CHAPTER 1

MARTIN HEIDEGGER (1889-1976)

Introduction
Philosophy is the science that deals with the exploration of ultimate questions. There was an
attempt made to explain the Being of beings (which is said to be the answer for all ultimate
questions) right from the birth of philosophy on the shores of Miletus until the present day.
Parmenides was the pioneer who wrote in his poem about the "Being which is intuited as a
thing that presents itself and leaves nothing outside."1
"A small step for me, but a giant's leap for humankind," Neil Armstrong is reported to
have said it as he set foot on the moon for the first time. The same thing could be applied to
the German philosopher, Martin Heidegger. He was one among the main proponents of
existentialism, an original thinker, a critic of technological society, a leading ontologist of his
time.2 Heidegger's 'step back' from the Western Metaphysical tradition that began with the
Hellenistic philosophers to the very ground of metaphysics is a 'giant's leap forward' for the
philosophical world.3 Here, an attempt is made to write down a few details of his life, works
and philosophy and his influence on the world.

1.1 Early Education

Martin Heidegger was born in Messkirch, in the southern part of Germany on 26th September,
1889. Both his parents were devout Catholics.4 He shared an early interest in religion which
later on diminished gradually. He attended Jesuit school for six years where he acquired
everything that had a lasting value. He received a thorough training in classical studies. His
devotion to the classical period rooted him for the rest of his life in Greek culture and the
Greek language, opening up a constant stream of original philosophical insights together with
the language in which to express them.5 Upon finishing high school, he joined the Jesuits as a
novice.6 When he was eighteen years old, Pastor Conrad Grober presented Heidegger a book
of a famous philosopher and psychologist, Franz Brentano (1838-1917), On the Manifold
meaning of Being according to Aristotle. This book awakened a philosophical quest in him
and kept him occupied with the question of Being for the rest of his life.7

1
George Panthanmackel, One in Many, Bangalore, SFS Publications, 1993, p. 1.
2
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., v. 5, 'Martin Heidegger', by Arne D. Naess, p. 800.
3
Johnson J. Puthenpurackal, Heidegger through Authentic Totality to Total Authenticity, Louvain, Leuven
University Press, 1997, p. 301.
4
Francis J. Lescoe, Existentialism with or without God, New York, Alba House, 1974, p. 173.
5
Albert B. Hakim, Historical Introduction to Philosophy, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 716.
6
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., v.5, 'Martin Heidegger', by Arne D. Naess, p. 800.
7
Shailendra, Search for Human Authenticity, Bangalore, Asian Trading Corporation, 2005, p. 15.

1
 Later on, Heidegger went to the University of Freiburg for his theological studies. At
this University he studied Catholic Theology and Medieval Christian philosophy. After two
years he gave up his theological studies for the priesthood due to his ill health. He remained
at the same university devoting his time to the study of philosophy. Here he was very much
influenced by the philosophy of Edmund Husserl. Husserl became his teacher and Heidegger
adopted his phenomenological approach to the existing philosophical problems.
Phenomenology is an enquiry about the things as they appear to us, about the content and
significance of our concepts.

1.2 Heidegger and Phenomenology

In the University of Freiburg, there developed an intimate relationship between
Edmund Husserl and Heidegger. Heidegger studied under him and became so thoroughly
immersed in Phenomenology that several years later his mentor astonished his student with
the words "You and I are Phenomenology.”8 Husserl thought that Heidegger would succeed
him in developing the philosophy of Phenomenology. In the beginning Heidegger dedicated
himself to the cause of Phenomenology. All his lecture courses and seminars were, devoted to
an exploration of various aspects of Phenomenology. Although Heidegger paid lip service to
the philosophy of Husserl, he was actually moving away from him. This position of
Heidegger was evident in the book Sein und Zeit (Being and Time), published in 1927 and
indeed it was dedicated to Husserl. Husserl was happy about that but he discovered the
fundamental differences between his position and Heidegger's and even hidden attacks upon
his position. Husserl made open critical remarks on Heidegger's position and his deviation
from Phenomenology. As a result of this, Heidegger abandoned all references to
phenomenology.

