Basic Pond Types

• Watershed ponds

• Excavated ponds
• Embankment ponds

• Watershed ponds • Excavated ponds

- hill pond, upland pond, sky pond - dug below ground level
- dam the narrow section or “throat" of natural valleys; - normally no levees are constructed
must have emergency spillway
- primary disadvantage are their need to be
- rainfall and runoff from watershed as water source; constructed in a relatively flat topography; cost of
watershed must be contaminant-free removing large amount of soils; need for pumping
- depth is a function of topography to remove water, else a need for drainage system

- requires 5-7 hectares of watershed per hectare of pond - “borrow-pit” ponds (soil is/has been used for
construction or other purposes elsewhere)

1
• Embankment pond Pond Farm Facilities
- levee pond, dike pond, bund pond
- principal type used for aquaculture
- can be constructed in a wide range of topographic
conditions; have simple construction; permits lower
pumping cost and easier harvesting
- generally with both excavation and levee
construction
(ideally using the same excavated soil)

Earthen Pond-Based Aquaculture

Harvesting
Water and waste treatment occurs
within the pond!

2
 Pond Type, Size and Depth Pond Type, Size and Depth
• Depends on:
- Soil type, topography, water supply and drainage • 2012 Costs:
- Type of production, specific uses and management
- Personal preference Clearing - PhP 450/m2
• Size affects development cost and management
- In general, the smaller the pond units, the greater
Embankment, including spreading
the construction and maintenance costs, but the
easier the management
and compaction – PhP 610/m3
- Deeper ponds more expensive to construct

Pond Shape
• Large pond management considerations
• circular, square, rectangular, octagonal,
- Oxygen depletion less likely because of better wind triangular, irregular
action
- Wind action, however, promotes formation of • for the same pond area, levee requirement
bigger waves that tend to erode dikes and shortest for circular, followed by square, then
concentrate food at the windward side rectangular ponds
- Difficulty of locating sources of leaks and seepage • layout and construction easier for straight dikes
- Harvesting by net more difficult
• rectangular ponds most common, with
- Possibility of extensive infestation during disease preference for length of 1.5-2 times width
outbreaks

3
 Some Considerations
Pond Construction • Right angle to prevailing winds reduces levee
erosion.
• Ponds last for decades when properly constructed. • Parallel increases wind action and aeration.
• Levee pond features • Site Preparation and Construction
– Height – Remove vegetation and topsoil, woody
– Freeboard materials, rocks, other debris
– Side slope – Compaction is critical
– Water supply – Mud/soil blocks preferred in manual
– Drains construction
– In coastal areas, tide levels should be known to
construct proper dike height and pond bottom

Levee Pond Cross-Section Side Slope

• Horizontal run distance:unit rise
Top Width • or % of rise/run
or Crown
• 3:1 minimum (33%) is recommended, especially wet
Freeboard
side
Height

I II III Depth
Existing Ground Level
3
1
Core
Trench

4
 Side Slope
• However, slope depends on soil conditions, water depth,
pond size, wave action, etc. Some recommendations
are:

Soil Type Inside Slope Outside Slope

Sandy loam 2:1 – 3:1 1.5:1 – 2:1
Sandy clay 1.5:1 1.5:1
Firm clay 1:1 1:1 3
Inside brick-
1:1 – 1.5:1 1.5:1 – 2:1
lined
2
Inside concrete-
1:1 – 1.3:1 1.5:1 – 2:1
lined

5
 Core Trench
• Dug to anchor levee
to existing
topography and
prevent seepage
• Core depth equal
depth of pond
• Filled with high clay
content soil
• Compacted

Levee Construction
• Remove soil from
central part of pond to
construct levees
• Add 8-10 layers
• Compact well
• Allow 15-20% for
settlement

6
 Dam Height and Recommended Levee Width
Levee Width Height of Dam Minimum Top Width
ft m ft m
• 6 m wide main
– harvesting equipment ≤ 10 ≤3 6 1.8
11-14 3.4-4.3 8 2.4
• 3 m wide side 15-19 4.6-5.8 10 3.0
– feed trucks 20-24 6.1-7.3 12 3.7
25-34 7.6-10.4 14 4.3
Other widths

Source: Lawson, T.B. 1995. Fundamentals of Aquacultural Engineering.

