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Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation Laboratory Manual
Birla Vishwakarma Mahavidhyalaya

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
LABORATORY MANUAL
Subject Code: 2141003

Subject Name: Electronic Measurement &
Instrumentation
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BIRLA VISHVA KARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Programme: Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics &

Telecommunication
Electronics & Telecommunication program started with a view to encourage the students to
learn and understand the basics of science, physics and communication with respect to
existing and upcoming dimensions of diversified areas of the Electronics and Communication.
The scope of the program is catering the areas of Micro electronics, Circuit and networking,
embedded systems, Artificial intelligence, signal and image processing, wired and wireless
communication, mobile technologies and programming languages.
The undergraduate program in Electronics & Telecommunication engineering is intended to
mould students with thorough background in mathematics and basic sciences to engineers of
future. The course envisages that the students exposed to it will develop enough analytical
capability to solve open ended problems. Real world experience is provided to them through
well designed experiments as well as industrial visits to various industries, Telephone
exchanges, PCB making plant etc. The exposures in both theory and practical’s leads to the
development of competent engineers with ability to think systematically, analyze, orient and
assimilate data better. The interdisciplinary nature of product requirements has been
addressed by exposing them to electrical technology, electronics, control system apart from
basics of computers and programming. Moreover students are provided with on-hand
experience on application software like MATLAB, XILINX, ORCAD, KEIL, FLASH
MAGIC etc.
A host of electives are offered by the department to bring out the inclination of students and
train them according to their taste. These electives are offered to cater the requirements of
various sub fields of electronics & telecommunication engineering like satellite
communication, bio-medical instrumentation, embedded systems, data communication and
networking, advanced microprocessor and Radar and Navigational Aids.
A healthy teaching-learning environment, with one to one counseling of the students is taken
care by the group of faculty members. Participation in various technical and non-technical
competitive examinations is appreciated by the department.
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Vision
“Produce globally employable innovative electronics and telecommunication engineers with

core Indian values.”
Mission
The mission of the Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering in
conformity with the mission of the BVM Engineering College:
1. To provide effective teaching-learning activity not only limited to theory and practical
but also focused on the need of industry.
2. To educating and encouraging student to do innovative projects to maintain pace with
the technology.
3. To encourage faculty for the enhancement in their knowledge.
4. Increasing awareness, visibility, and recognition of the profession of Electronics &
telecommunication.
5. Producing quality engineers with sound knowledge in Electronics &
telecommunication.
Programme Educational Objectives (PEO)

The objectives of the Electronics and Telecommunication department at B.V.M Engineering
College is to produce graduates with skills and abilities
1) To understand and apply the fundamental knowledge of core electronics and

mathematical approaches for developing industrial applications.
2) To identify, formulate and solve problems related to electronics and communication
engineering.
3) To excel in professional career with challenging attitude and effective communication
skill.
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Programme Outcomes (PO)

Graduates of the programme will be prepared …
1. To understand the fundamentals of physics and mathematics.
2. To apply knowledge of science and mathematics to understand engineering principles.
3. To use engineering principles in applied manner for the design and development of electronic
systems.
4. To utilize engineering methods for collecting technical data and analyze them for meaningful
conclusion.
5. To work and excel in the core Electronics & Communication Engineering areas for analyzing
and solving industrial problems with the aid of advance hardware and software tools.
6. To initiate innovative ideas for bringing out engineering solution for complex problems.
7. To develop team-spirit and work in united manner.
8. To work with professional and ethical responsibility.
9. To inculcate an ability to achieve an engineering solution with economical feasibilities.
10. To communicate effectively with professionals in the field of engineering.
11. To develop an attitude of life-long learning.
12. To develop self-confidence and managerial skills for the utilization of engineering knowledge
for sustainability.
13. To analyze an impact of engineering solutions on society and environment.
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Index
Sr. No. Program
1. To study functions of CRO
2. To study functions of DMM
3. To study functions of Function Generator
4. To find the value of unknown resistor using Wheatstone Bridge
5. Measurement of Frequency using Lissajous method
6. To study and verify characteristics of LVDT
7. To study and verify characteristic of Load-cell
8. To study and verify characteristics of Thermocouple
9. To study and verify characteristics of RTD
10. DC motor speed measurement using micro-controller
11. To study Speed measurement using Photo reflective transducer
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PRACKTICAL NO :1
AIM:
To introduce CRO and demonstrate the functionality of function generator as well as its
use as a test and measurement equipment.
APPARATUS:
Cathode-ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Probes, Function generator, power supply, DMM.
THEORY:
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid, X&Y-
plates, and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by
Fluorescent screen
Figure 1: The basic structure of a CRO
applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential
difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons
towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen. When the fast
electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced. The grid, which is
situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing through it thereby
controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y-plates, are responsible for deflecting the
electron beam horizontally and vertically.A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which
moves the bright spot horizontally across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the
source of the signal. The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and
Y- voltages produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time, as shown in Fig. Front
panel
The front panel of the CRO is shown in Fig. 2.
An ac signal can be of different forms: sinusoidal, square, or triangular. The sinusoidal is
the most popular type, which is the natural output of the rotary electricity generators. An ac
voltage source can be represented by:
(1)
where Em is the maximum output voltage value, a =2ωf (f is the frequency), and ϕ is the phase
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shift. The root-mean-square value, Erms, of the signal given by Eq.(1), can be written as:
Figure 2: The front panel of the CRO
Front Panel Controls:

