–thaw resistance, they Turgut [51,52] studied the utilization of waste glass powder
added small amount (0.2% by weight) of air-entrainment chemical (WGP) and limestone powder waste (LPW) together with a small
into the bricks. They also performed detailed environmental study quantity of Portland cement to produce bricks following essentially
650 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

the same method used in [48–50]. The results indicated that the of silicate cement, alumina cement, and slag cement, as the binder.
WGP used in LPW remarkably improved the compressive strength, The experimental results showed that the cement solidified sludge
flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, abrasion resistance, freez- could meet all performance criteria for unfired bricks at a cement/
ing–thawing resistance, and thermal conductivity of LPW bricks. dry sludge/water ratio of 1:0.5–0.8:0.5–0.8. The compressive
Turgut and Yesilata [53] examined the potential use of crumb strength of alumina cement solidified sludge was the highest and
rubber to partially replace sand aggregate for producing low cost exceeded 40 MPa.
and lightweight composite concrete bricks with improved thermal Fang et al. [59] studied the utilization of low SiO2 content cop-
resistance. The physico-mechanical and thermal insulation proper- per tailings to partially replace sand to produce autoclaved sand–
ties of the rubber-added concrete bricks were investigated. The ob- lime bricks. Brick specimens were prepared by mixing the tailings
tained compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting strength, with river sand and sand powder at different proportions, pressing
freeze–thaw resistance, unit weight and water absorption values the mixture in a mold under a pressure of 20 MPa and autoclaving
met the relevant international standards. The experimental obser- the molded bricks. The produced bricks were tested to evaluate
vations also revealed that high level replacement of crumb rubber their compressive strength and freeze–thaw durability. The results
with conventional sand aggregate did not exhibit a sudden brittle showed that the copper tailings with low content of SiO2 could be
fracture even beyond the failure loads, led to high energy absorp- used to produce autoclaved sand–lime bricks meeting the China
tion capacity, reduced the unit weight dramatically, and intro- National Standard, if the proportion of the copper tailings in the
duced smoother surface. brick batch did not exceed 50% by mass and appropriate propor-
Chindaprasirt and Pimraksa [54] studied the properties of fly tions of river sand and sand powder were added to compensate
ash–lime granule unfired bricks. Granules were prepared from for the low SiO2 content.
mixtures of fly ash and lime at fly ash to hydrated lime ratios of Turgut [60] investigated manufacturing of bricks by utilizing
100:0, 95:5 and 90:10 and then used to make unfired bricks using limestone powder, class C fly ash, silica fume and water without
hydrothermal treatment at temperature of 125–135 °C and pres- any other components. Brick specimens were produced by mixing
sure of 0.14 MPa. The microstructures, mineralogical compositions, limestone powder, class C fly ash and silica fume with water, com-
mechanical properties and environmental impact of bricks were pacting the mixture and curing the formed units for periods of 7,
determined. The results revealed that the strength of unfired bricks 28 and 90 days. The brick specimens were tested to measure their
was dependent on the fineness of fly ash and was higher with an physical and mechanical properties. The results indicated that the
increase in fly ash fineness. The strength of the fly ash–lime gran- compressive and flexural strengths increased significantly when
ule unfired bricks was 47.0–62.5 MPa. In addition, the heavy ele- the silica fume content in the mixture was increased. At 20% silica
ments, in particular Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn, were efficiently retained in fume content, the compressive strengths of the bricks after 28 and
the fly ash–lime granule unfired brick. 90 days curing time reached 23 and 26.5 MPa respectively. It was
Shon et al. [55] studied the utilization of stockpiled circulating also found that the production cost of the new bricks was 6.4-times
