An Illustrated Guide To Science-Marine Science PDF

SCIENCE VISUAL RESOURCES
MARINE
SCIENCE
An Illustrated Guide to Science
The Diagram Group

Marine Science: An Illustrated Guide to Science
Copyright © 2006 The Diagram Group
Editorial: Gordon Lee, Jamie Stokes
Design: Anthony Atherton, Richard Hummerstone,

Lee Lawrence
Illustration: Peter Wilkinson
Picture research: Neil McKenna
Indexer: Martin Hargreaves
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Introduction
Marine Science is one of eight volumes of the Science Visual
Resources set. It contains seven sections, a comprehensive
glossary, a Web site guide, and an index.
Marine Science is a learning tool for students and teachers. Full-

color diagrams, graphs, charts, and maps on every page illustrate
the essential elements of the subject, while parallel text provides
key definitions and step-by-step explanations.
Geography of the oceans provides an overview of the physical

dimensions of the bodies of water that cover 70 percent of Earth.
Geology of the oceans examines the geological processes that have

shaped Earth’s surface and features that are unique to the marine
environment. It covers the regions of intense volcanic activity that
lie deep beneath the sea, and the shifting boundaries between
water and land.
Chemistry of the oceans is concerned with the nature of seawater

and with the global cycles that carry vital elements, such as carbon
and nitrogen, from the oceans to the atmosphere to the land, and
back to the ocean again.
Ocean-atmosphere system details the engines that drive global

climate. The cycling of heat from warmer to cooler latitudes, the
impact of Earth’s rotation on ocean currents, and the daily ebb and
flow of the tides are covered here.
Biology of the oceans is an overview of the wealth of plant and

animal life that lives in, on, or near the oceans. Food chains
stretching from bacteria to blue whales are described, as well as the
unique communities that thrive in the pitch black of the deep
ocean floor. Every class of animal and plant found in the marine
environment is articulated.
Marine exploration and Marine economics focus on the human

relationship with the sea. It covers the technology that has allowed
explorers to span the globe and probe the depths of the ocean.
The vital role of marine food sources in the health and wealth of
the world is also examined.
Contents
1 GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
8 Earth’s water 17 Southern Ocean
9 Earth’s oceans 18 Caribbean Sea and the
10 The Eastern Hemisphere Gulf of Mexico
11 The Western Hemisphere 19 Sargasso Sea
12 Major seas 20 Mediterranean Sea
13 Pacific Ocean 21 North Sea
14 Atlantic Ocean 22 Red Sea
15 Indian Ocean 23 Persian Gulf
16 Arctic Ocean 24 Depth zones
2 GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS

25 The first oceans 41 Biogenous sediments
26 Oceanic and continental 42 Terrigenous sediments
crust 43 Hydrogenous sediments
27 Primeval continental drift 44 Transport routes of
28 Recent continental drift oceanic sediment
29 Seafloor spreading 45 Coastal formation
30 The Wilson Cycle 46 Cliff formation
31 Major lithospheric plates 47 Slopes and depositions
32 Plate boundaries 48 Landforms of marine
33 Seamounts and guyots erosion
34 Growth of the Hawaiian 49 Landforms of marine
Islands deposition
35 Profile of an ocean 50 Shore types
36 Spreading ridges 51 Estuary types
37 Trenches 52 Estuarine salinity
38 Continental margins 53 Sea level change in
39 Continental margins of recent geologic time
North America 54 Isostasy and eustasy
40 Seafloor sediments 55 Global sea level change
3 CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
56 Water molecules 69 Residence times in
57 Physical states of water seawater
58 Water’s special properties 70 Dissolved gases in
59 Light in the sea seawater
60 Sea surface temperatures 71 Salinity and its
61 Temperature gradients measurement
62 Sea ice 72 Salinity variation
63 Icebergs 73 Ocean surface salinity
64 Sound in the sea 74 Biogeochemical cycles
65 Seawater pressure 75 Carbon cycle
66 Seawater density 76 Nitrogen cycle
67 Water as a solvent 77 Phosphorus cycle
68 Composition of seawater 78 Oil and gas formation
4 OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
79 Coriolis effect 90 Tide types
80 Ekman transport 91 Internal waves and
81 Geostrophic gyres standing waves
82 Surface currents 92 Ocean waves
83 Subsurface currents 93 Shore waves
84 Oceanic conveyor belt 94 Tsunamis
85 Downwellings 95 Coastal breezes
86 Upwellings 96 Waterspouts
87 El Niño 97 Ocean surface
88 Tides topography
89 Spring and neap tides
5 BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
98 Origins of life 127 Fish of the deep-sea
99 History of life floor
100 Environmental change 128 Subtidal zone
101 Food chains 129 Bathyal zone
102 North Atlantic food 130 Abyssal zone
chain 131 Deep scattering layers
103 Antarctic food web 132 Diel vertical migrations
104 The microbial loop 133 Seasonal vertical
105 Primary productivity of migrations
organic carbon 134 Seaweed
106 Secondary production 135 Sponges and cnidaria
107 Rocky shore: intertidal 136 Marine worms
zone 137 Mollusks
108 Rocky shore: vertical 138 Arthropods
zonation 139 Echinoderms
109 Rocky shore: 140 Jawless fish
competition and 141 Jawed fish
predation 142 Cartilaginous fish
110 Sandy shore fauna 143 Diversity of cartilaginous
111 Muddy shore fauna fish
112 Sandy and muddy shore 144 Shark attacks
meiofauna 145 Bony fish
113 Plankton 146 Diversity of bony fish
114 Phytoplankton 147 Marine reptiles
115 Holoplankton 148 Seabirds
116 Meroplankton 149 Seabird feeding
117 Planktonic adaptations strategies
118 Red tides 150 Marine mammals
119 Major subdivisions of 151 Sea otters
the marine environment 152 Manatees and dugongs
120 Epipelagic zone 153 Seals, sea lions, and
121 Mesopelagic zone walruses
122 Mesopelagic adaptations 154 Whales, dolphins, and
123 Mesopelagic coloration porpoises
124 Bioluminescence in the 155 Toothed whales
deep sea 156 Baleen whales
125 The pelagic deep sea 157 Echolocation
126 Adaptations of pelagic 158 Fish migration
deep-sea fish 159 Turtle migration
160 Seabird migration 167 Coral reef zones
161 Whale migration 168 Seagrass meadows
162 Mangrove swamps 169 Kelp forests
163 Mangrove forests and 170 Hydrothermal vents
salt marshes 171 Hydrothermal vent
164 Coral polyps communities
165 Coral reef formations 172 Cold-water seep
166 Distribution of coral communities
reefs
6 MARINE EXPLORATION
173 Latitude 180 Historical submersibles
174 Longitude 181 Modern submarines
175 Modern navigation 182 Crewed submersibles
176 Early diving apparatus 183 Uncrewed submersibles
177 Scuba diving apparatus 184 Submarine vehicles
178 Rebreathing apparatus 185 Satellite technology
179 Modern deep-sea diving 186 Sonar techniques
7 MARINE ECONOMICS
187 World fish catch 193 Mining for aggregates
188 World fish stocks 194 Oil exploration
189 Aquaculture 195 Offshore drilling
190 Decline of whaling 196 Energy from the oceans
191 Mineral wealth 197 Shipping industry
192 Exploiting seawater
APPENDIXES
198 Key words
205 Internet resources
207 Index
8
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Earth’s water

Key words The oceans
heat sink
The oceans
polar
precipitation
temperate
tropical
The importance of water

● Water is vital for life on Earth.
Most organisms mainly consist of
water. For example, the human body
is usually composed of at least 65
percent water.
● The distribution of water on land
largely determines the occurrence
and abundance of terrestrial flora
and fauna. In environments where
there is little water available, such as
deserts, there is little or no animal or a b c
plant life. In environments where a b c
there is a lot of water available, such as
rain forests, there are more plant and a The oceans cover 71 b They contain more than c About 98 percent of
animal species than anywhere else. percent—139 million square 97 percent—323 million Earth’s living space is found
miles (361 million km2)—of cubic miles (1,348 million in the oceans.
Rain forest covers only about six Earth’s surface. km3)—of Earth’s surface
percent of Earth’s surface, but water.
contains more than 50 percent of all
known animal and plant species.
● Water dissolves many kinds of
The partition of surface water
substances and is a major transporter
of chemicals between land and sea.
● Water is the planet’s most potent heat
transporter. It acts as a massive heat
sink that carries tropical heat to
temperate and polar regions.
● The presence of water in the
atmosphere generates weather and
climate. Clouds, for example, form
from condensing water droplets.
They trap sunlight, release
precipitation, and act as a heat- saltwater = 97.55% freshwater = 2.45%
insulating layer around Earth. saltwater = 97.55% freshwater = 2.45%
● Water heats up and cools down slowly
and so moderates temperature The partition of water on Earth’s surface
changes in coastal areas. The partition of water on Earth’s surface
● As liquid or ice, water is a powerful
erosive force that shapes the planet’s
surface.
© Diagram Visual Information Ltd.
Seas and Ice Groundwater Lakes and Inland Atmosphere

oceans
Seas and Ice rivers
Groundwater Lakes and saltwater
Inland Atmosphere
oceans rivers saltwater % of total
97.54 1.81 0.63 0.009 0.007 0.001
water
% of total
97.54 1.81 0.63 0.009 0.007 0.001
water
% of fresh
– 73.9 25.7 0.36 – 0.04
water
% of fresh
– 73.9 25.7 0.36 – 0.04
These figures do not include the tiny fraction of available water contained within living organisms. water
These figures do not include the tiny fraction of available water contained within living organisms.
9
Earth’s oceans GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Pacific Ocean Key words

coast seawater
latitude
Ocean
49%
Ocean
● The Ocean is the continuous expanse
of seawater that covers 71 percent of
Earth’s surface.
● The oceans are the four major
Atlantic Ocean subdivisions of the Ocean—the Pacific,

Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic oceans,
plus the Southern Ocean.
● The Pacific Ocean extends from the
west coast of North, Central, and
South America to the east coast of Asia
25%
and Australia.
● The Atlantic Ocean extends from the
west coast of Europe and Africa to the
east coast of North, Central, and South
America.
● The Indian Ocean extends from the
Indian Ocean
east coast of Africa to the west coast of
Australia.
● The Arctic Ocean extends from the
north coasts of Europe and Asia to the
north coast of North America.
22% ● The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica to latitude 65°S.
Comprising the southern parts of the
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans, its
limits were officially set in 2000 by the
International Hydrographic
Arctic Ocean Organization.
Facts about
Ocean (excluding seas)
Area in square miles (km2)
4%
Mean depth in feet (m)
Volume in cubic miles (km3)
● Pacific Ocean
63,800,000 (165,250,000)
14,040 (4,280)
169,610,000 (707,000,000)
● Atlantic Ocean
The Southern Ocean 31,830,000 (82,440,000)
10,920 (3,330)
65,830,000 (274,400,000)
● Indian Ocean
28,355,000 (73,440,000)
12,760 (3,890)
68,510,000 (285,600,000)
● Arctic Ocean
5,440,150 (14,090,000)
3,240 (988)
3,338,000 (14,000,000)
10
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS The Eastern Hemisphere

Key words Major topography
mid-ocean ridge
trench 1 Mid-Indian Ridge 5 Japan Trench
2 Australian–Antarctic Rise 6 Kermadec Trench, South Pacific
3 Ry ūky ū Trench, Japan 7 Tonga Trench, South Pacific
Seafloor topography
4 Mariana Trench, North Pacific
● The seafloor is not flat and featureless.
● Valleys and mountains on the seafloor
are often deeper or higher than
similar features on land.
● The Mariana Trench in the Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean reaches a
depth of about 36,000 feet
(11,000 m) below sea level
and 16,700 feet (5,100 m)
below the surrounding
seafloor. The deepest
valley on land is Hell’s
Canyon, Oregon, which is
7,875 feet (2,400 m) at its
maximum depth.
● The tallest mountain North Pacific Ocean
emerging from the sea is Asia 5
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, which
rises 33,465 feet
(10,200 m) above the
seafloor. The tallest
mountain on land is 3
Mount Everest, which rises
29,030 feet (8,848 m) 4
above sea level. Africa
● The longest mountain
range on Earth is the mid-
ocean ridge system that 1
extends for 40,000 miles 7
(64,000 km) along the
seafloor. It is four times South Pacific Ocean
longer than the Himalayas, Indian Ocean
Australia
Andes, and Rocky 6
Mountains combined.
2
Southern Ocean
11
The Western Hemisphere GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Major topography (continued) Key words

island chain seafloor
8 Aleutian Trench, North Pacific 12 Puerto Rico Trench lithospheric plate spreading
magma subduction
9 Southwest Pacific Plateau 13 Mid-Atlantic Ridge mid-ocean ridge trench
10 East Pacific Rise
Mid-ocean ridges
11 Peru–Chile Trench
● Mid-ocean ridges are found on the
seafloors of all of the world’s oceans.
● They are undersea mountain ranges
that mark the boundaries
between divergent
lithospheric plates.
● They are formed from the
upwelling magma that
drives divergent plates
apart and causes
seafloor spreading.
Trenches
● Trenches are very deep,
8 steep-sided depressions in
the seabed.
North 13 ● They are formed where
North Pacific Ocean America Europe
North Atlantic Ocean one lithospheric plate
slides beneath another in a
process known as
12 subduction.
● Trenches are often
Africa
associated with volcanic
island chains. These form
on the side of the trench
formed by the non-
subducted plate.
South
10 America
9 11
13
South Pacific Ocean South Atlantic Ocean

Southern Ocean
12
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Major seas

Key words
Atlantic Ocean
bay 7
gulf
3
ocean 6
sea
2 5
Seas 4
● A sea is a region of an ocean 1
that either covers a defined
geographical area, or has a
Sea or gulf* Area in square miles (km 2) Mean depth in feet (m) Volume in cubic miles (km 3)
defining characteristic.
1 Sargasso Sea 1,738,000 (4,500,000) 16,400 (5,000) 5,396,000 (22,500,000)
● The Caribbean Sea is an
2 Caribbean Sea and
example of a sea that covers 3 Gulf of Mexico 1,485,330 (3,487,000) 7,100 (2,164) 1,810,550 (7,550,000)
a geographical area. It is a 4 Mediterranean Sea and
region of the Atlantic Ocean 5 Black Sea 1,145,170 (2,966,000) 4,760 (1,450) 1,031,175 (4,300,000)
that lies off the coasts of 6 North Sea 222,010 (575,000) 305 (93) 12,710 (53,000)
7 Baltic Sea 162,930 (422,000) 180 (55) 5,510 (23,000)
South and Central America.
● The Sargasso Sea is an
example of a sea that has a Pacific Ocean
defining characteristic. It is a
8
part of the Atlantic Ocean
where there are almost no 10
surface currents. Large 9
quantities of a seaweed
known as sargassum
grow there.
● A sea may also be a large
body of saltwater that is 8 Sea of Okhotsk 589,960 (1,528,000) 3,185 (971) 354,920 (1,480,000)
connected to the ocean by a 9 East China Sea 481,850 (1,248,000) 900 (275) 81,530 (340,000)
narrow channel, such as the 10 Sea of Japan 389,190 (1,008,000) 5,490 (1,673) 405,280 (1,690,000)
Mediterranean Sea is.
● A sea may also be a large Indian Ocean
body of saltwater that is not
connected to the ocean,
such as the Caspian Sea.
12
Bays and gulfs 11

● Bays and gulfs are seas that
are mostly enclosed by land.
● There are no internationally-
agreed conventions on the
relative sizes of bays and 11 Red Sea 169,110 (438,000) 1,765 (538) 57,550 (240,000)
gulfs, but gulfs are usually 12 Persian Gulf 77,220 (200,000) 80 (25) 1,200 (5,000)
larger than bays.
● Hudson Bay on the northeast Arctic Ocean
coast of Canada is an
13
example of a bay.
● The Gulf of Mexico on the 14
south coast of the United

States is an example of a gulf.
13 Bering Sea 876,060 (2,269,000) 4,890 (1,491) 810,550 (3,380,000)

14 Hudson Bay 476,060 (1,233,000) 420 (128) 38,370 (160,000)
*All data is approximate. There are no precise, internationally agreed boundaries for these bodies of seawater.
13
Pacific Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
current plate
fault boundary
gyre seamount
hot spot spreading
7 mid-ocean ridge
6
ridge trench
ocean
Asia
North America
1
e b Pacific Ocean
● The Pacific Ocean is the world’s
North Pacific 2
largest ocean.
● It stretches from the west coast
d
a of North, Central, and South
America to the east coast of
3 Asia and Australia.
8 ● The Pacific Ocean contains
4 more water than all of the

South other oceans put together.
America ● The Pacific was named by
the 16th-century Portuguese
Australia explorer Ferdinand Magellan,
South Pacific c
9 who believed the ocean to have
a gentle nature (pacific means
“calm”). In reality however, the
5 Pacific experiences severe
4
tropical storms (typhoons).
● The Pacific Ocean is
10 10 surrounded by destructive
plate boundaries that border
landmasses. They create an arc of
Major geologic features Surface currents volcanic and earthquake activity
sometimes known as the “Ring of
a The Mariana Trench is the world’s The North Pacific Gyre Fire.”
deepest trench. ● It is the oldest of the world’s oceans
1 Kuroshio Current
and is gradually shrinking as the
b The San Andreas Fault is 745 miles
2 California Current Atlantic Ocean slowly expands.
(1,200 km) long.
● The Pacific Ocean is usually divided
3 North Equatorial Current
c The East Pacific Ridge, a spreading into the North Pacific and the South
ridge, is 6,550–9,850 feet The South Pacific Gyre Pacific.
(2,000–3,000 m) high and
1,550 miles (3,500 km) long. 4 South Equatorial Current Facts about
d Volcanic activity at the Hawaiian 5 Peru Current Area
Hot Spot has generated the 63,800,000 square miles
e Hawaiian–Emperor Seamount Other
(165,250,000 km2)
Chain.
6 Alaska Current
Volume
7 Oyashio Current
169,600,000 cubic miles
8 Equatorial Countercurrent (707,270,000 km3)
9 East Australia Current Mean depth

14,043 feet (4,280 m)
10 Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Deepest point
36,163 feet (11,022 m) in the
Mariana Trench
14
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Atlantic Ocean

Key words
8
basin mid-ocean ridge c
coast ocean
current sea
gyre trench
latitude f
g
Europe
Atlantic Ocean
● The Atlantic Ocean is the world’s North Atlantic b 2
North 1
second largest ocean. America
● It occupies an S-shaped basin that e
extends from the east coasts of North, a
Central, and South America to the
d
west coasts of Europe and Africa.
● The land area that drains into the Africa
Atlantic is four times greater than the 3
land area that drains into the Pacific 7
or Indian oceans.
● The Atlantic is usually divided into the
North Atlantic Ocean and the South
South America 4
Atlantic Ocean.
● The boundary between the North and
South Atlantic is defined by the region
where the two dominant surface South Atlantic
currents, the North Atlantic Gyre and
the South Atlantic Gyre, pass each
other (about 8°N).
● The Atlantic Ocean was named after
6
5
the Greek god Atlas, who held up the
heavens.
● The Atlantic Ocean is the youngest of
the world’s oceans. It began to form 9
fewer than 100 million years ago, 9
when the North and South American
landmasses began to separate and Major geologic features
move away from Europe and Africa.
● The Atlantic is still expanding today as a The Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs the length activity has produced islands such as
volcanic activity along the Mid-Atlantic of the ocean basin. At 7,020 miles the Azores, west of Portugal b and
(11,300 km) long and up to 13,100 feet Surtsey, Iceland c .
Ridge continues to push the Americas (4,000 m) high it is part of the world’s
further away from Europe and Africa. longest mountain chain, the mid-ocean d The Puerto Rico Trench is the world’s
ridge system. Associated volcanic second deepest trench.
Facts about
Surface currents
Area
31,830,100 square miles The North Atlantic Gyre encircles the 6 Benguela Current
(82,440,000 km2) Sargasso Sea e :
7 Equatorial Countercurrent
Volume 1 Gulf Stream
65,830,300 cubic miles 8 North Atlantic Drift. Fed by the Gulf
(274,525,000 km3) 2 Canary Current Stream, it warms northwest Europe.

Labrador f and London g lie at
Mean depth 3 North Equatorial Current similar latitudes, but London is some
18°F (10°C) warmer in mid-winter,
10,925 feet (3,330 m) The South Pacific Gyre: largely because of the heating effect
of the North Atlantic Drift.
Deepest point 4 South Equatorial Current
27,495 feet (8,380 m) in the 9 Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Puerto Rico Trench (d) 5 Brazil Current
15
Indian Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
coast mid-ocean ridge
e current monsoon
Arabia Gondwana ocean
India
1 d Southeast gyre sediment
2 Asia hot spot upwelling
6
Indian Ocean
Africa ● The Indian Ocean is the world’s third
f largest ocean.
Indonesia
● It extends from the east coast of
b Africa to the west coast of Australia
3 and is bounded in the north by
southern Asia.
● The Indian Ocean’s currents are
unique because its northern surface
current reverses direction for part of
a
Australia the year (the monsoon). This is due to
seasonal weather changes across the
Indian Ocean landmasses that encircle the northern
4
part of the ocean.
c
● The world’s first civilizations
5
developed around the Indian Ocean
and it was the first ocean to be
crossed extensively by regular
trade routes.
7 ● The Indian Ocean has formed during
the 125 million years since the
breakup of Gondwana.
Major geologic features
a The mid-ocean ridge system. The major d Ganges-Brahmaputra Fan, south of
site of seafloor spreading, it is an inverted Bangladesh. About 930 miles
Y-shape. (1,500 km) across, it is the world’s
largest sediment fan.
b Ninety East Ridge. About 2,000 miles
(3,000 km) long, it is the world’s longest
straight-line feature. It is probably the
product of the Kerguelen Hot Spot c .
Surface currents
The Indian Ocean, unlike the Pacific and the The South Indian Gyre Facts about
Atlantic, is entirely enclosed by land on its
northern side. One consequence of this is the 3 South Equatorial Current Area
monsoon wind system of the northern Indian 28,355,200 square miles
Ocean that reverses direction seasonally. The 4 Somali Current (73,440,000 km2)
Indian Ocean does not have a Northern
Hemisphere gyre. 5 West Australia Current Volume
1 In summer, the southwesterly monsoon Other currents 68,510,000 cubic miles
winds from the southern Indian Ocean (285,681,000 km3)

cause deluges in India. The summer 6 North Equatorial Current
winds generate upwellings that Mean depth
enhance phytoplankton productivity in 7 Antarctic Circumpolar Current 12,760 feet (3,890 m)
the Arabian Sea e .
Deepest point
2 In winter, northeasterly winds suppress
the upwellings and lower productivity. 24,445 feet (7,450 m) in the Java
Trench (f)
aa
continental shelf
current
mid-ocean ridge
ocean
Arctic Ocean
● The Arctic Ocean is by
far the smallest and
shallowest of the four
true oceans.
● Unlike the other true
the surrounding
landmasses.
Facts about
Area
16
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
coast
oceans, it is virtually
landlocked with only
narrow channels
connecting it to the
Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.
● It extends from the
north coast of North
America to the north
coasts of Europe and
Asia.
● The central region of
the Arctic Ocean is
covered by permanent
ice at least 10 feet
(3 m) thick. During the
winter the ice covers
almost the whole of the
Arctic to the shores of
5,440,000 square miles

(14,090,000 km2)
Volume
(13,920,920 km3)
Mean depth
3,240 feet (988 m)
Deepest point
18,052 feet (5,502 m) on the Polar
Abyssal Plain
aa
Arctic Ocean
North America
1
Greenland
Iceland

1
There are a series of roughly parallel

a
ridges across the seafloor of the Arctic

ocean:
e
b
c
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
The Alpha Ridge
The Lomonosov Ridge: the current

site of seafloor spreading.
The Nansen Cordillera. This is near

continuous with the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge a .
North of Eurasia, the continental

shelf is extremely wide, at about
1,000 miles (1,600 km) across.
2
Arctic Ocean
2
c
d
e
3
Europe
1
Climatic features
Large areas of the Arctic Ocean are
Asia
permanently covered by ice. The amount

of ice cover varies from season to season
and is influenced by the presence of warm
currents:
3
In winter, sea ice is 10 feet
(3 m) thick or more and covers most
of the Arctic Ocean.
Even in summer, the shrinking ice

covers about half the Arctic Ocean.
The Norwegian Current. An

extension of the North Atlantic
Current, its warm water keeps the
Norwegian coastline free of ice
throughout the year.
17
Southern Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
South America Key words

Pacific Ocean b c basin
convergence
Atlantic Ocean current
2 mid-ocean ridge
Southern Ocean
ocean
sea level
3
a
1 The Southern
Ronne Ice Ocean
West Shelf
Antarctica
● The Southern Ocean,
a also known as the
Antarctic Ocean, is not
Ross Ice usually regarded as a true
Shelf ocean because it lacks
b bordering landmasses.
● In nautical terminology
e
New Zealand however, the southern
regions of the Atlantic,
East
Antarctica Indian, and Pacific
oceans have long been
referred to as the
Southern Ocean.
South Africa ● Its status as an ocean
Southern Ocean a and its official limits
b d were set by a decision
b of the International
Australia Indian Ocean Hydrographic
b
Organization in 2000.
● The Southern Ocean
surrounds the continent of Antarctica
Major geologic features Climatic and current features and extends north to latitude 65°S.
● Antarctica is the coldest region on
a Antarctica’s continental shelf is 1 Antarctic Convergence around 50–55°S. Earth. Many coastal areas have mean
extremely deep at 1,200–1,600 feet Here cold polar water at surface and
(370–490 m) below sea level. It is deep levels interacts with warm annual temperatures of only –22°F
depressed by the weight of ice on subpolar waters at midwater level. (–30°C).
Antarctica’s landmass. ● Ice coverage of the Southern Ocean
2 Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Situated
b Mid-ocean ridge system. Beyond the north of the Antarctic Convergence, this increases by seven times from the
continental shelf, parts of this system current forms the southerly boundary height of summer (March) to the
enclose the deep ocean basin. This is of the southern gyres of the Pacific, height of winter (September).
subdivided into: Atlantic, and Indian oceans. It is the only
● The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is
major surface current that circles the
c The Southeast Pacific Basin globe. the world’s largest ocean current in
terms of the amount of water it
d The South Indian Basin 3 In winter, sea ice increases to more than
six times its summer extent. moves. It always flows from west
e The Atlantic-Indian Basin to east.
Facts about
Area
(35,000,000 km2)
Deepest point
16,400 feet (5,000 m) approximately
18
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Caribbean Sea and the

Key words
basin ocean
Gulf of Mexico
current sea
eddy strait
United States
gulf
isthmus 5
5 Atlantic Ocean
Caribbean Sea
● The Caribbean Sea is 3
situated between South
Bahamas
and North America and Gulf of Mexico
bounded by Central 4
G
America in the west and b r e
a t
a string of islands 3 e r
Cuba A
including the Greater n t 1
i l
and Lesser Antilles in l e
s
the east. f Lesser
c
● There are more than Puerto Antilles
Mexico Rico
7,000 islands in the 2
1
Caribbean, for example
Caribbean Sea
Cuba and Puerto Rico.
1
2
Gulf of Mexico 2 e
● The Gulf of Mexico is
bounded on three sides d
by the United States and
a Venezuela
Mexico. Panama
● The southeast of the Pacific Ocean
Gulf is bounded by Colombia
Cuba.
Major geologic features Major currents

Geologically, the Caribbean Sea is believed 1 Warm surface water flows from the
to be a fragment of Pacific Ocean crust Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea.
separated from the rest when the Isthmus Shallow sills prevent cold deep water
of Panama was formed some 3 million years from entering.
ago. The wider Caribbean comprises four
comparatively deep ocean basins: 2 Warm water from the Caribbean Sea
enters the Gulf of Mexico via the
a Isthmus of Panama Yucátan Channel.
Facts about
b Gulf of Mexico 3 Large eddies retain the water within
Gulf of Mexico the Gulf, warming it further.
c Yucatán Basin
Area 4 The water discharges through the
596,140 square miles (1,544,000 km2) d Colombian Basin Florida Strait.
Maximum depth e Venezuelan Basin 5 The water then feeds the Gulf Stream.
13,220 feet (4,029 m) f Cayman Trench
Caribbean Sea
Area
750,190 square miles (1,943,000 km2)
Maximum depth
25,218 feet (7,686 m) in the Cayman
Trench (f)
Locator map
Sargasso Sea
aNorth
America
Boundary currents
a 1
Bermuda
Caribbean Sea
Major currents
South America
The Sargasso is encircled by fast-moving

currents:
3
North Atlantic Ocean
Sargasso Sea
The Gulf Stream to the west and north
The Canary Current to the east
Equatorial Drift to the south
Sargasso flora and fauna

1 The Sargasso is patchily covered with a
floating carpet of sargassum weed,
mostly Sargassum natans. The weed is
inhabited by superbly camouflaged fish,
such as:
2 Pipefish (Syngnathus pelagicus)
3 Sargassum anglerfish (Histrio histrio)
1
3
3
2
Locator map
Azores
South Atlantic Ocean
●
Africa
19
Key words
current
fauna
flora
latitude
Sargasso Sea
●
longitude
ocean
salinity
sea
The Sargasso Sea is a

region of the North
Atlantic Ocean that lies
between latitudes 25°
and 35°N and between
longitudes 40° and 70°W.
It covers an area
approximately 700 miles
(1,200 km) from north
to south and 2,000 miles
(3,200 km) from east to
west.
● It is an unusual sea in
that its limits are defined
not by land boundaries
but by ocean currents.
The ocean currents that surround the

Sargasso Sea move water quite rapidly,
but the water within the sea barely
moves at all: it is an irregular oval of
slow-moving clear water.
● Large quantities of a seaweed known
as sargassum weed accumulates near
the surface of this slow-moving water.
There is a unique community of
creatures adapted to life among this
surface weed.
● Salinity levels in the Sargasso Sea are
very high because there is little
movement of water into or out of it.
There is also therefore little inflow of
nutrients.
● The animals adapted to living in this
environment are not specialized to
feed on any one type of sargassum
weed because they need to be able to
eat any kind of plant material that
is available.
Facts about
Area
(4,500,000 km2) approximately
Maximum depth
20
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Mediterranean Sea

Key words Connections
ocean Black
Atlantic Ocean
precipitation France Sea
runoff 4
salinity Italy 3
sea 2 Turkey
strait Spain Greece
Syria
Mediterranean Sea Cyprus

● The Mediterranean Sea is 1
Israel
situated between Europe, Mediterranean
Africa, and Asia. Tunisia Sea
Algeria 5
● It gets its name from the Latin
Morocco
mediterraneus which means Egypt
Libya
“in the middle of land.”
Sea currents
Connections
Atlantic Ocean Black
1 Strait of Gibraltar to Atlantic France Sea
Ocean
Italy
2 Dardanelles to Sea of
Marmara 7 Turkey
3 Sea of Marmara to Spain Greece
Syria
Bosphorus
4 Bosphorus to Black Sea 7
6 Cyprus
5 Suez Canal to Red Sea
6 7
Israel
Mediterranean
Sea currents Tunisia 6 Sea 6
● In the Mediterranean, sea- Algeria
Morocco
surface evaporation is about Egypt
Libya
three times greater than
precipitation and runoff. Sea
level is maintained by water Component seas
flowing in from the Atlantic Atlantic Ocean Black
Ocean. France Sea
● The water in the eastern Italy
Mediterranean is slightly b Turkey
warmer and more saline than Spain Greece
that in the western a Syria
d
Mediterranean. c
6 Atlantic cold water enters Cyprus
through the Strait of
Israel
Gibraltar and travels along Mediterranean
the North African coast. Tunisia Sea
Algeria
Morocco
7 Warm, more saline, water
Egypt
returns to the Atlantic along Libya
the European coast.
Facts about
Component seas
Area Geographically, the Mediterranean includes

several other seas, including:
1,145,000 square mile (2,966,000 km2)
a The Tyrrhenian Sea
Mean depth
4,760 feet (1,450 m) b The Adriatic Sea
Maximum depth c The Ionian Sea
16,707 feet (5,092 m) in the Hellenic
Trough d The Aegean Sea
Locator map
21
North Sea GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

Key words
Norway continental ocean
Sweden
crust runoff
1
current sea
3 land bridge sea level
c Northern strait
Hemisphere
North Sea
1 Denmark ● The North Sea is a shallow
North Sea northeastern arm of the
3 Atlantic Ocean.
● It separates Great Britain from
mainland northern Europe.
Evolution
1 3 Movements of Northern
●
Hemisphere landmasses
b between 225 and 65 million
years ago established the
beginnings of the North Sea’s
Great Britain current shorelines.
3 ● As recently as 18,000 years ago
Netherlands Germany
the North Sea did not exist. Its
northern half was buried
a beneath an ice sheet and its
Belgium southern half was covered in
2 woodland and scrub. Since
English Channel France then, this low-lying region of
continental crust has become
flooded as sea levels have risen
Major geologic features Current features following postglacial warming.
● About 10,000 years ago, the land
a Straits of Dover Cold northern stream bridge between Dover, England, and
Calais, France became submerged,
b Northern Netherlands 1 Cool water from the North Atlantic
sweeps down the east coast of
forming the Straits of Dover. Much of stream
Cold northern
c Skagerrak entrance to Baltic Scotland and England. the northern Netherlands was also
submerged at this time. Warm southern stream
Warm southern stream
Mixed waters travel north
2 Warm water from the Atlantic Ocean
enters the North Sea through the
Straits of Dover a and helps keep
the North Sea free of ice all year.
3 The circulation pattern in the North

Sea is counterclockwise. Pollutant-
laden runoff from the UK, France, Facts about
Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Area
Locator map Germany is carried northward toward
Denmark and Norway. 222,010 square miles (575,000 km2)
Average depth
305 feet (93 m)
Maximum depth
2,380 feet (725 m) at Skagerrak (c)
22
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Red Sea

Key words Israel
Iraq Iran
an
current rift valley 5
Jord
gulf sea
monsoon spreading ridge
1 2
ocean
Pe
rs
ia
G
n
Saudi Arabia ul
Red Sea 6
f
A
● The Red Sea is a northward extension Egypt
of the Indian Ocean. It separates Africa
R
from the Arabian Peninsula.
● The Red Sea is an example of a 3
recently-formed sea that is expected to
A
continue becoming wider.
A
B
Component parts
1 Gulf of Suez
F
I
2 Gulf of Aqaba
Red
3 Main body of the Red Sea
Sea
A
R
Eritrea
Connections
4 The Strait of Bab el Mandeb Sudan
I
connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Yemen