Display
A is the display. This can be a phosphor screen or an LCD, and is usually about
100 mm corner to corner.
B shows the 'trace'. This is the line drawn by the scope to represent the signal. On a
CRO, this line is created by a bright dot moving across the screen at high speed. On a digital
scope, the line is drawn on the LCD like a graphical calculator.
The screen is overlaid with a grid of horizontal (C) and vertical (D) lines, called the
'graticule', which divides the screen into squares, called 'major divisions'. The graticule is
usually 10 major divisions wide and 8 tall.
The central horizontal and vertical lines (E) are usually thicker than the others and are
divided into 'minor divisions', usually five per major division. When we talk about "divisions"
in later sections, we will always mean the major divisions - the minor divisions are just to aid
measuring.
There are also special horizontal lines labeled "0" (2.5 divisions below the centre) and
"100" (2.5 divisions above it). The "10" and "90" lines have tick marks like the central axes.
These four horizontal lines are guides for scaling the signal for rise-time measurement. This
will be discussed later.
Power, Calibration and Display Controls
1 is the Power On/Off Button. 2 is the Power Indicator which lights when the oscilloscope is
on. This may be an LED in newer scopes or a neon tube in older scopes.
3 is the trace rotation (TR) control. This sets the inclination of a flat signal relative to the
graticule. This is usually a Trimpot and needs to be set using a flat-bladed screwdriver. Once
set, this control should retain its position and will rarely need adjusting.
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4 is the intensity of the trace. Turning this up increases the brightness of the trace, and turning
it down makes it dimmer. An overly bright trace can damage the phosphor of the screen if the
dot is moving too slowly.
The trace can get fuzzy if the electron beam is not focused correctly. The focus control (5)
sets this. Most scopes can focus the beam to form a trace about 1mm wide.
6 is the calibration point. This gives a steady square wave at a set frequency and voltage,
allowing the scaling of the trace to be set accurately. Sometimes, more than one frequency
and voltage is available to give a more representative calibration. The standard calibration
signal is between 0V and 2V at 1KHz.
Vertical Axis Controls
When plotting a signal against time (the standard use for a scope), the vertical axis represents
voltage. Most controls for the vertical axis are duplicated for each channel to give
independent control over each signal.
7 controls the position of the trace. It can be adjusted to set the voltage relative to a ground, or
it can be adjusted to separate the two signals - perhaps the first channel in the top half of the
screen and the second channel in the bottom.
8 inverts the relevant channel. That is, the negative voltage is displayed, and the trace is
upside-down.
9 is the vertical scale control, often called the volts/div. control. This sets the height of the
trace. It operates in discrete steps.
10 is a variable height control. It can adjust the height of the trace up to the next set increment
on the volts/div. control. When set to CAL, the height is as stated on the volts/div. control.
11 is the AC/DC toggle. When set to AC, any DC component of the voltage is filtered out by
switching a capacitor in series with the input signal, leaving just an AC voltage. This is useful
when the DC component swamps the AC component, making it either too small to see or
driving it off the top of the screen. When set to DC, the signal is displayed as is.
12 is the GND toggle. By selecting this, the input signal is ignored, and the trace shows 0V.
This can be useful to measure a voltage or to eliminate one of the traces from the display.
13 is the Channel 1 signal input and 14 is the Channel 2 input. This is where the oscilloscope's
probe is plugged in.
Each channel has a copy of most of these controls (except chop/alt, which applies to all
channels). The way the channels are combined is set using 15, which is usually a sliding
switch. When set to CH. 1, only the trace from Channel 1 is displayed, and likewise for CH.
2. When DUAL is selected, the traces are shown side by side. This is when the chop/alt
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control applies. ADD shows the sum of the two traces as one trace. By inverting the traces,
one can be subtracted from the other. This can be seen in the illustration below. This shows a
square wave on one channel and a sinusoidal wave on the other. On the left, the scope is set to
"dual", and the two traces are shown side by side. On the right, the scope is set to "add", and
the trace is the sum of the two signals.
Horizontal Axis Controls
When operating in the normal voltage vs. time mode, this axis represents time. The primary
control is the time base selector, 19. The time base is the length of time displayed per major
horizontal division on the screen. This ranges from about 0.1 milliseconds to about 1 second
(or more on digital scopes).
The position of the trace from side to side is controlled by 17. This is useful if part of the trace
is off the edge of the screen but you don't want to change the time base.
The ×10 MAG control, 16, is a very useful control if you want to quickly zoom in on a
feature without changing the timebase and losing your settings. This buttom magnifies the
central area of the trace by a factor of 10 in the horizontal direction (but leaves the voltage
height unchanged).
18 toggles the mode between the usual voltage vs. time format and the XY mode. This
continuously plots the voltage on Channel 1 along the horizontal axis against the voltage on
Channel 2 (the vertical axis). This can be extremely useful to analyse frequency or phase
relationships. This is a complex topic, and will be covered in its own section later in the
module.
20 and 21 act in much the same way as 10 does on the vertical axis. This diagram shows it to
be slighly different from the vertical control. To select a non-standard timebase, press 20, and
adjust 20 until the correct setting is obtained. To return to a calibrated time base, press 20
again. Sometimes these controls are the same style as 10, sometimes the vertical controls are
like these.
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22 is the GND terminal of the scope. This is used to set a "datum" voltage against which to
measure the voltages on the input channels. Be careful when using isolated mains voltage
circuits, as the "ground" is sometines floating at mains voltage, and can short to the real
ground, casuing injury or death.
23 toggles between chop-mode and alt-mode. Chop-mode means that when the scope is
drawing two signals side by side it alternates rapidly between the two over the course of
passing across the screen. This action is called chopping. Alt-mode alternates at the end of
each pass, and can appear to flicker at slow speeds
Procedure
Part one
1. Turn on the Oscilloscope, wait a couple of seconds to warm up, then the trace will
show up on the screen.
2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X &Y-position knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to function generator output and keep function
generator in SIN wave output mode.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 200 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal (from 1-
2 wavelengths filling most of the screen vertically).
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to
peak value as:
10. Calculate Vrms value, record in Table I:
11. Measure Vrms using the multimeter (connect the probes of the multimeter to the SIN and
the GND connectors).
12. Calculate the period T, record in Table I:
T = No. horizontal Div. x Time/Div
13. Calculate the frequency, f=1/T, record in the table.
14. Repeat steps 10-14 for the frequency values as in the table.
Table I
Vrms (V) Vrms (V)
Frequency f Hz Period (T) sec f (Hz) Vp-p (V)
Multimeter Theoretica
200
500
1000
10
1500
2000
How to take readings?
1. Connect the cable from Ch1 to the Function generator
2. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size
signal
3. Calculate the peak to peak voltage value.
4. Calculate Vrms value.
5. Measure Vrms using the multimeter.
6. Measure the period T, then calculate the frequency.
Vp-p=
Vrms=
Vrms(multimeter)=
T=
f=
Questions
1. What is the purpose of the grid, and X&Y-plates?
2. For a certain ac input signal, if the Volt/Div knob is set to a lower value, what effect
does this have on the size of the signal on the screen?
3. The X-mag button magnifies the signal horizontally; is this button used for high or
low frequency signal? Why?
4. What is the physical meaning of the root-mean-square value of an ac signal?
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PRACKTICAL NO : 2
AIM:
To demonstrate the functionality of function generator and its use as a test and
measurement equipment.
APPARATUS:
Function Generator, CRO, Probes, etc.
THEORY:
A frequency generator is a device that can be used to electrocute individual organisms,
or together with the Syncrometer to find an organism’s particular frequency
The FUNCTION GENERATOR is divided into six major control groups:

