Anderson Chapter 4

Incompressible Flow over Airfoils
Road map for Chap. 4
Aerodynamics 2015 fall -1-

< 4.1 Introduction >

 Incompressible flow over airfoils
Prandtl (20C 초)  Airfoil (2D)
 Wind (3D)
 Body
Airfoil : any section of the wing cut by a plane normal to y-axis

< 4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature >

 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) series
Thickness Mean camber line
Camber Upper surface

Chord line
Lower
Leading Trailing
surface
edge edge


NACA 4-digit series
* NACA2412
2 : max. camber = 2% of the chord
4 : the location of max. camber = 40% of the chord
12 : max. thickness = 12% of the chord
If the airfoil is symmetric, it becomes NACA00XX
NACA 5-digit series

* NACA23012
2 : 2*0.3/2 = 0.3 design CL
30 : 30/2 % = the location of max. camber


6-digit series laminar flow airfoil
* NACA65-218
6 : series designation
5 : min. pressure location = 50% of the chord
2 : design CL= 0.2
Other notations
* SC0195
* VR12

< 4.3 Airfoil Characteristics >

* 1930~40 NASA carried numerous experiments on NACA airfoil characteristics
(Measured Cl, Cd, Cm  2-D data)
* In the future, new airfoils should be designed and tested
(consideration of aerodynamic, dynamic & acoustic limitation)
* Typical lift characteristics of an airfoil
Stall  Sepatation
Dynamic stall
How to measure

Cl, Cd, Cm?

Maximum lift
coefficient
a0 =
Zero lift angle Stall angle : angle of attack

(12~18deg)
[Def.]
a, angle of attack : the angle between the freestream velocity and the chord
[Note]
1. a0 is not usually a function of Re.
2. Cl,max is dependent on Re.


Typical drag & pitching moment characteristics
* Aerodynamic drag = Pressure + Skin friction

drag drag

Sensitive to Re. (form drag)
Profile drag
* AC (Aerodynamic Center)
[Def.] The point about which the moment is independent of AOA
Subsonic : AC=c/4

Supersonic : AC=c/2

< 4.4 Vortex Sheet >

Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
* Kutta (German), Joukowski(Russia)
* Incompressible, inviscid flow
L = rvG
* G : positive clockwise
Lift
G
G
Vortex filament of strength G


* g(s) = the strength of vortex sheet
per unit length along s
* From Biot-Savart Law
* Velocity potential for vortex flow
* Velocity potential at P
Aerodynamics 2015 fall - 10 -


* Circulation around the dashed path
* If 
(Note)
The local strength of the vortex sheet is equal to the difference ( jump) in
tangential velocity across the vortex sheet


* “Vortex Sheet” - Application for inviscid, incompressible flow
* Calculate g(s) to form the streamlines with a give airfoil shape
(Note)
“Vortex sheet method” is more than just a mathematical device; it also has
a physical meaning
ex. : Replacing the boundary layer ( ) with a vortex sheet
< 4.5 The Kutta Condition >

* For a circular cylinder,
* For a given a,  should have only one solution

< 4.5 The Kutta Condition >

* From the experiments, we know that the velocity at the trailing-edge in
finite.  Kutta Condition
g(TE)=V1-V2=0
V(TE)=finite
* The circulation around the airfoil is the value to ensure that the flow
smoothly leaves the trailing edge.

< 4.6 Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem >

* Assume) 1. Inviscid
2. Incompressible
3. No body forces
 The time rate of change of circulation around a closed curve

consisting of the same fluid elements is zero
Ex) Starting vortex
[ at rest ]  [ after the start ]

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

 The Symmetric Airfoil
* Assumptions
i) The camber line is one of the streamlines

ii) Small maximum camber and thickness relative to the chord
iii) Small angle of attack
* Purposes
i) Find g(s)
ii) Use Kutta-Joukowski theorem, L’=rVG


* The component of free-stream velocity

normal to the mean camber line at P
From small angle assumption


* If the airfoil is thin,
: velocity normal to the camber line
induced by the vortex sheet
: velocity normal to the chord line
induced by the vortex sheet
* The velocity at point x by the elemental

vortex at point x
* The velocity at point x by all the

elemental vortices along the chord line


* The sum of the velocity components
normal to the surface at all point along
the vortex sheet is zero
The fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory


* Sysmmetric airfoil  no camber,
* Transform variable x into q
, ,
 


* Check Kutta condition
 Indeterminant form
By L’Hospital’s rule


* Since we get g(q), now calculate G, L
 
* Lift :
* Lift coefficient :
* Lift slope :
 Lift coefficient is linearly proportional to angle of attack.