Aden and Arabian Sea. Arabian Sea
C
5 The Suez Canal connects the Red 4

Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Gulf of Aden
Ethiopia
Indian
A
Somalia Ocean
Evolution
● The Red Sea is a flooded rift valley.
● It is widening from its spreading ridge
in the axial trough 6 at the rate of
about 0.5 inches (1.25 cm) per year.
Circulation
a In summer, water currents flow Locator map
southward, out of the Red Sea. Water Circulation
is drawn out by currents in the
Arabian Sea that are driven by the Water flow: summer Water flow: winter
southwest monsoon winds.
b In winter, water is driven into the
Red Sea by reversing Arabian Sea
currents and the northeast
monsoons.
Facts about
Area
169,100 square miles (438,000 km2)

northwest
southwest monsoon
Mean depth monsoon
1,765 feet (538 m)
Maximum depth
9,580 feet (2,920 m) in the a b
axial trough (6)
23
Persian Gulf GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
gulf sea
Iran lithospheric plate strait
Iraq
monsoon subduction
ocean tide
Kuwait Persian Gulf

Pe ● The Persian Gulf is a shallow enclosed
rs
ia sea connected to the northern Indian
n
Gu
lf Ocean via the Strait of Hormuz.
Strait of Hormuz
● The Gulf is less than 330 feet (100 m)
deep over much of its area.
Qatar Gulf of Oman ● It is polluted by oil discharges and
agricultural and domestic waste.
Saudi Arabia United Arab However, the strong circulation and
Emirates high water temperatures tend to
degrade and disperse pollutants
Oman rapidly.
● Strong tides flush water out through
Arabian Sea the Strait of Hormuz and into the Gulf
of Oman and beyond. Pollutants are
dispersed into the larger and deeper
Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean.
Evolution
Evolution
● The Persian Gulf region is an area of
b active subduction, with the Arabian
plate a to the southwest sliding
beneath the Asian continental plate
Locator map b to the northwest.
c
● It is feasible that within the next
a 100,000 years the Strait of Hormuz c

could close as a result of this tectonic
movement.
Circulation
1 In summer, net surface water flow is
Circulation out of the Persian Gulf, driven by the
Water flow: summer southwest monsoon winds.
2 In winter, net surface water flow is
into the Persian Gulf, driven by the
northwest monsoon winds.
Water flow: winter
Facts about
est
thw Area
sou nsoon
1 mo 77,200 square miles (200,000 km2)
Average depth
80 feet (25 m)
st Maximum depth
we
o rth oon
2 n ns 560 feet (170 m)
mo
24
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Depth zones

Key words Depth 1 The epipelagic zone, also
feet called the euphotic or
abyssopelagic epipelagic zone (m) sunlit zone, is the upper
zone fauna region of the water
column. It receives
atmosphere mesopelagic
660 1 sufficient sunlight to
bathypelagic zone sustain photosynthesis.
(200)
zone photosynthesis Most marine life depends,
depth zone thermocline directly or indirectly, on
plant production in this
2 zone.
Depth zones 2 The mesopelagic zone,
● Depth zones are theoretical partitions 3,300 sometimes called the
of the water column referred to by (1,000) twilight zone, receives
biological oceanographers. diffuse sunlight but in
insufficient amounts to
● These partitions are based on physical sustain photosynthesis.
conditions and the biological Most creatures inhabiting
communities that are adapted to this zone:
● migrate to the
living there. epipelagic zone to feed,
or
● rely on a rainfall of dead
Physical conditions: bodies or fecal matter
Light sinking from the surface
● Organisms inhabiting the various waters.
3
depth zones are adapted to the 3 The bathypelagic zone
abundance and quality of ambient receives no sunlight.
light. Animal life is relatively
sparse and consists
● In clear seawater, most of the available
mostly of crustaceans,
sunlight is absorbed within the top squid, and relatively small
660 feet (200 m). fish. The latter have
capacious mouths for
● The remaining light is predominantly
engulfing the occasional
of blue and green wavelengths; the prey item that may be as
other wavelengths—violet, yellow, large as the predator
itself.
orange, and red—have already been
absorbed. 13,200 4 The abyssopelagic zone
(4,000) is essentially an extension
of the bathypelagic zone
Pressure down to the seafloor, but
● Pressure increases by one atmosphere supports an even sparser
for each 33 feet (10 m) of depth. fauna.
● In the deepest parts of the ocean, at
depths of greater than 33,000 feet
(10,000 m), the ambient pressure is in
excess of 1,000 atmospheres.
4
Temperature
● Sunlight warms the surface waters and
turbulence transfers heat downward to
depths of 660–990 feet (200–300 m).
● Below this, there is a steep
temperature gradient, the
thermocline, extending down to
2,650–3,300 feet (800–1,000 m).
● The deep ocean is almost uniformly

cold, at between 30 and 39°F
19,800
(–1 and 4°C). (6,000)
25
The first oceans GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Outgassing theory
volcano atmosphere outgassing theory
cometary theory
rain
element
heavy water
ocean
Outgassing theory
● Outgassing theory states that the
water in Earth’s oceans originated with
the gases that were released from the
ocean
planet’s interior soon after it coalesced
into a single body.
● The early Earth is thought to have
been a mainly molten ball. In this
state, the heavier elements were
separated out from the lighter, and
these lighter elements (gases such as
hydrogen and helium) escaped from
the surface.
● At first Earth would have been so hot
Cometary theory that most of these gases would have
immediately boiled off into space.
● As Earth cooled, some of these gases
comet would have been trapped by Earth’s
gravity to form an atmosphere.
● This atmosphere would have increased
comet fragments Earth’s reflectivity so that less sunlight
would have reached the surface,
allowing the planet to cool further.
● Eventually, the atmosphere and the
surface would have cooled to a point
at which water droplets could
condense and fall as rain.
Cometary theory
● Cometary theory states that some of
Earth’s water probably originated from
comets that impacted Earth.
Hybrid theory ● However studies of the water content
of comets suggest that most of Earth’s
water could not have come from
comets. Cometary water contains a
higher proportion of heavy water than
planetesimal Earth’s oceans.
Hybrid theory
● Although it is unlikely that a significant
proportion of Earth’s water originated

from comets, much of it may have
come from the large bodies known as
planetesimals that came together to
form Earth.
● The remainder probably resulted from
outgassing.
26
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Oceanic and continental

Key words
continental crust
crust
oceanic crust
plate boundary Oceanic crust
spreading ridge
ocean trench oceanic crust

Earth’s crust
● Earth’s crust is the
thin, solid layer of rock
that forms the outer
skin of the planet.
● There are two types of
crust: oceanic and
continental.
Oceanic crust
● Oceanic crust is the
part of Earth’s crust
that forms the ocean
floor.
● Oceanic crust is 4–7 miles
(6–11 km) thick and has an
average density of about 1.7
ounces per cubic inch (3 g/cm3).
● It consists mostly of basalts, the
majority of which have been formed upper mantle
within the last 200 million years.
oceanic crust
● Oceanic crust is generally much
younger than continental crust
because it is constantly being
destroyed at convergent plate
Continental crust
boundaries and created at continental crust
spreading ridges.
Continental crust
● Continental crust is
the part of Earth’s
surface that forms the
continents.
20–25 miles
(30–40 km) thick with
a maximum thickness
of about 45 miles
(70 km) and has an
average density
of about 1.6 ounces
per cubic inch
(2.7 g/cm3).
● It consists of two basic
layers: an upper layer
dominated by granites
and a lower layer dominated by basalt
and diorite. These rocks are usually
much older than oceanic crust rocks. continental crust upper mantle upper mantle
27
Primeval continental drift GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
250 million years ago Key words

continental drift Pangaea
Gondwana Panthalassa
Laurasia
S A
ocean
A S
Continental drift
P
L
● Continental drift is the theory that
A
A
the continents are very slowly moving
N
H
in relation to one another.
G
T
N ● Geologists believe that the present-day
A
A continents once formed a single

P
E
A
landmass that has since broken apart.
250 million years ago

● Two hundred million years ago there
was just one landmass on Earth. It is
referred to as Pangaea, which is
Greek for “all land.”
180 million years ago ● The continental crust that makes up
today’s landmasses was a part of
Pangaea.
● The great ocean that covered the rest
U R A S I A of the globe is called Panthalassa,

L A which means “all sea.”

North Atlantic ● By 180 million years ago Pangaea had
split Indian Ocean begun to break up.
split
● The first split to occur opened up
G what became the North Atlantic and
O
N Indian oceans. The landmass to the
D
W
A north of this split is known as
N
A Laurasia and the landmass to the
south as Gondwana.
● Antarctica also split away from Pangaea
and started to drift slowly southward.
● India split from Antarctica and began
100 million years ago to drift northward.

Labrador
Sea ● By 100 million years ago the North
North Asia Atlantic and Indian Ocean splits had
America grown wider.
North ● Africa and South America had begun
Atlantic Indian to separate as the South Atlantic
Ocean
Ocean began to open up.
● The Labrador Sea, which eventually
Africa
South
separated Greenland from North
America India America, had also begun to open.
South
Atlantic ● India was moving strongly northward
on a collision course with the
Australia southern coast of Asia.
Antarctica
28
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Recent continental drift

Key words 60 million years ago
continental drift
ocean
North Asia
America
60 million years ago North

Atlantic
● By 60 million years ago South America
had separated from Africa completely Africa
and was drifting toward collision with
the southern tip of North America. South India
America
● The North Atlantic continued to widen
and eventually detached North
America from Europe altogether.
● India continued to move northward. Australia
● Australia remained attached to
Antarctica. Antarctica
Present day
● Today North America and Europe are Present day
separated by an ever-widening Greenland
North Atlantic Ocean.
● South America and Africa are
North Asia
America
separated by an ever-widening North
South Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic
● Greenland has become isolated from Africa India
North America and Europe.
● India has impacted with Asia.
South
● North and South America have joined. America South
● Australia has separated from Antarctica Atlantic
Australia
and migrated northward.
50 million years
in the future
● Both the North and South Atlantic will
have continued to grow wider. Antarctica
● Australia will have continued its
northward drift. 50 million years in the future
● India will have been propelled
eastward with the rest of Asia.
● Africa will have drifted slowly
northward, closing the Mediterranean. North Mediterranean
America Asia
● Africa’s Rift valley will have widened to Sea
form the beginnings of a new ocean.
● The Red Sea will have widened and Africa
become continuous with the Red Sea
Mediterranean. India
● North and South America will have South Rift valley Australia
become detached again as North America

America continues to drift north west.
Antarctica
29
Seafloor spreading GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
The process of seafloor spreading
magma
1 2 sinking block of mid-ocean ridge
oceanic crust oceanic crust
sea-floor
spreading
oceanic Seafloor spreading

crust ● Seafloor spreading is the process by
which seas become wider as volcanic
processes create new seafloor material
mantle (oceanic crust).
● A mid-ocean ridge is a volcanically
A rising current in the semiliquid The pressure of the rising current active site where new oceanic crust
rock of the mantle pushes up and eventually splits the solid rock of is created.
weakens the solid rock of the oceanic the oceanic crust. A block of oceanic ● Magma wells up from the center of the
crust above it. crust sinks and molten rock from
the mantle rises through the cracks ridge and quickly solidifies as it is
around it. exposed to the cold water.
oceanic crust ● Solidified magma is soon pushed
forced apart outward by new magma upwellings.
sinking block of With each upwelling, the oceanic crust
3 4
oceanic crust spreads further outwards from the
ridge.
Magnetic polarity reversal

● When magma emerging from ocean
ridges solidifies, it effectively records
the orientation of Earth’s magnetic
field at that point in time.
● Iron-bearing minerals in the magma
are orientated by Earth’s magnetic
field and are locked in that position
As molten rock wells up and solidifies Eventually the central block grows so when the rock solidifies.
the subsided central block grows wide that it also splits, and a new ● Studies of oceanic crust have shown
wider and forces the two halves of central block sinks. The two halves
the split oceanic crust apart. are forced apart. that Earth’s magnetic field has
reversed polarity many times in
the past.
● Rock on the seafloor consists of bands
Fossilized magnetic polarity reversals
of solidified magma with alternating
Bands of rock that have recorded reversed oceanic crust formed during a magnetic orientations.
polarities are found running parallel to spreading period of reversed polarity ● These bands indicate that Earth’s
ridges. The existence of these bands is thought magnetic field reverses polarity at
to prove the process of seafloor spreading over oceanic crust formed during a
geologic time. period when polarity was the irregular intervals of between 100,000
same as today and 25 million years.
6 4 2 0 2 4 6
Age in millions
of years
spreading ridge
30
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS The Wilson Cycle

Key words 1 Embryonic stage rift valley
continental lithosphere
(continental crust and
continental crust subduction
upper solid mantle)
magma upwelling
mid-ocean ridge Wilson Cycle
oceanic crust asthenosphere
rift valley (semifluid
upper mantle)
Wilson Cycle
● The Wilson Cycle (after J. Tuzo Wilson
1908–93) describes the creation,
2 Juvenile stage seawater
evolution, and eventual destruction of
an ocean.
1 Embryonic stage
● An upwelling of hot mantle material
stresses the continental crust above
and may cause it to begin to split.
● A rift valley results from this splitting.
magma oceanic lithosphere

2 Juvenile stage
● As the rift deepens, seawater will
eventually flood in. 3 Mature stage ocean basin mid-ocean ridge
● Upwelling magma seeps to the surface continental margin
and begins to form oceanic crust.
● Oceanic crust forms on either side of
the magma upwelling, pushing the
two halves of the flooded valley
further apart (seafloor spreading).
● A new ocean is being formed.
3 Mature stage
● As seafloor spreading continues, the
ocean matures and the coasts 4 Declining stage
continue to move apart.
● A mature ocean features a mid-ocean
ridge and a continental margin.
4 Declining stage
● An ocean begins to shrink when
the amount of new oceanic crust
being formed at ridges is exceeded by
the amount being subducted beneath
other crustal plates at trenches.
● Older oceanic crust tends to sink trenches continental crust
oceanic crust
beneath newer crust because it is
cooler and floats lower on the mantle. sea
5 Terminal stage
● Where oceanic crust is subducted
there is a high incidence of volcanic
and earthquake activity.
5 Terminal stage
● The shrinking ocean eventually
becomes isolated from the rest of the
oceans and may drain.
● Continents are eventually drawn into
collision, forming mountain ranges. mountains
31
Major lithospheric plates GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
convergent lithospheric plate
boundary mantle
divergent transform
boundary boundary
3
9
3
2
11
15 12
6
16 17 4
1
10 13
5
13
14
8
14
convergent plate 1 Pacific plate 10 African plate Lithospheric plates

boundary (where
adjacent plates ● A lithospheric plate is one of the solid,
2 Juan de Fuca plate 11 Iranian plate
come together) but distinct, segments that make up
3 North American plate 12 Arabian plate the outer surface of Earth.
divergent plate
● Lithospheric plates are mostly solid
boundary (where
4 Cocos plate 13 Indo-Australian plate and float on the semiliquid mantle
adjacent plates
move apart) beneath.
5 Nazca plate 14 Antarctic plate
● Lithospheric plates float because they

transform plate
boundary (where 6 Caribbean plate 15 Philippine plate are less dense (on average) than
adjacent plates mantle material.
move past one 7 South American plate 16 Caroline plate
● Lithospheric plates move around
another)
8 Scotia plate 17 Bismarck plate Earth’s surface, collide, and interact
direction of plate with each other.
movement 9 Eurasian plate
● Their motion is thought to be driven
by convection currents in the mantle.
32
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Plate boundaries

Key words
Divergent boundary
convergent plate boundary
boundary spreading ridge lithospheric plate spreading ridge lithospheric plate
divergent subduction
boundary transform
lithospheric plate boundary
mid-ocean ridge trench
Plate boundaries
● Plate boundaries are the
regions where lithospheric
plates meet.
● Lithospheric plates are either
moving apart, colliding, or molten rock
(magma)
sliding past each other.
Divergent boundary
● A divergent boundary is a region
where lithospheric plates are Convergent boundary
moving apart.
● They occur where oceanic crust is
lithospheric plate trench lithospheric plate
being laid down at a spreading

ridge. These are common at mid-
ocean ridges.
Convergent boundary
● A convergent boundary is a
region where two
lithospheric plates are
colliding.
● The denser plate usually
sinks beneath the other. This
is known as subduction. asthenosphere
● Older portions of
lithospheric plate are usually
denser than younger
portions. This is because older
portions are cooler. Transform boundary
● Deep depressions in the ocean
lithospheric plate transform fault lithospheric plate
floor known as trenches are
common where subduction occurs.
Transform boundary
● A transform boundary is
a region where two lithospheric
plates move past each other at
a fracture called a transform
fault.
● Friction between the plates

causes frequent earthquake
activity along transform
boundaries.
direction of plate movement

33
Seamounts and guyots GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Volcanic island formation Key words

guyot spreading ridge
guyot magma upwelling
mid-ocean ridge volcanic island
seamount volcanic island
oceanic crust
seamount
spreading ridge
tension fracture
Volcanic features
Guyot formation ● Several geologic features are
associated with mid-ocean ridges.
1 A volcanic island is
formed at an oceanic ● Most volcanic activity takes place along
spreading ridge. the axis of the spreading ridge and
consists of magma upwellings that
build oceanic crust.
● Further away from the ridge, tension
fractures allow magma to escape and
form other volcanic features.
● A seamount is a submerged volcano
2 The volcanic island moves that forms close to a mid-ocean ridge.

away from the spreading ● Seamounts may grow in height until
ridge, and as it sinks, wave they break the surface of the ocean
action erodes its top.
and become volcanic islands.
● As a seamount moves with the oceanic
crust further from the spreading ridge,
it will eventually become inactive.
● As an inactive seamount moves even
further from the spreading ridge, the

3 The submerged island underlying crust subsides and it may
moves further away from its
source and the top is become submerged again.
flattened to form a guyot: a ● A guyot is an inactive seamount that
flat-topped seamount. has emerged from the ocean as a
Meanwhile a new volcanic
island is formed at the volcanic island, been eroded flat by
spreading ridge. the action of weather and waves, and
become submerged again.
34
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Growth of the

Key words
hot spot seamount
Hawaiian Islands
island chain volcanic island
lithospheric plate Development of volcanic island chains
magma 1 lithospheric 2
oceanic crust plate
volcano
Volcanic island chains mantle

● A volcanic island chain may form
when oceanic crust moves over a
persistent hot spot in the mantle (1). hot spot
● Magma is forced to the surface above
island volcanic
the hot spot and builds a seamount 3 island 4
(2) that eventually emerges as a
volcanic island (3).
seamount
● As the island moves away from the hot
spot with the oceanic crust, volcanic
activity ceases and the island may
begin to subside.
● A new seamount forms above the hot
spot, eventually breaking the surface
as a new volcanic island (4).
The development of Hawaii
● Over millions of years a chain of Asia
seamounts and volcanic islands
North America
emerges.
Hawaiian and
Emperor chains
● A mantle hot spot has created the
Emperor seamount chain and the
Hawaiian Islands over 70 million years.
● The Emperor seamount chain now
consists of submerged seamounts (a). a Emperor chain
● About 25 million years ago, the Pacific
plate changed direction (b) and the
b direction change
Hawaiian chain began to form (c).
● Today, Hawaii is a volcanically active c Hawaiian Islands chain
island, and to its southeast Loihi is an
active seamount that has yet to rise
above sea level.
Hawaii today Kauai

Oahu
Loihi: a volcanically active seamount
Hawaii: a volcanically active island Molokai
for 0.8 million years
Maui: a volcanically inactive island Maui
Molokai: a volcanically inactive island

Oahu: a volcanically inactive island Hawaii
Kauai: a volcanically inactive island
Loihi
35
Profile of an ocean GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Continental margin continental continental submarine continental abyssal plain spreading ridge
shelf slope canyon rise continental rise submarine
continental shelf canyon
continental slope trench
guyot
island arc
Continental shelf
● A continental shelf is a continent’s
true rim: it descends to an average
depth of 650 feet (200 m). Continental
shelves occupy about 7.5 percent of
the ocean floor.
Continental slope
● A continental slope is a steep slope
descending from the continental shelf.
Such slopes occupy about 8.5 percent
of the ocean floor.
Spreading ridge
abyssal submarine spreading Submarine canyon
plain plateau ridge ● Clefts in the continental slope called
submarine canyons are cut by turbid
river water flowing out to sea.
Continental rise
● The continental rise is a gentle slope
below the continental slope.
Abyssal plain
● This is the sediment-covered deep-sea
plain about 11,500–18,000 feet (3,500–
5,500 m) below sea level.
Submarine plateau
● High seafloor tablelands are called
submarine plateaus.
island arc Spreading ridge

Oceanic trench ● These submarine mountain chains are
trench guyot
generally 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above
the abyssal plain.
Trench
● Trenches are deep steep troughs.
Guyot
● Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that

have been volcanic islands before
becoming submerged.
Island arc
● A curved row of volcanic islands,
usually on the continental side of a
trench, is called an island arc.
36
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Spreading ridges

Key words Features of a spreading ridge
asthenosphere transform fault
magma upwelling transform fault spreading spreading axis ocean floor
unit
mantle
mid-ocean ridge
oceanic crust
spreading ridge
upwelling
magma
upper mantle
Spreading ridges asthenosphere oceanic crust

● A spreading ridge is a region of the
ocean floor where new oceanic crust
is being created by upwelling magma
from the layer of semiliquid rock
known as the asthenosphere.
spreading other plate
● This magma forces its way Major spreading ridges ridges boundaries
direction of
plate movement
through the upper mantle and
emerges on the ocean floor.
● The magma cools to form
oceanic crust and is forced
away from the axis of the ridge
by more upwelling magma. The
ocean floor spreads outwards
on both sides of the ridge.
● As the newly formed oceanic
crust is pushed away from the
ridge, it cools.
● Cooling causes the new oceanic
crust to buckle and subside.

● Stresses cause faults to open
up perpendicular to the axis of
the spreading ridge. These are
known as transform faults.
● Transform faults divide the
ridge into a series of offset
spreading units.
37
Trenches GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Island arc and trench systems
asthenosphere subduction
continental island arc trench continental crust trench
crust island chain volcanic island
magma
oceanic crust
Island arc and

trench systems
Ocean trenches are deep
●
depressions on the ocean floor.
They are typically 2–2.5 miles
(3–4 km) deeper than the
surrounding ocean floor
and hundreds of miles
long, but narrow. An
ocean trench forms
when a tectonic plate is
subducted beneath
another.
● Melted material from
the subducted plate
mixes with water to
produce a low density
low-density oceanic magma that tends to rise through the
asthenosphere upper mantle magma crust
crust above. This volcanic activity
creates a chain of islands behind
the trench.
Continental arc and trench systems ● The Aleutian Islands off Alaska are an
continental example. They lie along the landward
crust side of the Aleutian trench that marks
the line where the Pacific plate is
volcano trench subducted beneath the North
American plate.
Continental arc and

trench systems
● When oceanic crust is subducted
beneath a plate with continental crust
at its leading edge, the resulting low-
density magma rises through the
continental crust to form a
chain of volcanoes close to
the shore.
● The Andes Mountains
of South America are an
example. They lie
parallel to the region
where the Nazca plate is

subducted beneath the
South American plate.
low-density oceanic
38
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Continental margins

Key words
Continental margin
abyssal hills continental slope
abyssal plain mid-ocean ridge
alluvial fan shelf break
continental submarine
margin canyon
continental rise trench
continental shelf turbidity current
Continental margin
features
● The continental margin is the
portion of a continent that
extends beneath the ocean. It
consists of several regions:
● The continental shelf is a gentle
slope that extends from the
shoreline out under the water to
the edge of a steep cliff known
as the continental slope. The
top of this cliff is known as the
shelf break.
● The continental slope is a steep
shelf break down to a more
gentle slope known
as the continental rise.
● The continental rise is a gentle
slope extending from the bottom of
the continental slope to the generally Continental margin features
flat region known as the abyssal plain.
The continental rise is made up of
sediments that have slid off the a b c d
continental slope.
● Valleys cut into the continental slope
are known as submarine canyons.
They are river or glacial valleys that
were formed when sea levels were
much lower than at present. They may
also be formed by seismic activity
causing undersea “avalanches” of
sediment known as turbidity currents.
● The abyssal plain is the almost flat,
featureless plain that makes up most
of the ocean bed. It may be
interrupted by abyssal hills, mid-ocean a Continental shelf c Continental rise
Slope typically 0.1°, depth less Slope range 0.1–1°, depth
ridges, trenches, or other volcanic than 1,300 feet (400 m) 8,200–16,500 feet (2,500–5,000 m),
features. formed from deposition of material
● An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped layer of b Continental slope flowing down canyons

Slope typically 3–6°, depth
sediment on the abyssal plain down to 6,500–13,000 feet d Abyssal plain
deposited by a turbidity current. (2,000–4,000 m) Generally flat, depth 10,000–16,500
feet (3,000–5,000 m) but may
contain trenches down to 26,000
feet (8,000 m) or more
39
Continental margins of GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
North America Key words

continental
margin
Ocean depths around North America
0–500 feet
(0–150 m)
500–10,000 feet
(150–3,050 m)
10,000–20,000 feet
(3,050–6,100 m)
more than 20,000 feet

(6,100 m)
Canada
United States
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
M
ex
i
co
West coast East coast Continental margins

The west coast of the United States has The east coast of the United States has ● An active continental margin is a
a narrow, active continental margin. a broad, passive continental margin.
margin where there is interaction
between lithospheric plates
South (convergent or transform boundaries).
Carolina They tend to have narrow, steeply
Charleston
sloping continental slopes.
● A passive continental margin is a
margin where there is no interaction
San
between lithospheric plates. They tend
Francisco
to have broad, gently sloping
continental slopes.
California
Florida
40
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seafloor sediments

Key words
biogenous sediment
sediment terrigenous
cosmogenous sediment
sediment
hydrogenous
sediment
North Europe
America
Asia
Africa
Africa
South
America
Australia
Antarctica
mostly mostly mostly red clay

Sediments of the seafloor terrigenous biogenous with some hydrogenous
● A sediment is a layer of particles that
has settled on the ocean floor.
Sediment grain sizes
● Terrigenous sediments are formed
Grain sizes according to the Wentworth scale
from particles that originated on land.
Particle size range Particle size range Particle or
An example is the mud carried into
(inches) (metric) aggregate name
the sea by a river.
>10.1 256 mm boulder
● Biogenous sediments are formed from
particles that came from living things. 2.5–10.1 64–256 mm cobble
An example is the shells of tiny
1.26–2.5 32–64 mm very coarse gravel
creatures living in the sea.
● Hydrogenous sediments are formed 0.63–1.26 16–32 mm coarse gravel
from particles that crystallize out of 0.31–0.63 8–16 mm medium gravel
seawater.
● Red clay is a kind of terrigenous
0.157–0.31 4–8 mm fine gravel
sediment that is common where no 0.079–0.157 2–4 mm very fine gravel
other kind of sediment is usually
0.039–0.079 1–2 mm very coarse sand
deposited.
● Different kinds of sediment are more 0.020–0.039 0.5–1 mm coarse sand
common across certain regions of the 0.010–0.020 0.25–0.5 mm medium sand
seafloor. For example, terrigenous

sediments are more common close to 0.0049–0.010 125–250 m fine sand
the edges of continents. 0.0025–0.0049 62.5–125 m very fine sand
● The size of sediment particles, known
0.00015–0.0025 3.90625–62.5 m silt
as grains, are classified according to
the Wentworth scale. 0.00015–0.000039 3.90625–1 m clay
>0.000039 >1 m colloid

41
Biogenous sediments GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Calcareous sediments Key words

biogenous sediment
sediment siliceous
calcareous sediment
sediment subtropical
plankton temperate
Biogenous sediments
● Biogenous sediments are sediments
formed from the remains of once-
living organisms.
Calcareous sediments
16,400 feet
● Calcareous sediments are biogenous
(5,000 m)
sediments formed from calcium
carbonate. The calcium carbonate
comes from the exoskeletons of tiny
calcareous deposits creatures such as foraminiferans and
coccoliths.
● Foraminiferans and coccoliths are
Calcareous skeletal single-celled animals that live in the

remains oceans in huge numbers.
● Calcareous sediments are found at
foraminiferan moderate depths in subtropical and
exoskeleton coccolith temperate waters.
● They are not found at depths greater
than 14,800–16,400 feet (4,500–
Siliceous sediments 5,000 m) because high pressure, high
carbon dioxide concentrations, and
low temperatures dissolve calcium
carbonate.
● The relatively shallow Atlantic Ocean
has about two-thirds calcareous
sediment coverage, while the deeper
Pacific Ocean has about one-third
coverage.
Siliceous sediments
● Siliceous sediments are biogenous
sediments formed from the glasslike
(siliceous) exoskeletons of tiny
creatures known as diatoms,
radiolarians, and silicoflagellates.
16,400 feet
● Siliceous sediments are found in
(5,000 m)
cooler and deeper waters than
calcareous sediments.
● They accumulate where deposition of
siliceous deposits calcareous exoskeletons is low, where

there are high concentrations of

dissolved silica, and at depths greater
Siliceous skeletal
than 14,800–16,400 feet (4,500–
remains 5,000 m) where calcium carbonate
tends to dissolve.
radiolarian diatom
exoskeleton exoskeleton
42
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Terrigenous sediments

Key words
Deep-sea clay
continental crust sediment wind currents
estuary terrigenous
sea currents
glacial sediment sediment
glacier turbidity current deep-sea clay
iceberg
Terrigenous
sediments
● Terrigenous sediments
are sediments formed
from material that
originated from
continental crust.
Deep-sea clay
● Deep-sea clay covers
large areas of the deep ocean floor.
● It consists of material conveyed from
land by wind and water currents. Coarse terrigenous sediments
● Deposition from other sources is very strong river
current
low in these areas.
● Deposition rates are very low— coarse
typically 0.04 inches (1 mm) per sediment
thousand years.
Coarse terrigenous
sediments
● Coarse sediments are
typically deposited by
rivers via estuaries.
● They are found primarily
in shallow waters on the
continental shelf.
● Turbidity currents can
also convey coarse
sediments to the deep
ocean floor.
● Large river estuaries, such as the
Glacial sediments
Ganges-Brahmaputra fan in the Bay of glacial ice
Bengal, can extend well beyond the coarse sediment
continental shelf. released by ice
Glacial sediments
● Glacial sediments are found
primarily on continental
shelves where glaciers
flowed during periods of
low sea level.

● They are of mixed
coarseness, from clay to
boulder-sized particles.
● They are also found in
deeper water where free-
floating icebergs have
melted and deposited their sediment.
43
Hydrogenous sediments
Hydrothermal vents
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Hydrothermal vents
sulfurous hot water minerals are Key words
erupts from vent deposited like
sulfurous hot water aminerals are
smokestack black smoker manganese
erupts from vent deposited
around like
a vent
a smokestack
diffuse vent nodule
around a vent hydrogenous sediment
sediment white smoker
hydrothermal
vent
● Hydrogenous sediments are sediments
composed of minerals precipitated
from seawater.
Calcium carbonate
deposits
superheated water
● Seawater is saturated with calcium
gushes from below
superheated water ions (Ca2+).
gushes from below
● Where carbonate ion (CO32-)
Black smoker concentration is high and carbon
Black smoker
bottom metal sulfides oxidize metal oxides settle dioxide (CO2) concentration is low,
current and precipitate to ocean floor
bottom metal sulfides oxidize metal oxides settle calcium carbonate is precipitated
current and precipitate to ocean floor (CaCO3), mainly as aragonite and
calcite.
Manganese (polymetallic)
modules
● Manganese nodules are small, roughly
spherical nuggets of metals that form
on the deep ocean floor.
● They typically contain manganese
dioxide (30 percent), iron oxide
(20 percent), and a combination of
cobalt, copper, and nickel.
● It is not known how or why they form
but they are thought to grow at a rate
of 0.04–8 inches (1–200 mm) every
million years.
Hydrothermal vent
deposits
● Seawater flows into crevices near mid-
ocean ridges where it is heated and
dissolves minerals from the rocks.
● When this heated water is expelled
again, it meets cold ocean water and
some of its dissolved chemicals are
precipitated as sediments.
Types of hydrothermal
vents
● In diffuse vents: water is expelled at
up to 86°F (30°C).
● In white smokers, water is expelled at
390–570°F (200–300°C).
● In black smokers, sulfide-rich water is
hydrothermal hydrothermal fluid
vent chimney rich in metal sulfides seawater inflow expelled at 570–750°F (300–400°C).
vent chimney rich in metal sulfides seawater inflow
44
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Transport routes of

Key words
aeolian transport iceberg
oceanic sediment
authigenesis micrometeorite
biogenous sediment
Origins of oceanic sediment
sediment turbidity current
coastal erosion volcano
hydrothermal d c e f
vent
Origins of oceanic
sediment
Material is transported into the oceans a g i h j k l
by many routes:
a Fluvial transport: riverborne
terrigenous (land-originated)
sediment.
b Aeolian transport: terrigenous Principal sediments of the deep ocean
sediment blown on the wind.
c Coastal erosion. carbonates silicates
d Fallout from ash clouds produced by sand and mud
volcanoes and (e) high-altitude
jetstreams.
f Micrometeorites from space.
g Mass gravity flow: Debris flows and
turbidity currents.
h Ice-rafting: release of glacial sediment
from icebergs.
i Hydrothermal activity: chemicals
extracted from rock by hot water.
j Submarine volcanic activity.
k Biogenic debris: sediment

accumulating from the waste and dead
bodies of organisms.
l Authigenesis: addition of material by
chemical reaction between
accumulated sediment and dissolved
substances in the overlying water.
45
Coastal formation GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
1 New coastline Key words

Prominent headlands prior to the action of shoreline processes. bay wave action
coastline
erosion
headland
sediment
1 New coastline
● A coastline is initially established by
forces such as volcanic action, tectonic
movement, or the deposition of glacial
or riverborne sediment.
● A new coastline may also be formed
when sea levels rise or fall dramatically.
In either case, rocks and formations
that have not previously been in
contact with the sea become subject
to shoreline processes.
2 Shoreline processes
around a headland
shallow water of bay 2 Shoreline processes
curved arrow showing wave ● Shoreline processes are the effects on
refraction (bending)
a shoreline caused by waves and
shallow water near headland
currents. They include erosion and the
headland transportation of sediment.
waves settled particles in bay ● Wave action is the action of waves in
the erosion and transport of sediment
along a coastline.
● Waves are refracted by
headlands in such a way that
their energy rapidly
erodes both sides of a
headland.
3 Eroded coastline 3 Eroded coastline

The prolonged action of shoreline processes has removed the headlands. ● Shoreline processes tend to straighten
coastlines because headlands are
eroded and the resulting sediment is
deposited in the intervening bays.
a
Key words
erosion
high tide
low tide
sea level
strata
Wave erosion
●
●
●
46
wave
wave action
wave-cut
platform
Wave action erodes coastlines.