fluidized bed combustion ash (SCFBCA) with OPC, lime, class F fly lower than that of traditional fired clay bricks.
ash, and/or calcium chloride to manufacture compressed bricks. Raut et al. [61] studied the utilization of recycled paper mill
Brick specimens were prepared using a compaction pressure of waste (RPMW) together with OPC to produce light weight bricks.
55.2 MPa and then placing the specimens at a 23 °C and 100% rel- Brick specimens were produced by mixing RPMW and cement at
ative humidity room for 1 day before air curing at room tempera- different proportions, compressing the mixture using a hand oper-
ture. Laboratory tests were conducted on the prepared brick ated hydraulic press and then solar drying the formed bricks. The
specimens to determine their physical, chemical and mineralogical brick specimens were tested following ASTM C 67-03a standards.
properties. The results indicated that SCFBCA could be used to The results showed that bricks prepared using RPMW–cement
manufacture compressed earth bricks. combination was light weight, shock absorbing and met the ASTM
Zhao et al. [56] investigated production of load-bearing bricks C 67-03a compressive strength requirements.
from low-silicon tailings by pressing and autoclaving, using fly Zhao et al. [62] investigated the possibility of using hematite
ash, slag, clinker dust and some activators as the cementing mate- tailings as main raw material to produce high strength autoclaved
rial. The tailings were mixed with the cementing material and bricks. The orthogonal test results indicated that the optimum for-
water and then pressure molded into brick samples under a form- mulation was the mixture of 70% hematite tailings, 15% lime and
ing pressure of 20 MPa. The formed bricks were sealed with plastic 15% sand and the optimum autoclave pressure and time were
bags for 6 h and then placed into autoclave for cuing for certain respectively 1.2 MPa and 6 h. The produced hematite tailings auto-
period of time. The results indicated that good quality bricks con- claved bricks had mechanical strength and durability conforming
taining 83% of tailings could be produced, having compressive to the China Autoclaved Lime–Sand Brick Standard (GB11945-
strength up to 16.1 MPa, bending strength 3.8 MPa, low drying 1999) for MU20 autoclaved bricks.
shrinkage and good freeze–thaw resistance. Zhang et al. [63] studied the production of autoclaved bricks
Turgut [57] studied the production of masonry blocks using from circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) fly ash and slag.
limestone powder (LP) waste and class C class fly ash (FA), without It was shown that autoclaved bricks could be made using 77% CFBC
the addition of Portland cement. LP was mixed with FA at respec- fly ash, 20% CFBC slag and 3% cement, exhibiting good long-term
tively 10%, 20% and 30% by volume, wetted and compressed under volume stability and achieving a compressive strength up to
a pressure of 20 MPa in a steel mold for 1 min to produce block 14.3 MPa. There was no dihydrate gypsum and ettringite formation
samples. The formed blocks were cured at room temperature for in the autoclaved brick so that the destructive expansion could be
48 h, in water tank at 22 °C for respectively 7, 28 and 90 days, avoided.
and then dried in ventilated oven at 105 °C for 24 h. Tests were Zhou et al. [64] proposed and tested a novel process, called
conducted on the produced blocks to evaluate their compressive ‘‘hydration–recrystallization process’’, for producing non-fired
and flexural strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), density, bricks from waste phosphogypsum. In this process, the press-
water absorption and thermal conductivity. The results indicated formed bricks were hot-dried at 180 °C to dehydrate gypsum into
that masonry blocks could be produced using LP, FA and water. semi-hydrated gypsum, water-immersed to recrystallize gypsum
Liu et al. [58] explored the feasibility of using the sludge derived crystals, and finally air-dried naturally to obtain the non-fired
from dyestuff-making wastewater coagulation for producing un- bricks. A series of experiments were conducted based on the novel
fired bricks. They tried four typical cements, OPC, ground clinker process. The results showed that the optimal mix consisted of
 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655 651