1) Frequency Selection Group;
2) Sweep Group;
3) Amplitude Modulation Group;
4) DC Offset Group;
5) Function, or Waveform Group;
6) Output Group
1) Frequency Selection Group
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 These controls are used to select the operating frequency of the function generator.
This group consists of the frequency control knob and the eight frequency multiplier
selection buttons.
 For example, to set the function generator to an operating frequency of 2000 Hz (2
kHz):
 Rotate the frequency control knob to 2.
 Select the 1 kHz frequency multiplier button.
With the result that: 2.0 * 1 kHz = 2.0 kHz.
 To set the function generator to an operating frequency of 5.5 kHz:
 Rotate the frequency control knob to 0.55.
 Select the 10 kHz frequency multiplier button.
 With the result that: 0.55 * 10 kHz = 5.5 kHz.
2) Function, or Waveform Group
 This group is used to select the shape of the generated waveform. The group is made
up of the six wave-selector buttons. The six waveforms that the function generator can
produce are the
 sine wave,
 square wave,
 triangle wave,
 two saw tooth waves,
 Variable-width pulse wave.
 Attenuation buttons
 The attenuation buttons are additive. In other words, if the 10 dB and the 20 dB
buttons are both pressed in, the combined attenuation of the input signal is 30 dB.
3) Output Group
 These controls are used to adjust the amplitude of the generator's output signal.
 The group consists of
Amplitude-control knob,
Attenuation buttons,
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BNC connector
Amplitude-control knob:
 It varies from few mill volts to approximately 20 volts.

 We will set the amplitude levels by aligning the white line on the amplitude knob to
the three o'clock position (90 degrees right), the nine o'clock position (90 degrees left),
or the twelve o'clock position (straight up)
 rotating the knob fully to the left does not result in a zero amplitude signal
 The attenuation buttons are used to attenuate (decrease) the amplitude of the signal by
a factor measured in decibels. The following relationship will assist in working with
the attenuation buttons:
 (dB) = -10 * log10 (Pout / Pin) (for power)
 (dB) = -20 * log10 (Vout / Vin) (for voltage )
BNC connector:
 The fused 50 ohm BNC connector is used for connecting the function generator to
other equipment. The most common connection used to connect the function generator
to other equipment is a cable with a BNC connector on one end and two alligator clips
on the other end.
 One end of the cable, the base, is used to connect the cable to the BNC connector on
the function generator. The other end, which has two ‘alligator’ clips: one positive
(red) and one negative (black), is used to connect the function generator to the device
or circuit under study.
4) Sweep Group:
 Turns the frequency sweep mode on and off and allows selection of a linear sweep or
logarithmic sweep.
5) DC Offset Group:
 Enables the adjustment of D.C voltage added to the signal output.
6) Amplitude Modulation Group:
 Simply to increase or decrease the amplitude of the signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the CRO with the function generator output terminal

2. Verify the various function of keys and knob provided on Front Panel of Function
Generator
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
14
PRACTICAL NO : 3
AIM:
Measurement of frequency using Lissajous method.
APPARATUS:
CRO , Function generator, probes,.
THEORY:
The oscilloscope is a sensitive indicator for frequency and phase measurements. The
techniques used are simple and dependable, and measurement may be made at any frequency
in the response range of the oscilloscope.
One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is by using Lissajous patterns

produced on a screen. This particular pattern results when sine waves are applied
simultaneously to both pairs of the deflection plates. If one frequency is an integral multiple
(harmonic) of the other, the pattern will be stationary, and is called a Lissajous figure.
In this method of measurement a standard frequency is applied to one set of deflection