The erosive force of waves is greatest
at mean sea level.
● Soft strata erode more rapidly than
hard strata.
● The angle of strata also influences
the results of wave erosion.
Erosion of coastal land

Wave action erodes a notch in the
coastline between the high and low
tide levels.
● As this notch deepens, the material
above tends to collapse and a cliff is
formed.
● Wave action continues to cut the
notch deeper into the base of the
newly formed cliff.
● More material above the notch
collapses and the cliff becomes higher.
● A wave-cut platform is a near-
horizontal shelf at the level of the low-
tide mark. It is formed as wave action
continually undermines and collapses
the cliff face at the same level.
● On the seaward side of the platform,
●
eroded material may settle as beach
deposits before being removed by
waves and currents and deposited
elsewhere.
Steep cliffs
● Steep cliffs tend to form where the
coastal rocks are hard and where
coastal rock strata are tilted seaward.
Gentle cliffs
Gentle cliffs tend to form where the
coastal rocks are soft and where
coastal rock strata are tilted landward.
Cliff formation
1
Steep cliffs
Gentle cliffs
a
hard strata
soft strata
undercut cliff
wave-cut platform
beach deposits
strata tilted seaward
strata tilted landward

maximum high
tide level
minimum low tide level

mean sea level
47
Slopes and depositions GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Shore slope
longshore current shore deposition
On a gently sloping shore, material from the lower part of the shore (a) tends to be
longshore drift shore slope
eroded and deposited on the upper shore (b). On a more steeply sloping shore, the
prevailing wind wave
situation is reversed. Most beaches are at near-equilibrium conditions between the sediment wave action
two extremes. shore
Shore deposition
● Shore deposition refers to the
deposition of sediments and other
material along the shore.
● Most of this sediment is transported
b to the ocean by rivers. A smaller

b
proportion of the sediment is the
result of wave action eroding the
shore.
a a Shore slope
● The steepness of a shore’s slope
determines the kind of wave action
erosion that takes place.
● Wave action tends to deposit sediment
on gently sloping coastlines and
before remove sediment from steeper
after Gentle slope Steep slope coastlines.
Longshore drift and

Longshore drift longshore current
a Waves usually strike a depositional shore at an angle. ● Longshore drift is the tendency for
b Sand picked up by incoming waves is washed up the beach (swash) at an angle. wave action to move material in the
c The backwash returns directly down the beach. direction of prevailing winds along the
d The overall effect of swash and backwash is to move sand or shingle along the beach, length of a shore.
an activity otherwise known as longshore drift. ● Longshore current is the tendency for
material to be moved in the direction
of prevailing winds along the length of
d
a coastline.
b c
a
48
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Landforms of

Key words
bay sea arch
marine erosion
blowhole sea cave
coastline sea stack
Features of an erosion-dominated shore
erosion strata
headland erosion-resistant rock strata
less resistant rock strata
Erosion patterns
● A newly established coastline is
commonly composed of different
strata. Some strata are more erosion-
resistant than others.
● These variations in erosion
resistance tend to determine the
evolution of the coastline’s form
over time.
Bays and headlands

● A bay forms when less-resistant
strata are eroded quicker than headland bay
surrounding strata.
● Headlands are composed of more-
resistant strata and are left
protruding into the ocean as the
less-resistant strata around them are
eroded.
Headland erosion
● Headlands are exposed on three
sides to wave action.
● Sea caves form as wave action cuts
passages into weaknesses in the
sea arch blowhole sea cave
strata.
● A blowhole is a passageway
connecting the roof of a sea cave
with the surface of the land above. At
high tide, waves force water up into
a blowhole causing a geyser of water
and pressurized air to erupt from the
top of the blowhole.
● A sea arch forms when a sea cave is
eroded right through a headland.
● Sea stacks are the remains of
collapsed sea arches.
sea stacks
49
Landforms of marine GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
deposition Key words

bar lowland beach
barrier island sediment
Depositional shores bay-head beach shore
boulder beach spit
erosion tombolo
Boulder beach Bay-head beach
longshore current
longshore drift
Depositional shores
● A depositional shore is a shore on
which more sediment is deposited
than is removed.
● Depositional shores receive sediment
from rivers, from biological processes
in shallow waters, and from currents
carrying material from erosion sites.
● Longshore currents and longshore
Lowland beach Spit drift carry much of the material that
arrives at depositional shores.
● Where this material is deposited it
forms one of the several landforms
characteristic of a depositional shore.
Boulder beach
● A boulder beach is a narrow band of
boulders and shingle at the base of a
cliff.
Bay-head beach
Bar Tombolo ● A bay-head beach is a crescent of sand
lying in the bay between two
headlands.
Lowland beach
● A lowland beach is a broad, gently
sloping sandy beach, usually backed by
wind-blown dunes.
Spit
● A spit is a peninsula of sediment
deposited on the down-current side of
Barrier islands
a headland.
Bar
● A bar is a spit that entirely or almost
entirely closes off a bay.
Tombolo
direction of current
carrying sediment ● A tombolo is a finger of land
connecting an island to the shore.
Barrier island
● A barrier island is an island formed
from the remains of a spit or bar.
50
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Shore types

Key words Rocky shore
sea cliff
bay shore
flat wavecut platform
estuary shore slope
beach deposits
high tide wave-cut
maximum high tide level
low tide platform
sand dune minimum low
tide level
Shore
● A shore is the region that
lies between the extreme
low water spring tide mark
and the highest part of the
coastline that comes into
contact with storm waves.
● Shores vary depending on
their composition and their
exposure to the sea.
Rocky shores
● Rocky shores form where
high, rocky landforms are in
direct contact with the sea Sandy shore
on exposed coastlines. sand dunes beach deposits
● They are characterized by maximum high tide level
cliffs and a flat, wavecut minimum low tide level
platform that is likely to be
strewn with fallen rock.
● Typical particles are greater
than 0.08 inches (2 mm) in
size, formed from the
breakdown of fallen rock
from the cliff face.
● Beach slopes are greater
than ten degrees.
Sandy shores
● Sandy shores form on
sheltered coastlines where
suspended particles of small
to moderate size are
deposited.
● Typical particle sizes are in
Muddy shore
the range 0.0025–
0.08 inches (0.063–2.0 mm) estuary mouth beach deposits
and beach slopes are in the maximum high tide level
range 1–9 degrees. minimum low tide level
Muddy shores
● Muddy shores form on very

sheltered coastlines along
estuaries or bays.
● Typical particle sizes are
less than 0.0025 inches
(0.063 mm) and beach
slopes are less than
one degree.
51
Estuary types GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Drowned river valley river mouth Key words

bar river valley
bar-built sea level
estuary tectonic
estuary estuary
fjord
lagoon
Estuaries
● An estuary is a partially
enclosed body of water that is
open to the sea and into which
river water flows.
● Estuaries are commonly river
Bar-built estuary
shallow lagoon sand bar sea valleys that have been flooded
by rising sea levels.
Drowned river valleys

and coastal plain
estuaries
● Drowned river valleys and
coastal plain estuaries are the
most common form of estuary.
● They are formed when rising
sea levels inundate river
mouths and lowland areas.
● Examples include the Delaware
estuary and the Thames
Tectonic estuary estuary, England.
Bar-built estuaries
● Bar-built estuaries consist of
shallow lagoons separated from
the sea by sand bars or barrier
islands that have been
deposited by wave action.
● Examples include Laguna
Madre, Texas, and Waddenzee,
the Netherlands.
Tectonic estuaries
● Tectonic estuaries are formed
when land subsides or is folded
below sea level by geologic
Fjord movement.
● Examples include San Francisco
Bay, California.
Fjords
● A fjord is a deep, steep-sided,
U-shaped valley cut by glaciers
and subsequently inundated by
sea level rise.
● Examples include Glacier Bay,
Canada.
52
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Estuarine salinity

Key words Vertically-mixed estuary
estuary head mouth
salinity
tide
Water mixing
● Where river water meets ocean water
in an estuary the degree to which
saltwater and freshwater mix between
the head and the mouth depends on
the depth and volume of the estuary.
● The head of an estuary is the end
Slightly-stratified estuary
closer to the river. The mouth is the mouth freshwater layer
head
end closer to the sea.
● Freshwater is less dense than seawater
mixing zone
and so tends to flow over the top of it.
seawater layer
Vertically-mixed estuary
● In shallow, low-volume estuaries,
saltwater and freshwater mix readily
enough for salinity to increase steadily
with distance from the head of the
estuary.
● In a slightly deeper estuary, two water Highly-stratified estuary
layers can be identified: a freshwater
head mouth freshwater level
layer, which becomes increasingly
saline as distance from the head of the
estuary increases, and a seawater layer, seawater level
which becomes less saline as it
approaches the head of the estuary.
● A zone of mixing separates the two.
Highly-stratified estuary
● In deep estuaries, the freshwater level
increases in salinity as distance from
the head of the estuary increases.
● The seawater level remains at near-
normal salinity right up to the head
of the estuary.
Salt wedge estuary freshwater level
head mouth zone of

Salt wedge estuary transition
● In very deep, high-volume estuaries,
the freshwater layer does not increase seawater
in salinity until it reaches the mouth of
the estuary.
● A zone of transition from fresh to
seawater is found beneath the surface.
● A wedge of seawater advances and
retreats beneath the surface layer with
the tides.
53
Sea level change in GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
recent geologic time Key words

atmosphere
glacier
Sea level change ice age
feet meters ice cap
0 0 sea level
33 10
Global sea level
● Global sea level has been rising since
66 20
the peak of the last ice age about
20,000 years ago.
99 30
Depth of sea level relative to present
● The most rapid rise occurred between
131 40
20,000 and 6,000 years ago.
● Between 6,000 years ago and the year
164 50 1900, global sea level rose at a

constant but slower rate.
● Between 1900 and the present day
197 60
global sea level has also risen at a
230 70 constant but slightly increased rate.
● Global sea level is thought to have
263 80 risen by a total of about 395 feet

(120 m) in the last 20,000 years.
295 90 ● Average global temperature has risen
by about 18˚F (10˚C) over the same
328 100 period.
361 110 Factors for change

● Many factors contribute to global sea
394 120 level changes:
18,000 14,000 10,000 6,000 2,000 0 ● Increasing temperatures cause glaciers
Years before present to melt, which adds water to the
oceans.
● Increasing temperatures also cause the
Temperature change water in the oceans to expand,
increasing the overall volume of the
deglaciation
°F °C oceans. This factor is thought to be
18 10 more significant than the addition of
water from melting ice.
● Ice that is floating on the ocean, such
Average global temperature change
14 8 as the Arctic ice cap, does not

contribute to sea level rise when it
melts. The ice is floating on the ocean
11 6 and therefore already displacing a
volume of water equal to the volume
of water that would be added to the
7 4 ocean if the ice melted.
● The amount of water retained in the
atmosphere and trapped on land also
4 2 influences global sea levels.
0 0
18,000 14,000 10,000 6,000 2,000 0
Years before present
54
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Isostasy and eustasy

Key words Isostasy
asthenosphere ice age
erosion isostasy tall mountains
eustasy lithospheric plate eroded mountains
glacier sea level
lowland regions
global warming
glaciers
Isostasy
● Isostasy refers to the state of
equilibrium of the lithospheric plates
floating on the asthenosphere. It is a
geologic concept used to explain the
differences in topographical height at
different points on Earth. b
● Lithospheric plates float on the
denser, semiliquid material of the
asthenosphere. The thickness and
density of a lithospheric plate sea level
a
determines how high or low it floats.
● A lithospheric plate will always tend
toward settling at isostatic equilibrium.
This equilibrium point can change as a
mass is added to or removed from a
When mountains are eroded, they lose mass and float higher on the mantle
lithospheric plate, or as the plate cools a . When glaciers fill a valley, the locality increases in mass and sinks lower
and becomes denser. in the mantle b . Isostatic adjustments—with land rising or falling by
● Mass may be added during ice ages hundreds of feet (meters) when mass is removed or added—take place quite
slowly, over thousands of years.
when thick layers of ice are loaded
onto continents. Mass may be
removed by erosion or by the large- Isostasy and eustasy
scale melting of ice sheets.
● Isostatic rebound is the rapid uplifting
a isostatic sea level fall
of land from which ice sheets and
b eustatic sea level rise
glaciers have been removed by
warming as the land seeks its new feet meters feet meters
isostatic equilibrium. 99 30 99 30
Past shoreline height in relation to present
Eustasy
● Eustasy refers to the rise and fall of 66 20 66 20
global sea levels irrespective of
changes in the isostatic equilibrium of
33 10 33 10
the land. It is measured relative to the
center of Earth rather than relative to b
any coastline. 0 a 0 0 0
● For example, geology indicates that
Baffin Island in northern Canada has
seen a fall in sea level of almost 100 –33 –10 –33 –10
feet (30 m) over the past 9,000 years.
This is due to the fact that isostatic –66 –66
–20 –20
rebound has uplifted Baffin Island

since the melting of the ice sheets that
covered it during the last ice age. –99 –30 –99 –30
Although sea levels have fallen relative
to Baffin Island, they have actually
been eustatically rising continuously –10,000 –5,000 0 –10,000 –5,000 0
for the last 9,000 years.
Years before present Years before present
55
Global sea level change GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Range of sea level change predictions Key words

inches (cm) glacier
40 (100) global warming
greenhouse gas
sea level
The recent past

● According to the most recent
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report in 2001, global
sea level has risen by 4–10 inches
(10–25 cm) in the last 100 years.
● The IPCC concluded that the bulk of
30 (75) this rise probably resulted from global

warming, followed by the thermal
expansion of water and the partial
melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
● During the period 1880–1980, there
was an apparent global warming of
about 1.8˚F (0.6°C). This temperature
rise may be due in part (if not largely)
to increases in atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases,
especially carbon dioxide.
Sea level rise
The near future

20 (50) ● In the IPCC’s 2001 report global
average surface temperatures were
predicted to increase by 2.5–10.4°F
range of uncertainty (1.4–5.8°C) by the year 2100. This
estimate assumed a business-as-usual
scenario (emissions of greenhouse
gases continuing at current rates).
● A best estimate sea level rise of about
19 inches (48 cm) was predicted by
the year 2100: estimates range from
best estimate
projection
3.5–35 inches (9–88 cm). This sea level
rise would not be uniform globally.
● A mean sea level rise of 19 inches
10 (25) (48 cm) by the year 2100 would be
sufficient to cover some low-lying
tropical islands entirely, such as parts
of the Maldives and Marshall Islands
in the Pacific.
● A similar sea level rise would flood
about 15,500 square miles
(40,000 km2) of China and would
impact seriously on Bangladesh and

other flood-prone countries in the
northern Indian Ocean.
0 (0)
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year
8
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Earth’s water

Key words The oceans
heat sink
The oceans
polar
precipitation
temperate
tropical
The importance of water

● Water is vital for life on Earth.
Most organisms mainly consist of
water. For example, the human body
is usually composed of at least 65
percent water.
● The distribution of water on land
largely determines the occurrence
and abundance of terrestrial flora
and fauna. In environments where
there is little water available, such as
deserts, there is little or no animal or a b c
plant life. In environments where a b c
there is a lot of water available, such as
rain forests, there are more plant and a The oceans cover 71 b They contain more than c About 98 percent of
animal species than anywhere else. percent—139 million square 97 percent—323 million Earth’s living space is found
miles (361 million km2)—of cubic miles (1,348 million in the oceans.
Rain forest covers only about six Earth’s surface. km3)—of Earth’s surface
percent of Earth’s surface, but water.
contains more than 50 percent of all
known animal and plant species.
● Water dissolves many kinds of
substances and is a major transporter
of chemicals between land and sea.
● Water is the planet’s most potent heat
transporter. It acts as a massive heat
sink that carries tropical heat to
temperate and polar regions.
● The presence of water in the
atmosphere generates weather and
climate. Clouds, for example, form
from condensing water droplets.
They trap sunlight, release
precipitation, and act as a heat- saltwater = 97.55% freshwater = 2.45%
insulating layer around Earth. saltwater = 97.55% freshwater = 2.45%
● Water heats up and cools down slowly
and so moderates temperature The partition of water on Earth’s surface
changes in coastal areas. The partition of water on Earth’s surface
● As liquid or ice, water is a powerful
erosive force that shapes the planet’s
surface.
Seas and Ice Groundwater Lakes and Inland Atmosphere

oceans
Seas and Ice rivers
Groundwater Lakes and saltwater
Inland Atmosphere
oceans rivers saltwater % of total
97.54 1.81 0.63 0.009 0.007 0.001
water
% of total
97.54 1.81 0.63 0.009 0.007 0.001
water
% of fresh
– 73.9 25.7 0.36 – 0.04
water
% of fresh
– 73.9 25.7 0.36 – 0.04
These figures do not include the tiny fraction of available water contained within living organisms. water
These figures do not include the tiny fraction of available water contained within living organisms.
9
Earth’s oceans GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Pacific Ocean Key words

coast seawater
latitude
Ocean
49%
Ocean
● The Ocean is the continuous expanse
of seawater that covers 71 percent of
Earth’s surface.
● The oceans are the four major
Atlantic Ocean subdivisions of the Ocean—the Pacific,

Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic oceans,
plus the Southern Ocean.
● The Pacific Ocean extends from the
west coast of North, Central, and
South America to the east coast of Asia
25%
and Australia.
● The Atlantic Ocean extends from the
west coast of Europe and Africa to the
east coast of North, Central, and South
America.
● The Indian Ocean extends from the
Indian Ocean
east coast of Africa to the west coast of
Australia.
● The Arctic Ocean extends from the
north coasts of Europe and Asia to the
north coast of North America.
22% ● The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica to latitude 65°S.
Comprising the southern parts of the
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans, its
limits were officially set in 2000 by the
International Hydrographic
Arctic Ocean Organization.
Facts about
Ocean (excluding seas)
Area in square miles (km2)
4%
Mean depth in feet (m)
Volume in cubic miles (km3)
● Pacific Ocean
63,800,000 (165,250,000)
14,040 (4,280)
169,610,000 (707,000,000)
● Atlantic Ocean
The Southern Ocean 31,830,000 (82,440,000)
10,920 (3,330)
65,830,000 (274,400,000)
● Indian Ocean
28,355,000 (73,440,000)
12,760 (3,890)
68,510,000 (285,600,000)
● Arctic Ocean
5,440,150 (14,090,000)
3,240 (988)
3,338,000 (14,000,000)
10
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS The Eastern Hemisphere

Key words Major topography
mid-ocean ridge
trench 1 Mid-Indian Ridge 5 Japan Trench
2 Australian–Antarctic Rise 6 Kermadec Trench, South Pacific
3 Ry ūky ū Trench, Japan 7 Tonga Trench, South Pacific
Seafloor topography
4 Mariana Trench, North Pacific
● The seafloor is not flat and featureless.
● Valleys and mountains on the seafloor
are often deeper or higher than
similar features on land.
● The Mariana Trench in the Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean reaches a
depth of about 36,000 feet
(11,000 m) below sea level
and 16,700 feet (5,100 m)
below the surrounding
seafloor. The deepest
valley on land is Hell’s
Canyon, Oregon, which is
7,875 feet (2,400 m) at its
maximum depth.
● The tallest mountain North Pacific Ocean
emerging from the sea is Asia 5
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, which
rises 33,465 feet
(10,200 m) above the
seafloor. The tallest
mountain on land is 3
Mount Everest, which rises
29,030 feet (8,848 m) 4
above sea level. Africa
● The longest mountain
range on Earth is the mid-
ocean ridge system that 1
extends for 40,000 miles 7
(64,000 km) along the
seafloor. It is four times South Pacific Ocean
longer than the Himalayas, Indian Ocean
Australia
Andes, and Rocky 6
Mountains combined.
2
Southern Ocean
11
The Western Hemisphere GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Major topography (continued) Key words

island chain seafloor
8 Aleutian Trench, North Pacific 12 Puerto Rico Trench lithospheric plate spreading
magma subduction
9 Southwest Pacific Plateau 13 Mid-Atlantic Ridge mid-ocean ridge trench
10 East Pacific Rise
Mid-ocean ridges
11 Peru–Chile Trench
● Mid-ocean ridges are found on the
seafloors of all of the world’s oceans.
● They are undersea mountain ranges
that mark the boundaries
between divergent
lithospheric plates.
● They are formed from the
upwelling magma that
drives divergent plates
apart and causes
seafloor spreading.
Trenches
● Trenches are very deep,
8 steep-sided depressions in
the seabed.
North 13 ● They are formed where
North Pacific Ocean America Europe
North Atlantic Ocean one lithospheric plate
slides beneath another in a
process known as
12 subduction.
● Trenches are often
Africa
associated with volcanic
island chains. These form
on the side of the trench
formed by the non-
subducted plate.
South
10 America
9 11
13
South Pacific Ocean South Atlantic Ocean

Southern Ocean
12
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Major seas

Key words
Atlantic Ocean
bay 7
gulf
3
ocean 6
sea
2 5
Seas 4
● A sea is a region of an ocean 1
that either covers a defined
geographical area, or has a
Sea or gulf* Area in square miles (km 2) Mean depth in feet (m) Volume in cubic miles (km 3)
defining characteristic.
1 Sargasso Sea 1,738,000 (4,500,000) 16,400 (5,000) 5,396,000 (22,500,000)
● The Caribbean Sea is an
2 Caribbean Sea and
example of a sea that covers 3 Gulf of Mexico 1,485,330 (3,487,000) 7,100 (2,164) 1,810,550 (7,550,000)
a geographical area. It is a 4 Mediterranean Sea and
region of the Atlantic Ocean 5 Black Sea 1,145,170 (2,966,000) 4,760 (1,450) 1,031,175 (4,300,000)
that lies off the coasts of 6 North Sea 222,010 (575,000) 305 (93) 12,710 (53,000)
7 Baltic Sea 162,930 (422,000) 180 (55) 5,510 (23,000)
South and Central America.
● The Sargasso Sea is an
example of a sea that has a Pacific Ocean
defining characteristic. It is a
8
part of the Atlantic Ocean
where there are almost no 10
surface currents. Large 9
quantities of a seaweed
known as sargassum
grow there.
● A sea may also be a large
body of saltwater that is 8 Sea of Okhotsk 589,960 (1,528,000) 3,185 (971) 354,920 (1,480,000)
connected to the ocean by a 9 East China Sea 481,850 (1,248,000) 900 (275) 81,530 (340,000)
narrow channel, such as the 10 Sea of Japan 389,190 (1,008,000) 5,490 (1,673) 405,280 (1,690,000)
Mediterranean Sea is.
● A sea may also be a large Indian Ocean
body of saltwater that is not
connected to the ocean,
such as the Caspian Sea.
12
Bays and gulfs 11

● Bays and gulfs are seas that
are mostly enclosed by land.
● There are no internationally-
agreed conventions on the
relative sizes of bays and 11 Red Sea 169,110 (438,000) 1,765 (538) 57,550 (240,000)
gulfs, but gulfs are usually 12 Persian Gulf 77,220 (200,000) 80 (25) 1,200 (5,000)
larger than bays.
● Hudson Bay on the northeast Arctic Ocean
coast of Canada is an
13
example of a bay.
● The Gulf of Mexico on the 14
south coast of the United

States is an example of a gulf.
13 Bering Sea 876,060 (2,269,000) 4,890 (1,491) 810,550 (3,380,000)

14 Hudson Bay 476,060 (1,233,000) 420 (128) 38,370 (160,000)
*All data is approximate. There are no precise, internationally agreed boundaries for these bodies of seawater.
13
Pacific Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
current plate
fault boundary
gyre seamount
hot spot spreading
7 mid-ocean ridge
6
ridge trench
ocean
Asia
North America
1
e b Pacific Ocean
● The Pacific Ocean is the world’s
North Pacific 2
largest ocean.
● It stretches from the west coast
d
a of North, Central, and South
America to the east coast of
3 Asia and Australia.
8 ● The Pacific Ocean contains
4 more water than all of the

South other oceans put together.
America ● The Pacific was named by
the 16th-century Portuguese
Australia explorer Ferdinand Magellan,
South Pacific c
9 who believed the ocean to have
a gentle nature (pacific means
“calm”). In reality however, the
5 Pacific experiences severe
4
tropical storms (typhoons).
● The Pacific Ocean is
10 10 surrounded by destructive
plate boundaries that border
landmasses. They create an arc of
Major geologic features Surface currents volcanic and earthquake activity
sometimes known as the “Ring of
a The Mariana Trench is the world’s The North Pacific Gyre Fire.”
deepest trench. ● It is the oldest of the world’s oceans
1 Kuroshio Current
and is gradually shrinking as the
b The San Andreas Fault is 745 miles
2 California Current Atlantic Ocean slowly expands.
(1,200 km) long.
● The Pacific Ocean is usually divided
3 North Equatorial Current
c The East Pacific Ridge, a spreading into the North Pacific and the South
ridge, is 6,550–9,850 feet The South Pacific Gyre Pacific.
(2,000–3,000 m) high and
1,550 miles (3,500 km) long. 4 South Equatorial Current Facts about
d Volcanic activity at the Hawaiian 5 Peru Current Area
Hot Spot has generated the 63,800,000 square miles
e Hawaiian–Emperor Seamount Other
(165,250,000 km2)
Chain.
6 Alaska Current
Volume
7 Oyashio Current
8 Equatorial Countercurrent (707,270,000 km3)
9 East Australia Current Mean depth

14,043 feet (4,280 m)
10 Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Deepest point
36,163 feet (11,022 m) in the
Mariana Trench
14
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Atlantic Ocean

Key words
8
basin mid-ocean ridge c
coast ocean
current sea
gyre trench
latitude f
g
Europe
Atlantic Ocean
● The Atlantic Ocean is the world’s North Atlantic b 2
North 1
second largest ocean. America
● It occupies an S-shaped basin that e
extends from the east coasts of North, a
Central, and South America to the
d
west coasts of Europe and Africa.
● The land area that drains into the Africa
Atlantic is four times greater than the 3
land area that drains into the Pacific 7
or Indian oceans.
● The Atlantic is usually divided into the
North Atlantic Ocean and the South
South America 4
Atlantic Ocean.
● The boundary between the North and
South Atlantic is defined by the region
where the two dominant surface South Atlantic
currents, the North Atlantic Gyre and
the South Atlantic Gyre, pass each
other (about 8°N).
● The Atlantic Ocean was named after
6
5
the Greek god Atlas, who held up the
heavens.
● The Atlantic Ocean is the youngest of
the world’s oceans. It began to form 9
fewer than 100 million years ago, 9
when the North and South American
landmasses began to separate and Major geologic features
move away from Europe and Africa.
● The Atlantic is still expanding today as a The Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs the length activity has produced islands such as
volcanic activity along the Mid-Atlantic of the ocean basin. At 7,020 miles the Azores, west of Portugal b and
(11,300 km) long and up to 13,100 feet Surtsey, Iceland c .
Ridge continues to push the Americas (4,000 m) high it is part of the world’s
further away from Europe and Africa. longest mountain chain, the mid-ocean d The Puerto Rico Trench is the world’s
ridge system. Associated volcanic second deepest trench.
Facts about
Surface currents
Area
31,830,100 square miles The North Atlantic Gyre encircles the 6 Benguela Current
(82,440,000 km2) Sargasso Sea e :
7 Equatorial Countercurrent
Volume 1 Gulf Stream
65,830,300 cubic miles 8 North Atlantic Drift. Fed by the Gulf
(274,525,000 km3) 2 Canary Current Stream, it warms northwest Europe.

Labrador f and London g lie at
Mean depth 3 North Equatorial Current similar latitudes, but London is some
18°F (10°C) warmer in mid-winter,
10,925 feet (3,330 m) The South Pacific Gyre: largely because of the heating effect
of the North Atlantic Drift.
Deepest point 4 South Equatorial Current
27,495 feet (8,380 m) in the 9 Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Puerto Rico Trench (d) 5 Brazil Current
15
Indian Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
coast mid-ocean ridge
e current monsoon
Arabia Gondwana ocean
India
1 d Southeast gyre sediment
2 Asia hot spot upwelling
6
Indian Ocean
Africa ● The Indian Ocean is the world’s third
f largest ocean.
Indonesia
● It extends from the east coast of
b Africa to the west coast of Australia
3 and is bounded in the north by
southern Asia.
● The Indian Ocean’s currents are
unique because its northern surface
current reverses direction for part of
a
Australia the year (the monsoon). This is due to
seasonal weather changes across the
Indian Ocean landmasses that encircle the northern
4
part of the ocean.
c
● The world’s first civilizations
5
developed around the Indian Ocean
and it was the first ocean to be
crossed extensively by regular
trade routes.
7 ● The Indian Ocean has formed during
the 125 million years since the
breakup of Gondwana.
a The mid-ocean ridge system. The major d Ganges-Brahmaputra Fan, south of
site of seafloor spreading, it is an inverted Bangladesh. About 930 miles
Y-shape. (1,500 km) across, it is the world’s
largest sediment fan.
b Ninety East Ridge. About 2,000 miles
(3,000 km) long, it is the world’s longest
straight-line feature. It is probably the
product of the Kerguelen Hot Spot c .
Surface currents
The Indian Ocean, unlike the Pacific and the The South Indian Gyre Facts about
Atlantic, is entirely enclosed by land on its
northern side. One consequence of this is the 3 South Equatorial Current Area
monsoon wind system of the northern Indian 28,355,200 square miles
Ocean that reverses direction seasonally. The 4 Somali Current (73,440,000 km2)
Indian Ocean does not have a Northern
Hemisphere gyre. 5 West Australia Current Volume
1 In summer, the southwesterly monsoon Other currents 68,510,000 cubic miles
winds from the southern Indian Ocean (285,681,000 km3)

cause deluges in India. The summer 6 North Equatorial Current
winds generate upwellings that Mean depth
enhance phytoplankton productivity in 7 Antarctic Circumpolar Current 12,760 feet (3,890 m)
the Arabian Sea e .
Deepest point
2 In winter, northeasterly winds suppress
the upwellings and lower productivity. 24,445 feet (7,450 m) in the Java
Trench (f)
aa
continental shelf
current
mid-ocean ridge
ocean
Arctic Ocean
● The Arctic Ocean is by
far the smallest and
shallowest of the four
true oceans.
● Unlike the other true
the surrounding
landmasses.
Facts about
Area
16
Key words
coast
oceans, it is virtually
landlocked with only
narrow channels
connecting it to the
Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.
north coast of North
America to the north
coasts of Europe and
Asia.
● The central region of
the Arctic Ocean is
covered by permanent
ice at least 10 feet
(3 m) thick. During the
winter the ice covers
almost the whole of the
Arctic to the shores of

(14,090,000 km2)
Volume
(13,920,920 km3)
Mean depth
3,240 feet (988 m)
Deepest point
18,052 feet (5,502 m) on the Polar
Abyssal Plain
aa
Arctic Ocean
North America
1
Greenland
Iceland

1
There are a series of roughly parallel

a
ridges across the seafloor of the Arctic

ocean:
e
b
c
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
The Alpha Ridge
The Lomonosov Ridge: the current

site of seafloor spreading.
The Nansen Cordillera. This is near

continuous with the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge a .
North of Eurasia, the continental

shelf is extremely wide, at about
1,000 miles (1,600 km) across.
2
Arctic Ocean
2
c
d
e
3
Europe
1
Climatic features
Large areas of the Arctic Ocean are
Asia
permanently covered by ice. The amount

of ice cover varies from season to season
and is influenced by the presence of warm
currents:
3
In winter, sea ice is 10 feet
(3 m) thick or more and covers most
of the Arctic Ocean.
Even in summer, the shrinking ice

covers about half the Arctic Ocean.
The Norwegian Current. An

extension of the North Atlantic
Current, its warm water keeps the
Norwegian coastline free of ice
throughout the year.
17
Southern Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
South America Key words

Pacific Ocean b c basin
convergence
Atlantic Ocean current
2 mid-ocean ridge
Southern Ocean
ocean
sea level
3
a
1 The Southern
Ronne Ice Ocean
West Shelf
Antarctica
● The Southern Ocean,
a also known as the
Antarctic Ocean, is not
Ross Ice usually regarded as a true
Shelf ocean because it lacks
b bordering landmasses.
● In nautical terminology
e
New Zealand however, the southern
regions of the Atlantic,
East
Antarctica Indian, and Pacific
oceans have long been
referred to as the
Southern Ocean.
South Africa ● Its status as an ocean
Southern Ocean a and its official limits
b d were set by a decision
b of the International
Australia Indian Ocean Hydrographic
b
Organization in 2000.
● The Southern Ocean
surrounds the continent of Antarctica
Major geologic features Climatic and current features and extends north to latitude 65°S.
● Antarctica is the coldest region on
a Antarctica’s continental shelf is 1 Antarctic Convergence around 50–55°S. Earth. Many coastal areas have mean
extremely deep at 1,200–1,600 feet Here cold polar water at surface and
(370–490 m) below sea level. It is deep levels interacts with warm annual temperatures of only –22°F
depressed by the weight of ice on subpolar waters at midwater level. (–30°C).
Antarctica’s landmass. ● Ice coverage of the Southern Ocean
2 Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Situated
b Mid-ocean ridge system. Beyond the north of the Antarctic Convergence, this increases by seven times from the
continental shelf, parts of this system current forms the southerly boundary height of summer (March) to the
enclose the deep ocean basin. This is of the southern gyres of the Pacific, height of winter (September).
subdivided into: Atlantic, and Indian oceans. It is the only
● The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is
major surface current that circles the
c The Southeast Pacific Basin globe. the world’s largest ocean current in
terms of the amount of water it
d The South Indian Basin 3 In winter, sea ice increases to more than
six times its summer extent. moves. It always flows from west
e The Atlantic-Indian Basin to east.
Facts about
Area
(35,000,000 km2)
Deepest point
18
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Caribbean Sea and the

Key words
basin ocean
Gulf of Mexico
current sea
eddy strait
United States
gulf
isthmus 5
5 Atlantic Ocean
Caribbean Sea
● The Caribbean Sea is 3
situated between South
Bahamas
and North America and Gulf of Mexico
bounded by Central 4
G
America in the west and b r e
a t
a string of islands 3 e r
Cuba A
including the Greater n t 1
i l
and Lesser Antilles in l e
s
the east. f Lesser
c
● There are more than Puerto Antilles
Mexico Rico
7,000 islands in the 2
1
Caribbean, for example
Caribbean Sea
Cuba and Puerto Rico.
1
2
Gulf of Mexico 2 e
● The Gulf of Mexico is
bounded on three sides d
by the United States and
a Venezuela
Mexico. Panama
● The southeast of the Pacific Ocean
Gulf is bounded by Colombia
Cuba.
Major geologic features Major currents

Geologically, the Caribbean Sea is believed 1 Warm surface water flows from the
to be a fragment of Pacific Ocean crust Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea.
separated from the rest when the Isthmus Shallow sills prevent cold deep water
of Panama was formed some 3 million years from entering.
ago. The wider Caribbean comprises four
comparatively deep ocean basins: 2 Warm water from the Caribbean Sea
enters the Gulf of Mexico via the
a Isthmus of Panama Yucátan Channel.
Facts about
b Gulf of Mexico 3 Large eddies retain the water within
Gulf of Mexico the Gulf, warming it further.
c Yucatán Basin
Area 4 The water discharges through the
596,140 square miles (1,544,000 km2) d Colombian Basin Florida Strait.
Maximum depth e Venezuelan Basin 5 The water then feeds the Gulf Stream.
13,220 feet (4,029 m) f Cayman Trench
Caribbean Sea
Area
750,190 square miles (1,943,000 km2)
Maximum depth
25,218 feet (7,686 m) in the Cayman
Trench (f)
Locator map
Sargasso Sea
aNorth
America
Boundary currents
a 1
Bermuda
Caribbean Sea
Major currents
South America
The Sargasso is encircled by fast-moving

currents:
3
Sargasso Sea
The Gulf Stream to the west and north
The Canary Current to the east
Equatorial Drift to the south
Sargasso flora and fauna