1.3 Philosophical Influences

Heidegger is praised for his originality in his thinking. The quest for philosophy and for
ultimate questions began in him at the age of eighteen with a book that was presented to him
by Conrad Grober. This pursuit was further explored or influenced with his interest in the
Greeks, especially the Pre-Socratics. His philosophy is dependent upon Plato and Aristotle,
and upon the Gnostics.9 He was also particularly influenced by several 19th and 20th century

8
Hakim, p. 717.
9
A philosophical and religious movement prominent in the Greek-Roman world in the 2nd century A.D. They
were known for seeking secret wisdom.

2
thinkers like Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Wilhelm Dilthey and Edmund
Husserl.10

1.4 Political Involvement and Later Life

The political involvement of Heidegger had raised lot of controversies; some for and some
against him but he remained silent about his political career. From 1930 to 1935, he devoted
much of his time and energy to the cause of Nazi Socialism. On 1st May 1933, Martin
Heidegger, the newly elected rector of Freiburg University, joined the National Socialist
German Workers Party. Heidegger's support for Nazism was reported in the paper Der
Alemanne dated 3rd May, 1933. In his inaugural address, he approved the Nazi socialism of
Hitler. He said that it was the educational goal of the University to fashion the destiny of the
German nation. In his words, this definite goal of forming a German nation was given by
Nazi socialism. He saw Nazism as a force for crushing Marxism and as a vehicle for realising
the vision of one of his favourite political theorists, Friedrich Naumann that of a strong
nationalism combined with a militantly anti-communist socialism under the guidance of a
charismatic leader and he believed that it was Hitler who could do that. During this period, he
said of Hitler, "The Fuhrer (leader) himself and he alone is the German reality, present and
future, and its law." Heidegger became a victim to the regime of Hitler but not to Nazi
cultural policy or philosophy.11 From April 1933 through April 1934, Heidegger served as the
heavy handed and controversial rector of the university; he became an outspoken
propagandist of Hitler's foreign and domestic policies. 12 He implemented the policies of
Hitler in his own campus by ending financial assistance for Jewish and Marxist students.
With the defeat of Hitler and the collapse of the Nazi government, Heidegger, the one
time supporter of Nazism had to leave the University. The French, who occupied southern
part of Baden, Germany, forbade him to teach at the University. He thus retired to his small
hut in the Black forest. He spent his time in delivering a series of lectures and held infrequent
seminars, and in seclusion, until his death in 1976, on 26th May.13

1.5 His Philosophy

The philosophy of Martin Heidegger is essentially the study of Being. He was of the opinion
that at the dawn of philosophy, Greek thinkers like Anaximander, Heraclitus and Parmenides
posed the question of Being correctly. In their astonishment (source of philosophy) they

10
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., v. 5, 'Martin Heidegger', by Arne D. Naess, p. 801.
11
Ibid., p. 801.
12
Thomas Sheehan, The Cambridge Companion to Heidegger, ed. by Charles Guignon, Cambridge University
Press, 1993, pp. 84-86.
13
Lescoe, pp. 177-178.

3
sought to explain the "Being of beings". But with the advent of Aristotle and Plato and up to
the present time, philosophy had diverted its attention from the Being of beings to this or that
being.14 So he emphasised on the study of Being rather than this or that being. For him the
fundamental question in metaphysics is "Why are there essents (existents), why is there
anything at all, rather than nothing?" 15 This is the broadest and deepest question of all
questions.
Dasein (there-being) is the starting point for Heidegger. According to the Greek
terminology 'Dasein' means 'existence'. According to him, existence can be attributed only to
human beings and not to God or things; God is or things are. Heidegger differentiates
between an entity (anything that is) and the being of an entity. The being of an entity is the
presence of that entity within the range of human experience. The human entity is
distinguished by its awareness of the being of entities, including the being itself. Heidegger
names the human entity as 'Dasein' and argues that Dasein's own being is intrinsically
temporal. 'Dasein' ek-sists (stands out) towards its future. This ek-sistential temporality refers
to the fact that 'Dasein' is becoming itself and ultimately becoming its own death. 'Dasein' is a
finite and mortal becoming.16 He also explores the areas that lead Dasein to in-authenticity
and believes that authenticity can be achieved through thinking and by appropriating the
Being which is revealed to it in moments of thinking. The two basic lifelong preoccupations
of Heidegger were the urgency of the question of Being and the special role of Dasein in
relation to Being. The earlier phase of his thinking is dominated by the attempt to look at the
Being from the perspective of Dasein. But in the later phase the process is the other way
round. There was a shift in his thinking. Dasein's (man) relation to Being is one of listening.17