plates of the CRT tube while the unknown frequency (of approximately the same amplitude)
is simultaneously applied to the other set of plates. However, the unknown frequency is
presented to the vertical plates and the known frequency (standard) to the horizontal plates.
The resulting patterns depend on the integral and phase relationship between the two
frequencies.
The cathode-ray oscilloscope furnishes the most important and practical means for the
generation of the figures. The x-deflection plates of the tube are supplied with one alternating
voltage, and the y-deflection plates with another. If the frequencies are incommensurable, the
figure is not a closed curve and, except for very low frequencies, will appear as a patch of
light because of the resistance of the screen. On the other hand, if the frequencies are
commensurable, the figure is closed and strictly periodic; it is a true Lissajous figure,
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stationary on the screen and, if the persistence is sufficient, visible continuously as a complete
pattern.
The closed paths described by a point that simultaneously performs two harmonic
oscillations in two mutually perpendicular directions. They were first studied by the French
scientist J. Lissajous (1822–80). The shape of Lissajous figures depends on the ratio of the
periods (frequencies), phases, and amplitudes of the two oscillations. In the simplest case
(equal periods), the Lissajous figures are ellipses that degenerate into line segments for a
phase difference of 0 or π and reduce to a circle when the phase difference is π/2 and the
amplitudes are Equal (see Figure 1).
If the periods of the two oscillations do not coincide exactly, the phase difference and,
consequently, the shape of the ellipse change continuously. Lissajous figures are not observed
if the periods differ substantially. However, if the periods are related as integers, the moving
point will return to its original position in a period of time equal to the least multiple of the
two periods, and a Lissajous figure with a more complex shape is produced.
Lissajous figures may be observed on the screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope. They
result from the displacement of a luminous point if alternating voltages that are either equal or
multiples of each other are fed to two pairs of deflector plates. The observation of Lissajous
figures is a convenient method for studying the ratios of the periods and phases of
oscillations, as well as the shape of the oscillations.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the oscilloscope and switch off the internal sweep (change to EXT).Switch
off sync control.
2. Keep frequency fv constant and vary frequency fh, noting that the pattern spins in
alternative directions and changes shape.
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3. The pattern stands still whenever fv and fh are in an integral ratio (either even or
odd). The fv = fh pattern stands still and is single circle or ellipse. When fv = 2fh, a
two loop horizontal pattern is obtained. If there are three vertical loops, giving a
fraction 1/3. The unknown frequency fv, is therefore 1/3 fh. An accurately
calibrated, variable frequency oscillator will supply the horizontal search frequency
for frequency measurement.
4. For the case where the two frequencies are equal and in phase, the pattern appears
as a straight line at an angle of 45o with the horizontal. As the phase between the
two alternating signals changes, the pattern changes cyclically, i.e. an ellipse (at 45 o
with the horizontal) when the phase difference is π/4, circle when the phase
difference is π/2 and an ellipse (at 135o with horizontal) when the phase difference
is π radians.
5. As the phase angle between the two signals changes from π to 2π radians, the
pattern changes correspondingly through the ellipse-circle-ellipse cycle to a straight
line. Hence the two frequencies, as well as the phase displacement can be compared
using Lissajous figures techniques.
6. When the two frequencies being compared are not equal, but are fractionally
related, a more complex stationary pattern result, whose form is dependent on the
frequency ratio and the relative phase between two signals.
Fractional relationship: fv= (fraction) x fh
fv/fh = no. Of horizontal tangencies/ no. Of vertical tangencies.
OBSERVATION :
Case:1 fh = 1khz fv = 1khz Case:2 fh = 1khz fv = 2khz
Case:3 fh = 1khz fv = 500hz Case :4 fh = 1khz fv = 3khz
Case:5 fh = 1khz fv = 1/3khz Case:6 fh = 1khz fv = unknown (?)
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CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
18
PRACTICAL NO : 4
AIM:
To find the value of unknown resistor using Wheatstone bridge.
APPARATUS:
Resistors, decade resistance box, Connecting wires, bread board, DC Power supply, Ammeter,
etc.
FIGURE:
R1 R3
Vdc c V d
R2 RX
Figure : Wheatstone Bridge

We have learn from the experiment how to measure the resistance using avoltmeter
and a current meter. The accuracy of such measurements is limited by the internal resistances
of these meters. Ideally, we need the internal resistance of a voltmeter to be infinity, and that
of an ammeter to be zero. But that is not possible and all the measurements with these meters
will have unavoidable instrumental errors.
In this experiment we will learn a way to measure the resistance precisely by using an
equipment called Wheatstone Bridge. The principle of the operation of it is depicted in
Figure Wheatstone bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistance and
is popular for laboratory use.
As shown in the diagram, the unknown resistor Rx and the other three resistors R1 ,
R2 andR3 form a circuit called a "bridge". A sensitive current meter connects the two points
c and d. R3 is a variable resistor. In operation, we vary the resistance of Rx such that the
current between the points c and d is zero. This process is called "balancing" of the bridge.
The current meter A is connected there exactly for balancing the bridge. When the bridge is
balanced, the current passing through the resistors R1 and R2 is the same, and that passing
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through R3 and Rx is the same. We then have the relationship:
R1 / R2 = Vac / Vcb ------------------------ (1)
R3 / Rx = Vad / Vdb ------------------------ (2)

Furthermore, if there is no current running between the points c and d, these two points are
actually equipotential, i.e., Vac = Vad and Vcb = Vdb. We then have
R1 / R2 = R3 / Rx -------------------------- (3)
OR
Rx = ( R2 / R1 ) R3 -------------------------- (4)
But if there is current between c and d point, i.e during unbalanced condition, we have:
In a commercial bridge, the resistors R3 , R3 , and R3 are made very precise. The
ratio R1/R2 and the value of R3 can be read directly from the front panel.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the unknown resistance and batteries (3 to 6V) to the bridge as indicated on
the figure.
2. Use potentiometer for unknown resistance
3. Keep the potentiometer in one position
4. Observe the voltage reading from voltmeter and note it down in the table.
5. Disconnect one of the arm of the potentiometer to measure the ohm of it using ohm-
meter(for practical reading of unknown resistance)
6. Repeat the above procedures to measure five more resistors and record their voltage
and resistances.
7. At end find theoretical value of resistance using the equation and note it down in the
table.
OBSERVATION TABLE :
Vdc = 5 V
Sr. Voutput Rx (ohm) RX (ohm)

No. (ohm-meter) (Theoretical)
1.
2.
3.
20
4.
5.
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
21
PRACTICAL NO : 5
AIM:
To find the value of unknown capacitance and inductance using Maxwell’s bridge.
APPARATUS:
Connecting wires, capacitance box and resistance box, power supply.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig:- Maxwell’s bridge circuit