Freeboard
Pond Bottom Slope • Height of the levee
from the water
surface to the top of
30 cm
Gently sloping at 0.05 the levee
to 0.2% slope (2000:1 • Prevents overflow
to 500:1) 0.1% slope and overtopping by
1.00 m
wave action
1.04 m
40 m • Erosion control
• Minimum 30 cm
recommended
Need provisions to prevent levee erosion
(e.g., grass, rip-rap, float-guards, brick-lining, bamboo matting)

7
 Estimating Wave Height Example:
Given: Rectangular 60 m x 80 m pond with 1.2 m water
1) hw = 100 x ⅓√B (B should be in km) depth, oriented diagonally along the general
wind direction.
2) hw = 1.86 W0.17 B0.24 H0.54 (B should be in m) Wind speed = 20 kph

Required: A. Estimate the wave height (hw)

where: B. At what wind speed will hw be the
hw = wave height, cm same when computed with Eq. 1 & 2
W = wind speed, m/s
B = fetch (pond dimension in the wind direction)
Solution: A. 1) hw = 10.54 cm
2) hw = 8.3 cm
H = average pond water depth, m
B. W = 81.8 kph

Water Supply Drain

• In general, ponds should
be able to fill in 7 days
or less, though specific • Ponds should be able to
requirements must be completely drain in 2
considered days or less.
• Gates/valves to control • PVC or galvanized
flow • Anti-seep collar
– prevents seepage around
drain pipe
– collar should be 3 times
the diameter of the pipe

8
 Drain
• Swivel drain
• Vertical standpipe

Drain Pond Size Discharge

Diameter (hectare) (m3/min)
(cm)

15 ≤ 0.2 ~1.3

25 ≤ 0.6 ~3.8

Monk

• Monk sluices (sluice gates) are the structures

generally used for supplying water to and
draining water from fish ponds, especially in
coastal areas.
• By means of stop-log closures and fish
screens or racks, the operator has option
whether the upper or lower layer from the
pond will be released.

9
 H

A possible arrangement to drain water from the bottom.

A reinforced concrete gate.

Irrespective of the material to be used to construct the

gates (e.g., wood, reinforced concrete, ferro-cement),
the following requirements should be met:
• have adequate capacity for the required amount of
water to be taken in or drained out;
• constructed in a position that water can be totally
discharged;
• have sufficient grooves for placement of filter
screens, slabs and harvest nets;
• be firmly placed at the pond bottom and properly
linked with the dikes to prevent seepage and possible
A typical wooden gate. collapse.

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• The size of the gate is based on the total water
requirement of a pond. Water flow rate may be
calculated using the equation (submerged):

Q = CA [2g(H - h)]½
where:
Q = flow rate (m/sec)
A = cross section of the flux (calculated by multiplying the width
of gate opening and its depth; sluice area)
C = coefficient of discharge (typically 0.61)
g = gravitational constant (9.8 m/sec2)
H = water level of the source sea or river
h = water level in the pond (or canal)

• Broad-crested weir formulas used when water is let

to flow over the closure

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12
13
 Pond Calculations
It is more economical if the levee is formed
out of soil from pond excavation.
W=1m

H=2m
I II III

Calculate the soil required per linear meter of levee

(Note: Core trench soil requirements should also be included).

POND CALCULATIONS POND CALCULATIONS

W=1m W=1m

H=2m H=2m
I II III I II III

4m 1m 6m 4m 1m 6m
Section Base Area
(m) (m2) Short Method: Prism Formula
I 2x2=4 0.5(4 x 2) = 4
(H x slope) (1/2 base x height)
A = 1/2 (Top Width + Base Width) x Height
II 1 1x2=2
= 1/2 (1 m + 11 m) x 2 m
III 2x3=6 0.5(6 x 2) =6 = 12 m2
Total 11 12