1.6 His Works

Heidegger was a pathfinder in thinking: he had built new ways in the well established jungle
of philosophical tradition.18 In the words of F. H. Heinemann, "Heidegger writes in defiance
of traditional terminology, grammar, thought, metaphysics, logic and ethics; in so doing he
introduces an unbearable jargon and ungrammatical usage of verbs." 19 A new style in
philosophy in understanding the Being of beings was begun by him. This is self evident in his
works.

14
Lescoe, p. 184.
15
Martin Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited, 1999, p. 1.
16
Concise Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 'Martin Heidegger', by Thomas Sheehan, p. 340.
17
Puthenpurackal, p. XIII.
18
Shailendra, p. 17.
19
Lescoe, p. 262.

4
 His major work, Being and Time appeared in 1927. It was considered to be an
important contribution to philosophy. Besides Being and Time the other most important book
is Contributions to Philosophy: From Enowning (1936), in which he introduces Being-
historical-Thinking. In addition to these, The History of Concepts of Time, The Basic
problems of Phenomenology, Kant and the problem of Metaphysics were published during
the period from 1925 to 1929. He also authored Introduction to Metaphysics and What is
Metaphysics in 1935. In the same year, he wrote several essays on poetry, like "Poetry",
"Language", "Thought", "Holderlin Hymn," "The Essence of Truth and The Origin of the
Work of Art" etc. In 1934, What is called Thinking was published in which he examined the
nature of thinking. Other famous books followed like Discourse on Thinking (1957) and On
the Way to Language (1959), Identity and Difference (1957) which deals with the problem of
onto-theology, and the ontological difference. In 1962, On Time and Being appeared. 20
Throughout his works, Heidegger claimed to be the thinker of one only thought (Being),
which took many forms of expression. The period after the Second World War saw the
spread of Heidegger's writings throughout the intellectual world that crossed the borders of
language, culture and academic disciplines. By the time of his death his books and essays had
been translated into all Western languages, as well as into Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic.21

Conclusion
One thing is to be well appreciated of Martin Heidegger was his original thinking and paving
a new path to understand the Being of beings. According to him, the Being of beings is not
God, nor ground of the world. It is broader than all beings- and yet it is nearer to man than all
beings. Being is what is nearest to man. His influential study of the Being influenced many
philosophers and even theologians. Most important of them all is Karl Rahner, a German
theologian who tried to understand the theology of his faith and make it credible by applying
the philosophy of Heidegger. The 'Being' of Heidegger becomes God for Rahner.

20
Shailendra, p. 17.
21
Sheehan, p. 89.

5
 CHAPTER 2

AUTHENTIC EXISTENCE IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF HEIDEGGER

Introduction
'Authenticity' generally could be understood as being truthful, sincere and honest. But in
philosophy it is quite difficult to define 'authenticity'. To define it, is to go against the nature
of authenticity; for authenticity is not a static being but it is always becoming. We can
attribute certain conceptual clarity to most of the human qualities such as sincerity, honesty
etc., but we cannot do the same with regard to authenticity, since it is not a quality of the
human person. It can be considered as the quality of qualities or foundational quality.22 The
word 'Authenticity' is derived from auctoritas (authority); but the authority referred here is
not physical, economical or political; it is rather self-directed authority-the mastery of one
23
who freely creates and becomes oneself. Authenticity is a consistent movement of
becoming, self-transcendence and self-creation.
Martin Heidegger understands authenticity in the following way. The authentic
meaning of Being is not something to be known, but something that one has to be. It is by
being authentic that one understands the authentic meaning of Being. To be authentic, Dasein
has to grasp that one cannot become authentic as a static being like the entities in the world
but as the asking, becoming, and dynamic being.24 'Authentic existence' is spoken in relation
to human being since existence can be attributed to human alone. It is the act of being human,
and not the fact of being human.25 In this chapter an emphasis is laid on the authenticity of a
human person in line with the thought of Martin Heidegger. So, we move from the subject
matter of inauthenticity of Dasein to authenticity of Dasein.