THEORY:
A Maxwell bridge is a type of Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown

capacitance or inductance by balancing the unknown capacitor or inductor against the known
inductors or capacitors, with known resistors.
To avoid the difficulties associated with determining the precise value of a variable
inductor, sometimes a fixed-value capacitor will be installed and more than one resistor will
be made variable.
Sometimes in a very simple circuit we use Maxwell bridge to find unknown
capacitance or inductance because the mutual inductance between the load and the known
bridge entities or stray electromagnetic interference distorts the measurement results. The
capacitive reactance in the bridge will exactly oppose the inductive reactance of the load
when the bridge is balanced, allowing the load's resistance and reactance to be reliably
determined.
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Calculation :
Fig:- equivalent circuit of Maxwell’s bridge
With reference to the picture, in a typical application R1 and R4 are known fixed
entities, and R2 and C2 are known variable entities. R2 and C2 are adjusted until the bridge is
balanced.
R3 and L3 can then be calculated based on the values of the other components:
R2 = (R1 * R4)/R3
C2 = L3/(R1*R4)
PROCEDURE:
1. First of all connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Here the values of R1 and R4 are fixed.
3. Now vary the value of R3 and L3 until the bridge is balanced (adjusting
galvanometer is at null position ).
4. Now by the bridge circuit we could easily calculate the value of R3 and C3 i.e.
unknown Capacitance
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Unknown Unknown
Sr. R1 R4 L3 Resistor capacitance
No. RX = C2 =
(R2* R4) /R3 L3/(R1*R4)
1
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CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
24
PRACTICAL NO : 6
AIM:
To find the value of unknown capacitance using Wein’s series and parallel bridge.
APPARATUS:
Fixed value Capacitors, Fixed value Resistors, Decade resistance box, Decade capacitance
box, Bread board, power supply
FIGURE:
THEORY:
The Wein Bridge shown in figure has a series RC combination in one arm and a
parallel combination in adjoining arm. Wein ‘s bridge in its basic form is designed to measure
frequency. It can also be used for the measurement of an unknown capacitor with great
accuracy.
The impedance of one arm is

Z1 = R1 - j / WC1
The admittance of the parallel arm is
Y3 = 1 \ R3 + jWC3
Using the bridge balance equation,

Z1Z4=Z2Z3
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So, Z1Z4=Z2\Y3,
Z2=Z1Z4Z3
R2=R4 (R1- j/WC1) (1\R3+jWC3)
R2= (R1R4\R3+C3R4\C1)-J (R4\WC1C3-WC3R1R4)
Equating read & imaginary terms we have
R2= R1R4\R3+C3R4\C1
R4\WC1C3-WC3R1R4=0
Therefore,
R2\R4= R1\R3+C3\C1 --------------- (1)
and
1\WC1R3=WC3R1
W2 =1\C1R1R
W2=1\C1R1C3R3 (W=2πf)
F=1/2πC1R1C3R3 ------------------ (2)
The two conditions for bridge balance equation 1 and 2 result in an expression
determining the required resistance ratio R2\R4 and another expression determining the
frequency of the applied voltage. If we satisfy equation 1 & also excite the bridge with the
frequency of equation 2 the bridge will be balanced.
PROCEDURE:
1. Collect all the required components for this experiment.