14
POND CALCULATIONS POND CALCULATIONS
W=3m

H=2m
I II III Assuming a 2500 m2 pond:
4m 3m 6m
1) 50 x 50 m Square, levee length or perimeter is
Volume per linear meter: 4 x 50 = 200 m
A = 12 m2 Volume = A x L Soil requirement is 14.4 x 200 = 2,880 m3
L=1m = 12 x 1 = 12 m3
2) 100 x 25 m Rectangular, levee length or perimeter is
Need ~20% allowance for settling: 2 (100 + 25) = 250 m → more soil needed!
Soil requirement is 14.4 x 250 = 3,600 m3
Soil Required = 12 x 1.2 = 14.4 m3 per meter

POND CALCULATIONS POND CALCULATIONS: Prismoidal Formula Representation

Width = 50 m, Length = 50 m A

1.5 m 1.5 m
3m A 44 m 3m
B
1.5 m B Depth, h = 1m 1.5 m

C C
3:1 Slope

Pond Water Volume Calculations:

50.0 m
Water surface area = 50 m x 50 m = 2,500 m2

44.0 m
Simple volume = 2,500 m2 x 1 m = 2,500 m3 No good!
Trapezoidal section: (50+44) m/2 x 1 m = 47 m2 1.5 m1.5 m 44.0 m 1.5 m1.5 m
Volume = 47 m2 x 50 m = 2,350 m3 No good!
Prismoidal Formula:
V = (A + 4B + C) h/6

1.5 m 1.5 m
Area: A = 50 x 50 = 2,500 m2 @ surface
B = 47 x 47 = 2,209 m2 @ mid-depth
C = 44 x 44 = 1,936 m2 @ bottom
V = (2,500 + 4(2,209) + 1,936) 1/6 = 2,212 m3 50.0 m

15
Depth of Pond
• Depends on:
- species requirements
- pond management methods
• Affects economics of construction and operation
• Common water depth is 1 m
- most photosynthetic activity takes place
at this depth
- water temperature does not change
significantly

Tidal Considerations
• Tidal fluctuations are quite complex, but mainly
associated with the moon’s gravitational field as well
as the sun’s (< half of the moon’s effect)
• Observed and occurs in a cycle of two spring tides New moon

and two neap tides a month, coinciding with 4 moon

phases (new, first quarter, full moon, last quarter)
• Spring tides are higher during new and full moon Full moon
when the moon and the earth lines up with the sun
Formation of Spring Tides

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 Tidal Considerations
• Normally, we have two high tides and two low tides (semi-
diurnal tides) within an average time of 24 hrs 50 min;
Last quarter
sometimes diurnal and mixed
• i.e., two successive high tides or two successive low tides
occur 12 hrs 25 min apart on the average
• The time between a high tide and the succeeding low tide
will be about 6 hrs 12 min
• High tides and low tides occur on the average about 50 min
1st quarter later each day
• During the quarter moons, neap tides are observed where
Formation of Neap Tides the high tides are not that high and the low tides are not
that low

La hauteur d'eau en fonction du temps à partir du 28 juillet 2010

http://www.silent-gardens.com/tides.php
http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/images/restfig6.gif

17
Predicted Davao Tides

http://www.silent-gardens.com/tides.php http://www.mobilegeographics.com:81/calendar/year/3574.html