2.1 Meaning of Being according to Heidegger

The physical property of an entity (tangibility, perception) cannot be attributed to the
meaning of Being. Being is intangible, unheard with ears or smelled with nostrils. Being is
omnipresent: everything is a being- stones, houses, hammers, city, planets, etc. And yet
Being is nowhere: the Being of beings is most evident, yet we normally do not see it, because
'it is it itself.' Being is distant than all beings and yet closer to us than every Being. Being is
nearest to man, because it makes him to be what he is and enables him to enter into

22
Johnson Puthenpurackel, 'Authentic Existence in Heidegger's Thought' Authentic Existence A philosophical
Probe, ed. by George Panthanmackel, Bangalore, Asian Trading Corporation, 2012, p. 179.
23
Ibid., p. 180.
24
Ibid., pp. 182-183.
25
Ibid., p. 184.

6
agreement with other beings. Yet it is farthest removed from him because it is not a being
with which he can comfort himself. It is here that he loses the sight of his authentic self
because he forgets his Being and engages himself only with the beings of the world.
Engagement with Being-oneself is authentic way of living and engagement with beings is an
inauthentic way of living.26

2.2 Dasein - a key to the question of Being

To answer the question of Being, we need to interrogate a particular entity. Looking,
understanding, conceiving, choosing are modes of behaviour of the entities, which we
ourselves are. It is questioning that brings one closer to the Being. The question of Being
reflects back on the questioner himself (man). So the term Dasein (being there) is chosen for
human being as an "expression of its Being."27

2.2.1 The Threefold priority of Dasein

Dasein is the right entity to provide access to the question about the meaning of Being.
Dasein is superior to all other entities. The superiority of Dasein is due to its special
relationship to Being, and because of this special relationship, Being is disclosed to Dasein.
Heidegger speaks about the threefold priority of Dasein over all other entities. In Ontic
priority, Dasein has two noteworthy characteristics of 'existence' (Existenz) and 'mineness'
(Jemeinigkeit). The essence of Dasein lies in its existence. Here existence could be said only
of Dasein as against the traditional concept which attributed existence to everything.
'Mineness' is to be seen in relation to its 'existence'. Dasein is never in a static condition,
without having any possibilities to choose from. In fact, Dasein is dynamic. It has ample of
possibilities to become itself. When Dasein chooses itself as its own most possibility from the
available choices, then it is said to be authentic. In Ontological priority, Dasein possesses an
understanding of the Being which is itself a definite feature of Dasein's Being. In Ontico-
ontological priority, Dasein understands its own being as well understands the world and the
being of entities which are available within the world.28
2.2.2 Modes of Dasein
Being-in-the world is the most rudimentary state of Dasein. Heidegger speaks of two basic
modes in which this state manifests itself. These modes are (1) Self-awareness and (2)
Understanding or Comprehension.

26
Shailendra, pp. 28-30.
27
Ibid., pp. 35-36.
28
Johnson J. Puthenpurackal, Heidegger through Authentic Totality to Total Authenticity, Louvain, Leuven
University Press, 1997, pp. 8-10.

7
2.2.2.1 Self-awareness
Dasein finds himself in the world i.e., becomes aware of himself in the world. According to
Heidegger, when we say that Dasein has found himself, it does not mean that Dasein found
himself by seeking itself but by fleeing from itself.29
A. Thrownness
The trait of Dasein's Being, 'that it is' is veiled and yet disclosed in itself all the more
unveiled. Though Dasein is disclosed to itself, it does not hold the responsibility for the
Being revealed, but finds itself so and even evades itself. In its thrownness, Dasein is caught
up in the given situations. These given situations (society, culture, history) depend on the past
decisions.
B. Facticity
Wherever Dasein is, it is a fact and the factuality of such a fact is what we call Dasein's
facticity. For Heidegger, facticity is peculiar to Dasein and to no other entity. It implies that
an entity understands itself when it encounters the Being of the other entities within the
world.30
2.2.2.2 Understanding
In the words of Heidegger, understanding refers to Dasein's ability to stand his thrownness
and thus enables him to develop his possibilities and projects. Dasein is not merely thrown
into existence as is a stone but it is thrown in the manner of possibility. Hence, understanding
is Dasein's own potentiality-for-Being.31 It is through understanding that Dasein grasps the
possibilities and works for the actualisation of those possibilities. In the process of
actualisation Dasein can become what it is.