1 The Sargasso is patchily covered with a
floating carpet of sargassum weed,
mostly Sargassum natans. The weed is
inhabited by superbly camouflaged fish,
such as:
2 Pipefish (Syngnathus pelagicus)
3 Sargassum anglerfish (Histrio histrio)
1
3
3
2
Locator map
Azores
South Atlantic Ocean
●
Africa
19
Key words
current
fauna
flora
latitude
Sargasso Sea
●
longitude
ocean
salinity
sea
The Sargasso Sea is a

region of the North
Atlantic Ocean that lies
between latitudes 25°
and 35°N and between
longitudes 40° and 70°W.
It covers an area
approximately 700 miles
(1,200 km) from north
to south and 2,000 miles
(3,200 km) from east to
west.
● It is an unusual sea in
that its limits are defined
not by land boundaries
but by ocean currents.
The ocean currents that surround the

Sargasso Sea move water quite rapidly,
but the water within the sea barely
moves at all: it is an irregular oval of
slow-moving clear water.
● Large quantities of a seaweed known
as sargassum weed accumulates near
the surface of this slow-moving water.
There is a unique community of
creatures adapted to life among this
surface weed.
● Salinity levels in the Sargasso Sea are
very high because there is little
movement of water into or out of it.
There is also therefore little inflow of
nutrients.
● The animals adapted to living in this
environment are not specialized to
feed on any one type of sargassum
weed because they need to be able to
eat any kind of plant material that
is available.
Facts about
Area
(4,500,000 km2) approximately
Maximum depth
20
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Mediterranean Sea

Key words Connections
ocean Black
Atlantic Ocean
precipitation France Sea
runoff 4
salinity Italy 3
sea 2 Turkey
strait Spain Greece
Syria
Mediterranean Sea Cyprus

● The Mediterranean Sea is 1
Israel
situated between Europe, Mediterranean
Africa, and Asia. Tunisia Sea
Algeria 5
● It gets its name from the Latin
Morocco
mediterraneus which means Egypt
Libya
“in the middle of land.”
Sea currents
Connections
Atlantic Ocean Black
1 Strait of Gibraltar to Atlantic France Sea
Ocean
Italy
2 Dardanelles to Sea of
Marmara 7 Turkey
3 Sea of Marmara to Spain Greece
Syria
Bosphorus
4 Bosphorus to Black Sea 7
6 Cyprus
5 Suez Canal to Red Sea
6 7
Israel
Mediterranean
Sea currents Tunisia 6 Sea 6
● In the Mediterranean, sea- Algeria
Morocco
surface evaporation is about Egypt
Libya
three times greater than
precipitation and runoff. Sea
level is maintained by water Component seas
flowing in from the Atlantic Atlantic Ocean Black
Ocean. France Sea
● The water in the eastern Italy
Mediterranean is slightly b Turkey
warmer and more saline than Spain Greece
that in the western a Syria
d
Mediterranean. c
6 Atlantic cold water enters Cyprus
through the Strait of
Israel
Gibraltar and travels along Mediterranean
the North African coast. Tunisia Sea
Algeria
Morocco
7 Warm, more saline, water
Egypt
returns to the Atlantic along Libya
the European coast.
Facts about
Component seas
Area Geographically, the Mediterranean includes

several other seas, including:
1,145,000 square mile (2,966,000 km2)
a The Tyrrhenian Sea
Mean depth
4,760 feet (1,450 m) b The Adriatic Sea
Maximum depth c The Ionian Sea
16,707 feet (5,092 m) in the Hellenic
Trough d The Aegean Sea
Locator map
21
North Sea GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

Key words
Norway continental ocean
Sweden
crust runoff
1
current sea
3 land bridge sea level
c Northern strait
Hemisphere
North Sea
1 Denmark ● The North Sea is a shallow
North Sea northeastern arm of the
3 Atlantic Ocean.
● It separates Great Britain from
mainland northern Europe.
Evolution
1 3 Movements of Northern
●
Hemisphere landmasses
b between 225 and 65 million
years ago established the
beginnings of the North Sea’s
Great Britain current shorelines.
3 ● As recently as 18,000 years ago
Netherlands Germany
the North Sea did not exist. Its
northern half was buried
a beneath an ice sheet and its
Belgium southern half was covered in
2 woodland and scrub. Since
English Channel France then, this low-lying region of
continental crust has become
flooded as sea levels have risen
Major geologic features Current features following postglacial warming.
● About 10,000 years ago, the land
a Straits of Dover Cold northern stream bridge between Dover, England, and
Calais, France became submerged,
b Northern Netherlands 1 Cool water from the North Atlantic
sweeps down the east coast of
forming the Straits of Dover. Much of stream
Cold northern
c Skagerrak entrance to Baltic Scotland and England. the northern Netherlands was also
submerged at this time. Warm southern stream
Warm southern stream
2 Warm water from the Atlantic Ocean
enters the North Sea through the
Straits of Dover a and helps keep
the North Sea free of ice all year.
3 The circulation pattern in the North

Sea is counterclockwise. Pollutant-
laden runoff from the UK, France, Facts about
Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Area
Locator map Germany is carried northward toward
Denmark and Norway. 222,010 square miles (575,000 km2)
Average depth
305 feet (93 m)
Maximum depth
2,380 feet (725 m) at Skagerrak (c)
22
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Red Sea

Key words Israel
Iraq Iran
an
current rift valley 5
Jord
gulf sea
monsoon spreading ridge
1 2
ocean
Pe
rs
ia
G
n
Saudi Arabia ul
Red Sea 6
f
A
● The Red Sea is a northward extension Egypt
of the Indian Ocean. It separates Africa
R
from the Arabian Peninsula.
● The Red Sea is an example of a 3
recently-formed sea that is expected to
A
continue becoming wider.
A
B
Component parts
1 Gulf of Suez
F
I
2 Gulf of Aqaba
Red
3 Main body of the Red Sea
Sea
A
R
Eritrea
Connections
4 The Strait of Bab el Mandeb Sudan
I
connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Yemen

Aden and Arabian Sea. Arabian Sea
C
5 The Suez Canal connects the Red 4

Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Gulf of Aden
Ethiopia
Indian
A
Somalia Ocean
Evolution
● The Red Sea is a flooded rift valley.
● It is widening from its spreading ridge
in the axial trough 6 at the rate of
about 0.5 inches (1.25 cm) per year.
Circulation
a In summer, water currents flow Locator map
southward, out of the Red Sea. Water Circulation
is drawn out by currents in the
Arabian Sea that are driven by the Water flow: summer Water flow: winter
southwest monsoon winds.
b In winter, water is driven into the
Red Sea by reversing Arabian Sea
currents and the northeast
monsoons.
Facts about
Area
169,100 square miles (438,000 km2)

northwest
southwest monsoon
Mean depth monsoon
1,765 feet (538 m)
Maximum depth
9,580 feet (2,920 m) in the a b
axial trough (6)
23
Persian Gulf GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
gulf sea
Iran lithospheric plate strait
Iraq
monsoon subduction
ocean tide
Kuwait Persian Gulf

Pe ● The Persian Gulf is a shallow enclosed
rs
ia sea connected to the northern Indian
n
Gu
lf Ocean via the Strait of Hormuz.
Strait of Hormuz
● The Gulf is less than 330 feet (100 m)
deep over much of its area.
Qatar Gulf of Oman ● It is polluted by oil discharges and
agricultural and domestic waste.
Saudi Arabia United Arab However, the strong circulation and
Emirates high water temperatures tend to
degrade and disperse pollutants
Oman rapidly.
● Strong tides flush water out through
Arabian Sea the Strait of Hormuz and into the Gulf
of Oman and beyond. Pollutants are
dispersed into the larger and deeper
Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean.
Evolution
Evolution
● The Persian Gulf region is an area of
b active subduction, with the Arabian
plate a to the southwest sliding
beneath the Asian continental plate
Locator map b to the northwest.
c
● It is feasible that within the next
a 100,000 years the Strait of Hormuz c

could close as a result of this tectonic
movement.
Circulation
1 In summer, net surface water flow is
Circulation out of the Persian Gulf, driven by the
Water flow: summer southwest monsoon winds.
2 In winter, net surface water flow is
into the Persian Gulf, driven by the
northwest monsoon winds.
Water flow: winter
Facts about
est
thw Area
sou nsoon
1 mo 77,200 square miles (200,000 km2)
Average depth
80 feet (25 m)
st Maximum depth
we
o rth oon
2 n ns 560 feet (170 m)
mo
24
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Depth zones

Key words Depth 1 The epipelagic zone, also
feet called the euphotic or
abyssopelagic epipelagic zone (m) sunlit zone, is the upper
zone fauna region of the water
column. It receives
atmosphere mesopelagic
660 1 sufficient sunlight to
bathypelagic zone sustain photosynthesis.
(200)
zone photosynthesis Most marine life depends,
depth zone thermocline directly or indirectly, on
plant production in this
2 zone.
Depth zones 2 The mesopelagic zone,
● Depth zones are theoretical partitions 3,300 sometimes called the
of the water column referred to by (1,000) twilight zone, receives
biological oceanographers. diffuse sunlight but in
insufficient amounts to
● These partitions are based on physical sustain photosynthesis.
conditions and the biological Most creatures inhabiting
communities that are adapted to this zone:
● migrate to the
living there. epipelagic zone to feed,
or
● rely on a rainfall of dead
Physical conditions: bodies or fecal matter
Light sinking from the surface
● Organisms inhabiting the various waters.
3
depth zones are adapted to the 3 The bathypelagic zone
abundance and quality of ambient receives no sunlight.
light. Animal life is relatively
sparse and consists
● In clear seawater, most of the available
mostly of crustaceans,
sunlight is absorbed within the top squid, and relatively small
660 feet (200 m). fish. The latter have
capacious mouths for
● The remaining light is predominantly
engulfing the occasional
of blue and green wavelengths; the prey item that may be as
other wavelengths—violet, yellow, large as the predator
itself.
orange, and red—have already been
absorbed. 13,200 4 The abyssopelagic zone
(4,000) is essentially an extension
of the bathypelagic zone
Pressure down to the seafloor, but
● Pressure increases by one atmosphere supports an even sparser
for each 33 feet (10 m) of depth. fauna.
● In the deepest parts of the ocean, at
depths of greater than 33,000 feet
(10,000 m), the ambient pressure is in
excess of 1,000 atmospheres.
4
Temperature
● Sunlight warms the surface waters and
turbulence transfers heat downward to
depths of 660–990 feet (200–300 m).
● Below this, there is a steep
temperature gradient, the
thermocline, extending down to
2,650–3,300 feet (800–1,000 m).
● The deep ocean is almost uniformly

cold, at between 30 and 39°F
19,800
(–1 and 4°C). (6,000)
25
The first oceans GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Outgassing theory
volcano atmosphere outgassing theory
cometary theory
rain
element
heavy water
ocean
Outgassing theory
● Outgassing theory states that the
water in Earth’s oceans originated with
the gases that were released from the
ocean
planet’s interior soon after it coalesced
into a single body.
● The early Earth is thought to have
been a mainly molten ball. In this
state, the heavier elements were
separated out from the lighter, and
these lighter elements (gases such as
hydrogen and helium) escaped from
the surface.
● At first Earth would have been so hot
Cometary theory that most of these gases would have
immediately boiled off into space.
● As Earth cooled, some of these gases
comet would have been trapped by Earth’s
gravity to form an atmosphere.
● This atmosphere would have increased
comet fragments Earth’s reflectivity so that less sunlight
would have reached the surface,
allowing the planet to cool further.
● Eventually, the atmosphere and the
surface would have cooled to a point
at which water droplets could
condense and fall as rain.
Cometary theory
● Cometary theory states that some of
Earth’s water probably originated from
comets that impacted Earth.
Hybrid theory ● However studies of the water content
of comets suggest that most of Earth’s
water could not have come from
comets. Cometary water contains a
higher proportion of heavy water than
planetesimal Earth’s oceans.
Hybrid theory
● Although it is unlikely that a significant
proportion of Earth’s water originated

from comets, much of it may have
come from the large bodies known as
planetesimals that came together to
form Earth.
● The remainder probably resulted from
outgassing.
26
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Oceanic and continental

Key words
continental crust
crust
oceanic crust
plate boundary Oceanic crust
spreading ridge
ocean trench oceanic crust

Earth’s crust
● Earth’s crust is the
thin, solid layer of rock
that forms the outer
skin of the planet.
● There are two types of
crust: oceanic and
continental.
Oceanic crust
● Oceanic crust is the
part of Earth’s crust
that forms the ocean
floor.
● Oceanic crust is 4–7 miles
(6–11 km) thick and has an
average density of about 1.7
ounces per cubic inch (3 g/cm3).
● It consists mostly of basalts, the
majority of which have been formed upper mantle
within the last 200 million years.
oceanic crust
● Oceanic crust is generally much
younger than continental crust
because it is constantly being
destroyed at convergent plate
Continental crust
boundaries and created at continental crust
spreading ridges.
Continental crust
the part of Earth’s
surface that forms the
continents.
20–25 miles
(30–40 km) thick with
a maximum thickness
of about 45 miles
(70 km) and has an
average density
of about 1.6 ounces
per cubic inch
(2.7 g/cm3).
● It consists of two basic
layers: an upper layer
dominated by granites
and a lower layer dominated by basalt
and diorite. These rocks are usually
much older than oceanic crust rocks. continental crust upper mantle upper mantle
27
Primeval continental drift GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
250 million years ago Key words

continental drift Pangaea
Gondwana Panthalassa
Laurasia
S A
ocean
A S
Continental drift
P
L
● Continental drift is the theory that
A
A
the continents are very slowly moving
N
H
in relation to one another.
G
T
N ● Geologists believe that the present-day
A
A continents once formed a single

P
E
A
landmass that has since broken apart.

● Two hundred million years ago there
was just one landmass on Earth. It is
referred to as Pangaea, which is
Greek for “all land.”
180 million years ago ● The continental crust that makes up
today’s landmasses was a part of
Pangaea.
● The great ocean that covered the rest
U R A S I A of the globe is called Panthalassa,

L A which means “all sea.”

North Atlantic ● By 180 million years ago Pangaea had
split Indian Ocean begun to break up.
split
● The first split to occur opened up
G what became the North Atlantic and
O
N Indian oceans. The landmass to the
D
W
A north of this split is known as
N
A Laurasia and the landmass to the
south as Gondwana.
● Antarctica also split away from Pangaea
and started to drift slowly southward.
● India split from Antarctica and began
100 million years ago to drift northward.

Labrador
Sea ● By 100 million years ago the North
North Asia Atlantic and Indian Ocean splits had
America grown wider.
North ● Africa and South America had begun
Atlantic Indian to separate as the South Atlantic
Ocean
Ocean began to open up.
● The Labrador Sea, which eventually
Africa
South
separated Greenland from North
America India America, had also begun to open.
South
Atlantic ● India was moving strongly northward
on a collision course with the
Australia southern coast of Asia.
Antarctica
28
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Recent continental drift

Key words 60 million years ago
continental drift
ocean
North Asia
America
60 million years ago North

Atlantic
● By 60 million years ago South America
had separated from Africa completely Africa
and was drifting toward collision with
the southern tip of North America. South India
America
● The North Atlantic continued to widen
and eventually detached North
America from Europe altogether.
● India continued to move northward. Australia
● Australia remained attached to
Antarctica. Antarctica
Present day
● Today North America and Europe are Present day
separated by an ever-widening Greenland
North Atlantic Ocean.
● South America and Africa are
North Asia
America
separated by an ever-widening North
South Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic
● Greenland has become isolated from Africa India
North America and Europe.
● India has impacted with Asia.
South
● North and South America have joined. America South
● Australia has separated from Antarctica Atlantic
Australia
and migrated northward.
50 million years
in the future
● Both the North and South Atlantic will
have continued to grow wider. Antarctica
● Australia will have continued its
northward drift. 50 million years in the future
● India will have been propelled
eastward with the rest of Asia.
● Africa will have drifted slowly
northward, closing the Mediterranean. North Mediterranean
America Asia
● Africa’s Rift valley will have widened to Sea
form the beginnings of a new ocean.
● The Red Sea will have widened and Africa
become continuous with the Red Sea
Mediterranean. India
● North and South America will have South Rift valley Australia
become detached again as North America

America continues to drift north west.
Antarctica
29
Seafloor spreading GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
The process of seafloor spreading
magma
1 2 sinking block of mid-ocean ridge
oceanic crust oceanic crust
sea-floor
spreading
oceanic Seafloor spreading

crust ● Seafloor spreading is the process by
which seas become wider as volcanic
processes create new seafloor material
mantle (oceanic crust).
● A mid-ocean ridge is a volcanically
A rising current in the semiliquid The pressure of the rising current active site where new oceanic crust
rock of the mantle pushes up and eventually splits the solid rock of is created.
weakens the solid rock of the oceanic the oceanic crust. A block of oceanic ● Magma wells up from the center of the
crust above it. crust sinks and molten rock from
the mantle rises through the cracks ridge and quickly solidifies as it is
around it. exposed to the cold water.
oceanic crust ● Solidified magma is soon pushed
forced apart outward by new magma upwellings.
sinking block of With each upwelling, the oceanic crust
3 4
oceanic crust spreads further outwards from the
ridge.
Magnetic polarity reversal

● When magma emerging from ocean
ridges solidifies, it effectively records
the orientation of Earth’s magnetic
field at that point in time.
● Iron-bearing minerals in the magma
are orientated by Earth’s magnetic
field and are locked in that position
As molten rock wells up and solidifies Eventually the central block grows so when the rock solidifies.
the subsided central block grows wide that it also splits, and a new ● Studies of oceanic crust have shown
wider and forces the two halves of central block sinks. The two halves
the split oceanic crust apart. are forced apart. that Earth’s magnetic field has
reversed polarity many times in
the past.
● Rock on the seafloor consists of bands
Fossilized magnetic polarity reversals
of solidified magma with alternating
Bands of rock that have recorded reversed oceanic crust formed during a magnetic orientations.
polarities are found running parallel to spreading period of reversed polarity ● These bands indicate that Earth’s
ridges. The existence of these bands is thought magnetic field reverses polarity at
to prove the process of seafloor spreading over oceanic crust formed during a
geologic time. period when polarity was the irregular intervals of between 100,000
same as today and 25 million years.
6 4 2 0 2 4 6
Age in millions
of years
spreading ridge
30
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS The Wilson Cycle

Key words 1 Embryonic stage rift valley
continental lithosphere
(continental crust and
continental crust subduction
upper solid mantle)
magma upwelling
mid-ocean ridge Wilson Cycle
oceanic crust asthenosphere
rift valley (semifluid
upper mantle)
Wilson Cycle
● The Wilson Cycle (after J. Tuzo Wilson
1908–93) describes the creation,
2 Juvenile stage seawater
evolution, and eventual destruction of
an ocean.
1 Embryonic stage
● An upwelling of hot mantle material
stresses the continental crust above
and may cause it to begin to split.
● A rift valley results from this splitting.
magma oceanic lithosphere

2 Juvenile stage
● As the rift deepens, seawater will
eventually flood in. 3 Mature stage ocean basin mid-ocean ridge
● Upwelling magma seeps to the surface continental margin
and begins to form oceanic crust.
● Oceanic crust forms on either side of
the magma upwelling, pushing the
two halves of the flooded valley
further apart (seafloor spreading).
● A new ocean is being formed.
3 Mature stage
● As seafloor spreading continues, the
ocean matures and the coasts 4 Declining stage
continue to move apart.
● A mature ocean features a mid-ocean
ridge and a continental margin.
4 Declining stage
● An ocean begins to shrink when
the amount of new oceanic crust
being formed at ridges is exceeded by
the amount being subducted beneath
other crustal plates at trenches.
● Older oceanic crust tends to sink trenches continental crust
oceanic crust
beneath newer crust because it is
cooler and floats lower on the mantle. sea
5 Terminal stage
● Where oceanic crust is subducted
there is a high incidence of volcanic
and earthquake activity.
5 Terminal stage
● The shrinking ocean eventually
becomes isolated from the rest of the
oceans and may drain.
● Continents are eventually drawn into
collision, forming mountain ranges. mountains
31
Major lithospheric plates GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
convergent lithospheric plate
boundary mantle
divergent transform
boundary boundary
3
9
3
2
11
15 12
6
16 17 4
1
10 13
5
13
14
8
14
convergent plate 1 Pacific plate 10 African plate Lithospheric plates

boundary (where
adjacent plates ● A lithospheric plate is one of the solid,
2 Juan de Fuca plate 11 Iranian plate
come together) but distinct, segments that make up
3 North American plate 12 Arabian plate the outer surface of Earth.
divergent plate
● Lithospheric plates are mostly solid
boundary (where
4 Cocos plate 13 Indo-Australian plate and float on the semiliquid mantle
adjacent plates
move apart) beneath.
5 Nazca plate 14 Antarctic plate
● Lithospheric plates float because they

transform plate
boundary (where 6 Caribbean plate 15 Philippine plate are less dense (on average) than
adjacent plates mantle material.
move past one 7 South American plate 16 Caroline plate
● Lithospheric plates move around
another)
8 Scotia plate 17 Bismarck plate Earth’s surface, collide, and interact
direction of plate with each other.
movement 9 Eurasian plate
● Their motion is thought to be driven
by convection currents in the mantle.
32
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Plate boundaries

Key words
Divergent boundary
convergent plate boundary
boundary spreading ridge lithospheric plate spreading ridge lithospheric plate
divergent subduction
boundary transform
lithospheric plate boundary
mid-ocean ridge trench
Plate boundaries
● Plate boundaries are the
regions where lithospheric
plates meet.
● Lithospheric plates are either
moving apart, colliding, or molten rock
(magma)
sliding past each other.
Divergent boundary
● A divergent boundary is a region
where lithospheric plates are Convergent boundary
moving apart.
● They occur where oceanic crust is
lithospheric plate trench lithospheric plate
being laid down at a spreading

ridge. These are common at mid-
ocean ridges.
Convergent boundary
● A convergent boundary is a
region where two
lithospheric plates are
colliding.
● The denser plate usually
sinks beneath the other. This
is known as subduction. asthenosphere
● Older portions of
lithospheric plate are usually
denser than younger
portions. This is because older
portions are cooler. Transform boundary
● Deep depressions in the ocean
lithospheric plate transform fault lithospheric plate
floor known as trenches are
common where subduction occurs.
Transform boundary
● A transform boundary is
a region where two lithospheric
plates move past each other at
a fracture called a transform
fault.
● Friction between the plates

causes frequent earthquake
activity along transform
boundaries.
direction of plate movement

33
Seamounts and guyots GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Volcanic island formation Key words

guyot spreading ridge
guyot magma upwelling
mid-ocean ridge volcanic island
seamount volcanic island
oceanic crust
seamount
spreading ridge
tension fracture
Volcanic features
Guyot formation ● Several geologic features are
associated with mid-ocean ridges.
1 A volcanic island is
formed at an oceanic ● Most volcanic activity takes place along
spreading ridge. the axis of the spreading ridge and
consists of magma upwellings that
build oceanic crust.
● Further away from the ridge, tension
fractures allow magma to escape and
form other volcanic features.
● A seamount is a submerged volcano
2 The volcanic island moves that forms close to a mid-ocean ridge.

away from the spreading ● Seamounts may grow in height until
ridge, and as it sinks, wave they break the surface of the ocean
action erodes its top.
and become volcanic islands.
● As a seamount moves with the oceanic
crust further from the spreading ridge,
it will eventually become inactive.
● As an inactive seamount moves even
further from the spreading ridge, the

3 The submerged island underlying crust subsides and it may
moves further away from its
source and the top is become submerged again.
flattened to form a guyot: a ● A guyot is an inactive seamount that
flat-topped seamount. has emerged from the ocean as a
Meanwhile a new volcanic
island is formed at the volcanic island, been eroded flat by
spreading ridge. the action of weather and waves, and
become submerged again.
34
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Growth of the

Key words
hot spot seamount
Hawaiian Islands
island chain volcanic island
lithospheric plate Development of volcanic island chains
magma 1 lithospheric 2
oceanic crust plate
volcano
Volcanic island chains mantle

● A volcanic island chain may form
when oceanic crust moves over a
persistent hot spot in the mantle (1). hot spot
● Magma is forced to the surface above
island volcanic
the hot spot and builds a seamount 3 island 4
(2) that eventually emerges as a
volcanic island (3).
seamount
● As the island moves away from the hot
spot with the oceanic crust, volcanic
activity ceases and the island may
begin to subside.
● A new seamount forms above the hot
spot, eventually breaking the surface
as a new volcanic island (4).
The development of Hawaii
● Over millions of years a chain of Asia
seamounts and volcanic islands
North America
emerges.
Hawaiian and
Emperor chains
● A mantle hot spot has created the
Emperor seamount chain and the
Hawaiian Islands over 70 million years.
● The Emperor seamount chain now
consists of submerged seamounts (a). a Emperor chain
● About 25 million years ago, the Pacific
plate changed direction (b) and the
b direction change
Hawaiian chain began to form (c).
● Today, Hawaii is a volcanically active c Hawaiian Islands chain
island, and to its southeast Loihi is an
active seamount that has yet to rise
above sea level.
Hawaii today Kauai

Oahu
Loihi: a volcanically active seamount
Hawaii: a volcanically active island Molokai
Maui: a volcanically inactive island Maui
Molokai: a volcanically inactive island

Oahu: a volcanically inactive island Hawaii
Kauai: a volcanically inactive island
Loihi
35
Profile of an ocean GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Continental margin continental continental submarine continental abyssal plain spreading ridge
shelf slope canyon rise continental rise submarine
continental shelf canyon
continental slope trench
guyot
island arc
Continental shelf
● A continental shelf is a continent’s
true rim: it descends to an average
depth of 650 feet (200 m). Continental
shelves occupy about 7.5 percent of
the ocean floor.
Continental slope
● A continental slope is a steep slope
descending from the continental shelf.
Such slopes occupy about 8.5 percent
of the ocean floor.
Spreading ridge
abyssal submarine spreading Submarine canyon
plain plateau ridge ● Clefts in the continental slope called
submarine canyons are cut by turbid
river water flowing out to sea.
Continental rise
● The continental rise is a gentle slope
below the continental slope.
Abyssal plain
● This is the sediment-covered deep-sea
plain about 11,500–18,000 feet (3,500–
5,500 m) below sea level.
Submarine plateau
● High seafloor tablelands are called
submarine plateaus.
island arc Spreading ridge

Oceanic trench ● These submarine mountain chains are
trench guyot
generally 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above
the abyssal plain.
Trench
● Trenches are deep steep troughs.
Guyot
● Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that

have been volcanic islands before
becoming submerged.
Island arc
● A curved row of volcanic islands,
usually on the continental side of a
trench, is called an island arc.
36
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Spreading ridges

Key words Features of a spreading ridge
asthenosphere transform fault
magma upwelling transform fault spreading spreading axis ocean floor
unit
mantle
mid-ocean ridge
oceanic crust
spreading ridge
upwelling
magma
upper mantle
Spreading ridges asthenosphere oceanic crust

● A spreading ridge is a region of the
ocean floor where new oceanic crust
is being created by upwelling magma
from the layer of semiliquid rock
known as the asthenosphere.
spreading other plate
● This magma forces its way Major spreading ridges ridges boundaries
direction of
plate movement
through the upper mantle and
emerges on the ocean floor.
● The magma cools to form
oceanic crust and is forced
away from the axis of the ridge
by more upwelling magma. The
ocean floor spreads outwards
on both sides of the ridge.
● As the newly formed oceanic
crust is pushed away from the
ridge, it cools.
● Cooling causes the new oceanic
crust to buckle and subside.

● Stresses cause faults to open
up perpendicular to the axis of
the spreading ridge. These are
known as transform faults.
● Transform faults divide the
ridge into a series of offset
spreading units.
37
Trenches GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Island arc and trench systems
asthenosphere subduction
continental island arc trench continental crust trench
crust island chain volcanic island
magma
oceanic crust
Island arc and

trench systems
Ocean trenches are deep
●
depressions on the ocean floor.
They are typically 2–2.5 miles
(3–4 km) deeper than the
surrounding ocean floor
and hundreds of miles
long, but narrow. An
ocean trench forms
when a tectonic plate is
subducted beneath
another.
● Melted material from
the subducted plate
mixes with water to
produce a low density
low-density oceanic magma that tends to rise through the
crust above. This volcanic activity
creates a chain of islands behind
the trench.
Continental arc and trench systems ● The Aleutian Islands off Alaska are an
continental example. They lie along the landward
crust side of the Aleutian trench that marks
the line where the Pacific plate is
volcano trench subducted beneath the North
American plate.
Continental arc and

trench systems
● When oceanic crust is subducted
beneath a plate with continental crust
at its leading edge, the resulting low-
density magma rises through the
continental crust to form a
chain of volcanoes close to
the shore.
● The Andes Mountains
of South America are an
example. They lie
parallel to the region
where the Nazca plate is

subducted beneath the
South American plate.
low-density oceanic
38
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Continental margins

Key words
Continental margin
abyssal hills continental slope
alluvial fan shelf break
continental submarine
margin canyon
continental rise trench
continental shelf turbidity current
Continental margin
features
● The continental margin is the
portion of a continent that
extends beneath the ocean. It
consists of several regions:
● The continental shelf is a gentle
shoreline out under the water to
the edge of a steep cliff known
as the continental slope. The
top of this cliff is known as the
shelf break.
● The continental slope is a steep
shelf break down to a more
gentle slope known
as the continental rise.
● The continental rise is a gentle
slope extending from the bottom of
the continental slope to the generally Continental margin features
flat region known as the abyssal plain.
The continental rise is made up of
sediments that have slid off the a b c d
continental slope.
● Valleys cut into the continental slope
are known as submarine canyons.
They are river or glacial valleys that
were formed when sea levels were
much lower than at present. They may
also be formed by seismic activity
causing undersea “avalanches” of
sediment known as turbidity currents.
● The abyssal plain is the almost flat,
featureless plain that makes up most
of the ocean bed. It may be
interrupted by abyssal hills, mid-ocean a Continental shelf c Continental rise
Slope typically 0.1°, depth less Slope range 0.1–1°, depth
ridges, trenches, or other volcanic than 1,300 feet (400 m) 8,200–16,500 feet (2,500–5,000 m),
features. formed from deposition of material
● An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped layer of b Continental slope flowing down canyons

Slope typically 3–6°, depth
sediment on the abyssal plain down to 6,500–13,000 feet d Abyssal plain
deposited by a turbidity current. (2,000–4,000 m) Generally flat, depth 10,000–16,500
feet (3,000–5,000 m) but may
contain trenches down to 26,000
feet (8,000 m) or more
39
Continental margins of GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
North America Key words

continental
margin
Ocean depths around North America
0–500 feet
(0–150 m)
500–10,000 feet
(150–3,050 m)
10,000–20,000 feet
(3,050–6,100 m)
more than 20,000 feet

(6,100 m)
Canada
United States
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
M
ex
i
co
West coast East coast Continental margins

The west coast of the United States has The east coast of the United States has ● An active continental margin is a
a narrow, active continental margin. a broad, passive continental margin.
margin where there is interaction
between lithospheric plates
South (convergent or transform boundaries).
Carolina They tend to have narrow, steeply
Charleston
sloping continental slopes.
● A passive continental margin is a
margin where there is no interaction
San
between lithospheric plates. They tend
Francisco
to have broad, gently sloping
continental slopes.
California
Florida
40
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seafloor sediments

Key words
biogenous sediment
sediment terrigenous
cosmogenous sediment
sediment
hydrogenous
sediment
North Europe
America
Asia
Africa
Africa
South
America
Australia
Antarctica
mostly mostly mostly red clay

Sediments of the seafloor terrigenous biogenous with some hydrogenous
● A sediment is a layer of particles that
has settled on the ocean floor.
Sediment grain sizes
● Terrigenous sediments are formed
Grain sizes according to the Wentworth scale
from particles that originated on land.
Particle size range Particle size range Particle or
An example is the mud carried into
(inches) (metric) aggregate name
the sea by a river.
>10.1 256 mm boulder
● Biogenous sediments are formed from
particles that came from living things. 2.5–10.1 64–256 mm cobble
An example is the shells of tiny
1.26–2.5 32–64 mm very coarse gravel
creatures living in the sea.
● Hydrogenous sediments are formed 0.63–1.26 16–32 mm coarse gravel
from particles that crystallize out of 0.31–0.63 8–16 mm medium gravel
seawater.
● Red clay is a kind of terrigenous
0.157–0.31 4–8 mm fine gravel
sediment that is common where no 0.079–0.157 2–4 mm very fine gravel
other kind of sediment is usually
0.039–0.079 1–2 mm very coarse sand
deposited.
● Different kinds of sediment are more 0.020–0.039 0.5–1 mm coarse sand
common across certain regions of the 0.010–0.020 0.25–0.5 mm medium sand
seafloor. For example, terrigenous

sediments are more common close to 0.0049–0.010 125–250 m fine sand
the edges of continents. 0.0025–0.0049 62.5–125 m very fine sand
● The size of sediment particles, known
0.00015–0.0025 3.90625–62.5 m silt
as grains, are classified according to
the Wentworth scale. 0.00015–0.000039 3.90625–1 m clay
>0.000039 >1 m colloid

41
Biogenous sediments GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Calcareous sediments Key words

biogenous sediment
sediment siliceous
calcareous sediment
sediment subtropical
plankton temperate
Biogenous sediments
● Biogenous sediments are sediments
formed from the remains of once-
living organisms.
Calcareous sediments
16,400 feet
● Calcareous sediments are biogenous
(5,000 m)
sediments formed from calcium
carbonate. The calcium carbonate
comes from the exoskeletons of tiny
calcareous deposits creatures such as foraminiferans and
coccoliths.
● Foraminiferans and coccoliths are
Calcareous skeletal single-celled animals that live in the

remains oceans in huge numbers.
● Calcareous sediments are found at
foraminiferan moderate depths in subtropical and
exoskeleton coccolith temperate waters.
● They are not found at depths greater
than 14,800–16,400 feet (4,500–
Siliceous sediments 5,000 m) because high pressure, high
carbon dioxide concentrations, and
low temperatures dissolve calcium
carbonate.
● The relatively shallow Atlantic Ocean
has about two-thirds calcareous
sediment coverage, while the deeper
Pacific Ocean has about one-third
coverage.
Siliceous sediments
● Siliceous sediments are biogenous
sediments formed from the glasslike
(siliceous) exoskeletons of tiny
creatures known as diatoms,
radiolarians, and silicoflagellates.
16,400 feet
● Siliceous sediments are found in
(5,000 m)
cooler and deeper waters than
calcareous sediments.
● They accumulate where deposition of
siliceous deposits calcareous exoskeletons is low, where

there are high concentrations of

dissolved silica, and at depths greater
Siliceous skeletal
than 14,800–16,400 feet (4,500–
remains 5,000 m) where calcium carbonate
tends to dissolve.
radiolarian diatom
exoskeleton exoskeleton
42
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Terrigenous sediments

Key words
Deep-sea clay
continental crust sediment wind currents
estuary terrigenous
sea currents
glacial sediment sediment
glacier turbidity current deep-sea clay
iceberg
Terrigenous
sediments
● Terrigenous sediments
are sediments formed
from material that
originated from
continental crust.
Deep-sea clay
● Deep-sea clay covers
large areas of the deep ocean floor.
● It consists of material conveyed from
land by wind and water currents. Coarse terrigenous sediments
● Deposition from other sources is very strong river
current
low in these areas.
● Deposition rates are very low— coarse
typically 0.04 inches (1 mm) per sediment
thousand years.
Coarse terrigenous
sediments
● Coarse sediments are
typically deposited by
rivers via estuaries.
● They are found primarily
in shallow waters on the
continental shelf.
● Turbidity currents can
also convey coarse
sediments to the deep
ocean floor.
● Large river estuaries, such as the
Glacial sediments
Ganges-Brahmaputra fan in the Bay of glacial ice
Bengal, can extend well beyond the coarse sediment
continental shelf. released by ice
Glacial sediments
● Glacial sediments are found
primarily on continental
shelves where glaciers
flowed during periods of
low sea level.