1:28 AM PHT / 9:31 AM PHT / 5:29 PM PHT / 11:37 PM PHT /

Fri 17 New Moon 5:42 AM PHT 6:17 PM PHT
0.47 m 1.25 m 0.11 m 0.51 m
2:41 AM PHT / 10:13 AM PHT / 5:52 PM PHT / 11:51 PM PHT /
Sat 18 5:42 AM PHT 6:17 PM PHT
0.44 m 1.22 m 0.14 m 0.56 m
3:45 AM PHT / 10:55 AM PHT / 6:12 PM PHT /
Sun 19 5:42 AM PHT 6:16 PM PHT
0.42 m 1.16 m 0.20 m
12:09 AM PHT / 4:47 AM PHT / 11:39 AM PHT / 6:29 PM PHT /
Mon 20 5:42 AM PHT 6:15 PM PHT
0.64 m 0.39 m 1.07 m 0.27 m
12:30 AM PHT / 5:52 AM PHT / 12:25 PM PHT / 6:42 PM PHT /
Tue 21 5:43 AM PHT 6:15 PM PHT
0.73 m 0.36 m 0.93 m 0.35 m
12:55 AM PHT / 7:03 AM PHT / 1:17 PM PHT / 6:53 PM PHT /
Wed 22 5:43 AM PHT 6:14 PM PHT
0.84 m 0.33 m 0.78 m 0.41 m
1:25 AM PHT / 8:24 AM PHT / 2:22 PM PHT / 6:56 PM PHT /
Thu 23 5:43 AM PHT 6:13 PM PHT
0.95 m 0.30 m 0.61 m 0.45 m
2:05 AM PHT / 10:01 AM PHT / 4:15 PM PHT / 6:36 PM PHT /
Fri 24 First Quarter 5:43 AM PHT 6:13 PM PHT
1.06 m 0.26 m 0.47 m 0.45 m
2:54 AM PHT / 11:54 AM PHT /
Sat 25 5:43 AM PHT 6:12 PM PHT
1.14 m 0.20 m
3:57 AM PHT / 1:36 PM PHT /
Sun 26 5:43 AM PHT 6:12 PM PHT
1.20 m 0.11 m
5:09 AM PHT / 2:43 PM PHT /
Mon 27 5:43 AM PHT 6:11 PM PHT
1.24 m 0.05 m
6:24 AM PHT / 3:30 PM PHT /
Tue 28 5:43 AM PHT 6:10 PM PHT
1.27 m 0.03 m
7:32 AM PHT / 4:07 PM PHT / 11:19 PM PHT / 11:53 PM PHT /
Wed 29 5:43 AM PHT 6:10 PM PHT
1.28 m 0.05 m 0.47 m 0.47 m
8:32 AM PHT / 4:36 PM PHT / 10:51 PM PHT /
Thu 30 5:43 AM PHT 6:09 PM PHT
1.26 m 0.09 m 0.51 m
1:54 AM PHT / 9:26 AM PHT / 5:00 PM PHT / 11:00 PM PHT /
Fri 31 Full Moon 5:43 AM PHT 6:08 PM PHT
0.44 m 1.21 m 0.15 m 0.58 m

http://www.mobilegeographics.com:81/calendar/year/3574.html
http://www.mobilegeographics.com:81/calendar/year/3574.html

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Tidal Considerations
• Tidal currents are recurrent and alternate in flow Tidal Considerations
direction (flood and ebb) • Most practical way to determine pond elevation
• In coastal areas, the tidal movement is effectively (bottom, dike, gates) is to make tidal observations
utilized in filling and draining aquaculture ponds, if on- site during dry and wet season
the range is at least 1 m • Practical Consideration - need to be able to drain
• Water change is usually better performed at 1-3 d during the rainy season and to be able to fill to the
before to 1-3 d after the highest tides, with due desired pond depth during the dry season
consideration to water quality • Dry season observations can provide the
approximate zero datum plane (used as benchmark)
or mean lower level tide

Tidal Ranges and Pond Bottom Elevation

2.00 Maximum tide limit

1.75
1.50
1.25
Range of
ordinary high
1.00 AERATION
tides 0.75
0.50 Ideal pond water elevation
Range of 0.25
ordinary low
tides 0.00
0.25
0.50
m Minimum tide limit

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 Diurnal Change in Pond Dissolved Oxygen Levels

12
10

DO, mg/L
8 ∆DO
6 ∆t
4
2
0

6:00
8:00

0:00
2:00
4:00
6:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
Depending on the stocking density, lack
of oxygen can kill the fish stock in about
30 minutes or less. Time

Oxygen Budget in Ponds

Diurnal Change in Pond Dissolved Oxygen Levels
Production from
12 Natural diffusion photosynthetic activities
10 by wind action
DO, mg/L

(0.03-5.0 g/m2-hr) Aerators

8
6 ∆DO
4 ∆t
2
0
6:00
8:00

0:00
2:00
4:00
6:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00

Consumption by
the pond bottom Consumption Consumption by
(1-3 g/m2-d)
Time by fish water organisms