2.3 Inauthenticity of Dasein

Heidegger says that Dasein can exist in two basic ways in the world, namely authentically
and inauthentically. When Dasein knows nothing concerning his 'whence or whither' and
finds himself thrown into the world and falls victim to the endless distractions of the world,
this is said to be inauthentic existence. When he will choose to take over his being as his own
responsibility and becomes what he is, this is said to be authentic existence.32
Inauthentic existence, which shows itself in the everydayness of Dasein, can also be
called "fallenness." Instead of searching for a meaningful and authentic existence, Dasein
allows himself to be distracted by worldly things. Therefore, he falls away from himself and

29
Shailendra, p. 47.
30
Lescoe, p. 208.
31
Ibid., p. 209.
32
Ibid., pp. 210-211.

8
falls into the world.33 It is noteworthy here, to quote Heraclitus who said, "Asses choose hay
rather than gold." So also man can reject the 'gold' the wonder of the presencing of Being
(authentic existence) and be at home with the 'hay' the pleasure of inauthentic existence.34

2.3.1 Three modes of fallenness

The three modes of fallenness of Dasein indicate inauthenticity of Dasein in its everydayness.
All these three ways of falling- a mode of Dasein's disclosedness are interconnected in their
Being.
2.3.1.1 Idle Talk
This is the outcome of those who find this world very interesting and go about gossiping and
passing the word along. It is not confined to vocal gossip alone but also to what is written. It
is a kind of groundless talk. The groundlessness is not an obstacle but it promotes it to
become public. It conceals the truth instead of revealing it. In other words, idle talk covers up
more than it uncovers.35
2.3.1.2 Curiosity
The tendency of seeing in Dasein which belongs to everydayness is called curiosity.
Understanding has no place in curiosity, because curiosity does not seek knowledge.
Everything is seen just to see and satisfy one's urge for the newness. Dasein allows itself here
to be carried along solely by the looks of the world.
2.3.1.3 Ambiguity
Ambiguity is closely related to idle talk and curiosity. Here everything seems to be genuinely
understood and spoken, though at the bottom, it is not. Everyone seems to know everything
and guesses what others have guessed or sensed. It slips away from itself into the "they."
Dasein is deflected from its course. It loses the direction in life.36

2.3.2 The world of inauthentic Dasein

The world, according to Heidegger, is a characteristic of Dasein, for the world actually
represents the different ways in which man can understand his own being in the totality of his
possibilities.37 The 'world' is something that belongs to existence and is disclosed in the Da
(there) of Dasein. Dasein as Being-in-the-world means: Being in the world such a way that
this Being means: dealing with the world; contemplating, interrogating, and determining by
way of contemplation and comparison. Being-in-the-world is characterised as concern.
33
Lescoe, pp. 212-213.
34
Puthenpurackal, p. 161.
35
Ibid., p. 33.
36
Shailendra, pp. 54-55.
37
Lescoe, p. 201.

9
Dasein encounters the 'world' due to the concern. Those entities, which we encounter in
concern, are called equipment. In daily dealings, we come across equipment for different
purposes, like equipment for writing (pen, paper), working (tools), transportation (bus, trains)
etc.38 Entities can be viewed in two ways. When Dasein makes use of an entity to pursue its
goals it is ready-to-hand and when it encounters in theoretical cognition it is called present-at-
hand. Equipment shows itself in the dealings of Dasein. Thus the world is understood by
Heidegger as a vast instrumental system, held together, as it were, by Dasein's concern. In the
world of inauthentic Dasein, there are no possibilities to choose from in order to become
itself.