Table 3
Studies on production of bricks from waste materials through geopolymerization.

No. Waste material Alkali activator Brick size (mm) Curing condition Tests conducted Reference
(wt.%)
1 Fly ash and Sodium silicate solution 40  57 Cured in ambient air at 20–23 °C Compressive strength, water [80]
bottom ash (100%) (cylinder), and RH 35–60% for 28 days uptake, water absorption
300  140  90
2 Class F fly ash Sodium silicate and sodium 190  90  50 Treated in oven and steam at 40, Compressive strength, density [81]
(100%) hydroxide solution 60, 80, 100 °C for 2, 4, 6, 24, 48,
72 h, and then cured at ambient
condition
3 Bottom ash from Sodium silicate solution, sodium 100  100  200 Cured at 40 °C and 100% Compressive strength [82]
circulating hydroxide solution, potassium humidity for different periods of
fluidized bed hydroxide solution, and lithium time
combustion hydroxide solution
(100%)
4 Copper mine Sodium hydroxide solution 33.4  72.5 Cured in an oven at 60–120 °C Compressive strength, water [83]
tailings (100%) (cylinder) for 7 days absorption, abrasion resistance
5 Copper mine Sodium hydroxide solution 33.4  72.5 Cured in an oven at 90 °C for Compressive strength, water [84]
tailings (90–100%) (cylinder) 7 days absorption, durability
and cement kiln
dust (0–10%)
6 Fly ash (80% and 1:1 Mix of sodium hydroxide I shaped block Covered with plastic lid and Compressive strength, water [85]
90%) and red mud solution and sodium silicate cured at ambient temperature absorption, splitting tensile
(20% and 10%) solution for 28 days strength, flexural strength,
abrasion resistance, leaching

75.0% phosphogypsum, 19.5% river sand, 4.0% Portland cement and where M+ is an alkali cation (Na+ or K+); n is the degree of polymer-
1.5% hydrated lime and the produced bricks at the optimal condi- ization; and z is the Si/Al ratio. By tuning the Si/Al ratio (i.e., z = 1–
tion met the requirements of MU20 grade bricks in the Chinese 15, up to 300), geopolymers with different properties can be syn-
standard (JC/T422-2007). thesized. Geopolymer not only provides performance comparable
Vinai et al. [65] studied the production of bricks using coal com- to OPC in many applications, but has additional advantages, includ-
bustion residues (CCRs) together with cement, lateritic clayey soil ing abundant raw material resources, rapid development of
and sand. 12 Dosages were tested and about 300 bricks were pro- mechanical strength, good durability, superior resistance to chemi-
duced with a hand-operated press. Unconfined compressive cal attack, ability to immobilize contaminants, and significantly re-
strength (UCS) higher than 7.5 MPa was observed for bricks with duced energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions [72–79].
20% of laterite and 10% cement after 45 days of curing. The pro- These characteristics have made geopolymer of great research
duced bricks showed good mechanical strength, low weight and interest as an ideal material for sustainable development.
no health threat. Freidin [80] studied production of geopolymer bricks from fly
Shakir et al. [66] investigated the production of bricks using fly ash and bottom ash by using sodium silicate solution as the alkali
ash, quarry dust, and billet scale. The procedure for producing the activator. Small cylinder specimens were prepared at different con-
bricks included mixing the constituents along with cement and ditions to study the effect of sodium silicate content, compaction
water, and then forming the bricks within molds without applying pressure and hydrophobic additive. The specimens were cured in
pressure over them. Results of mechanical property and durability ambient air at temperature of 20–23 °C and RH of 35–60% for
tests were promising. The optimum ratio of both billet scale to fly 28 days before tested. The results indicated that concrete-like
ash and billet scale to quarry dust was found to be 1:1. It was indi- building materials can be produced from mixtures of fly ash and
cated that the bricks developed in this study could be used as an bottom ash by using sodium silicate solution as the alkali activator.
alternative to conventional bricks. The full size blocks made from the concrete-like building materials
met the requirements of Israeli Standard for conventional cement
2.3. Production of bricks from waste materials through concrete blocks.
geopolymerization Arioz et al. [81] investigated production of geopolymer bricks
using class F fly ash, sodium silicate, and sodium hydroxide solu-
The different methods described above produce bricks from tion. The bricks were produced using 30 MPa forming pressure
waste materials either using high temperature kiln firing or relying and treated at various temperatures for different hours in oven
on cementing as in the OPC concrete and thus still have the draw- and steam. Tests were performed to determine the compressive
backs of high-energy consumption and large quantity of green- strength and density of the fly ash-based geopolymer bricks at ages
house gas emissions. Therefore, researchers have studied of 7, 28 and 90 days. It was found that the compressive strength of
production of bricks from waste materials based on geopolymer- the fly ash-based geopolymer bricks ranged between 5 and 60 MPa
ization (see Table 3). Geopolymerization is a technology that relies and the effect of heat treatment temperature and duration on the
on the chemical reaction of amorphous silica and alumina rich sol- density of the bricks was not significant.
ids with a high alkaline solution at ambient or slightly elevated Chen et al. [82] studied production of geopolymer bricks using
temperatures to form amorphous to semi-crystalline aluminosili- bottom ash from circulating fluidized bed combustion and four dif-
cate inorganic polymer or geopolymer. Geopolymer possess ferent alkali activators: sodium silicate solution, sodium hydroxide
three-dimensional silicoaluminate structures consisting of linked solution, potassium hydroxide solution, and lithium hydroxide
SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra by sharing all the oxygen atoms solution. Brick samples were produced by first mixing the bottom
[67–74]. A general formula for the chemical composition of geo- ash and an alkaline solution, placing the mixture into a mold until
polymer is as follows: the mold was full, and applying a force of 60 kN at the top to com-
press the mixture for 10 s. Then the brick was pushed out of the
Mþn ½—ðSiO2 Þz —AlO2 —n ð1Þ mold and stored at 40 °C and 100% humidity for curing. The same
652 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