20
 Paddle-wheel Aerator

Surface Aerators Aspirating Aerator

Air Blowers

Centralized
Regenerative or
Centrifugal Blower

Linear Air Pump / Roots/Rotary Lobe Blowers

Diaphragm Type
Roots /Rotary Lobe
Blower

21
 Piston Compressors

Rotary Vane Compressors

Diaphragm Compressors

Air Diffusers

Diffused or Bubble Aerators

22
 Saturation DO in Clean Freshwater

Air Diffusers

DO Nomograph DO Nomograph

23
 Aerator Selection Aerator Selection
Basic approach:
Efficiency versus Type ...
1. Determine the oxygen demand of the system.
2. Based on the particular system needs and • An aerator's standard aeration efficiency (SAE) is
economics, select type of aerator. an important consideration when comparing one
aerator with another.
3. Determine the standard aeration efficiency (SAE)
of the aerator, according to manufacturer • The SAE can be calculated by measuring the
specifications. aerator’s oxygen transfer rate and the amount of
4. Correct manufacturer data for operating energy used per hour, under standard conditions.
temperature and DO gradient. • An SAE of 2.1, for example, means that 2.1 pounds
5. Select a standard or available aerator size and of oxygen per horsepower per hour are transferred
required number to provide uniform aeration over to the water under standard conditions (metric =
the entire volume to be aerated. 1.28 kg O2/kW-hr).
6. Distribute the aerators roughly with equal volumes • The higher the SAE, the higher the oxygen transfer,
to be aerated. the higher the efficiency.

Aerator Selection Aerator Selection

• However, you cannot use the SAE as your only • A vertical pump aerator would be a poor choice for
tool in the selection of an aeration system. a large or deep pond. Without much movement of
water away from the aerator, it will tend to pump
• SAE numbers are a fair comparison only when the same water over and over again, adding no
comparing aeration equipment of the same exact oxygen where it is needed.
type.
• Before looking at the SAE numbers, choose the • A surface aerator may be
right type of aerator or oxygenator for the excellent in emergencies
application. because it quickly raises the
oxygen level in a small area.
• e.g., a vertical pump aerator If trained, the fish will move
(SAE of 2.9) may be a good to that location. Again, it will
choice where the volume of water not be a good choice for full-
is small and the stocking density time aeration because it will
is high, such as in a culture tank not disperse oxygen
or small pond. throughout the pond.

24
 Aerator Selection Standard and Actual Aeration Efficiency
• A diffused air system (SAE = 1.0 to 4.0) may be the • SAE is based on oxygen transfer rate at 20oC, 1 atm,
best choice for multiple tanks and ponds because the in clean, pure water with zero initial DO (SOTR).
energy source (blower) can be centralized and just
the right amount of energy (compressed air) can be • SAE = SOTR / Power
easily directed where it is needed. What appears to be • SAE needs to be corrected for:
lower SAE is more than offset by comparative
application efficiency. actual temperature
• Water-moving aeration devices like aspirating saturation and actual DO in aquaculture water
aerators and paddle-wheel aerators (SAE = 2.5 to 4.0)
are excellent choices for medium and large ponds Ratio of actual OTR to SOTR
where movement of oxygenated water away from the
aerator is most important.

Standard and Actual Aeration Efficiency Standard and Actual Aeration Efficiency
Actual AE = SAE (β DOs – DOa) · 1.02(T-20) (α) Example:
9.17
where:
T = actual temperature, oC If the water temperature is 30oC and DO =
β = oxygen saturation coefficient of culture water (> 0.9 times
4.0 mg/L, a paddle-wheel aerator with an
that of clean water; sometimes assumed as 1.0) SAE of 3.0 lb O2/hp-hr will only provide at
α = ratio of oxygen transfer coefficient in culture water to that most:
of pure water (> 0.9, generally assumed as 1.0)
DOs = saturation DO in pure water at given T, mg/L
DOa = actual DO of culture water, mg/L AAE = 3.0 (7.67 – 4.0) · 1.02(30-20) / 9.17
9.17 = saturation DO in pure water at 20 oC, mg/L
= 1.46 lb O2/hp-hr

25