2.3.3 From the workshop-world to the we-world

In the workshop-world Dasein deals with equipments. Dasein is surrounded by the
equipment and entities such as hammer, needle, shoe, leather etc. We-world or the
environmental world is the world where in a factical Dasein as such can be said to live. The
'Other' is present along with equipment in a no noticeable manner. Together with entities,
Dasein encounters the world of wearers and users. As Being-in-the-world, Dasein is at the
same time Being-with one another.39 For Dasein to have authentic existence there should be a
transition from the workshop-world to the we-world.
2.3.3.1 Dasein with the 'Other'
Dasein's dealings are divided between equipment and human. Dasein in the 'world' comes
across the entities, which are present-at-hand or ready-to-hand, but they are beings, which
have Dasein's kind of Being.40 The 'Others' are also present in Dasein's 'world'. Dasein is
essentially Being-with, even when the 'Other' is physically absent on the scene. For Dasein,
to exist is to co-exist. 'Others' produce the tools in the Dasein's workshop, others carry the
raw material, and the 'Others' use the product. Hence in understanding itself Dasein
understands itself as to be along with ready to hand entities, and with other Daseins like
itself; and the world is revealed both as environmental and communal.41
2.3.3.2 Dominance of the 'they ' in Dasein's world
Dasein in Being-with one another understands itself in link with others. It focuses on the
differences between itself and the others with whom it is. By using the common means of
transport, communication, information etc, one becomes like every other or one becomes
spectator of his own life. In this process one's own Dasein is 'dissolved' into 'Others' Being in

38
Shailendra, pp. 60-69.
39
Ibid., pp. 79-80.
40
Ibid., p. 80.
41
Puthenpurackal, p. 21.

10
an indistinguishable way. All activities such as reading, enjoying, seeing etc are performed
because the 'they' does these activities and not because one wants to perform them. Dasein
absorbed in the work-world and the they-world, is an inauthentic Dasein. It needs a radical
break from its engagement in the world and fascination towards the they-world. It needs to
focus on its own Being as an issue for itself in order to attain authenticity.42

2.4 Call of conscience and the search for authenticity

Dasein is lost in the 'they'. If it is lost in the 'they', then there is a way out of it for itself. The
solution for the problem is to be sought within Dasein itself. It is the voice of conscience,
which will bring out Dasein from its lostness in the 'they'.
2.4.1 Conscience - a way out of the 'they'
Dasein lost in the 'they' makes no choice, does not take hold of possibilities. In order to
achieve its authentic self the process has to be reversed. Therefore, conscience is a kind of
counterforce to the pre self-understanding on the part of each human being. Conscience gives
us 'something' to understand; it discloses. On a deeper level the phenomenon of disclosing is
revealed as a call. 43 The call of conscience has the feature of an appeal to Dasein by calling
it to its own most Being guilty. Dasein is constantly called, and it is in constant need of the
call. To the extent the call is authentically listened to, the 'they' disappears from the 'they-
self', and Dasein gradually moves towards its own 'self'.44
2.4.2 Guilt as a component of conscience
The call of conscience gives us to understand that Dasein is guilty. Guilt is a constituent
element of conscience. Conscience is experienced in relation to the guilt. It addresses Dasein
as guilty or not guilty.45 Even in the case of a 'good' conscience what is affirmed is that one is
not guilty.
An inauthentic Dasein finds itself thrown into the world. So the thrownness of
Dasein is the basis of guilt. It is an inbuilt constituent of Dasein's existence and it has to
accept as long as it lives. It is said that the basic condition for healing is acceptance, so
Dasein has to accept its facticity in order to achieve authentic existence. The weight of
Dasein's thrownness is felt as a burden. In spite of the thrownness, Dasein understands itself
in terms of possibilities that are available in the world. But due to the thrownness its
possibilities are limited and therefore, when it stands in one possibility, the other possibilities

42
Shailendra pp. 84-87.
43
Ibid., pp. 95-97.
44
Puthenpurackal, p. 53.
45
Ibid., p. 56.

11
are denied. Death is the end of all possibilities. The freedom enjoyed by Dasein is only the
choice of one possibility.46