liquid to solid mass ratio of 0.3 was used for all brick samples. The ence of 0–40% red mud addition on the reaction, structure and
results indicated that the alkali activator used has a great effect on properties of fly ash geopolymer was studied. An improvement in
the compressive strength of bricks. The highest 7 day compressive intensity of reaction was observed with the red mud addition at
strength of 18.8 MPa was obtained for brick samples prepared all replacement levels but the improvement in setting time and
using 10 M potassium hydroxide solution. compressive strength was observed only in the samples containing
Ahmari and Zhang [83] investigated utilization of copper mine 5–20% red mud. Structural characterization revealed that the rate
tailings to produce geopolymer bricks by using sodium hydroxide of reaction was dependent on the NaOH concentration but the
(NaOH) solution as the alkali activator. They produced cylindrical development of mechanical properties was related to the compact
brick specimens by using different initial water contents, NaOH microstructure which was developed due to the combined effects
concentrations, forming pressures and curing temperatures to of NaOH concentration, solubility of silicates and the presence of
study their effects on the physical and mechanical properties of iron oxides. Based on the study results, paving blocks using 10%
the copper mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks. Scanning elec- and 20% red mud were developed. These blocks met Indian Stan-
tron microscopy (SEM) imaging and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analy- dard (IS) 15658 and the leached toxic metals were within permis-
sis were also performed to investigate the microstructure and sible limits.
phase composition of the mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks It is noted that researchers have also studied many other types
prepared at different conditions. The results showed that by prop- of waste materials for geopolymer production, including red mud
erly selecting the preparation condition (initial water content, and rice husk ash [86], fly ash and mine tailings [87], fly ash and
NaOH concentration, forming pressure and curing temperature), concrete waste [88], blast furnace slag [89], and fly ash and blast
mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks could be produced to meet furnace slag [90]. Although these studies are not specifically about
the ASTM requirements on compressive strength, water absorp- brick production, the results indicate that many of these wastes are
tion, and abrasion resistance for nearly all types of applications. promising materials for production of geopolymer bricks.
Ahmari and Zhang [84] studied the feasibility of using cement
kiln dust (CKD) to further enhance the physical and mechanical 3. Discussion
properties and the durability of the copper mine tailings-based
geopolymer bricks developed in [83]. The effects of CKD content It is evident from Tables 1–3 that researchers have used various
(0–10%) on unconfined compressive strength, water absorption, types of waste materials in different proportions and adopted dif-
and weight and strength losses after immersion in water were ferent methods to produce bricks. Different tests were conducted
studied. To shed light on the mechanism for the contribution of on produced bricks to evaluate their properties following the var-
CKD to geopolymerization, microscopic and spectroscopic tech- ious available standards. Compressive strength and water absorp-
niques including scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive tion are two common parameters considered by most
X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fou- researchers as required by various standards. For example, Table 4
rier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were used to investi- shows the ASTM specifications on minimum unconfined compres-
gate the micro/nano-structure and the elemental and phase sive strength (UCS) and maximum water absorption for different
composition of geopolymer brick specimens containing different applications of bricks.
amount of CKD. The results showed significant improvement of It is noted that although many of the studied bricks made from
UCS and durability when CKD was used. Water absorption, how- waste materials meet the various standard requirements and a
ever, slightly increased due to the hydration of Ca in the added number of patents have been approved (see Table 5 for a partial
CKD. list), so far commercial production and application of bricks from
Kumar and Kumar [85] studied the production of geopolymer waste materials is still very limited. Currently, the CalStar brick
paving blocks by using red mud together with fly ash. The influ- from CalStar Products Inc., which is produced from 99.5% fly ash,