2. Connect the circuit Diagram as shown in figure.
3. Vary the Capacitor C3 , Resistor R3 to balance the bridge by
adjusting Detector at Null position.
4. Using formula Find out value of unknown capacitor C1 .
5. We can also determine a frequency as we know the capacitance of unknown capacitor.
OBSERVATION :
υin = fin =
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
C2 =
Using equation, F=1/2πC1R1C3R3
C1 =
26
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
27
PRACTICAL NO: 7
Aim: To extend the range of voltmeter.
Apparatus: Voltmeter, Resistance Box, Voltage Supply
Theory:
The value of series resistance is determined by the current required for full-scale
deflection and by the range of the voltages to be measured. Since the current through the
meter circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage, the meter scale can be calibrated
directly in volts for a fixed value of series resistance. For example, let's assume that the basic
meter is to be made into a voltmeter with a full-scale deflection of 1 volt. The coil resistance
of the basic meter is 100 ohms, and 100 microamperes of current causes full-scale deflection.
The resistance (R meter) required to limit the total current in the circuit to 100 microamperes
can be found as follows:
Because the meter coil already measures 100 ohms, the series resistance required is
equal to 10 kilo Ohms minus 100 ohms, or 9.9 kilo Ohms.
Multi range voltmeters use one meter movement. The required resistances are
connected in series with the meter by a switching arrangement. A schematic diagram of a
Multi range voltmeter with three ranges is shown in figure 3-10. The total meter resistance
(R meter) for each of the three ranges, beginning with the 1-volt range, is figured by the
application of Ohm's law, as follows:
28
Multi range voltmeter.
The actual value of the multiplying series resistor (Rseries) for each of these circuits is 100
ohms less than the total resistance. This allows for the resistance of the meter coil (R coil).
Voltmeter Circuit Connections
When voltmeters are used, a primary rule of safety is that such voltage-measuring instruments
must always be connected in parallel with (across) a circuit. If you are unsure of the level of
the voltage to be measured, take a reading at the highest range of the voltmeter and
progressively (step by step) lower the range until a suitable reading is obtained. In many
cases, the voltmeter you will be using will not be a center-zero- (0 reading is in the center)
indicating instrument. Observing the correct polarity is important when connecting the
instrument to the circuit. Voltmeter polarity is the same as for the dc ammeter; that is, current
flows from negative to positive.
Observation Table:
Given:
RM=11.3kΩ
V=20kV
Idc=0.9mA
29
f=1/ Idc=1.11
for increasing the range of voltmeter from 10V to 20V
we have,
Rs= (f * V) - Rm
= (1.11 * 20 *103) – (11.3 * 103)
= 10.90kΩ
After performing experiment,
The practical value is, 9.8kΩ
Conclusion:
Using the extended range voltmeter we can measure the voltage that is greater in range
for some voltmeters but the accuracy of the extended range voltmeters is depended on the
accuracy and the power consumption of the resister that we have connected in series with the
voltmeter.
30
PRACTICAL NO : 8
AIM:
To study and verify characteristic of variable resistor transducer (strain gauge).
APPARATUS:
Strain gauge load cell, weights, D.M.M.
THEORY:
The strain gauge is a transducer employing electrical resistance variation to sense the
strain produced by a force or weight. It is a very versatile detector for measuring weight,
pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.
Strain, being a fundamental engineering phenomenon, exists in all matters at all times,
due either to external loads or the weight of the matter itself. These strains vary in magnitude,
depending upon the materials and loads involved. Engineers have worked for centuries in an
attempt to measure strain accurately, but only in the last decade we have achieved much
advancement in the art of strain measurement. The terms linear deformation and strain are
synonymous and refer to the change in any linear dimension of a body, usually due to the
application of external forces. The strain of a piece of rubber, when loaded, is ordinarily
apparent to the eye. However, the strain of a bridge strut as a locomotive passes may not be
apparent to the eye. Strain as defined above is often spoken of as "total strain." Average unit
strain is the amount of strain per unit length and has somewhat greater significance than does
total strain. Strain gauges are used to determine unit strain, and consequently when one refers
to strain, he is usually referring to unit strain. As defined, strain has units of inches per inch.
Strain gauges work on the principle that as a piece of wire is stretched, its Resistance
changes. A strain gauge of either the bonded or the unbonded type is made of fine wire wound
back and forth in such a way that with a load applied to the material it is fastened to, the strain
gauge wire will stretch, increasing its length and decreasing its cross-sectional area. The result
will be an increase in its resistance, because the resistance, R, of a metallic conductor varies
directly with length, L, and inversely with cross-sectional area, A. Mathematically the
relationship is
R = ρ L/A
Where ρ is a constant depending upon the type of wire, L is the length of the wire in
the same units as ρ , and A is the cross-sectional area measured in units compatible with ρ .
Four properties of a strain gauge are important to consider when it is used to measure
the strain in a material. They are:
1. Gauge configuration.
2. Gauge sensitivity.
3. Gauge backing material.
4. Method of gauge attachment.
The sensitivity of a strain gauge is a function of the conductive material, size,
configuration, nominal resistance, and the way the gauge is energized.
Strain-gauge conductor materials may be either metal alloys or semiconductor
31
material. Nickel-chrome-iron-alloys tend to yield high gauge sensitivities as well as have long
gauge life. These alloys are quite good when used for dynamic strain measurements, but
because of a high temperature coefficient, they are not as satisfactory for static strain
measurements Copper-nickel alloys are generally use when temperatures are below 500 to
600°F. They are less sensitive to temperature changes and provide a less sensitive gauge
factor than the nickel-chrome-iron alloys. Nickel-chrome alloys are useful in the construction
of strain gauges for high temperature measurements.
In using electric strain gauges, two physical qualities are of particular interest, the
change in gauge resistance and the change in length (strain). The relationship between these
two variables is dimensionless and is called the "gauge factor" of the strain gauge and can be
expressed mathematically as:
GF = ΔR/R
ΔL/L
In this relationship R and L represent, respectively, the initial resistance and the initial
length of the strain gauge wire, while Δ R and Δ L represent the small changes in
resistance and length which occur as the gauge is strained along with the surface to which it is
bonded. The gauge factor of a strain gauge is a measure of the amount of resistance change
for a given strain and is thus an index of the strain sensitivity of the gauge. With all other
variables remaining the same, the higher the gauge factor, the more sensitive the gauge and
the greater the electrical output.
The most common type of strain gauge used today for stress analysis is the bonded
resistance strain gauge shown below.
These gauges use a grid of fine wire or a constantan metal foil grid encapsulated in a
thin resin backing. The gauge is glued to the carefully prepared test specimen by a thin layer
of epoxy. The epoxy acts as the carrier matrix to transfer the strain in the specimen to the
strain gauge. As the gauge changes in length, the tiny wires either contract or elongate
depending upon a tensile or compressive state of stress in the specimen. The cross-sectional
area will increase for compression and decrease in tension. Because the wire has an electrical
resistance that is proportional to the inverse of the cross-sectional area, R α L/A a measure of
the change in resistance will produce the strain in the material.
The load cell is used to weight extremely heavy loads. A length of bar, usually steel ,is
used as the active element. The weight of the loads applies a particular stress to the bar. The
32
amount of strain which results in the bar for different values of applied stress is determined,
so that the strain may be used as direct measure of the stress causing it.
The load cell is a good example of the use of strain gauges in weighing
operations. It is desirable that the strain-gage measurement system be stable and not drift with
time. In calibrated instruments, the passage of time always causes some drift and loss of
calibration.
The stability of bonded strain-gage transducers is inferior to that of diffused strain-gage
elements. Hysteresis and creeping caused by imperfect bonding is one of the fundamental
causes of instability, particularly in high operating temperature environments.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Weight LOAD SENSED BY KIT