2.5 Resoluteness - a way to authenticity

Resoluteness is an existential make-up of proper listening to the call of conscience, the
attitude arising from willingness to acknowledge and accept one's own existential guilt, and
to be summoned back to authenticity. It does not make Dasein a detached ascetic. There is no
suspension of ties with the world or the Other. In resoluteness there is self-disclosure and co-
disclosure because Dasein and together with Others who are with it are disclosed to
themselves. In resoluteness Dasein becomes the conscience of others. Only a resolute Dasein
can authentically be with-the Other.47

2.6 Meditative Thinking

Heidegger sees meditative thinking as a royal path to authenticity. In meditative thinking we
wait for the disclosedness of Being without why. There is only a question of listening here.
He differentiates meditative thinking from that of calculative thinking. Calculative thinking is
made use in science. According to him, science does not think. It is one-track thinking and it
dominates the whole world.48 But Being cannot be understood by calculative thinking. So
there arises a need to leap from scientific thinking to meditative thinking. It is in meditative
thinking that one discovers what he is.
Conclusion
Martin Heidegger presents his philosophy of authentic existence in the midst of a broken
world, torn down by war and famine. He was very clear in pointing out the inauthentic
Dasein and how to achieve authenticity. His philosophy has inspired many people to rise up
from their difficulties. It does not matter what we are in the present situation, we can always
rise to a better level. This is the crux of his philosophy.

46
Shailendra, pp. 107-112.
47
Ibid., pp. 115-116.
48
Ibid., p. 275.

12
 CHAPTER 3
CRITIQUE OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF HEIDEGGER
Introduction
In the previous chapter the philosophy of Heidegger was outlined with regards to authentic
existence. According to Heidegger, man achieves authenticity when he is open to the
revelation of Being. In a way Heidegger makes a sharp distinction between inauthentic and
authentic existence. Although his philosophy gave us new knowledge and insights, it is not
free from criticism and appreciation when compared with the other philosophers. There is a
limitation to critique the whole philosophy of Heidegger, so I limit myself to critically
analyse only the authentic existence.

3.1 Authenticity and Inauthenticity - Paradox of Human Life

Whether we realise or not we are surrounded by paradoxes and these become part of our
lives. With regards to this human paradox, St. Paul speaks in his letter to the Romans 7:14-
25. It can be termed as an inner struggle a person goes through in order to achieve
authenticity. It seems that in order to achieve authenticity one must go through inauthenticity.
The phenomenon of human paradox can be seen in our day to day lives. For example,
those who are Catholics admire great men and women saints (who led authentic lives) but
given an opportunity to pursue the same path of authenticity, they tend to waver. Everybody
admires authentic men and women but one struggles to walk on the same path. So we have
less number of authentic men and women. The constant struggle between these two can be
seen even in India. We have very many women and men who fight for their rights by
becoming social workers and Maoists.

3.2 A case study of authentic existence

Authentic existence is not limited to a few people but it is open to all. It is not meant for a
select cluster of embodied beings but authenticity remains a possibility for everyone. Each
one is called to be authentic by being open to the Being.
In order to illustrate the fact of authentic existence, we need to see the life of Stephen
Hawking. He is considered as one of the leading cosmologists of our time. When we go
through his life we find some unusual things that make us wonder. He was born on 8th
January, 1942 just exactly after 300 years of Galileo's death. 49 As a child he was very active
and was influenced by his father. He took up a career in science. All of a sudden in 1963, an
unusual thing happened which changed his life altogether. He was diagnosed with

49
Kristine Larsen, Stephen Hawking, Mumbai, Jaico Publishing House, 2012, p.1.

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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (A disease in which the deterioration of the body's ability to
control voluntary muscular functions is felt). Gradually he could not move out in open space
so he had to use a wheel chair.
Although his body was so weak, the mysteries of the universe began to be revealed in
him. Like Galileo, he forever changed our understanding of the universe and its structure and
inner workings. His main contribution was seen in the form of books and essays on the recent
cosmological issues; origin of the universe and black holes. He enabled us to understand the
black holes and the radiation emitted by them. Recognising his contribution to science, the
radiation emitted by black holes is named after as Hawking radiation.
The concepts of facticity, thrownness and struggle towards achieving authentic
existence could be seen in the life of Stephen Hawking. The man who could not move his
limbs could reveal the mysteries of the cosmos.