Table 4
ASTM specifications for different applications of bricks.

Title of specification ASTM designation Type/grade Minimum UCS (MPa) Maximum water absorption (%)
Structural clay load bearing wall tile C34-03 LBXa 9.6c 16e
LBX 4.8d 16e
LBb 6.8c 25e
LB 4.8d 25e
Building brick C62-10 SWf 20.7 17
MWg 17.2 22
NWh 10.3 No limit
Solid masonry unit C126-99 Vertical coring 20.7 NA
Horizontal coring 13.8 NA
Facing brick C216-07a SW 20.7 17i
MW 17.2 22i
Pedestrian and light traffic paving brick C902-07 SX 55.2 8
MX 20.7 14
NX 20.7 No limit
a
LBX = load bearing exposed.
b
LB = load bearing non-exposed.
c
End construction use.
d
Side construction use.
e
Based on 1 h boiling water absorption.
f
Severe weathering.
g
Moderate weathering.
h
Negligible weathering.
i
Based on 5 h boiling water absorption.
 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655 653

Table 5
Patents for production of bricks from waste materials.a

Patent no. Title Inventor/year Source material

US20120031306 Bricks and method of forming bricks with high coal ash content using a press mold Belden et al./2012 Fly ash
machine and variable firing trays
US7998268 Method to produce durable non-vitrified fly ash bricks and blocks Liu/2011 Fly ash
US6440884 Composition and process for making building bricks and tiles Devagnanam/ Clay, sludge and sand
2002
US6068803 Method of making building blocks from coal combustion waste and related products Weyand et al./ Fly ash, bottom ash, & rock mineral
2000 fines
US5366548 Volcanic fly ash and kiln dust compositions, and a process for making articles Riddle/1996 Volcanic fly ash and kiln dust
therefrom
WO/1996/022952 Structural products produced from fly ash Strabala/1996 Fly ash
US5362319 Process for treating fly ash and bottom ash and the resulting product Johnson/1994 Fly ash and bottom ash
US5358760 Process for producing solid bricks from fly ash, bottom ash, lime, gypsum, and Furlong and Fly ash, bottom ash, gypsum, calcium
calcium carbonate Hearne/1994 carbonate, & lime
US4780144 Method for producing a building element from a fly ash comprising material and Loggers/1988 Fly ash and slaked lime
building element formed
US4476235 Green molded product containing asbestos tailings suitable for firing Chevalier/1984 Asbestos tailings
US3886244 Method for producing bricks from red mud Bayer et al./1975 Red mud
a
Based on the search on http://www.freepatentsonline.com/.