● They are of mixed
coarseness, from clay to
boulder-sized particles.
● They are also found in
deeper water where free-
floating icebergs have
melted and deposited their sediment.
43
Hydrothermal vents
Hydrothermal vents
sulfurous hot water minerals are Key words
erupts from vent deposited like
sulfurous hot water aminerals are
smokestack black smoker manganese
erupts from vent deposited
around like
a vent
a smokestack
diffuse vent nodule
around a vent hydrogenous sediment
sediment white smoker
hydrothermal
vent
● Hydrogenous sediments are sediments
composed of minerals precipitated
from seawater.
Calcium carbonate
deposits
superheated water
● Seawater is saturated with calcium
gushes from below
superheated water ions (Ca2+).
gushes from below
● Where carbonate ion (CO32-)
Black smoker concentration is high and carbon
Black smoker
bottom metal sulfides oxidize metal oxides settle dioxide (CO2) concentration is low,
current and precipitate to ocean floor
bottom metal sulfides oxidize metal oxides settle calcium carbonate is precipitated
current and precipitate to ocean floor (CaCO3), mainly as aragonite and
calcite.
Manganese (polymetallic)
modules
● Manganese nodules are small, roughly
spherical nuggets of metals that form
on the deep ocean floor.
● They typically contain manganese
dioxide (30 percent), iron oxide
(20 percent), and a combination of
cobalt, copper, and nickel.
● It is not known how or why they form
but they are thought to grow at a rate
of 0.04–8 inches (1–200 mm) every
million years.
Hydrothermal vent
deposits
● Seawater flows into crevices near mid-
ocean ridges where it is heated and
dissolves minerals from the rocks.
● When this heated water is expelled
again, it meets cold ocean water and
some of its dissolved chemicals are
precipitated as sediments.
Types of hydrothermal
vents
● In diffuse vents: water is expelled at
up to 86°F (30°C).
● In white smokers, water is expelled at
390–570°F (200–300°C).
● In black smokers, sulfide-rich water is
vent chimney rich in metal sulfides seawater inflow expelled at 570–750°F (300–400°C).
vent chimney rich in metal sulfides seawater inflow
44
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Transport routes of

Key words
aeolian transport iceberg
oceanic sediment
authigenesis micrometeorite
biogenous sediment
Origins of oceanic sediment
sediment turbidity current
coastal erosion volcano
hydrothermal d c e f
vent
Origins of oceanic
sediment
Material is transported into the oceans a g i h j k l
by many routes:
a Fluvial transport: riverborne
terrigenous (land-originated)
sediment.
b Aeolian transport: terrigenous Principal sediments of the deep ocean
sediment blown on the wind.
c Coastal erosion. carbonates silicates
d Fallout from ash clouds produced by sand and mud
volcanoes and (e) high-altitude
jetstreams.
f Micrometeorites from space.
g Mass gravity flow: Debris flows and
turbidity currents.
h Ice-rafting: release of glacial sediment
from icebergs.
i Hydrothermal activity: chemicals
extracted from rock by hot water.
j Submarine volcanic activity.
k Biogenic debris: sediment

accumulating from the waste and dead
bodies of organisms.
l Authigenesis: addition of material by
chemical reaction between
accumulated sediment and dissolved
substances in the overlying water.
45
Coastal formation GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
1 New coastline Key words

Prominent headlands prior to the action of shoreline processes. bay wave action
coastline
erosion
headland
sediment
1 New coastline
● A coastline is initially established by
forces such as volcanic action, tectonic
movement, or the deposition of glacial
or riverborne sediment.
● A new coastline may also be formed
when sea levels rise or fall dramatically.
In either case, rocks and formations
that have not previously been in
contact with the sea become subject
to shoreline processes.
2 Shoreline processes
around a headland
shallow water of bay 2 Shoreline processes
curved arrow showing wave ● Shoreline processes are the effects on
refraction (bending)
a shoreline caused by waves and
shallow water near headland
currents. They include erosion and the
headland transportation of sediment.
waves settled particles in bay ● Wave action is the action of waves in
the erosion and transport of sediment
along a coastline.
● Waves are refracted by
headlands in such a way that
their energy rapidly
erodes both sides of a
headland.
3 Eroded coastline 3 Eroded coastline

The prolonged action of shoreline processes has removed the headlands. ● Shoreline processes tend to straighten
coastlines because headlands are
eroded and the resulting sediment is
deposited in the intervening bays.
a
Key words
erosion
high tide
low tide
sea level
strata
Wave erosion
●
●
●
46
wave
wave action
wave-cut
platform
Wave action erodes coastlines.

The erosive force of waves is greatest
at mean sea level.
● Soft strata erode more rapidly than
hard strata.
● The angle of strata also influences
the results of wave erosion.

Wave action erodes a notch in the
coastline between the high and low
tide levels.
● As this notch deepens, the material
above tends to collapse and a cliff is
formed.
● Wave action continues to cut the
notch deeper into the base of the
newly formed cliff.
● More material above the notch
collapses and the cliff becomes higher.
● A wave-cut platform is a near-
horizontal shelf at the level of the low-
tide mark. It is formed as wave action
continually undermines and collapses
the cliff face at the same level.
● On the seaward side of the platform,
●
eroded material may settle as beach
deposits before being removed by
waves and currents and deposited
elsewhere.
Steep cliffs
● Steep cliffs tend to form where the
coastal rocks are hard and where
coastal rock strata are tilted seaward.
Gentle cliffs
Gentle cliffs tend to form where the
coastal rocks are soft and where
coastal rock strata are tilted landward.
Cliff formation
1
Steep cliffs
Gentle cliffs
a
hard strata
soft strata
undercut cliff
wave-cut platform
beach deposits
strata tilted seaward
strata tilted landward

maximum high
tide level
minimum low tide level

mean sea level
47
Slopes and depositions GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Shore slope
longshore current shore deposition
On a gently sloping shore, material from the lower part of the shore (a) tends to be
longshore drift shore slope
eroded and deposited on the upper shore (b). On a more steeply sloping shore, the
prevailing wind wave
situation is reversed. Most beaches are at near-equilibrium conditions between the sediment wave action
two extremes. shore
Shore deposition
● Shore deposition refers to the
deposition of sediments and other
material along the shore.
● Most of this sediment is transported
b to the ocean by rivers. A smaller

b
proportion of the sediment is the
result of wave action eroding the
shore.
a a Shore slope
● The steepness of a shore’s slope
determines the kind of wave action
erosion that takes place.
● Wave action tends to deposit sediment
on gently sloping coastlines and
before remove sediment from steeper
after Gentle slope Steep slope coastlines.
Longshore drift and

Longshore drift longshore current
a Waves usually strike a depositional shore at an angle. ● Longshore drift is the tendency for
b Sand picked up by incoming waves is washed up the beach (swash) at an angle. wave action to move material in the
c The backwash returns directly down the beach. direction of prevailing winds along the
d The overall effect of swash and backwash is to move sand or shingle along the beach, length of a shore.
an activity otherwise known as longshore drift. ● Longshore current is the tendency for
material to be moved in the direction
of prevailing winds along the length of
d
a coastline.
b c
a
48
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Landforms of

Key words
bay sea arch
marine erosion
blowhole sea cave
coastline sea stack
Features of an erosion-dominated shore
erosion strata
headland erosion-resistant rock strata
less resistant rock strata
Erosion patterns
● A newly established coastline is
commonly composed of different
strata. Some strata are more erosion-
resistant than others.
● These variations in erosion
resistance tend to determine the
evolution of the coastline’s form
over time.
Bays and headlands

● A bay forms when less-resistant
strata are eroded quicker than headland bay
surrounding strata.
● Headlands are composed of more-
resistant strata and are left
protruding into the ocean as the
less-resistant strata around them are
eroded.
Headland erosion
● Headlands are exposed on three
sides to wave action.
● Sea caves form as wave action cuts
passages into weaknesses in the
sea arch blowhole sea cave
strata.
● A blowhole is a passageway
connecting the roof of a sea cave
with the surface of the land above. At
high tide, waves force water up into
a blowhole causing a geyser of water
and pressurized air to erupt from the
top of the blowhole.
● A sea arch forms when a sea cave is
eroded right through a headland.
● Sea stacks are the remains of
collapsed sea arches.
sea stacks
49
Landforms of marine GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
deposition Key words

bar lowland beach
barrier island sediment
Depositional shores bay-head beach shore
boulder beach spit
erosion tombolo
Boulder beach Bay-head beach
longshore current
longshore drift
Depositional shores
● A depositional shore is a shore on
which more sediment is deposited
than is removed.
● Depositional shores receive sediment
from rivers, from biological processes
in shallow waters, and from currents
carrying material from erosion sites.
● Longshore currents and longshore
Lowland beach Spit drift carry much of the material that
arrives at depositional shores.
● Where this material is deposited it
forms one of the several landforms
characteristic of a depositional shore.
Boulder beach
● A boulder beach is a narrow band of
boulders and shingle at the base of a
cliff.
Bay-head beach
Bar Tombolo ● A bay-head beach is a crescent of sand
lying in the bay between two
headlands.
Lowland beach
● A lowland beach is a broad, gently
sloping sandy beach, usually backed by
wind-blown dunes.
Spit
● A spit is a peninsula of sediment
deposited on the down-current side of
Barrier islands
a headland.
Bar
● A bar is a spit that entirely or almost
entirely closes off a bay.
Tombolo
direction of current
carrying sediment ● A tombolo is a finger of land
connecting an island to the shore.
Barrier island
● A barrier island is an island formed
from the remains of a spit or bar.
50
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Shore types

Key words Rocky shore
sea cliff
bay shore
flat wavecut platform
estuary shore slope
beach deposits
high tide wave-cut
maximum high tide level
low tide platform
sand dune minimum low
tide level
Shore
● A shore is the region that
lies between the extreme
low water spring tide mark
and the highest part of the
coastline that comes into
contact with storm waves.
● Shores vary depending on
their composition and their
exposure to the sea.
Rocky shores
● Rocky shores form where
high, rocky landforms are in
direct contact with the sea Sandy shore
on exposed coastlines. sand dunes beach deposits
● They are characterized by maximum high tide level
cliffs and a flat, wavecut minimum low tide level
platform that is likely to be
strewn with fallen rock.
● Typical particles are greater
than 0.08 inches (2 mm) in
size, formed from the
breakdown of fallen rock
from the cliff face.
● Beach slopes are greater
than ten degrees.
Sandy shores
● Sandy shores form on
sheltered coastlines where
suspended particles of small
to moderate size are
deposited.
● Typical particle sizes are in
Muddy shore
the range 0.0025–
0.08 inches (0.063–2.0 mm) estuary mouth beach deposits
and beach slopes are in the maximum high tide level
range 1–9 degrees. minimum low tide level
Muddy shores
● Muddy shores form on very

sheltered coastlines along
estuaries or bays.
● Typical particle sizes are
less than 0.0025 inches
(0.063 mm) and beach
slopes are less than
one degree.
51
Estuary types GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Drowned river valley river mouth Key words

bar river valley
bar-built sea level
estuary tectonic
estuary estuary
fjord
lagoon
Estuaries
● An estuary is a partially
enclosed body of water that is
open to the sea and into which
river water flows.
● Estuaries are commonly river
Bar-built estuary
shallow lagoon sand bar sea valleys that have been flooded
by rising sea levels.
Drowned river valleys

and coastal plain
estuaries
● Drowned river valleys and
coastal plain estuaries are the
most common form of estuary.
● They are formed when rising
sea levels inundate river
mouths and lowland areas.
● Examples include the Delaware
estuary and the Thames
Tectonic estuary estuary, England.
Bar-built estuaries
● Bar-built estuaries consist of
shallow lagoons separated from
the sea by sand bars or barrier
islands that have been
deposited by wave action.
● Examples include Laguna
Madre, Texas, and Waddenzee,
the Netherlands.
Tectonic estuaries
● Tectonic estuaries are formed
when land subsides or is folded
below sea level by geologic
Fjord movement.
● Examples include San Francisco
Bay, California.
Fjords
● A fjord is a deep, steep-sided,
U-shaped valley cut by glaciers
and subsequently inundated by
sea level rise.
● Examples include Glacier Bay,
Canada.
52
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Estuarine salinity

Key words Vertically-mixed estuary
estuary head mouth
salinity
tide
Water mixing
● Where river water meets ocean water
in an estuary the degree to which
saltwater and freshwater mix between
the head and the mouth depends on
the depth and volume of the estuary.
● The head of an estuary is the end
closer to the river. The mouth is the mouth freshwater layer
head
end closer to the sea.
● Freshwater is less dense than seawater
mixing zone
and so tends to flow over the top of it.
seawater layer
Vertically-mixed estuary
● In shallow, low-volume estuaries,
saltwater and freshwater mix readily
enough for salinity to increase steadily
with distance from the head of the
estuary.
● In a slightly deeper estuary, two water Highly-stratified estuary
layers can be identified: a freshwater
head mouth freshwater level
layer, which becomes increasingly
saline as distance from the head of the
estuary increases, and a seawater layer, seawater level
which becomes less saline as it
approaches the head of the estuary.
● A zone of mixing separates the two.
Highly-stratified estuary
● In deep estuaries, the freshwater level
increases in salinity as distance from
the head of the estuary increases.
● The seawater level remains at near-
normal salinity right up to the head
of the estuary.
Salt wedge estuary freshwater level
head mouth zone of

Salt wedge estuary transition
● In very deep, high-volume estuaries,
the freshwater layer does not increase seawater
in salinity until it reaches the mouth of
the estuary.
● A zone of transition from fresh to
seawater is found beneath the surface.
● A wedge of seawater advances and
retreats beneath the surface layer with
the tides.
53
Sea level change in GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
recent geologic time Key words

atmosphere
glacier
Sea level change ice age
feet meters ice cap
0 0 sea level
33 10
Global sea level
● Global sea level has been rising since
66 20
the peak of the last ice age about
20,000 years ago.
99 30
Depth of sea level relative to present
● The most rapid rise occurred between
131 40
20,000 and 6,000 years ago.
● Between 6,000 years ago and the year
164 50 1900, global sea level rose at a

constant but slower rate.
● Between 1900 and the present day
197 60
global sea level has also risen at a
230 70 constant but slightly increased rate.
● Global sea level is thought to have
263 80 risen by a total of about 395 feet

(120 m) in the last 20,000 years.
295 90 ● Average global temperature has risen
by about 18˚F (10˚C) over the same
328 100 period.
361 110 Factors for change

● Many factors contribute to global sea
394 120 level changes:
18,000 14,000 10,000 6,000 2,000 0 ● Increasing temperatures cause glaciers
Years before present to melt, which adds water to the
oceans.
● Increasing temperatures also cause the
Temperature change water in the oceans to expand,
increasing the overall volume of the
deglaciation
°F °C oceans. This factor is thought to be
18 10 more significant than the addition of
water from melting ice.
● Ice that is floating on the ocean, such
Average global temperature change
14 8 as the Arctic ice cap, does not

contribute to sea level rise when it
melts. The ice is floating on the ocean
11 6 and therefore already displacing a
volume of water equal to the volume
of water that would be added to the
7 4 ocean if the ice melted.
● The amount of water retained in the
atmosphere and trapped on land also
4 2 influences global sea levels.
0 0
18,000 14,000 10,000 6,000 2,000 0
Years before present
54
GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Isostasy and eustasy

Key words Isostasy
asthenosphere ice age
erosion isostasy tall mountains
eustasy lithospheric plate eroded mountains
glacier sea level
lowland regions
global warming
glaciers
Isostasy
● Isostasy refers to the state of
equilibrium of the lithospheric plates
floating on the asthenosphere. It is a
geologic concept used to explain the
differences in topographical height at
different points on Earth. b
● Lithospheric plates float on the
denser, semiliquid material of the
asthenosphere. The thickness and
density of a lithospheric plate sea level
a
determines how high or low it floats.
● A lithospheric plate will always tend
toward settling at isostatic equilibrium.
This equilibrium point can change as a
mass is added to or removed from a
When mountains are eroded, they lose mass and float higher on the mantle
lithospheric plate, or as the plate cools a . When glaciers fill a valley, the locality increases in mass and sinks lower
and becomes denser. in the mantle b . Isostatic adjustments—with land rising or falling by
● Mass may be added during ice ages hundreds of feet (meters) when mass is removed or added—take place quite
slowly, over thousands of years.
when thick layers of ice are loaded
onto continents. Mass may be
removed by erosion or by the large- Isostasy and eustasy
scale melting of ice sheets.
● Isostatic rebound is the rapid uplifting
a isostatic sea level fall
of land from which ice sheets and
b eustatic sea level rise
glaciers have been removed by
warming as the land seeks its new feet meters feet meters
isostatic equilibrium. 99 30 99 30
Eustasy
● Eustasy refers to the rise and fall of 66 20 66 20
global sea levels irrespective of
changes in the isostatic equilibrium of
33 10 33 10
the land. It is measured relative to the
center of Earth rather than relative to b
any coastline. 0 a 0 0 0
● For example, geology indicates that
Baffin Island in northern Canada has
seen a fall in sea level of almost 100 –33 –10 –33 –10
feet (30 m) over the past 9,000 years.
This is due to the fact that isostatic –66 –66
–20 –20
rebound has uplifted Baffin Island

since the melting of the ice sheets that
covered it during the last ice age. –99 –30 –99 –30
Although sea levels have fallen relative
to Baffin Island, they have actually
been eustatically rising continuously –10,000 –5,000 0 –10,000 –5,000 0
for the last 9,000 years.
Years before present Years before present
55
Global sea level change GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Range of sea level change predictions Key words

inches (cm) glacier
40 (100) global warming
greenhouse gas
sea level
The recent past

● According to the most recent
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report in 2001, global
sea level has risen by 4–10 inches
(10–25 cm) in the last 100 years.
● The IPCC concluded that the bulk of
30 (75) this rise probably resulted from global

warming, followed by the thermal
expansion of water and the partial
melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
● During the period 1880–1980, there
was an apparent global warming of
about 1.8˚F (0.6°C). This temperature
rise may be due in part (if not largely)
to increases in atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases,
especially carbon dioxide.
Sea level rise
The near future

20 (50) ● In the IPCC’s 2001 report global
average surface temperatures were
predicted to increase by 2.5–10.4°F
range of uncertainty (1.4–5.8°C) by the year 2100. This
estimate assumed a business-as-usual
scenario (emissions of greenhouse
gases continuing at current rates).
● A best estimate sea level rise of about
19 inches (48 cm) was predicted by
the year 2100: estimates range from
best estimate
projection
3.5–35 inches (9–88 cm). This sea level
rise would not be uniform globally.
● A mean sea level rise of 19 inches
10 (25) (48 cm) by the year 2100 would be
sufficient to cover some low-lying
tropical islands entirely, such as parts
of the Maldives and Marshall Islands
in the Pacific.
● A similar sea level rise would flood
about 15,500 square miles
(40,000 km2) of China and would
impact seriously on Bangladesh and

other flood-prone countries in the
northern Indian Ocean.
0 (0)
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year
56
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Water molecules

Key words
Water molecule
hydrogen
bonding
molecule oxygen atom
covalent bonds δ– covalent bonds

Water
● A drop of water contains at least one
billion water molecules.
● The physical properties of water are
O
largely determined by hydrogen
bonding between the constituent H H
water molecules.
δ+ δ+
Water molecule 105°
● A water molecule comprises two
hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen
(O) atom joined by covalent bonds.
The three atoms are set at an angle
angle of atoms
of 105°.
● The molecule is polar: overall it is
electrically neutral, but it has an
unequal distribution of charge on its
surface. The hydrogen atoms have a
slight positive charge (δ+) while the Bonding between water molecules
oxygen atom has a slight negative
charge (δ–). positive regions
Bonding between water δ–

molecules
● The slightly positive regions of one
water molecule are electrostatically
attracted to the slightly negative O
region of a neighboring water
H H
molecule. This weak electrostatic
attraction is a hydrogen bond.
hydrogen bond hydrogen bond
● Hydrogen bonds are much weaker δ+
δ+
than the covalent bonds within a water
molecule. Nevertheless, hydrogen δ+
bonds exert a profound influence on δ+
the physical and chemical properties H
H
of water.
O
O δ– δ–
H
H
δ+
negative region δ+
covalent bonds
57
Physical states of water CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
1
water molecules
atmospheric
pressure
crystalline lattice hydrogen
hydrogen bonding bonding
A unique compound
● On Earth, water is unique in that it
exists in all three physical states—
ice
solid, liquid, and gas—under normal
atmospheric conditions.
● Hydrogen bonding between water
cold water molecules accounts for many of

water’s unusual thermal (heat)
properties.
32°F
cooling warming (0°C) Physical states
1 At pressure of one atmosphere
(standard sea level pressure) water
2 freezes at 32°F (0°C). In its solid
water molecules state—ice—water molecules are held
together in a crystalline lattice by
hydrogen bonding. Water expands
hydrogen bonds
slightly as it freezes so that ice is less
dense than cold water, and floats.
2 At normal atmospheric pressure, ice

melts to form a liquid at temperatures
above 32°F (0°C). Liquid water boils to
a gas at 212°F (100°C). In their liquid
state, water molecules move about
liquid
relatively freely and form temporary
hydrogen bonds with passing
neighbors. Under the force of gravity,
the liquid fills the bottom of a
container into which it is placed, but
cooling warming 212°F flows when the container is tilted.
(100°C)
3 In their gaseous state, water molecules
move freely and tend to distribute
3 themselves randomly throughout any
container into which they are placed.
Hydrogen bonding is negligible.
water molecules
hydrogen bonding
58
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Water’s special properties

Key words
heat capacity solvent
latent heat of surface tension
fusion
latent heat of
vaporization
Property Significance
Present in all three physical states—solid, liquid, ● Water vapor evaporating from the sea surface helps transport heat
and gas—at ambient temperatures on Earth’s from warm, low latitudes to cool, high latitudes.
surface. ● The presence of ice and water in polar regions moderates climates
in those regions.
● Ice formation in polar waters during winter produces hypersaline
seawater that sinks, delivering oxygen to the deep ocean.
A higher heat capacity than any common solid or ● Large amounts of heat energy are transported in ocean currents
liquid other than ammonia. traveling from low to high latitudes. This cools tropical regions,
warms polar regions, and thus moderates Earth’s climate.
● Water warms up and cools down more slowly than land or air, and
so ocean water has a moderating influence on coastal regions.
● Over much of the world’s oceans, surface temperatures fluctuate
less than 3.6°F (2°C) in a 24-hour period. By contrast, surface
temperatures on landmasses may fluctuate by 27°F (15°C).
● Water provides a thermally stable environment for marine
organisms.
A higher latent heat of fusion than ● When ice forms or melts a large amount of heat is released or is
that of any substance other than ammonia. absorbed. At high latitudes, ice formation and melting act as a
thermostat, keeping water and atmosphere at temperatures around
the freezing point of water (28.7°F or –1.8°C).
A higher latent heat of vaporization than that of ● Heat energy is absorbed from the ocean when evaporation takes
any other common substance. place at low latitudes. The heat energy is released when water
vapor condenses and falls as precipitation at high latitudes. This
effect helps moderate global climate, which would otherwise be
much more extreme at the poles and equator.
The thermal expansion properties of pure water are ● Ice floats. Lakes and shallow seas do not normally freeze solid.
unusual in that water’s maximum density is at Instead a surface layer of ice floats above the cold but unfrozen
39.2°F (4°C), not at its freezing point 32°F (0°C). water where organisms continue to survive.
Water has uniquely powerful solvent properties. ● Water is the medium in which life-supporting chemical reactions
Water dissolves more substances than any other occur.
common liquid. ● Water dissolves minerals from rocks and soil and carries them to
the oceans.
Water’s surface tension is higher than that of any ● Encourages bubble formation below the water surface and droplet
other liquid. formation above it. Both effects enhance the exchange of gases
between the oceans and atmosphere.
● Surface tension enables some small organisms to anchor in or
under the water surface or, in the case of some animals, walk
upon it.
59
Light in the sea CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
blue green Key words

transparency
yellow turbidity
wavelength
orange
violet red
Light transmission
properties of water
● Seawater is relatively transparent, but
meters a feet not all wavelengths of visible light are
0 0 transmitted through it equally well.
Blue and green wavelengths penetrate
deepest, and violet and yellow
penetrate moderately well, but orange
Ocean depth
and red wavelengths are absorbed

within the first 33 feet (10 m).
● Seen with the unaided eye, the colors
at depths in excess of 33 feet (10 m)
or so have a drab blue or bluish-green
cast because the red, orange, and
yellow wavelengths of light have been
absorbed. Red, orange, or yellow
creatures appear black or gray at those
depths. Powerful lights that generate
the full spectrum of visible light are
necessary to reveal the rich variety of
colors underwater.
● The transparency of water depends
largely on the matter suspended or
b
dissolved in it. This is known as
1 3.3
turbidity. Suspended particles—
whether living or non-living—tend to
color water and to absorb or scatter
sunlight, reducing transparency.
a Light energy striking the ocean’s

surface (energy equals 100 percent).
b Approximately 45 percent of the
light energy at the surface remains.
c Approximately 16 percent of the
c light energy at the surface remains.
10 33 d Approximately 1 percent of the light
energy at the surface remains.
100 330
0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Wavelength
60
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Sea surface

Key words
biogeographical temperate
temperatures
zone tropical
polar
subtropical
February
°F (°C)
32 (0)
41 (5)
50 (10)
59 (15)
68 (20)
77 (25)
68 (20)
59 (15)
50 (10)
41 (5)
32 (0)
August °F (°C)
41 (5)
50 (10)
59 (15)
68 (20)
77 (25)
68 (20)
59 (15)
50 (10)
41 (5)
32 (0)
Biogeographic zones based on mean surface temperature
Designation Location Mean surface temperature range °F (°C)

Polar Arctic and subarctic 28.6–41.0 (–1.9 to 5.0)

Antarctic and subantarctic 28.6–35.6 (–1.9 to 2.0)
Cold temperate Northern Hemisphere 41.0–50.0 (5.0 to 10.0)
Southern Hemisphere 35.6–50.0 (2.0 to 10.0)
Warm temperate Both hemispheres 50.0–59.0 (10.0 to 15.0)
Subtropical Both hemispheres 59.0–77.0 (15.0 to 25.0)
Tropical Both hemispheres >77.0 (>25.0)
61
Temperature gradients CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Three-layered ocean Key words

latitude temperature
Temperature polar gradient
32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20) °F (°C) season thermocline
feet (m) 0 low-density surface layer subtropical water column
temperate
thermocline
Ł
3,280 The three-layered ocean
(1,000)
● Over most of the open ocean the
cold deep layer water column is effectively three-
layered throughout the year.
Depth
6,560 ● A warm, low-density surface layer

(2,000)
sits on top of a region of rapid
temperature transition, the
thermocline, below which is a
9,840
(3,000)
cold deep layer.
Temperature profile at
different latitudes
13,120
(4,000) ● The three-layered vertical temperature
profile exists in tropical, subtropical,
and temperate latitudes.
● In polar waters, there
Temperature profile at different latitudes
is no thermocline and
Tropical/subtropical Temperate Polar temperature transition
between surface and
°F (°C) °F (°C) °F (°C)
32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20)
deep water is minimal.
32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20) 32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20)
feet 0 feet 0 feet 0
(m) Ł (m) Ł (m) Ł Seasonal change
3,280 3,280 3,280
(1,000) (1,000) (1,000)
in temperature
profile
6,560 6,560 6,560 ● In temperate latitudes
(2,000) (2,000) (2,000)
in spring and summer,
9,840 9,840 9,840 a steep thermocline a
(3,000) (3,000) (3,000) is superimposed on
13,120 13,120 13,120 top of the permanent
(4,000) (4,000) (4,000) thermocline b that
exists at moderate
depth above the cold
Seasonal change in temperature profile deep water.
● In winter, the near-
Spring Summer Winter surface thermocline
°F (°C) °F (°C) °F (°C) disappears.
32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20) 32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20) 32 (0) 50 (10) 68 (20)
feet 0 feet 0 feet 0
(m) (m) (m)
a a
1,640 1,640 1,640

(500) (500) (500)
b b b
3,280 3,280 3,280
(1,000) (1,000) (1,000)
4,920 4,920 4,920

(1,500) (1,500) (1,500)
62
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Sea ice

Key words
Formation of sea ice
finger rifting iceberg
floe nilas
frazil pancake ice
glacier polynya
grease ice sea ice
Sea ice
● There are generally two forms of
ice found on the oceans.
● Sea ice is ice that forms when seawater seawater freezes to form nilas smooth-surfaced ice floe
freezes.
● Icebergs are formed from ice
originating from glaciers on land.
Formation of sea ice

● In calm, cold seas at surface
temperatures of about 28.7°F (–1.9°C),
seawater begins to freeze.
● Frazil consists of individual ice crystals
disc-shaped pieces called ice smooth-surfaced ice floe
floating on the ocean’s surface.
● Grease ice forms when frazil crystals
begin to coagulate together.
● Nilas is a thin smooth skin of
transparent sea ice that flexes with
the swell. It forms from grease ice on
calm seas. Formation of multiyear ice
● In continued cold, calm conditions
nilas will thicken to form a smooth- water-filled leads wide polynya
surfaced ice floe.
● Pancake ice is an area of unconnected
smooth-edged disks of ice that form
from grease ice in disturbed waters.
● Pancake ice also eventually coalesces
to form a smooth-surfaced ice floe.
Formation of multiyear ice

● During the Arctic winter, newly
formed ice thickens to about
6 feet (2 m) if undisturbed.
● Under the action of winds
and waves it may override adjacent ice
and cause finger-rifting.
● Fresh ice may split to form long, water-
filled leads or wide polynya that finger-rifting multiyear ice
quickly refreezes.
layers of ice
● Multiyear ice, such as that found in the
newly formed
central Arctic, is thick and immensely ice re-frozen meltwater
strong; it contains layers of ice bonded
together by refrozen meltwater.