* The moment about the leading edge


* The moment coefficient
* Aerodynamic center is located at c/4 for incompressible, inviscid and

symmetric airfoil (true in real world)
* Center of pressure : the point at which the moment is zero

Aerodynamic center : the point at which the moment is independent of aoa

< 4.8 The Cambered Airfoil >

* From thin airfoil theory,
 …… (a)
* For cambered airfoil,
Transform …… (b)
x into q

* The solution becomes
…… (c)
Leading term for Fourier series term

symmetric airfoil due to camber

* Substitute (c) into (b)
By using the integral standard form


For Fourier cosine series,
[Note] given  Determine g(q) to make the camber line a streamline

with A0, An
+ Kutta condition, g(p)=0


* The total circulation due to the entire vortex sheet
By using ,


* Lift coefficient for a cambered thin airfoil
 Lift slope,

* Lift coefficient for a cambered thin airfoil
[Note]
* Lift slope is 2p for any shape airfoil
* Zero lift angle :


* The total moment about the leading edge
* Moment coefficient
 A1 & A2 both are independent of aoa


 The quarter-chord is the aerodynamic center
for a cambered airfoil

* The center of pressure
  Not a convenient point


The influence of camber on the thin airfoil
* The cambered airfoil * The symmetric airfoil

< 4.10 The Vortex Panel Method >
* Thin airfoil theory

- Closed form
- Limited to thin airfoil,
* Panel method
- Vortex panel
- Source panel  non-lifting cases
* Exactly same idea of thin airfoil theory, but no closed form g(s)
 solve numerically


y
Boundary
point qj P(x,y)
x
J-1 j
(xj,yj)
J+1
Control
point
* The velocity potential at P due to j-th panel
* Let’s put point P at the control point of i-th panel


* At the control points, the normal component of velocity is zero.
- The component of V normal to i-th panel
- The normal component of induced velocity at (xi, yi)
 
= : f (panel geometry)


* Boundary condition :
+ Kutta condition :
i+1
* Now, we have (n+1) eq. with n unknowns  ignore one of control points
* The flow velocity tangent to the surface = g

ui,1
 Inside the solid surface
ui,2

* Total circulation :
* Lift :

< 4.12 The Flow over an Airfoil – the Real Case >
Stall
 Leading-edge stall
Flow separation takes place

over the entire top surface
of the airfoil after occurring
at the leading edge

Stall
 Trailing-edge stall
α = 5° α = 10° α = 15° α =22.5°
Flow separation takes place from the trailing edge at

thicker airfoils than leading-edge stall

Stall
 Thin airfoil stall
Leading-edge stall
Flow separation takes place
over the entire surface of
the airfoil after occurring at
the leading edge

Stall
 Lift-coefficient curves
Leading-edge stall
1.5
Lift coefficient
1.0 Trailing-edge stall
0.5 Thin airfoil stall
10 20
α, degrees

High-lift devices
Leading edge slat
Trailing edge flap

 Trailing-edge flap (plain type)
More camber → Higher lift

 Effect of slats and flaps

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Incompressible Flow over Airfoils

Road map for Chap. 4

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -1-

< 4.1 Introduction >

Airfoil : any section of the wing cut by a plane normal to y-axis

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -2-

< 4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature >

Thickness Mean camber line

Camber Upper surface

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -3-

< 4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature >

NACA 5-digit series

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -4-

< 4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature >

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -5-

< 4.3 Airfoil Characteristics >

Cl, Cd, Cm?

Zero lift angle Stall angle : angle of attack

< 4.3 Airfoil Characteristics >

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -7-

< 4.3 Airfoil Characteristics >

* Aerodynamic drag = Pressure + Skin friction

Sensitive to Re. (form drag)

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -8-

< 4.4 Vortex Sheet >

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -9-

< 4.4 Vortex Sheet >

* From Biot-Savart Law

* Velocity potential for vortex flow

Aerodynamics 2015 fall - 10 -

< 4.4 Vortex Sheet >

Aerodynamics 2015 fall - 11 -

< 4.4 Vortex Sheet >

* Calculate g(s) to form the streamlines with a give airfoil shape

< 4.5 The Kutta Condition >

* For a given a,  should have only one solution

Aerodynamics 2015 fall - 13 -

< 4.5 The Kutta Condition >

Aerodynamics 2015 fall - 14 -

< 4.6 Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem >

 The time rate of change of circulation around a closed curve

Ex) Starting vortex

[ at rest ]  [ after the start ]

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

i) The camber line is one of the streamlines

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -1-

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

* The component of free-stream velocity

From small angle assumption

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -2-

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

* The velocity at point x by the elemental

* The velocity at point x by all the

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -3-

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

The fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory

Aerodynamics 2015 fall -4-

< 4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory >

* Transform variable x into q