SR.NO VOLTAGE(mV)
kg kg
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
33
PROCEDURE:
1. Collect all the equipment required for this practical.
2. Connect the Load Cell with the kit through DB9 connector.
3. Put all the weight sample one by one and measure difference in voltage.
4. Measure the voltage according to load.
5. Note the reading shown on the LCD of the kit
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
34
PRACTICAL NO :9
AIM:
To study and verify characteristic of LVDT
APPARATUS:
LVDT Kit, DMM, Connecting Wires, patch codes.
THEORY:
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer
used for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoid coils placed end-
to-end around a tube. The centre coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the
secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be
measured, slides along the axis of the tube.
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in

each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency is
usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz.
3D View of LVDT
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in
the secondaries to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage
is the difference (hence "differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is
in its central position, equidistant between the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages
are induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the
other decreases, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltage
is in phase with the primary voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output
voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the
primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the distance moved by the
35
core (up to its limit of travel), which is why the device is described as "linear". The phase of
the voltage indicates the direction of the displacement.
Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can move without
friction, making the LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating
contacts allows the LVDT to be completely sealed against the environment.
LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for automated
measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and scientific applications.
An LVDT Displacement Transducer comprises 3 coils; a primary and two

secondary’s. The transfer of current between the primary and the secondary’s of the LVDT
displacement transducer is controlled by the position of a magnetic core called an armature.
On our position measurement LVDTs, the two transducer secondaries are connected in
opposition.
At the centre of the position measurement stroke, the two secondary voltages of the
displacement transducer are equal but because they are connected in opposition the resulting
output from the sensor is zero.
As the LVDTs armature moves away from centre, the result is an increase in one of
the position sensor secondaries and a decrease in the other. This results in an output from the
measurement sensor. With LVDTs, the phase of the output (compared with the excitation
phase) enables the electronics to know which half of the coil the armature is in.
The strength of the LVDT sensor's principle is that there is no electrical contact across
the transducer position sensing element which for the user of the sensor means clean data,
infinite resolution and a very long life.
Our range of signal conditioning electronics for LVDTs handles all of the above so
that you get an output of voltage, current or serial data proportional to the measurement
position of the displacement transducer.
Advantages:-
 Relative low cost due to its popularity.
36
 Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments.

 No friction resistance, since the iron core does not contact the transformer coils,
resulting in an infinite (very long) service life.
 High signal to noise ratio and low output impedance.
 Negligible hysteresis.
 Infinitesimal resolution (theoretically). In reality, displacement resolution is limited by
the resolution of the amplifiers and voltage meters used to process the output signal.
 Short response time, only limited by the inertia of the iron core and the rise time of the
amplifiers.
 No permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the designed range.
Disadvantage:-
 The core must contact directly or indirectly with the measured surface which is not
always possible or desirable. However, a non-contact thickness gage can be achieved
by including a pneumatic servo to maintain the air gap between the nozzle and the
work piece.
 Dynamic measurements are limited to no more than 1/10 of the LVDT resonant
frequency. In most cases, this results in a 2 kHz frequency cap.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the necessary connections of available kit.
2. Switch on the unit.
3. Adjust the core position such that output voltage reading will be zero.
4. Apply Displacement gradually to the core of transducer.
5. Measure corresponding electrical output which is directly calibrated as displacement.
6. For every 5mm of displacement of core note the output reading.
7. Repeat the same procedure for different displacement on both sides of center position
of core.
8. Tabulate the results.
9. Plot the graph of Displacement of core in mm Vs Output readings.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR. Applied Displacement of core Output meter reading

NO. (mm) (mV)
1 20
2 15
3 10
4 5
5 0
6 -5
7 -10
8 -15
9 -20
37
GRAPH:
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
38
PRACTICAL NO : 10
Aim: To study characteristic of Thermocouple.
APPARATUS:
Thermocouple, thermometer, Jug of water, D.M.M., patch cords, wires,..
Theory:
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces

a voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type
of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into
electric power.
Basic Diagram of Thermocouple
39
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to

temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of
specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and
voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as
resistance to corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where
the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can
be made by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor.
Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius;
practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for
varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate
for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy
of measurements.
Thermocouple Used To Measure the Temperature Difference
Types:
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection
of the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical
properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They
are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples
with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other
selection criteria include the inertness of the thermocouple material and whether it
is magnetic or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the
positive electrode first, followed by the negative electrode.
K:
Type K (chromel{90 percent nickel and 10 percent chromium}–alumel)(Alumel
consisting of 95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2% aluminum and 1% silicon) is the most common
general purpose thermocouple with a sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C, chromel positive
relative to alumel. It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are available in its −200 °C
to +1350 °C / -328 °F to +2462 °F range. Type K was specified at a time
when metallurgy was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics vary
considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic; a
characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a step
change in output when the magnetic material reaches its Curie point (around 354 °C for type
K thermocouples).
40
E:
Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C) which makes it well suited
to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic.
J:
Type J (iron–constantan) has a more restricted range than type K (−40 to +750 °C),
but higher sensitivity of about 55 µV/°C The Curie point of the iron (770 °C) causes an abrupt
change in the characteristic, which determines the upper temperature limit.
N:
Type N (Nicrosil–Nisil) (Nickel-Chromium-Silicon/Nickel-Silicon) thermocouples are
suitable for use at high temperatures, exceeding 1200 °C, due to their stability and ability to
resist high temperature oxidation. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900 °C, slightly lower than
type K. Designed to be an improved type K, it is becoming more popular.
Application:
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to 2300
°C. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be
measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such
applications thermistors and resistance temperature detectors are more suitable. Applications
include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other
industrial processes.
Steel industry:
Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the steel and iron industries
to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable,
immiscible, type S thermocouples are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to
accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping. The cooling curve of a small steel
sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.
Heating appliance safety:
Many gas-fed heating appliances such as ovens and water heaters make use of a pilot
flame to ignite the main gas burner when required. If it goes out gas may be released, which is
a fire risk and a health hazard. To prevent this some appliances use a thermocouple in a fail-
safe circuit to sense when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in
the pilot flame, generating a voltage which operates the supply valve which feeds gas to the
pilot. So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot, and the pilot gas
valve is held open. If the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple temperature falls, causing the
voltage across the thermocouple to drop and the valve to close.
Some systems, known as mill volt control systems, extend this concept to the main gas valve
as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas
41
valve, it is also routed through a thermostat to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a
larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and
a thermopile is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external
source of electricity for its operation and so can operate during a power failure, provided all
the related system components allow for this. Note that this excludes common forced air
furnaces because external power is required to operate the blower motor, but this feature is
especially useful for un-powered convection heaters.
A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to
ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main burner
gas supply valve should that not happen.
Out of concern for energy wasted by the standing pilot, designers of many newer appliances
have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called intermittent
ignition. With no standing pilot flame, there is no risk of gas buildup should the flame go out,
so these appliances do not need thermocouple-based safety pilot safety switches. As these
designs lose the benefit of operation without a continuous source of electricity, standing pilots
are still used in some appliances. The exception is later model instantaneous water heaters that
utilize the flow of water to generate the current required to ignite the gas burner, in
conjunction with a thermocouple as a safety cut-off device in the event the gas fails to ignite,
or the flame is extinguished.
Thermopile radiation sensors:

Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically
visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat
sink. It is possible to measure radioactive intensities of only a few μW/cm2 with commercially
available thermopile sensors. For example, some laser power meters are based on such
sensors.
Manufacturing:
Thermocouples can generally be used in the testing of prototype electrical and
mechanical apparatus. For example, switchgear under test for its current carrying capacity
may have thermocouples installed and monitored during a heat run test, to confirm that the
temperature rise at rated current does not exceed designed limits.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generators:
Thermopiles can also be applied to generate electricity in radioisotope thermoelectric
generators.
42
Process plants:
Chemical production and petroleum refineries will usually employ computers for
logging and limit testing the many temperatures associated with a process, typically
numbering in the hundreds. For such cases a number of thermocouple leads will be brought to
a common reference block (a large block of copper) containing the second thermocouple of
each circuit. The temperature of the block is in turn measured by thermistors. Simple
computations are used to determine the temperature at each measured location.
Observation Table:
Sr. No. Temperature(ᵒC) Voltage(mV)
1 27.5 98.80
2 30 100.86
3 36.5 107.30
4 41.5 112.10
5 45.9 116.45
6 49.5 120.28
7 52.6 123.5
8 55 125.52
9 58 128.55
10 60 130.65
Conclusion:
By using the thermocouple we can generate the voltage through the junction or contact
point which we can use as a temperature sensor to measure and control the destination point
temperature.
43
PRACTICAL NO :11
AIM: To study and simulate any two measurement system using LAB VIEW
THEORY:
Introduction to LabVIEW
Navigating LabVIEW
 Virtual Instruments
 Starting a VI
 Parts of a VI
 Project Explorer
 Front Panel
 Block Diagram
 Selecting a Tool
 Dataflow
 Building a Simple VI
 LabVIEW Help Utilities
Virtual Instruments (VIs):

LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments, or VIs
Appearance and operation imitate physical instruments, such as oscilloscopes and digital
multimeters
44
The NI Approach – Integrated Hardware Platforms
LabVIEW Programs Are Called Virtual Instruments (VIs)

Each VI has 2 Windows
Front Panel
• User Interface (UI)
– Controls = Inputs
– Indicators = Outputs
Block Diagram
• Graphical Code
– Data travels on wires from controls through functions to indicators
– Blocks execute by Dataflow
45
PROCEDURE:
CONCLUSION:
Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
46

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Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation Laboratory Manual

Birla Vishwakarma Mahavidhyalaya

Subject Code: 2141003

Programme: Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics &

“Produce globally employable innovative electronics and telecommunication engineers with

Programme Educational Objectives (PEO)

1) To understand and apply the fundamental knowledge of core electronics and

Programme Outcomes (PO)

Figure 1: The basic structure of a CRO

Figure 2: The front panel of the CRO

Front Panel Controls:

Vertical Axis Controls

Horizontal Axis Controls

The FUNCTION GENERATOR is divided into six major control groups:

1) Frequency Selection Group

 It varies from few mill volts to approximately 20 volts.

1. Connect the CRO with the function generator output terminal

One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is by using Lissajous patterns

In this method of measurement a standard frequency is applied to one set of deflection

Fractional relationship: fv= (fraction) x fh

fv/fh = no. Of horizontal tangencies/ no. Of vertical tangencies.

Case:1 fh = 1khz fv = 1khz Case:2 fh = 1khz fv = 2khz

Case:3 fh = 1khz fv = 500hz Case :4 fh = 1khz fv = 3khz

Case:5 fh = 1khz fv = 1/3khz Case:6 fh = 1khz fv = unknown (?)

Figure : Wheatstone Bridge

through R3 and Rx is the same. We then have the relationship:

R1 / R2 = Vac / Vcb ------------------------ (1)

R3 / Rx = Vad / Vdb ------------------------ (2)

Sr. Voutput Rx (ohm) RX (ohm)

Fig:- Maxwell’s bridge circuit

A Maxwell bridge is a type of Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown

Fig:- equivalent circuit of Maxwell’s bridge

1. First of all connect the circuit as shown in fig.

The impedance of one arm is

Using the bridge balance equation,

1. Collect all the required components for this experiment.

Apparatus: Voltmeter, Resistance Box, Voltage Supply

Multi range voltmeter.

Voltmeter Circuit Connections

for increasing the range of voltmeter from 10V to 20V

= (1.11 * 20 *103) – (11.3 * 103)

After performing experiment,

The practical value is, 9.8kΩ

Weight LOAD SENSED BY KIT

An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in

An LVDT Displacement Transducer comprises 3 coils; a primary and two

 Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments.

SR. Applied Displacement of core Output meter reading

A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces

Basic Diagram of Thermocouple

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to

Thermocouple Used To Measure the Temperature Difference

Thermopile radiation sensors:

Sr. No. Temperature(ᵒC) Voltage(mV)

Virtual Instruments (VIs):

The NI Approach – Integrated Hardware Platforms

LabVIEW Programs Are Called Virtual Instruments (VIs)

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= (1.11 * 20 103) – (11.3 103)