63
Icebergs CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Arctic Key words

typical Arctic iceberg Antarctic
calving location
Arctic
10
°
Baffin iceberg calving
°
Bay 70 iceberg
ocean currents subarctic
°
Greenland
80
Baffin
Iceberg origins
20
Island
°
Iceland ● An iceberg is a very large chunk of ice
floating on an ocean.
° ● Icebergs are composed of freshwater
60
that has frozen on land.
● When glaciers reach the sea, parts
70°
Arctic iceberg break off the end and float away as

icebergs. This is known as “calving.”
Labrador
30°
Arctic icebergs
● A newly calved Arctic iceberg typically
50°
weighs 1.65 million tons (1.5 million
Newfoundland tonnes) and is more than 1,312 feet
(400 m) tall, with less than 20 percent
Grand Banks of its mass showing above the
waterline.
● More than 10,000 Arctic and subarctic
Titanic sank icebergs are calved annually. They drift
1912 40°
southward down the coasts of Baffin
60° 50° 40° Island and Labrador.
● In an average year, about 300 icebergs
Antarctic travel far enough south to enter major

a transatlantic shipping lanes.
Weddell Sea
South
c America b West Wind Drift Antarctic icebergs
c ● In the Antarctic, icebergs are calved
line of latitude 40°S
from land-fringed ice sheets rather
than glaciers. Antarctic icebergs tend
b to be larger than Arctic icebergs and
when young they have a flat-topped,
tabular shape.
b ● An iceberg calved from the ice shelf in
the Weddell Sea in 1991 covered an
a
area the size of Connecticut: 5,000
square miles (13,000 km2).
● Several thousand Antarctic icebergs
are calved annually. The larger ones
Antarctica b
are carried eastwards on the strong
West Wind Drift. Some drift as far
Antarctic iceberg north as 40°S before disintegrating.
Africa
c
ia
l
ra
st
Au
64
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Sound in the sea

Key words Effect of temperature and pressure on sound transmission
sound wave sound waves
thermocline
Sound transmission
properties of water generated
● Sound waves travel through solids, sound SOFAR channel
liquids, or gases as pressure waves that
are transmitted from one constituent
molecule to the next.
● Sound waves travel more than four Sound waves are
times faster in water (mean velocity refracted (bent) and
retained within the
4,756 feet per second [1,450 m/s]) SOFAR channel.
than in air (1,096 feet per second
[334 m/s] in dry atmosphere at 68°F
[20°C]).
● In water, sound waves travel far
greater distances than light waves
and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation.
● In the ocean, sound travels faster with
increasing temperature, salinity, and
pressure. Temperature Pressure Velocity
SOFAR low-velocity
● SOFAR is an acronym of “Sound Fixing sound layer
Depth
and Ranging.” It refers to a narrow miles km
layer of the ocean in which 0 0
temperature and pressure are such
that sounds travel the greatest
distances.
● When sound waves encounter a
thermocline they are refracted 1
downwards toward the region with
minimum sound speed. As they travel
1
through deeper water, and therefore a
higher-pressure region, the sound
2
waves are refracted back upwards,
where they encounter higher
temperature water and are refracted
downwards again.
● Sound waves are continuously 3
refracted between the higher 2
temperature and higher pressure
zones and can travel very long
distances—thousands of miles (km)—

along this channel, losing very little 4
energy.
lower higher lower higher lower higher
● The SOFAR channel is found at a mean
depth within the range 1,640 feet Temperature increases with Pressure increases with The effects of temperature
depth. depth. and pressure on sound
(500 m) to 3,280 feet (1,000 m).
transmission combine to
create a low velocity sound
layer: the SOFAR channel.
65
Seawater pressure CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
atmosphere
atmospheric
pressure
Depth 1 atm Absolute
feet m pressure
0 0 1 atmosphere
Pressure
● At the sea surface, atmospheric
1 atm
pressure is about one atmosphere
(14.7 pounds per square inch [1.03 kg
33 10 2 atmospheres per cm2]). Underwater, pressure
increases by one atmosphere for each
33 feet (10 m) of depth.
1 atm
Gas bladders
66 20 3 atmospheres ● Some fish have gas bladders inside
their bodies that allow them to achieve
neutral buoyancy.
● Neutral buoyancy is achieved when
1 atm
the buoyancy experienced by a body is
the same as the attraction of gravity, so
98 30 4 atmospheres
that the body does not rise or sink in
the water column. The advantage of
neutral buoyancy is that it makes the
1 atm fish effectively weightless: it therefore
requires far less energy to move
131 40 5 atmospheres around.
● By increasing or decreasing the size of
its gas bladder, a fish can change the
1 atm overall density of its body and achieve
neutral buoyancy at different depths.
This is important because fish need to
164 50 6 atmospheres
move up and down in the water
column to find food or avoid
predators.
1 atm ● As pressure increases with depth,
however, the volume of gas inside a
197 60 7 atmospheres gas bladder decreases, causing the gas
bladder to become smaller. This
means that a fish must increase the
1 atm volume of gas in its gas bladder when
it goes deeper, and decrease the
230 70 8 atmospheres volume when it rises.
● The same effect would be seen if a
diver took a gas-filled balloon beneath
the waves:
1 atm
262 80 9 atmospheres
As the pressure increases
with depth, the volume of
the gas inside the balloon
decreases. The same effect
Depth 1 atm Absolute
can be observed in the lungs
feet m pressure
of divers.
0 0 1 atmosphere
66
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Seawater density

Key words
current tropical
polar
salinity
subtropical
temperate Salinity (‰)
30 32 34 36 38 40
77 25
Seawater density
● Density is mass per unit volume: the
matter in a unit of a given substance,
or c
d=m/V
● The density of seawater is determined b
by temperature, pressure, and salinity. 68 20
● In the open ocean, the density of
surface seawater varies between 1.022
and 1.03 grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3) (a). 220
0.0
● In tropical and subtropical regions (b)
a 9°F (5°C) temperature difference (c)
produces a density change of 0.0012 59 15
0.0012
grams per cubic centimeter in
°C
a
°F
seawater.
260
● In polar regions (d) a 9°F (5°C)
0.0
Temperature
temperature difference (e) produces a

density change of only 0.0004 grams seawater
80
per cubic centimeter. density
50 10
40
(g/cm3)
0.02
● In tropical and subtropical surface
0.02
waters, temperature change has a

greater influence on density, whereas
00
0.03
in polar and cold temperate waters,
salinity variation is of greater
significance.
● In the open ocean, the relative 41 5
densities of water bodies are of great
importance. Relative density
determines which will rise and which e
d
will fall. These vertical movements in
turn influence biological productivity
and generate vertical and horizontal
32 0
currents.
0.0004
28.4 –2
67
Water as a solvent CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
slightly negatively charged oxygen atoms Key words

water molecules
molecular size
solvent
positively charged sodium ions
negatively charged chloride ions

Na+
crystal of sodium chloride

The universal solvent
● Water can dissolve a greater range of
substances, in greater amounts, than
any other common liquid.
● Water’s unique dissolving power is
CI–
related to its small molecular size and
negatively charged chloride ions the water molecule’s polar nature.
● Polar and ionic substances tend to be
soluble in water; covalent substances
are generally less soluble in water.
● A crystal of sodium chloride dissolves
readily in water because positively

hydrogen atoms with slight positive charge
charged sodium ions tend to be pulled
into solution by the slightly negatively-
charged oxygen atoms of water
molecules. Negatively charged
chloride ions are pulled into solution
by the hydrogen atoms in water
with a slight positive charge.
68
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Composition of seawater

Key words
element
mineral
salinity
seawater
sediment
Seawater composition
● On average, water accounts for
96.53 percent of the chemical
composition of seawater. The
remaining 3.47 percent is
a
dissolved solids, of which six
ions make up more than
99 percent.
● The most common dissolved
compound is sodium chloride
(salt).
● Although salinity varies from
location to location across the
ocean, the proportion of salts
remains exactly the same everywhere.
● Virtually every other known element
can also be found dissolved in a b
seawater, but most are in minute
quantities.
● Most minerals are carried into the
oceans by riverwater.
g h i
f
e
d
c
Dissolved gases
● Seawater usually contains small
amounts of dissolved gases. The most Substance Amount of substance (parts per thousand)
significant of these are nitrogen,
a Water 965.31
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.
b Total dissolved solids 34.69
● Gases become dissolved in seawater at
the ocean’s surface. Oxygen and c Chloride (Cl–) 19.10

carbon dioxide are also produced and d Sodium (Na+) 10.62
consumed by animal and plant life e Sulfate (SO42–) 2.66
living in the oceans. f Magnesium (Mg2+) 1.28
● The amount of gas that a volume of g Calcium (Ca2+) 0.40
water can dissolve before becoming h Potassium (K+) 0.38
saturated increases with decreasing
i Trace constituents 0.25
temperature.
69
Residence times in CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
seawater Key words

atmospheric infiltration
fallout precipitation
Addition of ions to oceans atmospheric fallout biological capture sea spray
estuary seawater
hydrothermal
hydrothermal volcano
vents
vent
Addition of ions to oceans

● Major ions are added to ocean water
primarily by: river discharge;
atmospheric fallout from land activities
submarine volcanic eruptions
such as volcanic eruptions; submarine
river discharge volcanic activity; and hydrothermal
vents.
Removal of ions from oceans
precipitation
sea spray
uptake into
clouds
Removal of ions from

oceans
● Major ions are removed from ocean
biological capture, adsorption, and precipitation
water mainly by: biological capture;
infiltration
adsorption and precipitation; sea
Residence times for some major ions spray; uptake into clouds and
subsequent precipitation over land;

Ion Residence time (years)
and infiltration into ocean ridges.
Chloride 80,000,000
Sodium 60,000,000
Sulfate 9,000,000
Potassium 6,000,000
Calcium 1,000,000
Iron 100
70
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Dissolved gases

Key words
photosynthesis
in seawater
respiration
seawater
Dissolved gases Oxygen % Carbon dioxide % Nitrogen %

● For marine life, oxygen (O2), carbon
atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere
dioxide (CO2), and nitrogen (N2) are
the three most important gases
dissolved in seawater.
● The quantity of dissolved gases in
seawater can vary widely depending
on temperature, agitation of the
surface (surface diffusion), and most 21 0.04 78
importantly, the quantity and type of
marine life present.
Oxygen
● Oxygen is a product of photosynthesis
and is vital for most organisms. It is
consumed in respiration.
● Oxygen is replenished by absorption
from the air (surface diffusion),
surface water surface water surface water
and by photosynthesis of surface
phytoplankton and seaweed. It is
usually poorly replenished at great
depth.
● Oxygen concentration generally
decreases with depth.
36 15 48
Carbon dioxide
● Carbon dioxide is consumed by
photosynthesis and is produced by
respiration.
● Carbon dioxide concentration
generally increases with depth.
Nitrogen
● Nitrogen is an inert gas. total water column total water column total water column
● The high concentration of nitrogen
gas in atmospheric air poses a
physiological challenge for diving
mammals when the gas dissolves in
the bloodstream under pressure.
6 83 11
71
Salinity and its CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
measurement Key words

salinity
salinometer
stirrer
seawater
pump outlet
Salinity
● Salinity is a measure of the total
concentration of dissolved solids
in seawater.
voltage thermistor
transformers ● Traditionally, salinity was quoted in
parts per thousand, ‰,(grams per
salinometer
cell kilogram of water; g/kg).
● Salinity is increasingly measured by
electrical conductivity and expressed
in practical salinity units (PSUs). One
PSU is nearly equivalent to one part
per thousand.
Measuring salinity
● Salinity used to be measured by
evaporating the water from a seawater
sample and weighing the salt residue.
detail
This method was shown to
underestimate the true salinity
because some dissolved ions, such as
bromide and iodide, decomposed and
were not left behind as a residue.
● In 1884, English chemist Willhelm
Dittmar established that the relative
proportions of major ions in seawater
vary very little throughout the open
ocean. By finding the concentration of
sample only one major ion, the salinity of
bottle seawater could be readily calculated.
In practice, the chloride ion (Cl–)
concentration (chlorinity) is measured
because it is the most abundant ion
and because a suitable chemical test is
easy to carry out.
● Using a salinometer, salinity can be
determined to within ± 0.003 parts
salinometer per thousand (or PSUs) by this
method. The conductance of the
seawater sample (in ohms) is
compared with that of a standard
seawater sample at 68°F (20°C).
Conductance of the sample

is measured across two voltage
transformers at a specific temperature,
preferably 68°F (20°C).
72
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Salinity variation

Key words
estuary mineral
tidal pools
evaporation salinity 50
hypersaline seawater
hyposaline tidal pool
lagoon
Hypersaline
Salinity tropical lagoons
● The geography of a body of seawater
can have a significant effect on its
salinity.
● The degree of open access to the rest
of the ocean, and the amount of Red Sea 40
freshwater input from rivers are also
major factors.
Hypersalinity
● Hypersaline means “having a higher Open ocean
salinity than usual.”
● Where a body of water is subject to
shallow coastal areas
high rates of evaporation and low rates
of freshwater input, seawater is
hypersaline. 30
● Examples are shallow tropical lagoons,
tidal pools, and seas with very little
freshwater input such as the Red Sea,
Salinities (‰)
between northeast Africa and the
Arabian peninsula.
Open ocean
● In the open ocean, the salinity of
surface water is remarkably uniform,
varying within the range 32–370/00 semi-enclosed seas 20
e.g., Baltic Sea
(“0/00” means parts per thousand), or
32–37 PSUs, with an average of about
34.70/00, or 34.7 PSUs.
Hyposalinity
● Hyposaline means “having a lower Hyposaline
salinity than usual.”
● Marine environments where seawater
is diluted by large amounts of
freshwater runoff from land are 10
commonly hyposaline.
● Mostly enclosed seas that do not
receive a lot of sunshine also have
lower than usual saline levels.
estuaries
● Seas bordered by ancient and highly-
weathered landforms also receive

fewer minerals from riverwater
because the readily dissolved minerals
on land have long since been washed
away.
0
● Examples are estuaries, shallow coastal
areas, and semi-enclosed seas such as
the Baltic Sea in northern Europe.
73
Ocean surface salinity CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Geographic distribution of salinity Key words

evaporation seawater
<34‰ hyposaline subpolar
polar subtropical
precipitation upwelling
runoff
salinity
Factors affecting
surface salinity
● High local rates of evaporation tend to
raise salinity.
● High rates of freshwater input from
34–35‰ precipitation or land runoff tend to
lower salinity.
● Regions of local upwelling may lower
salinity where hyposaline deep water
rises to the surface.
Geographic distribution
of salinity
● Open ocean salinities are generally
greatest in subtropical regions that are
closest to very dry land, for example,
35–36‰
off the coasts of North Africa and the
Arabian peninsula. Here, rates of
evaporation exceed rates of
precipitation and there is no dilution
effect from land runoff.
● Salinities are generally lower in the
subpolar and polar regions, the Arctic
and Southern oceans. Here, rates of
precipitation exceed rates of
evaporation. The formation of sea ice
however tends to raise salinity in
36–37‰
adjacent waters.
● In shallow waters receiving high
volumes of freshwater from river
systems, salinities are lowered. An
example is the the Bay of Bengal off
the coast of Bangladesh, where large
volumes of freshwater flow into the
ocean from the mouth of the River
Ganges.
● In marginal seas, salinities may be high
>37‰ where evaporation exceeds

precipitation and local runoff. An
example is the Arabian Sea. Salinities
may be low, where precipitation and

local runoff exceed evaporation. An
example is the South China Sea.
figures indicate
average salinity
in parts per
thousand (‰)
74
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Biogeochemical cycles

Key words Key stages in marine biogeochemical cycles
atmospheric mantle
fallout mineral 1 2 3
biogeochemical precipitation Chemicals are removed from Some detritus is rapidly Over millions of years, ocean
cycle seawater the oceans by precipitation, decomposed and its constituent sediments become compacted,
crust sediment adsorption onto particles, and elements are dissolved and water is squeezed out, and
from biological uptake and returned to seawater. minerals precipitate between
erosion subduction
subsequent deposition of the grains, cementing the grains
magma volcano organic material in detritus or together to form sedimentary
in inorganic components, such rock.
as shells or skeletons.
volcanic ash
sedimentary
and igneous
10 rock on land
rock on land
land
sea
dissolved
1
chemicals
5
2 4
9 6 8
sediments
sedimentary
rocks on
ocean crust
7
mantle
9
Biogeochemical cycles 4 5 6
● “Biogeochemical” refers to the
Some chemicals are dissolved Tectonic processes and sea level Sedimentary rock may enter a
chemical relationships between the out of Earth’s crust and enter change expose some subduction zone where it is
geological and the biological elements the sea through hydrothermal sedimentary rocks. scraped off and uplifted onto
and processes of Earth. vents associated with ocean land, or subducted into the
ridges. mantle where it melts.
● Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are
three of the most significant elements
that cycle through biogeochemical
7 8 9
relationships.
● Elements are absorbed from the Magma (molten rock) from the On landmasses, products of Products of volcanism may
mantle erupts through volcanism may form igneous enter the oceans by dissolving
environment by living things and volcanoes as ash or lava. rocks. out from submerged lava, or
incorporated into their structures. from atmospheric fallout.
These are later released back into the
environment—for example, when a
creature dies—and may then be 10

incorporated into geological
structures, such as sediments. Rocks on land are eroded by
wind, water, and ice, and their
● The ocean is much greater in volume constituents return to the
and area than the land environment oceans as dissolved substances
and plays a very important role in all or as rock particles that form
part of the sediment.
of Earth’s important biogeochemical
cycles.
75
Carbon cycle CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
carbon dioxide
gas atmosphere lithosphere
biosphere photosynthesis
carbon cycle respiration
air
global warming sediment
sea hydrosphere
dissolved
carbon dioxide Carbon cycle
● The carbon cycle refers to the
complex process by which carbon
5 2 1 passes from Earth’s atmosphere to the
2 2 9 biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere,
and then back to the atmosphere.
● For example, plants absorb carbon
3 3 dioxide from the atmosphere and
larger animals zooplankton phytoplankton
produce carbohydrates. These
carbohydrates are released when a
plant (or plant-eater) dies and the
4 4 4 carbon enters the lithosphere as
calcium carbonate or fossil fuel. These
are subject to geological processes
dissolved that eventually result in the release of
detritus calcium
carbonates
the carbon back into the atmosphere.
Human impact on
6 the carbon cycle
● Humans have been burning large
quantities of fossil fuels for more
seafloor than a century.
sediment 8 ● This has released a lot of carbon, in
the form of carbon dioxide, from the
lithosphere that would otherwise have
7 taken millions of years to return to the
atmosphere.
● Atmospheric carbon dioxide is known
calcium to warm Earth by slowing the rate of
carbonate in heat loss to space. This may be
limestone
accelerating the general rise in global
temperatures that has been occurring
since the height of the last ice age.
● The removal of large tracts of forest
and ocean pollution that reduces
1
phytoplankton productivity is
Photosynthesis 7 Compaction to form sedimentary rock
reducing the capacity of the
2 Respiration 8 Under conditions of low carbon dioxide (CO2) biosphere to absorb this excessPhotosynthesis
concentration and high pressure, calcium atmospheric carbon dioxide.
3 Consumption carbonate (CaCO3) dissolves Respiration
● Enhancing phytoplankton productivity
4 Excretion and death 9 High levels of carbonate ion (CO32–) encourage may offer a short-term means Consumption
to help
the formation of dissolved carbon dioxide via counter rising carbon dioxide levels inand death
Excretion
5 Breakdown by decomposers carbonic acid (H2CO3)
the atmosphere. Breakdown by decom
6 Settlement on seafloor
Settlement on seafloo
Compaction to form s
Under conditions of l
carbonate (CaCO3) d
High levels of carbon
carbonic acid (H2CO3
76
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Nitrogen cycle

Key words
nitrogen gas
atmosphere nitrogen cycle
biosphere runoff
hydrosphere 12
lithosphere
land air
nitrogen
sea
Key features of the marine

nitrogen cycle 7
1 2 3
● The nitrogen cycle refers to the dissolved dissolved dissolved dissolved
complex process by which nitrogen ammonia nitrites nitrates nitrogen
passes from Earth’s atmosphere, to 4
the biosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and then back to the
atmosphere.
5 5 5
● The nitrogen (N) cycle is of particular
interest to biological oceanographers 7 7 7
because nitrogen in the form of nitrate
is a key nutrient that fuels biological 9
productivity.
● The recycling of nitrogen by bacterial
decomposition is relatively slow. larger
zooplankton
photo-
Coupled with the production of animals plankton
6 6
nitrogen gas lost to the air, this may
result in the depletion of usable
nitrogen in local surface waters.
● Lack of nitrate is quite frequently a
8 8 8
limiting factor in the productivity of
phytoplankton in the surface waters
of the sea.
detritus
10
seafloor
sediment
11
1 Action of nitrite bacteria 7 Excretion

2 Action of nitrate bacteria 8 Death and excretion
3 Action of denitrifying bacteria 9 Bacterial decomposition
4 Action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cyanobacteria 10 Settlement
5 Uptake and assimilation 11 Uplift onto land
6 Consumption 12 Weathering and runoff
77
Phosphorus cycle CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
biosphere
hydrosphere
8 lithosphere
land phosphorus cycle
air
runoff
sea
dissolved
Key features of the marine
phosphate phosphorus cycle
● The phosphorus cycle refers to the
complex process by which
phosphorus passes from Earth’s
2 2 2 2 1 lithosphere to the biosphere and
hydrosphere and then back to the
lithosphere.
● The phosphorus (P) cycle is of interest
3 3 to biological oceanographers because,
larger animals zooplankton phytoplankton
in the form of dissolved phosphate
(PO43–), phosphorus is a key nutrient
that fuels biological productivity.
● Unlike nitrogen (N), phosphorus is
7 4 4 4 rapidly recycled by bacterial
decomposition.
● Phosphate is rarely a limiting factor in
the productivity of phytoplankton in
detritus the surface waters of the ocean.
seafloor
sediment
phosphatic
rock
1 Uptake and assimilation 5 Compaction to form sedimentary rock

2 Excretion 6 Settlement
3 Consumption 7 Uplift onto land
4 Death and excretion 8 Weathering and runoff
78
CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS Oil and gas formation

1 2
Key words
crust sediment
hydrocarbon shallow
natural gas waters
petroleum
plankton
sediment
Oil and gas
● Oil, or petroleum, is a complex
dead
mixture that mainly consists of plankton sediment
hydrocarbons. layers
● Natural gas is a product of some
petroleum deposits. It is a mixture of
smaller hydrocarbon molecules:
methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10).
biological
Oil and gas formation remains
● The formation of oil and gas deposits
requires once-living materials to be
buried rapidly so that oxygen is
excluded and natural biological decay
processes do not take place. 3 4
● The biological material, subjected to
raised temperatures of 120–250°F
(50–129°C) and high pressures within
rock strata, is gradually transformed
into oil or gas.
● Complex organic substances are
changed into simpler, smaller
hydrocarbon molecules, producing
thick oils, such as asphalt at first, then
thinner oils containing “lighter”
hydrocarbon fractions, and eventually
in some cases, producing natural gas.
Earth’s
Oil locations crust
1 Productive shallow waters at the ocean
margins provide source material for oil
and gas deposits. Dead planktonic
forms accumulate on the seafloor and
1.3–2.5 miles
are rapidly covered by sediments. (2–4 km)
2 Sediments accumulate over tens of impermeable
thousands of years, forming layers rock
many hundreds of meters thick above gas
the biological remains.
3 At depths of 1.3–2.5 miles (2–4 km) in oil
Earth’s crust, and over hundreds of
thousands of years, the organic permeable

gas rock strata
remains may be converted into the
hydrocarbons that form oil and gas. oil
4 Once formed, oil and gas migrate
through permeable rock strata, and
accumulate under impermeable rock
and above water-filled rock.
79
Coriolis effect OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Stationary world Key words

Winds blowing in various directions
Coriolis effect
on a hypothetical nonrotating globe.
current
hemisphere
prevailing wind
Coriolis effect
● The Coriolis effect refers to the
deflection of the path of objects
Spinning world moving across Earth’s surface caused
The same winds, showing
the deflections caused
by Earth’s rotation.
by the Coriolis effect. ● It is because of the Coriolis effect that
winds and ocean currents circulate in
North Pole
a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counterclockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
Coriolis effect model

● An imaginary projectile launched from
the North Pole toward a point on the
equator provides a good example of
why the Coriolis effect exists.
● As the projectile travels south,
Resultant winds Earth is rotating from west to east
Winds blow from areas of underneath it.
high pressure to areas of low
pressure, but the Coriolis effect ● Tracing the ground track of the
deflects them and produces projectile as it heads toward the
the angled paths of Earth’s equator equator would produce a line on
dominant wind systems.
North Pole Earth’s surface that curves to the
right (with reference to the
60° direction of travel).
low
● When the projectile arrives at the
equator, it will hit a point to the west
40°
South Pole of the original target point. This is
high because the target point has moved
30°
with Earth’s rotation to the east while
the projectile was in flight.
● Winds and currents experience the
same deflection as the imagined
5°
projectile.
low 0° ● The Coriolis effect only occurs along
equator
paths that have a north–south
5° component.
Winds and currents

● Air travels from areas of high pressure
high 30° to areas of low pressure. Surface
ocean currents are propelled by winds

40° or by differences in temperature.
● The Coriolis effect determines the
low 60° paths that winds or currents take,
not their destinations.
South Pole winds

80
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Ekman transport

Key words The Ekman spiral
Wind-generated water movement surface wind
Coriolis effect water column in the surface waters of the direction
current Northern Hemisphere is depicted.
Ekman spiral
Ekman transport Depth
hemisphere direction of surface current
feet m
0 0
Ekman transport:
Ekman spiral net water movement within
● Ocean surface currents move water in the top 330 feet (100 m)
the top 330 feet (100 m) of the ocean. 25
They are primarily caused by winds. 10
● Friction between moving air and the
surface of the ocean causes the water
to move. However, ocean surface 50
currents do not move in the same
direction as the winds that drive them. 20
This is because they are deflected by 75
the Coriolis effect.
● The Ekman spiral is a way of
visualizing the interaction between
100 30
winds and the top layer of the ocean.
● At the surface, deflection by the
Coriolis effect causes water to move
along a path at about 45 degrees to
125
the direction of the wind.
40
● In the Northern Hemisphere, this
deflection is to the right of the wind;
in the Southern Hemisphere, it is to 150
the left.
● The amount of energy transmitted to 50
the water from the wind diminishes as
depth increases. The water at the very 175
top of the ocean is driven more
quickly than the water just beneath it,
which is in turn driven more quickly 60
200
than the water at a still greater depth.
● The more slowly the water is moving,
the further it is deflected by the
Coriolis effect. By about 330 feet 225
70
(100 m) depth, the subsurface flow is
only about four percent of that at the
surface, and the water movement has
250
turned through 180 degrees.
80
Ekman transport
● Ekman transport refers to the net 275
movement of water within the top
330 feet (100 m) of the ocean, and is
taken to be at 90 degrees to the wind. 90

● As water is much denser than air, 300
surface currents generated by Ekman
transport reach only two to three
current rotating through
percent of the wind speed that 330 feet (100 m) depth 325
generates them. 100
81
Geostrophic gyres OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Idealized Northern Hemisphere geostrophic gyre Key words

Coriolis effect geostrophic gyre
land ocean ocean land current gyre
Ekman transport hemisphere
geostrophic
current
western intensification
of geostrophic
current Gyres
● A gyre is a large-scale loop of
circulation. Geostrophic gyres are
the large-scale loops of circulating
currents that dominate the ocean
basins.
● Geostrophic gyres are a result of the
deflection of ocean currents by the
Coriolis effect.
● In the Northern Hemisphere, surface
currents are turned to the right by the
Coriolis effect, producing clockwise
gyres.
mound of water ● In the Southern Hemisphere, surface
currents are turned to the left, and
gyres are counterclockwise.
Features of a Northern
Hemisphere gyre
● Ekman transport causes water to
movement of movement of geostrophic
water due to water due to current accumulate as a large, low-elevation
Ekman transport gravity mound at the center of a gyre.
● Water at the peak of the mound tries
to flow down the slope under the
influence of gravity. At the same time it
Cross section of a Northern Hemisphere geostrophic gyre is deflected to the right by the Coriolis
Sectioned along broken line above: effect. The combination of these two
forces results in a current of water that
western intensification of mound of water flows in a continuous loop around the
geostrophic current outside edge of the ocean basin.
● The Coriolis effect is greater at higher
latitudes than at lower latitudes, with
the result that water forms a broad
equatorwards flow at the eastern
boundary of a gyre, and a narrow
polewards flow at the western
boundary.
● The effect of gravity, and Earth’s
rotation, cause western boundary
currents to be narrower and faster
flowing than eastern boundary
currents.
movement of movement of geostrophic

water due to water due to current
Ekman transport gravity
82
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Surface currents

Key words Principal warm currents
1 North Pacific Current 11 Guinea Current
cold current surface current 2 Pacific North Equatorial Current 12 Brazil Current
current warm current 3 Pacific Equatorial Countercurrent 13 Indian North Equatorial Current
4 Pacific South Equatorial Current 14 Indian Equatorial Countercurrent
5 Atlantic North Equatorial Current 15 Indian South Equatorial Current
6 Florida Current 16 Agulhas Current
7 Gulf Stream 17 Kuroshio Current
8 North Atlantic Current 18 West Australia Current
9 Norway Current 19 East Australia Current
10 Atlantic South Equatorial Current
Arctic Ocean
9
8
Europe Asia
1 North
America
7 Pacific
Atlantic
6 Ocean 17 Ocean
Pacific
Ocean Africa
2 5
3 11 13
Indian Ocean
South
4 America 10 14
15 18
19
Australia
12 16
Southern Ocean
Antarctica warm currents
Principal cold currents

a California Current d Labrador Current g Falkland Current
b Peru Current e Canaries Current h Oyashio Current
c West Wind Drift f Benguela Current i Aleutian Current
Arctic Ocean
d
Europe Asia
North h i
America e
Atlantic Pacific
Ocean Ocean
a
Africa
Pacific Indian Ocean

Ocean South
America
f
b Australia
g
c c c
Southern Ocean
cold currents
Antarctica
83
Subsurface currents OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Thermohaline circulation Key words

Antarctica subsurface
bottom water current
heat loss in heat input in
polar region current surface water
equatorial region
intermediate thermohaline
water water column
Thermohaline circulation
● About ten percent of the ocean’s
1 2 3 water is circulated by surface currents.
The other 90 percent is circulated
deep beneath the surface by
thermohaline circulation.
● Thermohaline circulation is driven by
variations in temperature and salinity.
Thermohaline means “heat-salt.”
● Cold, salty seawater is generally denser
than warm, less salty seawater. This
means that cold, salty seawater tends
to sink to the bottom of the oceans.
● At the poles, seawater becomes colder
as it loses heat to the atmosphere. It
also becomes more salty as ice forms,
removing fresh water.
● These processes cause polar seawater
to sink and flow along the bottom of
the ocean floor toward the equator.
This is known as deep or bottom
water.
● In equatorial regions, seawater at the
1 Downwelling 3 Upwelling surface of the ocean is heated by solar
At the poles, water becomes denser as it Water warmed by solar radiation in
cools. Its density is also increased as ice equatorial regions flows toward the
radiation. This warm water flows
is formed. This dense cold water sinks to poles to replace downwelling water. toward the poles to replace the
the ocean floor. Water from the mixing layer wells up sinking polar water.
to replace it and is in turn heated.
2 Mixing ● In between the warm, shallow, surface
As the polar water travels across the ocean layer and the cold, deep, bottom water
floor it very gradually mixes with the water there is a broad band of intermediate
above it, becoming warmer and less dense.
water. Bottom water mixes with
intermediate water very slowly. Surface
Atlantic water masses water flowing toward the poles is
replaced by upwellings of intermediate
a water.
b
Atlantic water masses
● In the Atlantic Ocean, seawater from
c the Arctic sinks to form North Atlantic
d Deep Water (NADW). In Antarctica it
sinks to form Atlantic Antarctic Bottom
Water (AABW). AABW is generally

denser than NADW and tends to flow
underneath it.
South 60˚S 30˚S equator 30˚N 60˚N North
● Warm surface water tends to flow
Pole Pole
toward the Arctic more readily than
a Surface water c Atlantic Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) toward the Antarctic.
b Intermediate water d North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)
84
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Oceanic conveyor belt

Key words Oceanic circulation
bottom water
current
salinity
thermocline
thermohaline
ld
co
Europe Asia
North
Oceanic
warm
America
circulation Atlantic Pacific
● About 90 percent of the Ocean Ocean
water in the world’s Africa Indian
Ocean
oceans circulates beneath warm
the surface. These South
subsurface currents are America
driven by thermohaline Australia
circulation.
● Cold deep water sinks in
polar regions and flows
along the bottom of
ocean basins. Near cold
Greenland and Iceland,
Southern Ocean
ice formation and winter Antarctica
cooling generates North
Atlantic deep water that warm, low salinity surface cold, high salinity deep
flows southwards. Deep water also and intermediate water and bottom water
forms off the coast
of Antarctica.
● Differences in the salinity of deep
water in the Atlantic and Pacific ocean
Sites of deep water formation
basins drives a flow of
bottom water from one
to the other.
● Warm water at
intermediate and surface
levels follows a path from Europe Asia
the Pacific and Indian North
oceans through the America
South Atlantic to the Atlantic Pacific
Ocean Ocean
North Atlantic.
● This “oceanic conveyor Africa
belt” transfers warm
water from tropical South
regions to polar regions America Indian
Ocean
and cold water from Australia
polar to tropical regions.
Without this flow,
temperature differences
between the equatorial
regions and the poles Southern Ocean

would be much greater.
● It is estimated that water Antarctica
takes between 1,000 and
2,000 years to make one complete zones where deep and bottom
circuit of this global system. waters form and sink
85
Downwellings OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Key words
bottom water surface water
downwelling
Coastal downwelling in the Southern Hemisphere Ekman transport
nutrient
reef
1
General features
● A downwelling is a sinking of water
from the surface to deeper layers.
● Downwellings are
associated with
comparatively clear,
nutrient-sparse
2
surface waters. The
downwelled water is
warm and oxygen-rich
but nutrient-poor.
● In tropical and
subtropical waters
downwellings are
commonly associated
with coral reefs.
Types
● Coastal downwellings
are found where
persistent winds blow
onshore or parallel with
the shore, in such a way
3
that Ekman transport
causes surface water to
move onshore. Surface water
displaces deeper water. Such
downwellings occur on the
western boundaries of the Pacific
and Atlantic oceans.
● Open-ocean downwellings occur
where surface water currents
converge.
● At the Antarctic convergence,
Antarctic intermediate water sinks
below subantarctic surface water
where the two water masses
converge.
● Off Greenland and Iceland, ice
1 Prevailing wind formation encourages downwelling

Persistent winds blow parallel to the coastline pushing that leads to the formation of North
water downwind and creating an ocean surface current. Atlantic deep water.
2 Ekman transport
The Coriolis effect deflects the wind-driven surface
current to the right. Ekman transport results in a net
movement of water onshore.
3 Downwelling
Water moving onshore is forced to sink.
86
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Upwellings

Key words
bottom water upwelling
current
Ekman transport Coastal upwelling in the Southern Hemisphere
nutrient
surface water
General features
● An upwelling is a rise of water from 1
deeper to surface layers.
● Upwellings are commonly associated
with raised productivity. The
upwelled water is normally cool
and rich in nutrients and fertilizes
the surface layers, raising
2
phytoplankton productivity.
● Upwellings are often
associated with rich
fisheries. In the 1990s,
between a third and a
half of the oceanic
fish and squid catch
came from areas of
upwelling.
Types
● Coastal upwellings
are found where
persistent winds blow
offshore or parallel to
3
the shore, in such a
way that Ekman
transport causes
surface water to
move offshore. Water
from below rises up
to take its place. Such
upwellings occur on
the eastern
boundaries of the
Pacific and Atlantic
oceans.
● Open ocean
upwelling occurs at
the equator where
surface water
currents diverge.
1 Prevailing wind
● Near Antarctica, North Atlantic deep
Persistent winds blow parallel to the coastline pushing

water wells up to fuel productivity in water downwind and creating an ocean surface current.
the Southern Ocean.
2 Ekman transport
● Smaller-scale upwellings occur where
The Coriolis effect deflects the wind-driven surface
seabed topography causes vertical current to the right. Ekman transport results in a net
mixing of water, such as on the movement of water offshore.
downstream side of headlands, sea 3 Upwelling
mounts, or offshore islands. Water rises along the coastline to replace water
moving offshore.
87
El Niño OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Key words
bottom water
El Niño
Normal conditions nutrient
A tongue of cold surface water a , indicating upwelling, extends from the Peruvian surface water
coast in January 1984.
upwelling
El Niño
● El Niño refers to the condition
of higher-than-normal
Asia North temperatures in the surface
America
waters of the equatorial Pacific
off South America.
● El Niño means “boy child” or
“Christ child” in Spanish. It
usually occurs in December,
a when a slackening in trade
South winds causes the upwelling of
America cold water off the Peruvian
Australia coast to slow or stop.
● The upwelling of nutrient-rich
water is associated with high
phytoplankton productivity,
and supports a rich Peruvian
anchovy fishery. The
occurrence of El Niño
conditions marks the end of
El Niño conditions the peak fishing season, and
At the height of an El Niño event, as here in January 1983, the upwelling is suppressed the anchovies disperse.
and the tongue of cold surface water is absent b . ● An El Niño event is a year in
which the suppression of the
upwelling is much more
pronounced than usual. The
anchovy fishery is poor in that
year.
Asia North ● El Niño events are associated
America with much wider-scale climatic
events that impact upon at
least half the globe.
b
South
America
Australia
Sea surface 32–54°F 55–76°F 77–86°F

temperatures (0–12°C) (13–24°C) (25–30°C)
88
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Tides

Key words Gravitational effect of the Moon on Earth’s surface waters
equator sea level
high tide tide
low tide
Moon overhead at the equator
N
Tides
● A tide is a periodic rise and fall of the Earth
sea surface caused by the gravitational
attraction of the Moon, and to a lesser Moon
extent, the Sun. tidal bulge (high tide)
equator
Simple equilibrium model
● This model assumes that Earth is
covered in water to a uniform depth.
The effect of the gravitational
attraction of the Sun is ignored.
● The Moon’s gravitational attraction
tidal trough (low tide)
draws Earth’s water toward it on the
side nearest the Moon, forming a S
bulge. On Earth’s opposite side, the
Moon’s gravitational attraction is
correspondingly less and an
opposite bulge forms.
● The locations of tidal bulges are
regions of high tide. The troughs in
between are regions of low tide.
● Earth spins on its axis once every 24
hours, so that tidal bulges (and the
troughs in between) travel around
Earth in a 24-hour period. Moon overhead at 28.5°N
● The Moon advances slowly in its own
orbit around Earth, so that a full tidal Earth
N
cycle is not 24 hours, but slightly
Moon
longer—24 hours 50 minutes. Any
point on Earth should experience two
tidal crests (high tides) and two tidal
troughs (low tides) within a 24-hour
50-minute period. tidal bulge (high tide)
● The Moon does not simply remain equator
overhead at the equator. Its overhead
position gradually shifts between
28.5°N and 28.5°S. Because of this, the
two tidal bulges (high tides) and
troughs (low tides) per tidal cycle are
rarely of exactly equal size. tidal trough (low tide)
S
Limitations of the model