3.3 Heidegger and Gabriel Marcel

Heidegger through his philosophy, 'Being with' and 'Being-in-the world' proposes an indirect
involvement of Dasein with the other whereas Gabriel Marcel presents direct involvement.
According to Heidegger Dasein comes in contact with other Daseins in the equipmental and
communal world in the context of everydayness. Our everyday interaction with the things is
genuine and proper. On the contrary, our everyday encounter with the other person is mostly
inauthentic since in the public one tends to be the superficial and anonymous 'they'. While a
genuine day after day dealing with the ready-to-hand equipments is the universal rule, a
genuine everyday relationship with other persons is a rare exception. Besides, when
Heidegger briefly refers to man's relation to the other, he makes no mention of any genuine
reciprocal face-to-face relationship of give and take; he rather contents himself with the
mention of the negative relation of indifference and the positive modes of domineering over
the Other, of freeing the Other and of being-with-one-another for a common concern.50
In contrast to the views of Heidegger, Marcel's philosophy advocates face-to-face
encounter with the other. In the I-Thou relationship, Marcel includes the concepts of
presence, encounter and inter-subjectivity. A human person achieves authenticity by
combining these three dimensions. His philosophy is communitarian rather than
individualistic as that of Heidegger or Sartre or Kierkegaard. 51 In Marcel's philosophy the
Other plays an important role in achieving authentic existence.

50
Johnson J. Puthenpurackal, Heidegger through Authentic Totality to Total Authenticity, Louvain, Leuven
University Press, 1997, pp. 283-284.
51
Lescoe, pp. 101-103.

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3.4 A sharp distinction between authentic and inauthentic existence
According to Heidegger, in inauthentic existence the Dasein experiences three modes of
fallenness namely; idle talk, curiosity and ambiguity. These seem to be the characteristic
features of inauthentic Dasein. But are these relevant in our modern context? Absolutely, yes.
Our Holy Father, Pope Francis is existential in nature when he speaks about the facts of
everyday happenings. He spoke quite many times about the harm that can be done to others
by idle talk or gossip. The three modes of fallenness stand out to be the pointers of
inauthentic existence in the contemporary world too.

3.5 Calculative thinking and meditative thinking

Another most important distinction made by Heidegger is in the field of thinking. If we look
at the world by using the phenomenological approach, we get certain insights especially in
the field of thinking. It is said that if we do not think the way we live, we tend to live the way
we think. We are living in a scientific world where calculative thinking is very much utilised.
Naturally we have taken calculative approach to the facts of human life which is a
fundamental cause for crisis in human lives. The extreme importance that we have given to
calculative thinking does not help us to move beyond the scientific facts of human life.
On the other hand Heidegger glorifies the use of meditative thinking as a move
towards to authentic existence. It is in meditative thinking that one discovers what he is and it
is in this way of thinking that one discovers the meaning of human life. Here it is worth
quoting the words, "If a man is not drawn above himself toward eternal values, he becomes
less than human; and when he makes use of these eternal values for the sake of his own world
of weakness and sin, he uses them to feed and strengthen, and to hallow his passions and
malice."52 It is the meditative thinking that moves one towards eternal values of authenticity.

Conclusion
In conclusion, an important question is to be asked. Is it necessary that a Dasein be open to
the Being to be authentic? It is necessary. This can be seen when we give a thought to what
Henri De Lubac, a catholic theologian said; it's possible to organise the world without God
but in the absence of God the man will organise the world wherein one man will be against
another man. This was the fact of existentialism. To be authentic, be open to the Being (God).

52
Jacque Maritain, Ransoming the Time, trans. Harry Lorin Binsse, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1941, p.
129.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Concise Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 'Martin Heidegger', by Thomas Sheehan.

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HEIDEGGER, Martin: An Introduction to Metaphysics, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass

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LARSEN, Kristine: Stephen Hawking, Mumbai, Jaico Publishing House, 2012.

LESCOE, Francis J.: Existentialism with or without God, New York, Alba House, 1974.

MARITAIN, Jacque: Ransoming the Time, trans. Harry Lorin Binsse, New York, Charles
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PANTHANMACKEL, George: One in many, Bangalore, SFS Publications, 1993.

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