Airfoils
Airfoils
Airfoils
CLASS 7 8
KuttaJoukowski theorem
The KuttaJoukowski theorem is a
fundamental theorem of aerodynamics.
KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Kutta in Germany and Joukowski in Russia,
worked to quantify the lift achieved by an
airflow over a spinning cylinder. The lift
relationship is
Lift per unit length:
L = GV
Where
KuttaJoukowski
theorem
The vortex strength is given by
G = 2r2
where
KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Like all aerodynamic lift, this seems a
bit mysterious, but it can be looked at
in terms of a redirection of the air
motion. If the cylinder traps some air
in a boundary layer at the cylinder
surface and carries it around with it,
shedding it downward, then it has
given some of the air a downward
momentum.
KuttaJoukowski
theorem
That can act to give the cylinder an
upward momentum in accordance with
the principle of
conservation of momentum. Another
approach is to say that you have
exerted a downward component of
force on the air and by
Newton's 3rd law there must be an
upward force on the cylinder.
KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Yet another approach is to say that
the top of the cylinder is assisting
the airstream, speeding up the flow
on the top of the cylinder. Then by
the Bernoulli equation, the pressure
on the top of the cylinder is
diminished, giving an effective lift.
Form Drag
VERY TURBULENT WAKE
REDUCTION IN FORM DRAG
50%
85%
90 - 95%
2D Airfoil Aerodynamics
Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)
A
B
Introduction
In this chapter the following will be studied:
1- Geometric characteristics of the airfoils.
2- Aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoils.
3- Flow similarity ( Dynamic similarity )
Airfoil Geometric Characteristics
16
17
Airfoil Geometry
An airfoil is the 2D crosssection shape of the wing,
which creates sufficient lift
with minimal drag
20
Types of Airfoils
Symmetrical
Nonsymmetrical
Airfoil
Camber Line
Chord Line
Angle of Attack
V
Angle of attack is defined as the angle between the free stream
.and the chord line. It is given the symbol (
Because modern wings have a built-in twist distribution, the
.angle of attack will change from root to tip
.The root will, in general, have a high angle of attack
.The tip will, in general, have a low (or even a negative)
1
V2 c
2
1
V2 c
2
2D Airfoil Aerodynamics
lift
normal force
drag
chordwise
force
, In other words
,a small airfoil , tested in a wind tunnel
and a large airfoil, used on an actual wing
will have identical non-dimensional coefficients Cl , Cd and
if they are geometrically alikeoperate at identical angle of attack, Mach number.and Reynolds number
This allows designers (and engineers) to build and test
,small scale models, and extrapolate qualitative features
but also quantitative information, from a small scale model
.to a full size configuration
Characteristics of Cl vs.
Stall
Cl
.Slope= 2 if is in radians
Angle of
zero lift
= 0
Angle of
zero lift
= 0
Symmetric Airfoil
Drag is caused by
Skin Friction - the air molecules try to drag the airfoil
.with them. This effect is due to viscosity
Form Drag - The flow separates near the trailing edge,
due to the shape of the body. This causes low
pressures near the trailing edge compared to the
leading edge. The pressure forces push the airfoil
. back
Wave Drag: Shock waves form over the airfoil,
converting momentum of the flow into heat. The
.resulting rate of change of momentum causes drag
DRAG FORCES
d
Transition
Separation
Note messy or
turbulent flow
pattern
High drag
Lower fuel efficiency
Historical Airfoils
Evolution of
Airfoil Design
Laminar boundary
layer creates less skin
friction drag
40
NACA
Airfoil Series
Position of camber
in tenths of chord
xc = 0.4 C
xc
42
12
yc
Maximum thickness (t )
in percentage of chord
(t/c)max = 0.12
43
44
30
12
Maximum thickness
(t ) in percentage of
chord (t/c)max = 0.12
12
Location of minimum
pressure in tenths of
chord (0.4 C)
Design lift
coefficient in
tenths (0.2)
45
Maximum thickness (t )
in percentage of chord
(t/c)max = 0.12
46
47
V
Drag
49
Center of Pressure
The resultant aerodynamic force acts at the Center of
.Pressure (c.p.), about which the moment is zero
Typical
Streamlines
Angle of Attack
c p
p p
1
0
2
V
2
1
2
1
2
p0 p
c p0 1
1
2
2
V
V
2
Positive Cp means the pressure is higher than the freestream (atmospheric) pressure, and negative Cp means
suction relative to free-stream pressure. The maximum,
. which occurs at the stagnation point, is always 1
Transition
Separation
55
on Airfoil
Aerodynamic Center
Aerodynamic Center
Since the c.p. varies with , it is more desirable to use a
fixed Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) as the point of action of
the lift and drag. The pitching moment about this point
can be calculated, and is found insensitive to . For most
.airfoils, the a.c. locates at around quarter chord (x=c/4)
Pitching
Moment
:Coefficient
cm
m
1
2
V
Sc
2
60