● In practice, the presence of
landmasses and variation in the shape
and depth of ocean basins markedly
alters this simple pattern.
● The gravitational attraction of the Sun
also influences the tides, giving rise to
spring and neap tides.
89
Spring and neap tides OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Generation of spring and neap tides Key words

high tide perigee
Earth’s orbital path low tide spring tide
neap tide tide
Generation of spring
4 and neap tides
● Spring and neap tides are generated
by the gravitational attraction of the
Sun adding to or counteracting the
effect of the Moon’s gravitational
attraction.
● A spring tide occurs when the Sun and
Moon are aligned so that their
gravitational attractions are added.
A larger-than-normal high tide and a
correspondingly lower-than-normal
low tide results. Spring tides occur at
the full Moon and the new Moon.
● A neap tide occurs when the Sun and
the Moon are at right angles (90°)
3 relative to Earth so that their
Sun
Sun gravitational attractions have opposing

effects. This creates smaller-than-
normal high tides and higher-than-
normal low tides. Neap tides occur
when the Moon is at one-quarter and
three-quarters.
● In every lunar month (29.5 days) there
are two sets of spring tides and two
sets of neap tides, with tides of
intermediate size in between.
Exceptional tides
● Spring tides occur every month, but
2 the largest spring tides occur when it
is actually spring in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Moon ● These tides occur when the Moon is
at its closest to Earth (perigee) and
the Sun is directly overhead at the
equator. Under these conditions the
gravitational effects of the Sun and
the Moon on Earth’s oceans are at
their greatest.
● Such spring tides may have a 20

1 percent greater tidal range than
regular spring tides.
1 new Moon, spring tide

2 first quarter, neap tide
3 full Moon, spring tide
4 third quarter, neap tide
90
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Tide types

Key words Variations in tide
Coriolis effect semidiurnal tide
diurnal tide tide ● When viewed from above, Earth spins counterclockwise and the tidal bulge generated by
the Moon’s gravitational attraction progresses westwards. It is constrained by
mixed tide landmasses and deflected by the Coriolis effect.
● In some basins, the tidal bulge behaves as a progressive (traveling) wave. In other
situations, the tidal bulge behaves as a standing wave. The complex interactions between
tidal bulge, landmasses, and ocean floor topography generate at least three types of tide.
8 Semidiurnal
Savannah River (semidaily)
7 Entrance
2
tides
These are tides of the
6 conventional form,
Water level (feet)
Water level (m)
with two tides,

5 both of similar tidal
range, within a lunar
4 day (24 hours
1 50 minutes),
3 e.g., Savannah River
Entrance, Georgia.
2
0 0
1 2 3 4
Day
7 Diurnal (daily)
Pensacola 2 tides
6 A single tide once
within a lunar day, e.g.,
5 Pensacola, Alabama.
Water level (feet)
Water level (m)
4
1
3
0 0
-1
1 2 3 4
Day
7 Mixed
Key West 2 semidiurnal
6
tides
Two tides of markedly
5 different tidal range
Water level (feet)
Water level (m)
within a lunar
4 day, e.g., Key West,
1 Florida.
3
0 0
-1
1 2 3 4
Day
91
Internal waves and OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
standing waves Key words

internal wave stationary wave
pycnocline thermocline
Internal waves surface waves slick of calm water seiche wave
internal waves standing wave
low-density
water
Internal waves
pycnocline ● An internal wave is a form of wave
that occurs, usually beneath the
surface, at the boundary between two
high-density layers of water with different densities.
water
● A pycnocline is a narrow boundary
layer separating two thicker layers with
different densities.
● A thermocline is a boundary
Motion of a standing wave separating two layers with different
1 antinode temperatures (and usually therefore
node (crest)
different densities).
● Internal waves may form at
thermoclines or pycnoclines.
antinode ● Internal waves are generated by
(trough)
various forces: tidal surges, wind
stress, seismic displacements, and
even the wake from a moving vessel.
2 node ● Internal waves are barely visible at the
surface (the wave trough may be
associated with calm surface water),
but they can be important in mixing
layers of the water column and they
direction of water movement have been implicated as a cause of
submarine accidents.
antinode
(crest)
3 node Standing waves
● A standing wave is a form of wave
that occurs when two traveling waves
with equal amplitudes that are moving
antinode in opposite directions interfere with
(trough) one another.
● The result is a wave with peaks and
troughs that move vertically but not
4
node horizontally (1–5). The peaks and
troughs are known as antinodes and
the points where the water neither
rises or falls are known as nodes.
● Standing waves are also known as
direction of water movement stationary waves or seiches. They do
not progress through the water but
instead oscillate about a point or axis

5 antinode
node (crest) (the node).
● Stationary waves are found in all
oceans. They can be generated by
sudden changes in meteorological
antinode
(trough) conditions, such as intense storms and
marked drops in atmospheric
pressure.
92
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Ocean waves

Key words
crest trochoidal wave
fetch trough Wave features
orbital wave
crest trough
swell direction of wave propagation
Wind-generated
ocean waves
● Most ocean waves are
generated by wind.
● With a wind
wave
blowing at a height
constant speed in the same direction,
the size of the wave it generates is a
function of its speed, and the extent of
wavelength
open ocean that it affects is known as
the fetch.
Seas and swells

● At sea, winds rarely blow at a constant
speed in the same direction for very
long. As a result, where wind-
generated waves are forming there is
Sea Swell
often a jumbled mix of waves of
different heights, wavelengths, and wave-generating wind
rounded waves
directions. This is known as a sea. region of wave generation
Waves in a sea are often trochoidal
(with pointed crests and rounded
troughs).
● As waves travel away from an area
of wave-generation they may sort
themselves so that waves of similar direction of wave trochoidal waves direction of wave
height and wavelength are traveling in propagation
propagation
the same direction. Here, the waves
are smoother and more rounded. This
is known as a swell.
Movement in a wave
● Wind-driven waves in deep water
transfer energy and form horizontally,
but cause little net movement of Movement in a wave
water.
● An object on the surface caught by a
wave tends to roll, turn in a circle, and
return to its starting point. It is not
swept along with the passing wavelength
wave. wave
height
● Such waves generate orbital
motions in the top layer of the water

depth of orbitals orbitals
column.
● The orbitals gradually diminish in size
direction of wave
and disappear at a depth of about half propagation
the wave’s wavelength.
93
Shore waves OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Key words
breaker shore
crest trough
orbital wave
Waves approaching a shore
wave height crest trough direction of wave propagation

breaking wave
wavelength
orbitals in shallow
water
orbitals in deep water
Shallow-water waves
Water particle motion ● In shallow water (depths less than
half a wave’s wavelength) the seabed
interferes with the downward
1 2
progression of an ocean wave’s
orbitals.
● Lower orbitals become flattened.
● Friction with the sea bottom slows the
advance of the wave.
● Wave height increases and the wave
crest becomes more peaked.
● When wave steepness (wave
height:wavelength) reaches the critical
3 4 ratio of 1:7, the wave breaks.
● Approaching a shore, waves usually
break when water depth is about 1.3

times wave height; a five-foot (1.5 m)
high wave breaks in about 6.5 feet
(2 m) depth of water.
● Surfers choose gently sloping shores
where waves crash gradually, rather
than steeply sloping shores where
A passing wave moves each water particle in a circle.
waves crash abruptly.
94
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Tsunamis

Key words Tsunami progression
wave height (3 feet, 1 m)
crest tsunami 1 2
seafloor wave trough wave crest
earthquake volcano
shore wave wave trough
tidal wave
trough
Tsunami
● A tsunami is a large wave produced by
a seismic event that causes a sudden,
massive displacement of water.
● Tsunamis are sometimes called “tidal
waves” although tides do not form water depth
them. (2.5 miles, 4 km)
General features
● Tsunamis are most commonly
generated by earthquakes or
volcanoes. They can also be generated
when landslides deposit large
quantities of material into the ocean.
● Tsunamis have long wavelengths,
typically in the range of 65–130 miles subsidence fault
(100–200 km). Generation Propagation in deep water
● The wave height of a tsunami in the A section of seafloor has subsided, The tsunami has low wave height but
creating a wave trough. very long wavelength. In water 2.5 miles
open ocean is small, often less than (4 km) deep the tsunami travels at
3 feet (1 m). 450 miles per hour (720 kmph).
● On reaching shallow water, the
forward motion of the wave is slowed 3 4
wave crest wave crest
by friction. The wave may reach a wave height wave height
(33 feet, 10 m) wave
dangerously high level, sweeping trough (65 feet, 20 m)
shore
ashore and carrying boats, seashore
structures, and people with it.
● Tsunamis can cause great loss of
life and destruction. On
December 26, 2004, a series of
tsunamis caused by a large
earthquake on the seafloor off
the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia
spread across the Indian Ocean.
At least 310,000 people were water depth
killed in coastal regions from (100 feet, 30 m)
Indonesia to the east coast of
Africa.
Propagation in shallow water Inundation

The tsunami slows and builds. As the wave breaks on the shore, large
volumes of seawater are carried inland.
95
Coastal breezes OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Sea breezes Key words

coast temperate
2 1 3 4 offshore breeze tropical
onshore breeze
Coastal breezes
Seawater has a higher heat
●
capacity than land. Given
the same conditions of
solar irradiation,
seawater both gains and
loses heat more slowly
than adjacent land. This
difference in thermal
characteristics gives rise to
coastal breezes.
● In a typical 24-hour period coastal
breezes change direction from
onshore breezes to offshore breezes.
● Coastal breezes vary markedly in
1 Solar radiation is absorbed by both sea 2 Dry air close to the land surface warms intensity and regularity, depending on
and land, but the heat capacity of the land quickly and rises. location and time of year. They are
is less and it warms up more quickly. most pronounced in the tropics and
3 Cool moist air close to the sea surface 4 Aloft, an offshore airflow descends to subtropics, and in temperate latitudes
moves ashore to replace the rising air. complete the cycle. during the summer.
A cool onshore sea breeze is thus generated
during the day.
Sea breezes
● Sea breezes are cool onshore breezes
that usually occur during daylight
Land breezes hours.
● During the day, air above the land is
4 1 3 2
heated more quickly than air above
the sea and begins to rise. Air above
the sea flows onshore to replace the
rising warm air. This flow of air is a
sea breeze.
Land breezes
● Land breezes are
offshore breezes that
usually occur during
the hours of darkness.
● During the night, air
above the sea is warmed by
heat escaping from the water.
This air rises and is replaced by air
flowing offshore from the land. This
flow of air is a land breeze.
1 Radiant heat energy is lost more rapidly 2 Warm, moist air close to the sea surface
from the land than the sea. rises.
3 Cool air from the land moves offshore to 4 Aloft an onshore airflow descends to
replace the rising air. A cool offshore land complete the cycle.
breeze is generated at night.
96
OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM Waterspouts

Key words Features of a waterspout
fair-weather waterspout storm cloud
waterspout
tornadic
waterspout
18,000 feet
(5,000 m)
Waterspout
● A waterspout is a funnel-shaped
vortex of rising air occurring over
water. There are two main types:
tornadic waterspouts and fair-
weather waterspouts.
● Waterspouts can occur over
seas, lakes, or any large body of
water. They most frequently
occur in areas where tornadoes
are also common.
Tornadic waterspouts
● A tornadic waterspout is formed when
a tornado—an intense, rotating
column of air extending from the base
of a thunder-storm cloud to the
ground—travels over water.
funnel of rising air
● Tornadic waterspouts can be highly
destructive.
rain
Fair-weather waterspouts hollow core of funnel
● A fair-weather waterspout forms over
warm water where rotating moist air
rises rapidly in a highly humid 2,000 feet
atmosphere. direction of (600 m)
● Fair-weather waterspouts only form waterspout
over water.
● They are most likely to form when the
water is at its warmest and cooler air
passes over it.
● Fair-weather waterspouts are smaller
and less destructive than the tornadic
variety. They are also far more
common than tornadic waterspouts.
incoming air bubbling water train of waves

97
Ocean surface topography OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM
Jason 1 Key words

geoid
Ocean
Jason 1
Jason 1
orbit
Ocean surface variation
● The distance between the surface of
the Ocean and the center of Earth
varies widely from place to place.
● Several factors account for this
variation. Local differences in the
gravitational attraction of Earth can
radar cause variations in the height of the
altimeter
ocean’s surface of up to 300 feet
signal
(100 m). Ocean currents can cause
changes of about 3 feet (1 m). Local
solar heating causes water to expand
in some areas, raising the ocean’s
ocean
floor surface by 10 to 40 inches
(30–100 cm)
● Jason 1 is a joint U.S.-French satellite
ocean
surface carrying instruments (radar altimeters)
geoid that enable it to measure ocean
surface topography with an accuracy
of 1.7 inches (4.2 cm).
● Scientists are able to subtract the
influences of gravity variation
(using a reference altitude known as
the “geoid”) and currents from Jason
1’s data to reveal small variations due
to temperature change. The results
can be used to predict the onset of El
Niño conditions and to understand
the behavior of the Ocean better.
Jason 1 ocean surface height data
Variation
in altitude
inches
(cm)
–4 to –8
(–10 to –20)
0 to –4
(0 to –10)
0 to 4
(0 to 10)
4 to 8
(10 to 20)
98
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Origins of life

Key words Stanley Miller’s apparatus
evolution
radiation
seawater
electrode
First life
● Modern evolutionary theory suggests
that life on Earth has evolved from electrical discharge
non-life within the last four billion to vacuum (”artificial lightning”)
pump
years.
● The first known fossils of life-forms
on Earth date from about 3.6 billion reducing atmosphere containing
years ago. methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen
Life in the oceans

● Life probably first arose in the Ocean.
There are three important reasons
why this is thought to be the case:
● Most organisms are at least two-thirds
water. Water is sparse on land but
superabundant in the Ocean. condenser
● Water absorbs harmful ultraviolet
radiation. Most UV radiation is
absorbed within the top few meters of
seawater. Surface levels of UV
radiation have probably only fallen water droplets
from dangerously high levels within
the last billion years (after the
formation of the atmosphere’s ozone
layer)—long after life had first
evolved;
● Most freshwater contains relatively low
concentrations of dissolved
substances. Seawater, on the other
hand, has high concentrations of
dissolved substances, and their total
concentration is similar to that found
in many simple life-forms, such as
microbes, animals, and plants. accumulated water
boiling water for sampling
Testing a scenario
● In the 1950s, U.S. chemist Stanley Miller (b. 1930) was able to Other scenarios
synthesize simple molecular building blocks of life by passing ● Until recently the best candidate for the evolution of life began
electrical sparks (“artificial lightning”) through a “reducing with the notion of a “biochemical soup” that accumulated in
atmosphere” of methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen— oceans or chemical-rich lakes. There are other possibilities:
mimicking conditions believed to exist on the early Earth. His ● Simple life-forms might have arrived “ready made” in cosmic
experiment is shown above. debris falling to Earth.
● Among the chemicals Miller collected were amino acids ● Some scientists have suggested the first terrestrial life-forms
(building blocks of proteins), purines, and pyrimidines (organic were silicon-based and evolved in clays.
bases found in RNA, DNA, ATP, and other key biomolecules). ● With the recent discovery of archaebacteria that thrive in high-
● Stanley Miller’s experiments helped suggest how some of the temperature hydrothermal vents and granite rock hundreds of
molecular building blocks of life might have arisen. feet below ground, alternatives for a non-oceanic origin of life
are becoming increasingly plausible.
99
History of life BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
The procession of life on Earth Key words

atmosphere
5,000
million evolution
years ago
origin of Earth
● Current best estimates suggest that Earth is

about 4,600 million (4.6 billion) years old.
early reducing atmosphere ● For more than three-quarters of that time (about
of ammonia, carbon dioxide, 3.5 billion years) it has been inhabited by
methane, hydrogen, and water life-forms.
● For about 3 billion years, organisms living in the
4,000 sea have dominated life on Earth. It is only in
the last 500 million years that terrestrial forms
chemical evolution: formation have evolved and proliferated.
of proteins, polysaccharides,
nucleic acids
3,500–4,000 million years ago
● Chemical evolution during this period probably
gave rise to the chemical building blocks of life,
such as proteins, polysaccharides (complex
sugars), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
earliest prokaryotes ● The first life-forms on Earth were probably
evolve in the absence bacteria-like. They evolved in an oxygen-free
of oxygen environment.
3,000
2,000–2,500 million years ago
● Photosynthesis—an organism’s capacity to
manufacture organic compounds by utilizing
photosynthetic sunlight energy—had evolved by about 2,500
prokaryotes evolve million years ago. Oxygen was excreted as a
byproduct of photosynthesis.
● By about 2,000 million years ago oxygen began
to accumulate in the atmosphere.
800–1,000 million years ago

oxygen accumulates ● Eukaryote organisms (those with complex cells
in atmosphere containing a nucleus and membrane-bound
2,000 organelles) had evolved by this time.
● Fossils of multicellular forms date back to
850 million years ago.
500–600 million years ago

● As Earth cooled, perhaps creating a richer
variety of habitats, an explosive diversification of
life took place (the Cambrian explosion).
● By 500 million years ago, most of the major body
plans of animals had evolved in the sea.
Since 500 million years ago

● Oxygen levels in the atmosphere were sufficient
1,000 first multicellular to create a substantial ozone layer that absorbed
organisms appear dangerous ultraviolet light. This made it possible
for organisms to colonize the land.
● Algae, invertebrates (animals without backbones),
and then vertebrates (animals with backbones)
colonized the land.
500 ● Major extinction events occurred five times
between 500 and 65 million years ago.
● Some scientists consider that Earth is currently

undergoing a major extinction event as a result
of modification of the environment by human
activities.
0
ct ria
ria
ts
s
ng
ist
al
an
ia
ba te
te
im
fu
ot
er
pl
d ac
ac
pr
an
an aeb
ob
Cambrian
an
ch
explosion
cy
ar
100
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Environmental change

Key words Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic
era era era
atmosphere
Million years ago
climate
600 500 440 400 345 290 245 195 138 66 1.8 0
photosynthesis
1
Carboniferous
sea level
Cretaceous
Quaternary
Ordovician
Cambrian
Devonian
Permian
Jurassic
Silurian
Tertiary
Triassic
Environmental change
● Environmental conditions on Earth
have changed over timescales ranging 100
Percentage of present-day oxygen levels

from decades to eons. 80
● Some changes, such as atmospheric 50
oxygen levels, have been progressive 30
and constant (oxygen levels have only
10
risen, never fallen).
● Most physical and chemical changes 5
oscillate in an irregular fashion in 3
2
response to numerous variables such
as levels of volcanism, the drift of 1
continents, changes in Earth’s orbit,
and meteorite impacts.
● The presence of life on Earth, as in
the production of oxygen gas by 0
photosynthesis, has had a profound
high
2
influence on the physical and
chemical environment.
Earth’s mean temperature
e
b
d
g
c
low
1 Atmospheric oxygen levels have a–g Major marine extinction events. These have usually coincided with falls in sea level.
gradually increased as photosynthetic
high
3
organisms have flourished.
2 Sea levels have changed markedly,

partly in response to changing climate
but also as a result of tectonic changes
such as continental drift. Alterations
Sea level
in ocean currents have, in turn, had

widespread effects on climate.
3 The global climate has alternated

between icehouse and hothouse
conditions. Such changes probably
stem from shifts in Earth’s orbit
low
around the Sun. Major meteorite

impacts may have played a role too. major glaciations
101
Food chains BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
a a Open
Open oceans
oceans Key words
piscivorous fish and food chain
piscivorous fish and
squids plankton
squids
primary producer
trophic level
Food chains
● A food chain is a set of organisms that
pass energy from one member to
quaternary
quaternary another. The organisms at the bottom
consumers
consumers of the food chain are eaten by the next
organism in the food chain, which is in
turn eaten by the next.
● Often, more than one species
occupies the same position in the
hierarchy of the food chain. These
b Continental
b Continental levels are known as trophic levels.
shelves
shelves ● At the bottom of a food chain there
tertiary
tertiary are always organisms that harvest
consumers
consumers energy directly from the Sun. In the
oceans these are phytoplankton. They
are known as primary producers.
● The trophic levels above the primary
producers are referred to as primary,
secondary, tertiary (and so on)
c Upwelling
c Upwelling consumers.
regions
regions ● The number of trophic levels in a food
secondary
secondary
chain depends on the local
consumers
consumers environment. For example, open
ocean food chains tend to be longer
than coastal water food chains because
there are more species in the former
than in the latter.
primary
primary
consumers
consumers
a InatheIn the oceans,

open open oceans,
wherewhere
the the
dominant
dominant primaryprimary producers
producers are are
of veryofsmall
very size,
smallfood
size,chains
food chains
are long.
are long.
primary
primary b On continental
Onb continental shelvesshelves
in in
producers
producers temperate
temperate waters,waters,
dominantdominant
primaryprimary producers
producers are of are of
intermediate
intermediate sizefood
size and andchains
food chains
are of are of intermediate
intermediate length.length.
c In upwelling
Incupwelling regions,
regions, wherewhere
primaryprimary producers
producers are much
are much
larger,larger, food chains
food chains are short.
are short.
102
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS North Atlantic food chain

Key words
food chain
plankton 6
respiration
trophic level 1
Efficiency of energy transfer sunlight

● The diagram shows energy flow
through a North Atlantic food chain.
It assumes that ten percent of the
energy at one trophic level is passed
on to the next. In a food chain, the
efficiency of energy transfer between
trophic levels is typically 6–15 percent.
2
● Within a trophic level, a large amount
of energy is lost through respiration
to maintain the organism. Of the
remainder only a proportion is
consumed by organisms at the next
trophic level.
● In ideal conditions, for each 500,000
units of radiant energy, only one unit
is available to be consumed by
humans.
Features of the food chain 3

1 Sunlight: radiant energy striking the
sea surface: 500,000 energy units.
2 Phytoplankton: of sunlight energy
striking the sea surface, two percent
is utilized by phytoplankton:
10,000 energy units.
3 Copepods: ten percent of the
energy in phytoplankton is passed
on to copepods (dominant members
of the zooplankton community)
when they consume phytoplankton: 4
1,000 energy units.
4 Herring: ten percent of the
energy in copepods is passed on
to herring—a dominant plankton-
feeding fish: 100 energy units.
5 Atlantic cod: ten percent of the
energy in herring is passed on to
cod—a dominant predatory fish:
ten energy units.
6 Fish caught by fishermen: only
0.0002% of the radiant energy

striking the sea surface is available
to be harvested by fishermen. In 5
practice, overfishing and the
negative effects of climate change
on reproduction have drastically
lowered the stocks of cod in the
North Atlantic: one energy unit.
103
Antarctic food web BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Examples of consumers and producers Key words

Antarctic plankton
quaternary consumers
food chain trophic level
food web
seals Food webs

● A food web refers to the interrelated
tertiary consumers food chains that exist in nature.
● The food-chain model has organisms
at one trophic level feeding exclusively
on organisms at a lower trophic level.
penguins In reality, organisms consume other
organisms at several different trophic
secondary consumers levels and feeding preferences may
change during a life cycle.
carnivorous zooplankton
Antarctic food web
● The shrimplike krill, Euphausia
superba, plays a central role in the
primary consumers
Antarctic food web.
● Krill are the dominant primary
consumers of microplankton. They are
krill in turn eaten by creatures from whales
to seabirds.
primary producers ● Should krill be harvested on a large
scale by humans, this could have a
devastating effect on other animal
populations that feed on krill.
microplankton ● In the diagram, organisms have been
allocated to a trophic level on the
basis of their major food source.
Antarctic food web
killer whales
seals
sperm whales penguins other birds
baleen carnivorous pelagic demersal

squid
whales zooplankton fishes fishes
copepods krill protozoans invertebrate

benthos
microplankton bacteria macroalgae detritus

104
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS The microbial loop

Key words Microbial loop in the main food chain
bacteria protozoa
dissolved organic
material (DOM)
microbial loop Main food chain
plankton
Microbial loops
● The microbial loop
refers to the activities of
marine bacteria and
protozoa in breaking Protozoa
down detritus and feed on
bacteria.
dissolved organic
material (DOM).
● Energy and nutrients
1 2
from dead organisms
Protozoa, in turn, are Detritus and DOM are
are returned to the consumed by herbivorous consumed by bacteria.
main food web through zooplankton. Nutrients
the microbial loop. are returned to the main
food chain.
DOM cannot be directly
ingested and absorbed
by larger organisms.
Detritus and
dissolved organic
material (DOM) Detritus and dissolved organic
material (DOM) are generated by:
● the excretory processes of
organisms;
● shed body parts;
● breakdown of carcasses.
6 5 4 3
Microbial loop
1 detritivores and DOM-utilizers 3 primary producers 5 secondary consumers

in the microbial loop
4 primary consumers 6 tertiary consumers
2 larger consumers in the
microbial loop
105
Primary productivity of BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
organic carbon Key words

chemosynthesis
photosynthesis
plankton
primary producer
water column
Primary productivity
● Primary productivity is the rate at
phytoplankton
which inorganic carbon is converted
into organic carbon by photosynthetic
or chemosynthetic organisms.
● In communities where photosynthetic
plants producers predominate (almost all

marine communities), primary
productivity refers to the production
of both phytoplankton in the water
column and plants that grow on the
sunlit seafloor.
Measuring
Rates of net primary production* (ocean regions) primary
Mean net primary productivity (gC/m2/year)
productivity
Region ● Measuring primary
coral reefs 1,500 productivity gives an
indication of the energy
available to the rest of
seagrass beds the community.
1,000
● Primary productivity—
the rate of primary
estuaries and saltmarshes production—is
800
measured in metric
continental upwelling units: the amount of
400
(e.g., Peru Current) carbon (in grams) fixed
continental shelf-break under a square meter of
(e.g., Grand Banks, east coast 200
sea surface in a day
of Canada)
(gC/m2/day) or in a year
temperate or subarctic 150
open ocean (e.g., North Pacific) (gC/m2/year).
tropical or subtropical
100 Comparing rates
open ocean (e.g., Sargasso Sea)
of primary
ice-covered polar waters 25 = 25 gC/m2/year production
● Rates of primary
production vary
enormously in different
Rates of net primary production* (terrestrial regions) parts of the ocean
Mean net primary productivity (gC/m2/year)
system, depending
Region
largely on nutrient
tropical rain forest availability, sunlight

1,200
penetration, and
temperate farmland temperature.
600
extreme desert 2 = 25 gC/m2/year
* Net primary production = gross primary production – respiration by producers

106
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Secondary production

Key words Fish production for different ocean regions
secondary Region Upwelling Continental shelf Open ocean
producer
trophic level 75
Mean primary
productivity
300
2/year 500
= 25 gC/m
Secondary productivity
● Production by secondary producers is Number of 2–3
the total amount of animal biomass trophic levels
(wet weight of tissue) produced per 4
unit area per unit time. 6
● Secondary productivity is measured in
metric units as the amount of carbon
incorporated by animals under a Mean ecological
square meter of sea surface in a year efficiency
(gC/m2/year).
20% 15% 10%
Assessment of secondary
productivity Mean fish
● Typically, only certain aspects of
production
secondary productivity are estimated. 45 1 0.00075
(gC/m2/year)
● It is difficult and time-consuming to
identify and monitor all the consumers
in a system, from microscopic
protozoa to the largest predators. Food chains for different ocean regions
● Levels of secondary production can be Upwelling Continental shelf Open ocean
inferred from levels of primary
production. fish-eating fish-eating fish-eating
● Catch statistics for commercially fished
fish fish fish
species at the top of the food chain
offer a measure of secondary
productivity.
plankton-eating plankton-eating plankton-eating
Comparison of rates of fish fish fish
secondary production
● Rates of secondary production vary
enormously in different parts of the
ocean system. They depend largely on large medium-sized large
phytoplankton zooplankton zooplankton
primary productivity, the length of the
food chain (number of trophic levels),
and ecological efficiency (the
proportion of energy passed on from medium-sized
one trophic level to the next). phytoplankton medium-sized
zooplankton
small
zooplankton
small
phytoplankton
107
Rocky shore: BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
intertidal zone Key words

high tide
intertidal zone
low tide
Intertidal zone
shore
extreme high tide level
splash mean sea level
zone Intertidal zone
extreme low tide level ● The intertidal zone is the region of
the shore lying between extreme low
tides and extreme high tides, plus that
region of the upper shore strongly
affected by wave splash and spray.
● The nature of the animal and plant
communities in the intertidal zone
varies with the nature of the substrate
and ambient temperature.
● On a given shore, the nature
of the plant and animal community
varies with height on the shore.
Environmental conditions
● A great variety of environmental
conditions exists in the intertidal zone.
● This is due, in large part, to various
levels on the shore being exposed to
the air and submerged in seawater for
intertidal zone
different periods of time during the
tidal cycle.
Parts of the intertidal zone Parts of the intertidal zone

● The upper intertidal zone is
submerged only by the highest spring
tides and, at its upper limit, is only
ever wetted by wave splash and spray.
upper middle lower
● The middle intertidal zone is
intertidal intertidal intertidal subtidal
regularly submerged and uncovered
by tides.
● The lower intertidal zone is
submerged most of the time.
● The subtidal zone consists of the
shallow water just below the intertidal
zone. Here, the combination of total
immersion, good light penetration,
and abundant nutrients supports rich
plant life—whether phytoplankton or
attached seaweeds. Marine life is
abundant here.
108
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Rocky shore:

Key words
intertidal zone
vertical zonation
shore Lichens from the upper Fucus distichus from the middle
temperate intertidal zone intertidal zone
vertical zonation
Vertical zonation
● Vertical zonation is the banding
pattern of a rocky shore produced
by the various communities of
organisms that live at its different
levels.
● Some form of vertical zonation is
characteristic of most rocky shores,
particularly temperate ones that have Chondrus crispus from the lower Laminaria from the extreme lower
an evenly sloping rock face. intertidal zone intertidal zone
● A given species is usually found only
within a particular vertical range,
rather than throughout the intertidal
zone. This gives rise to a series of
distinct bands, or zones, at different
levels on the shore.
● A zone is sometimes named after the
dominant organism in the community,
for example, a “barnacle zone” or
“mussel zone.”
Factors in
vertical Vertical zonation on a temperate rocky shore of the U.S. Atlantic coast
zonation 1 2 3 4
● Physiological
Upper intertidal zone Middle intertidal zone Lower intertidal zone Extreme lower intertidal
investigations and Marine organisms that live A gradation in Characterized by the red zone
transplantation here are well adapted to environmental conditions algae, called Irish moss Characterized by kelps
experiments suggest withstand exposure to the often produces a distinctive (Chondrus crispus), and (Laminaria, Egregia).
air: typically lichens, small vertical zonation with: green algae
that the upper limit at snails (periwinkles), a a barnacle zone; (Enteromorpha).
which a species lives limpets, and mats of b a mussel zone. Here,
on the shore is usually cyanobacteria. mussels and seaweed
(especially Fucus,
determined by Ascophyllum and
physical factors. Pelvetia) predominate.
● Experiments in which
an organism is
excluded from an area
of shore suggest that
biological factors—
especially predation
or competition—
determine the lower
limit of a species on a b
the shore.
1 2 3 4
109
Rocky shore: competition BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
and predation Key words

intertidal zone
keystone
Organisms of the intertidal zone predator
shore
Ocher sea star Acorn barnacles tide
(Pisaster ochraceous) (Balanus glandula and B. cariosus)
Mussel
Predation and competition
Gooseneck barnacle
(Mytilus californianus) (Pollicipes) ● On temperate rocky shores of the
northwest Pacific coast of North
America, the ocher sea star, Pisaster
Rockweeds
(e.g. Fucus) ochraceous, is a major predator of
mussels and, to a lesser extent,
barnacles.
● Sea stars hunt underwater. In the
middle intertidal zone, sea stars have
A rich intertidal community where sea stars are present limited time to find and consume
barnacles and mussels.
● The lower intertidal zone is
submerged for most of the tidal cycle.
Sea stars have abundant opportunity
to find and consume mussels and
barnacles here. Mussels, the sea stars’
favorite prey, tend to be consumed
before they reach adulthood.
● Sea stars are classed as a keystone
middle intertidal zone predator, because their presence or
absence is a major determinant of
lower intertidal zone
community structure.
Intertidal community
Mussels dominate when sea stars are removed where sea stars are
present
1 ● The consumption of mussels by sea
stars creates openings for other
species to colonize the intertidal zone.
● Acorn barnacles, goose barnacles, and
seaweed colonize the shore.
● Sea stars also feed on dog whelks—
one of the barnacle’s major
predators—thus giving barnacles a
greater opportunity to colonize.
middle intertidal zone
lower intertidal zone Mussels dominate when

2
sea stars are removed
● In experiments, when sea stars are
removed regularly by hand 1 (or are
excluded from areas by the use of
cages) mussels eventually dominate

the exclusion area.
● The mussels outcompete other
organisms and form dense beds on
middle intertidal zone
the shore 2 .
lower intertidal zone

110
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Sandy shore fauna

Key words
fauna vertical zonation
sandy shore
shore
temperate
tide
Characteristics of sandy
shores
● Sandy shores contain a high
proportion of particles in the
size range 0.0025–0.08 inches
(0.063–2.0 mm).
● Many of the organisms live below the binocular vision crab
sand surface.
● Upper shore sand is drier than that on
the lower shore.
● Vertical zonation occurs on sandy
shores but is less obvious than on
rocky shores.
sand dollar scallop

(Mellita)
Sandy shore community members on a

temperate U.S. Atlantic shore
Upper shore Upper shore Middle shore Middle shore Lower shore Lower shore Lower shore Lower shore
isopod beach hoppers bristleworm lugworm soft-shelled cockle moon snail sand dollar
crustaceans (Corophium or (Arenicola) clam (Mya) (Cerastoderma) (Polinices) (Mellita)
(various) Talorchestia,
types of
amphipod
crustacean)
extreme high tide

extreme low tide

111
Muddy shore fauna BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
anaerobic
fauna
beach hopper muddy shore
respiration
vertical zonation
Characteristics of
muddy shores
● Muddy shores contain a high
proportion of particles in the size
range 0.00016–0.0025 inches
meiofauna (0.004–0.062 mm).
● Many of the organisms live below
the mud surface.
● Oxygen penetration is poor and
organisms living below the top few
inches respire anaerobically or must
ragworm ventilate their burrows with
oxygenated water.
● Vertical zonation is not apparent on
muddy shores. The shore slope is less
than one degree and all levels of the
Mud flat community members on a shore retain large volumes of water.
temperate U.S. Atlantic shore
Suspension feeder Surface deposit feeders Burrowing omnivore Burrowing deposit feeders
soft-shelled clam (Mya) beach hopper (Corophium, ragworm (Nereis) capitellid polychaete
amphipod crustacean) (Heteromastus)
tellin (Macoma) cirratulid polychaete