fine aggregates, water and less than 0.5% of proprietary material, is cementing technology in OPC concrete. Geopolymerization relies
commercially available [91]. Sanjay Kumar from CSIR, Jamshedpur, on the polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors and a
India reported in July 2012 the commercial production of around high alkali content to attain structural strength whereas the
0.5 million geopolymer bricks from steel slag, fly ash and GBFS conventional cementing depends on the presence of C–S–H and
combination [92]. The possible reasons are related to the methods C–A–S–H phases for matrix formation and strength. Production
for producing bricks from waste materials, the potential contami- of geopolymer bricks consumes much less energy and releases sig-
nation from the waste materials, the absence of relevant standards, nificantly lower quantity of greenhouse gases than production of
and the slow acceptance of waste materials-based bricks by indus- conventional bricks. Besides, geopolymer bricks have favorable
try and public, as detailed below. physical, mechanical and chemical properties. However, the utili-
The method for producing bricks from waste materials through zation of alkali solutions brings about extra costs. The mild tem-
firing is very similar to the conventional clay brick production pro- perature required for curing in some cases also leads to
cess. Therefore, this method can be easily executed without mak- additional costs for production. Although geopolymer is considered
ing major changes in the conventional clay brick production line. by many authors as a solution for ‘‘green’’ construction material,
However, during the firing process, contaminants within the waste few studies have quantified the environmental impact of geopoly-
material may be released and cause new contaminations. Besides, mer [93,94]. Therefore, detailed environmental impact assessment
making bricks through firing consumes significant amount of en- of geopolymer brick production is necessary and should be com-
ergy and releases large quantity of greenhouse gases. Therefore, pared with other brick production methods.
the methods for producing bricks without firing seem to be the Since most waste materials contain contaminants within them,
trend to follow in terms of energy and environmental concerns. for production of bricks from waste materials using whatever
The method for producing bricks from waste materials through method, it is important to ensure that the contaminants within
cementing is based on hydration reactions similar to that in OPC to the original waste material are effectively and safely immobilized.
form mainly C–S–H and C–A–S–H phases contributing to strength. Leaching analyses can be conducted following USEPA, ASTM and/or
The cementing material can be the waste material itself or other other standard methods to check if the leached elements meet the
added cementing material(s) such as OPC and lime. Since the man- related standard criteria such as those listed in Table 6. For exam-
ufacture of cementing material(s) such as OPC and lime consumes ple, Cengizler [95], Tanrıverdi, [96], Ahmari and Zhang [97], and
significant amount of energy and releases large quantity of green- Kumar and Kumar [85] respectively studied the leaching behavior
house gases, the production of bricks from waste materials based of heavy metals from fired fly ash bricks, non-fired autoclaved fly
on added cementing material(s) also has the drawbacks of high en- ash–lime bricks, copper mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks,
ergy consumption and large carbon footprint. When it relies on the and red mud/fly ash-based geopolymer blocks.
self cementing of waste material, the waste material has to contain The limited production and application of bricks from waste
a large amount of calcium (such as class C fly ash). To ensure and materials is also related to the absence of relevant standards and
accelerate the reaction kinetics, the curing process usually needs the slow acceptance by industry and public. Standardization plays
to be conducted under pressurized steam at 125–200 °C in an auto- an important role in disseminating knowledge, exploiting research
clave, which translates itself into additional costs. results and reducing time to market for innovations [98]. To pro-
The method for producing bricks from waste materials through mote the production and application of bricks from waste materi-
formation of geopolymer is based on the relatively new geopoly- als, relevant standards should be developed. Since the existing
merization technology which is different from the conventional brick manufacturers have a vested interest in the conventional

Table 6
Concentration limit on different leached elements based on different standards.

Standard Concentration limit (ppm)

Al Hg Ag Ba Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn As Se Cd Pb
USEPA NA 5.0 5.0 100 5.0 NA 5.0 NA NA 5.0 1.0 1.0 5.0
DIN NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 2.0–5.0 2.0–5.0 NA NA NA NA
Greek 2.5–10.0 NA NA NA NA 1.0–2.0 0.2–0.5 0.25–0.5 2.5–5.0 NA NA NA NA
654 L. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 643–655

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