(Tharyx)
spionid polychaete (Polydora)
spire shell (Hydrobia)

112
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Sandy and muddy shore

Key words
adaptation sandy shore
meiofauna
exoskeleton sediment
interstitial space shore a Harpacticoid copepod; grazes on b Bryozoan, Monobryozoon;
meiofauna benthic diatoms and dinoflagellates. a suspension feeder.
muddy shore
Meiofauna
● Meiofauna are small animals in the
size range 0.004–0.08 inches
(0.1–2.0 mm).
● They inhabit the sandy and muddy
sediments living in the spaces between
particles known as “interstitial spaces.”
● Meiofauna are common on shorelines
and are thought to be the most
abundant group of animals on the
seafloor.
● They are very abundant with up to a
million individuals present in every
c Gastrotrich, Urodasys; a detritus feeder. d Polychaete, Psammodrilus;
cubic meter of surface sediment. a detritus feeder.
● The meiofauna form a miniature
community, with herbivores (a),
omnivores (b–d), and carnivores (e).
Meiofauna adaptations
● Regardless of their evolutionary
origins, most forms in the meiofauna
are wormlike or flattened, enabling
movement between sediment
particles.
● They have well-developed
exoskeletons (a) or strengthened body
walls to resist crushing.
● They have the ability to contract (e)
or move away from potential
mechanical damage.
● They have adhesive organs (b and e)
to attach to sand particles. These
e Hydroid cnidarian, Halammohydra;
enable them to remain attached to a predator.
sediment particles when the sediment
is stirred up and moved by currents
or waves.
● They have hooks or claws (a and c)
to maintain position in the sand and
to move around.
113
Plankton BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
Types of plankton Length
Types of plankton Length bacterioplankton photosynthesis
0.2 m current phytoplankton
0.20.000008
m inches
0.000008 inches food chain plankton
bacteria holoplankton surface water
bacteria
larva trophic level
cyanobacteria
cyanobacteria 1 mereoplankton zooplankton
1
Plankton
● Plankton are organisms that float in
2 m the surface waters and drift with the
2 m0.00008 inches
silicoflagellate 0.00008 inches ocean currents. They form the first
silicoflagellate few trophic levels of most ocean food
coccolithophorid chains.
coccolithophorid
2
2 Types of plankton
● Bacterioplankton are planktonic
diatom bacteria and cyanobacteria. They are
diatom
prokaryotic organisms that have
20 m
20 0.0008
m simple cellular organization and are
inches
dinoflagellate 0.0008 inches less than 0.00008 inches (2 µm) long.
dinoflagellate ● Phytoplankton are photosynthetic
colonial cyanobacteria plankton. They range in size from

colonial cyanobacteria single cells about 0.00008 inches
3
3 (2 µm) long to chain cells of up to
0.08 inches (2 mm) long.
● Zooplankton are animal plankton that
feed on phytoplankton (herbivorous
0.2 mm
copepod 0.20.008
mm inches zooplankton) or other zooplankton
copepod 0.008 inches (carnivorous zooplankton).
● Mereoplankton are zooplankton that
ctenophore (comb jelly) are the larval stages of nonplanktonic
ctenophore (comb jelly)
4 creatures.
4 ● Holoplankton are zooplankton that
remain as zooplankton throughout
their life cycles. They range in size
20 mm from heterotrophic protists about
chaetognath (arrow worm) 20 0.8
mminches 0.00008 inches (2 µm) long to jellyfish
chaetognath (arrow worm) 0.8 inches about 39 inches (1 m) across.
krill
krill 5
5
Classification based on size
Classification based on size
1 Picoplankton
1 Picoplankton
0.000008–0.00008 inches (0.2–2 µm)
large jellyfish 20 cm 0.000008–0.00008 inches (0.2–2 µm)
2 Nanoplankton
large jellyfish 20 8cminches 2 Nanoplankton
8 inches 0.00008–0.0008 inches (2–20 µm)
0.00008–0.0008 inches (2–20 µm)
3 Microplankton
3 Microplankton
0.0008–0.008 inches (20–200 µm)
0.0008–0.008 inches (20–200 µm)
4 Mesoplankton
floating seaweed 6 4 Mesoplankton
floating seaweed 6 0.008–0.8 inches (0.2–20 mm)
0.008–0.8 inches (0.2–20 mm)
5 Macroplankton
5 Macroplankton
0.8–8 inches (2–20 cm)
200 cm 0.8–8 inches (2–20 cm)
6 Megaplankton
20080cm
inches 6 Megaplankton
8–80 inches (20–200 cm)
80 inches 8–80 inches (20–200 cm)
114
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Phytoplankton

Key words Major divisions of phytoplankton
euphotic layer plankton
food chain sediment
nutrient upwelling
photosynthesis
phytoplankton Division Chrysophyta Dinophyta
Phytoplankton
● Phytoplankton are plankton that
photosynthesize. They are essentially
free-floating, water-dwelling plant life.
● Like most plant life, phytoplankton
absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide
and produce oxygen.
Subgroup Cryptomonads Cocco- Silico- Diatoms Dinophytes
● Because phytoplankton need light, lithophores flagellates (Dino-
they only live in the well-lit surface flagellates)
layers of the ocean (or lakes). This is
known as the euphotic layer.
● Phytoplankton are thought to produce
about 98 percent of the oxygen in the
atmosphere.
● They also produce dimethyl sulfide
(DMS) which is converted to sulfate in No. of
the atmosphere, where it reflects solar marine >100 200 >100 >3,000 >1,000
species
radiation and acts as condensation
nuclei for cloud formation.
Phytoplankton nutrients
● As well as sunlight, phytoplankton also
need carbon dioxide and nutrients,
such as iron, to grow. Small Small Small Large Large
unicellular, unicellular, unicellular, unicellular, unicellular,
● Large quantities of carbon dioxide
lacking a with with an sometimes in sometimes
from the atmosphere diffuse into the skeleton. calcareous internal chains. in chains.
oceans at the ocean surface. Two flagella. plates skeleton of Cell wall of Cell wall
(coccoliths) silica and a silica, in two sometimes
● Carbon is locked into the bodies of
Size and on outer single tightly fitting strengthened
phytoplankton, which sink to the structure surface. flagellum. halves. with cellulose.
bottom of the ocean when they die. Two flagella of
unequal
● Up to 90 percent of the world’s carbon
length.
is thought to be locked in ocean-floor
sediments formed mostly from the
bodies of phytoplankton.
● Other nutrients are brought to the
surface by upwellings. Where
upwellings fail, phytoplankton
levels crash and the rest of the
food chain starves.
Skeletonema Gonyaulax
Example
Dictyocha
Chroomonas Coccolithus specullum Chaetocerus Ceratium
115
Holoplankton BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Protist holoplankton Key words

crustacean trophic level
holoplankton zooplankton
larvae
phytoplankton
plankton
Holoplankton
● Some organisms are plankton for only
Foraminiferan Radiolarian Ciliate part of their life cycle. The larval stages
(e.g., Globigerina) (e.g., Acanthometron) (e.g., Parafavella) and young of many species are
classified as plankton only until they
reach their adult stages.
● The permanent members of animal
Crustacean holoplankton plankton (zooplankton) are called

holoplankton.
Protist holoplankton
● Protist holoplankton play a vital role as
herbivores, consuming phytoplankton
and making this energy available to
higher trophic levels.
Herbivorous Carnivorous
Crustacean holoplankton
copepod copepod ● Larger zooplankton, especially
(e.g., Calanus) (e.g., Corycaeus) Euphausiid (e.g., Meganyctiphanes) copepods and euphausiids, are
dominant members of the
holoplankton community. Some are
herbivores, some omnivores, and
Larger non-crustacean holoplankton others carnivores.
● Crustacean holoplankton are the most
abundant animals on Earth.
Larvacean (e.g., Oikopleura)
Noncrustacean
holoplankton
● Noncrustacean zooplankton include a
group known as predatory gelatinous
organisms. These are jellyfish and
Salp (e.g., Doliolum)
similar organisms such as comb jellies
and colonial medusa. These organisms
Jellyfish (e.g., Pellagia)
typically capture prey with stinging
cells or sticky mucus deposits.
● Other noncrustacean zooplankton
include arrow worms and wormlike
tunicates such as salps and larvaceans.
● These organisms are typically much
larger than crustacean or protist
holoplankton. Some qualify as
megaplankton since they are at least

8 inches (20 cm) in diameter.
Arrow worm
(e.g., Sagitta)
Comb jelly
(e.g., Pleurobranchia)
116
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Meroplankton

Key words Crustacean meroplankton
coral reef plankton
estuary rocky shore
kelp bed subtidal zone
larva zooplankton
meroplankton
Meroplankton
● Meroplankton are temporary members
of the zooplankton. They are
organisms that live as plankton for
only part of their life cycle.
● Meroplankton are the planktonic
Megalopa larva of crab Zoea larva of crab Nauplius larva of barnacle
larvae of animals from a wide variety
of habitats: rocky shores, subtidal
communities such as kelp beds, and
coral reefs, estuaries, and the deep Noncrustacean meroplankton
ocean floor.
● While living as meroplankton these
organisms feed on yolk sacs retained
from the eggs they hatched from or
on other plankton.
● These larvae often bear almost no
resemblance to their adult forms and
have entirely different lifestyles.
● The larvae play a vital role in the
dispersal phase of the life cycle.
● Meroplankton are seasonally
abundant, particularly in coastal
waters. Echinopluteus larva Trochophore larva of
of sea urchin polychaete worm
(e.g., Echinocardium)
Crustacean meroplankton
● Crustaceans are by far the most Bipinnaria larva
of starfish
abundant members of the (e.g., Asterias)
zooplankton (including
meroplankton) in both species and
number of individuals.
● Common crustacean meroplankton
include the larvae of lobsters, crabs,
prawns, barnacles, brine shrimp, and early veliger larva
copepods. of gastropod snail
Non-crustacean
meroplankton
● Common noncrustacean
meroplankton include the larvae of
starfish, sea urchins, snails, polycheate
worms, and fish.
late larva of
polychaete worm fish larva
117
Planktonic adaptations BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Increased buoyancy Key words

adaptation zooplankton
larva
nutrient
Radiolarian phytoplankton
plankton
Surface area and volume

● All phytoplankton and many
phytoplankton
zooplankton are microscopic in size.
● Their small size and complex shapes
produce a high surface area-to-volume
ratio.
● A high surface area-to-volume ratio
favors the rapid exchange of gases by
diffusion and creates a high frictional
gas-filled vesicles resistance, which means they sink
slowly.
● It also facilitates the rapid excretion of
Body shape increases resistance to sinking wastes across the body surface, light
trapping, and nutrient absorption.
Increased buoyancy
● Many plankton have buoyancy aids.
For example, phytoplankton, notably
diatoms, and zooplankton such as
copepods, fish eggs, and larvae,
Diatom contain bouyant oil droplets that also
(Rhizosolenia) act as food stores.
● Some planktonic cyanobacteria and
radiolaria contain gas-filled vesicles.
● Certain dinoflagellates, and various
zooplankton, including salps and
comb jellies, exclude or excrete heavy
ions (e.g., Mg2+, SO42–) and retain less
dense ones (e.g., NH4+, Cl–).
Body shape
● Many plankton have body shapes that
tend to make them sink more slowly.
● Some plankton are flattened. They
sink slowly, moving back-and-forth in a
“falling-leaf ” pattern.
● Long projections and spines increase
Copepod
(Augaptilus) surface area and slow sinking. They
may also deter potential grazers or
predators from consuming the
individual.
● Chains of individuals can assume

shapes that encourage sinking in a
slow spiral or zigzag path.
Diatom
(Asterionella)
118
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Red tides

Key words Oxygen depletion
bacteria pollution
downwelling red tide
1 2
phytoplankton
plankton
Red tide
● A red tide is a dense phytoplankton
bloom that colors surface seawater.
● Red tides are usually reddish brown
but they can be any color within the
range blue to yellow, depending on
the main constituent species.
Causes
● The factors that trigger the
explosive growth of red-tide forming
phytoplankton species are not
3
known precisely.
● Downwellings, where currents
converge, may cause dinoflagellates to
congregate as they swim up against
the current and toward the light.
● Organic pollution by sewage discharge
and/or fertilizers rich in nitrates and
phosphates have been implicated in
some incidences of red tide.
Oxygen depletion Poisoning

1 The phytoplankton in a red tide
eventually die.
2 Bacteria feed on the decaying
remains of the phytoplankton and 1
multiply.
3 The huge numbers of bacteria
consume so much oxygen that
many other organisms suffocate.
Poisoning
Some phytoplankton species that
produce red tides contain toxic
chemicals. These chemicals may be
intended to deter herbivores.
1 Saxitoxin, produced by some red-
tide forming phytoplankton, attacks
the nervous system of vertebrates
2
but not most invertebrates.
Zooplankton and filter-feeding
shellfish can accumulate saxitoxin,

but remain unharmed.
2 Vertebrates—including fish, birds,
marine mammals, and humans—
that consume the zooplankton or
shellfish are poisoned.
119
Major subdivisions of the BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
marine environment Key words

abyssal zone nekton
bathyal zone pelagic realm
Organisms
Organisms of
of the
the marine
marine environment
environment benthic realm plankton
plankton benthos realm
nekton plankton hadal zone subtidal zone
nekton
intertidal zone
benthos
benthos Realms
● The pelagic realm includes those
organisms that live in the water
column away from the sea bed.
● The benthic realm includes those
organisms that live on or close to
the sea bed.
● Nekton are strongly swimming
organisms.
● Plankton are those organisms that
predominantly drift on currents.
Realms
Realms of
of the
the marine
marine environment
environment
2 1
2 1
feet m
feet m
3
660 200 3
660 200
4 intertidal
3,300 1,000 4 subtidal (sublittoral) zone intertidal
3,300 1,000 subtidal (sublittoral) zone (littoral)
(littoral)
b zone
b zone
a
a
5 bathyal zone
5 bathyal zone
c
c
13,200 4,000
13,200 4,000
6
6 abyssal zone
abyssal zone
19,800 6,000 d
19,800 6,000 d
7 hadal zone
7 hadal zone
d
d
33,000 10,000
33,000 10,000
Subdivisions of the pelagic realm Subdivisions of the benthic realm

1 Neritic zone: the water mass overlying a continental shelf a Intertidal (littoral) zone The region of the
shore between extreme high and low tide
2 levels affected by wave splash.
Oceanic zone: open ocean waters beyond the continental shelf
b Subtidal (sublittoral) zone The benthic zone
3 Epipelagic zone (euphotic or sunlit zone): 0–660 feet (0–200 m) depth underlying the waters of the continental shelf.
4 Mesopelagic zone (twilight zone): 660–3,300 feet (200–1,000 m) depth c Bathyal zone The benthic zone from the shelf
break to about 13,200 feet (4,000 m).
5 Bathypelagic zone: 3,300–13,200 feet (1,000–4,000 m) depth d Abyssal zone The benthic zone between
13,200 and 19,800 feet (4,000 and 6,000 m).
6 Abyssopelagic zone: 13,200–19,800 feet (4,000–6,000 m) depth
e Hadal zone The benthic zone between
19,800 and 33,000 feet (6,000 and 10,000
7 Hadopelagic zone: 19,800–33,000 feet (6,000–10,000 m) depth m).
120
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Epipelagic zone

Key words
adaptation turbidity
epipelagic zone zooplankton
euphotic zone
photosynthesis fish-eating (piscivorous) fishes
phytoplankton (e.g., albacore)
phytoplankton
Epipelagic zone
● The epipelagic zone is also known as
plankton-eating (planktivorous)
the “euphotic” or “sunlit” zone. It is
fishes (e.g., anchovy)
the zone that receives sufficient
sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.
● The depth of the euphotic zone
depends on climate and the turbidity
of the sea water. In tropical seas, the small toothed whale
maximum depth is about 660 feet (e.g., dolphin)
(200 m).
● Phytoplankton is the main source of
primary productivity in this zone.
● Phytoplankton form the basis of nearly
all oceanic food chains.
● Zooplankton graze on the
phytoplankton. Some zooplankton
zooplankton
remain in the epipelagic zone.
Others migrate vertically from the squid
mesopelagic zone.
● Zooplankton are food for other
zooplankton and for pelagic life-forms
such as fish, squid, and marine
mammals.
● About 90 percent of humankind’s
seafood is caught in the epipelagic
zone.
large baleen whale (e.g., blue whale)
Epipelagic adaptations semitransparent larvacean countershaded epipelagic fish

● Many zooplankton are effectively
transparent. In sunlit waters, this

lessens their visibility to predators.
● Many epipelagic fish are
countershaded. This makes them
appear dark from above and light from
below, which provides additional
protection from predators by blending
them into the background.
121
Mesopelagic zone BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
disphotic zone vertical migration
mesopelagic zooplankton
zone
turbidity
twilight zone
krill (Thysanopoda)
Mesopelagic zone
● The mesopelagic zone is also called
the “disphotic zone” or the “twilight
zone.” It receives a small amount of
mysid shrimp (Gnathophausia) diffuse sunlight, but not enough to
support photosynthesis.
● The depth of the mesopelagic zone
varies depending on climate and the
turbidity of the seawater. In tropical
seas it lies between about 660 and
3,300 feet (200 and 1,000 m).
● The diffuse light is predominantly of
blue and blue-green wavelengths.
● In some fish and squid, light-
stomiatoid fish (bristlemouth)
(Cyclothone )
producing organs (photophores)
disrupt the animal’s outline. In some
species, the arrangement of
photophores serves as a means of
identification.
● Many mesopelagic zooplankton and
fish make daily vertical migrations to
feed on phytoplankton and each other
lantern fish (Myctophum) in the epipelagic zone.
● Others stay in the mesopelagic zone.
They are predators, ambushing prey,
or are detritus feeders, consuming
carcasses or fecal matter that descend
from the epipelagic.
● Most members of the fish community
are only 1–10 inches (2–25 cm) in
length.
Features
● There is a steep temperature gradient
mesopelagic squid (Chiroteuthis ) across the mesopelagic zone. Large-
scale density changes across this layer
result in particulate material—
especially fecal pellets—accumulating
in layers where oxygen is depleted.
● At depths in the range 1,300–2,650
hatchet fish (Argyropelecus)
feet (400–800 m) respiration by
bacteria and animals that feed on

particulate material causes the water
to become depleted of oxygen locally.
minimum oxygen layers
122
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Mesopelagic adaptations

Key words Small size, large jaws
adaptation extended dorsal fin acting as lure
bioluminescence
mesopelagic
zone
vertical migration curved teeth
Small size and large jaws

● Most mesopelagic fish are 1–10 inches
(2–25 cm) long with only a very few
species reaching 6 feet (2 m).
● Food is sparse in the mesopelagic.
Predatory fish that remain in the
mesopelagic are opportunistic feeders,
cavernous mouth
consuming whatever potential prey
they encounter. jaw that unhinges
● Many species have long curved teeth
and cavernous mouths to ensure prey
do not escape once grasped.
● Some species have jaws that unhinge Viperfish (Chauliodus)
and a gut that distends, which means
they can consume prey larger than
themselves.
Dark lining
● Many carnivorous mesopelagic fishes
have a pigmented lining (peritoneum)
Dark lining
to their abdominal cavity. This
prevents the bioluminescence from
ingested prey shining out through
the body wall and attracting other
predators.
Vertical migration
● Fish and zooplankton that migrate to darkly pigmented peritoneum
Stomiatoid fish (Bathophilus) (lining of body cavity)
the epipelagic zone must withstand
great temperature and pressure
changes.
● Fish that are vertical migrators have Vertical migration
a skeleton and musculature well-
swim bladder well-developed skeleton and musculature
developed for swimming. They
possess a functional swim bladder to
regulate buoyancy during ascent and
descent.
lacks swim bladder
Lanternfish (vertical migrator)

poorly-developed skeleton
Dragonfish (nonmigrator) and musculature
123
Mesopelagic coloration BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Coloration and body shape Key words

laterally adaptation
compressed bioluminescence
body mesopelagic
zone
photophores, disrupting outline photophore
Coloration and body shape

● Inhabitants of the lower mesopelagic
are often red or near-black to blend in
against the background of diffuse
blue-green light.
● Mesopelagic fish are commonly
countershaded, with dark backs and
silvery sides.
● Some midwater shrimps and fish can
control the light-emitting intensity of
their photophores to blend in with the
prevailing light conditions.
● Many mesopelagic fish are laterally
compressed and/or have photophores
on their ventral surface to reduce and
disrupt their body outline as seen
from below.
Vision
field of field of
acute vision acute vision
Vision
● Many midwater shrimps, squid, and
large, upwardly directed eyes fish have unusually large, sensitive
eyes.
● Some fish species have upwardly
Midwater fish (Scopelarchus) directed eyes to locate prey items
against the diffuse light filtering
from above.
● Some mesopelagic fish, octopuses,
and krill have eyes with a central
region for acute vision in brighter light
(whether natural or bioluminescent)
and a peripheral region that gives a
wide lateral field but with poor acuity.
wide, wide,
lateral lateral ● Some fish eyes have yellow filters that
field of field of help distinguish between

vision vision bioluminescent and background light.
124
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Bioluminescence in

Key words
adaptation zone
the deep sea
bathypelagic photophore
zone
Attracting prey lure (esca)
bioluminescence illicium
mesopelagic
Bioluminescence
● Bioluminescence is the production of
light by living organisms.
● The enzyme luciferase catalyzes the
conversion of luciferin to a product
with the emission of light rather than
heat. Different forms of luciferin are
found in different animal groups.
● Bioluminescence is common among
organisms of the mesopelagic and
upper bathypelagic. anglerfish
● Some fish and squid manufacture their
own luciferin. Others harbor light-
emitting symbiotic bacteria. Defense
● Bioluminescence is commonly
associated with photophores
(light-emitting organs).
luminescent cloud
The functions of
bioluminescence
● Attracting prey
In anglerfish, a bioluminescent lure
predator
(esca) on the end of a modified dorsal
fin (illicium) attracts prey to the
vicinity of the predator’s mouth.
● Defense squid
Some deep-sea squids
(e.g., Histioteuthis) eject a cloud of
luminescent fluid when threatened.
This distracts a potential predator and
masks the squid’s escape.
● Communication Communication
Among myctophids (lantern fish) the
Diaphus macrophus
elaborate arrangement of light-organs
is species-specific. The light patterns
may serve as identifiers for schooling
or for finding potential mates.
Diaphus splendidus
Diaphus effnigeus
The differing arrangement of photophores is shown by light patches

and small pale circles on the body, excluding the eye.
125
The pelagic deep sea BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
abyssopelagic
zone
aphotic zone
bathypelagic
zone
Gulper eel
(Eurypharynx pelecanoides)
Deep-sea zones
● The bathypelagic zone is the region of
the water column from about
3,300–13,200 feet (1,000–4,000 m).
● The abyssopelagic zone is the region
of the water column from about
13,200–19,800 feet (4,000–6,000 m)
depth.
Swallower
(Saccopharynx ampullaceus) ● Both are also referred to as the
aphotic zone or the “midnight zone”
because no sunlight reaches them.
Features
● The aphotic zone encompasses
90 percent of the ocean environment.
It represents the largest near-uniform
biological volume on Earth.
● Pressures are very high, ranging from
about 100 to 600 atmospheres with
Deep-sea bristlemouth increasing depth.
(Gonostoma bathyphilum)
● Ambient temperatures are in the range
30–39°F (–1° to +4°C).
Pelagic deep-sea fishes

● More than 2,000 species of fish have
been identified in the aphotic zone.
More than one third of these are
anglerfish.
● Deep-sea fish have reduced skeletons
and musculature, and lack swim
bladders.
● Most pelagic deep-sea fish are small
carnivores, much shorter than 6 feet
Anglerfish
(Melanocetus johnsoni) (1 m) long, with giant stomachs.
126
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Adaptions of pelagic

Key words
abyssopelagic bathypelagic
deep-sea fish
zone zone
Female anglerfish (Ceratias holboelli) with
adaptation bioluminescence an attached parasitic male
aphotic zone
Senses
● Light is absent or, where present, is
bioluminescent and intermittent.
● Eyes, where present, are usually
reduced in size.
● Some bathy- and abyssopelagic fish
species are eel-like, perhaps an
adaptation to increase the length of
the vibration-sensitive lateral line that
extends along the flank of the fish.
● Many deep-sea fish probably have a
highly developed sense of smell.
Reproduction male female

● Finding a mate in the dark, sparsely-
populated abyss is problematic.
● Many species probably secrete specific
chemical attractants (pheromones) to
find a mate.
● Both bioluminescent and vibratory
signals are probably used as attractants
by some fish and invertebrate species.
● In some deep-water anglerfish, the
male attaches to, and becomes Great swallower
(Chiasmodon)
parasitic on, the female once he has
found her.
● A few fish and crustacean species are
hermaphroditic (contain both male
and female sex organs). Potentially,
any mature individual can mate and
exchange sperm with any other
individual.
Large mouth and stomach

● Food is even sparser in the deep sea
than it is in the mesopelagic realm.
● A predatory fish that can consume any
prey it meets, regardless of size, will
be at an advantage.
● Some species have very large jaws and
a gut that distends, which means they
can consume prey larger than
themselves.
distended stomach containing swallowed prey
127
Fish of the BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
deep-sea floor Key words

abyssopelagic bathypelagic
Tripod fish zone zone
(Bathypterois) adaptation
aphotic zone
Deep-sea floor fish

● Fish of the deep-sea floor, beyond
6,600 feet (2,000 m) depth, tend to be
larger and more muscular than fish of
the bathy- and abyssopelagic zones.
● Fish associated with these abyssal and
lower bathyal communities probably
have a highly developed sense of
smell. Most are scavengers.
● Some of the fish living on or close to
the deep-sea floor—hagfish and
grenadiers (rattail fish), for example—
belong to some of the most ancient
groups of fish. They have probably
Hagfish become marginalized to this zone after
(Eptatretus) being outcompeted elsewhere by
more recently evolved forms.
Typical examples
● Tripod fish settle on the seafloor,
resting on their elongated fins. They
face the current to snap up edible
particles that drift past.
● Hagfish scavenge on the carcasses of
creatures that have sunk to the ocean
floor. They also eat marine worms and
other invertebrates that live on or
close to the ocean floor.
● Hagfish have the ability to form knots
Grenadier with bodies. These muscular
(Lionurus)
convulsions help them to escape
predators. They are also able to
produce large quantities of thick slime
as a defense mechanism.
● Rattail fish, also known as grenadiers,
are thought to inhabit all deep ocean
regions. They feed on carcasses and
prey on marine worms and small
crustaceans living on or close to the
ocean floor. They have been observed
feeding on tube worms close to
Brotulid hydrothermal vents.
(Bassogigas)
● Brotulids of the genus Bassogigas are
thought to be the deepest living fish.
An example was caught at a depth of
about 27,200 feet (8,300 m) in the
Atlantic Ocean’s Puerto Rico Trench.
Very little is known about them
because they are so rarely observed.
128
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Subtidal zone

Key words Tidal zones
continental shelf subtidal zone
intertidal zone subtidal zone
shelf break
sublittoral zone outer subtidal inner subtidal
substrate zone zone
Subtidal zone
● The subtidal zone is the seabed
feet
between the intertidal zone and the (m)
mean sea level
shelf break of the 0
continental shelf. It
is also known as
the “sublittoral 600
(200)
zone.”
● The inner subtidal
Depth
zone is the region
of the subtidal zone
where there is
sufficient sunlight
for plants to grow 13,200
on the seabed. (4,000)
● The outer subtidal
zone is the region
where there is
insufficient sunlight 19,800
for seaweed to (6,000)
grow on the seabed.
Subtidal communities
● The type of biological community that
develops in the inner subtidal zone is
largely determined by: the nature of
the substrate (for example, whether it
is soft- or hard-bottomed); ambient
seawater temperatures; other physical
factors, such as current speed and
water turbidity; chemical features,
such as nutrient availability, salinity, Hard coral communities Found on hard- Seagrass communities Found on soft-bottomed
bottomed subtidal zones in subtropical and subtidal zones of temperate, subtropical, and
and the presence or absence of tropical waters where water is clear, of near- tropical waters.
pollutants. normal salinity, and free of pollutants.
● Hard coral, seagrass meadows, or kelp
forests are three common subtidal
communities. Each provides food and
shelter to a large range of other
organisms.
Kelp communities Found on hard-bottomed subtidal

zones of temperate and polar waters in areas of
upwelling, heavy surf, or strong currents.
129
Bathyal zone BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Animal communities Suspension feeders Key words

of the bathyal zone sea pen (Pennatula) adaptation meiofauna
soft coral on a rocky outcrop bathyal zone
sponge (Crateromorpha) continental slope
stalked crinoid hydrothermal
(Anachalypsicrinus) vent
Predator
sea spider (or pycnogonid)
Bathyal zone
Deposit feeder ● The bathyal zone is the seabed from
feet
sea cucumber depths of 660 to 13,200 feet
(m)
mean sea level (Scotoplanes)
0 (200–4,000 m).
● It includes most of
the continental
600 slope.
(200)
● Most of the
hydrothermal vents
Depth
discovered so far
have been found in
this zone.
13,200 Bathyal
(4,000) communities
A steady drizzle of
●
material settles on
the seabed in this
19,800 zone. Some of this
(6,000) detritus is biological
in origin and forms a food source for
many of the organisms of the bathyal
zone.
● The waters above the bathyal seafloor
are some of the most biologically
productive regions of the oceans.
Consequently, the rain of biological
detritus that they produce is
particularly rich in nutrients.
● Much of the seabed is covered in fine
sediment that harbors an abundance
of microscopic animals (meiofauna).
Sea pen Soft coral Sponge
(Pennatula) (Crateromorpha) ● Suspension feeders are common in
the shallower parts of this zone,
particularly where there is a hard
bottom.
● No sunlight reaches the seabed at
this depth, so no corals or plant life
can survive.
● Deposit feeders often predominate in
the deeper parts of the zone.
● Those animals that walk on the soft

seabed often have adaptations to raise
their bodies clear of the sediment.
Stalked crinoid Sea spider Sea cucumber

(Anachalypsicrinus) or pycnogonid (Scotoplanes)
130
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Abyssal zone

Key words Animal communities of the abyssal zone
abyssal plain
abyssal zone
adaptation
continental shelf
feet
(m)
mean sea level
0
Definition
● The abyssal zone
is the seabed from 600
depths of about (200)
13,200 to 19,800
feet (4,000–
Depth
6,000 m).
bottom of the
continental shelf 13,200
across the abyssal (4,000)
plain.
Key features
● As in the bathyal 19,800
zone the food (6,000)
supply is sparse but may be seasonal,
with a heavier fall of detrital material Invertebrate scavengers and predators
from the epipelagic and mesopelagic
regions during the most productive
seasons.
● Occasionally, large carcasses, such as
whale or giant squid, may descend to
the ocean floor. Scavengers may live
off such carcasses for months.
Abyssal gigantism Galatheid crab (Munidopsis)

● Some deep-sea crustaceans are slow- also bathypelagic Deep-sea amphipod (Alicella)
growing, long-lived, and late-maturing. also bathypelagic
The amphipod, Alicella gigantea
(6 inches; 15 cm long) and the isopod
Bathynomus giganteus (15 inches;
42 cm long) reach much larger sizes
than their shallower water relatives.
● Slow growth and enlarged size could
be a side effect of metabolism at low
temperatures and high pressure.
● There may be a selective advantage in
Isopod (Bathynomus)
also bathypelagic
producing large eggs and larvae.
Large, deep-sea crustaceans do not
Deposit feeders
produce planktonic larvae. The larvae
remain at depth instead.

● Larger young are able to range over
longer distances and consume a wider
variety of food than smaller larvae.
This could be an advantage in a food-
scarce environment.
Sea cucumber Sea cucumber
(Oneirophanta) (Psychropotes)
131
Deep scattering layers BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Echograms Key words

The echograms show deep scattering layers by day and night.
deep scattering sonar
Daytime Nighttime layer (DSL) vertical migration
feet m 9:00 A.M. 9:00 P.M. epipelagic zone
0 0 mesopelagic
zone
Definition and key features

● When sonar equipment was first used
by oceanographers several mysterious
“layers” were found at different depths
in the water column.
● Sonar works by emitting sound waves
that are reflected by objects. These
330 100 fish and euphausiids
layers were reflecting some of these
sound waves.
● Layers that appeared on sonar
readings in this way came to be known
as Deep scattering layers (DSLs).
● Further investigation showed that
DSLs are caused by the scattering and
reflection of sound waves from groups
migratory DSL (fish) of organisms—particularly fish,
euphausiids, and shrimps—
660 200 congregating at specific depths.
● Euphausiids and shrimps have hard
exoskeletons made of chitin. This
characteristic makes them very
effective at reflecting sonar.
Depth
● A group of small fish (myctophids) are

also common elements in DSLs.
These fish have gas-filled swim
migratory DSL (euphausiids) bladders, which gives them a lower
overall density than the water around
990 300 them—another characteristic that is
highly reflective to sonar.
● Sometimes as many as five DSLs can
be present during the daytime. These
often change depth through the
course of a day and may merge.
● The vertical movement of DSLs are
often associated with the vertical
migration of organisms through the
water column.
● Many organisms migrate from deeper
1,320 400
to shallower waters and back again
every 24 hours. These are known as
“diel vertical migrations.”
nonmigratory DSL nonmigratory DSL
1,650 500
132
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Diel vertical migrations

Key words Migration types
diel vertical water column Nocturnal migration
migration (DVM) zooplankton Many midwater zooplankton and fish rise from the mesopelagic to the epipelagic zone at dusk
phytoplankton and descend to their previous level at sunrise. These vertical migrations can be detected through
plankton the movement of deep scattering layers revealed by sonar.
vertical migration Time
feet m
0 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Diel vertical migration
Depth
● A diel vertical migration (DVM) is a
migration pattern through the water
column that is repeated at 24-hour
intervals. 825 250
● Many marine species carry out DVMs
moving from shallower, sunlit waters migration pattern
during the day, to deeper waters
during the night.
● Although, by definition, plankton
1,650 500
cannot freely move horizontally, they
are capable of moving vertically
through the water column.
● Considering their small size, many
Reverse migration
In some epipelagic communities, phytoplankton and/or zooplankton descend through the epipelagic
plankton migrate large distances zone at night and ascend during the day.
through the water column. The
Time
smallest species can migrate feet m
1,000–1,300 feet (300–400 m). Some 0 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400
larger species migrate more than 2,600
feet (800 m). Both of these journeys
Depth
migration pattern
are undertaken twice a day.
● Phytoplankton may migrate through
the water column to maximize their
825 250
exposure to sunlight during the day,
and minimize their exposure to
predators at night.
● Zooplankton often migrate with
phytoplankton in order to feed off
them or to hunt other plant-eating 1,650 500
zooplankton.
● Changes in light levels provide the
signal for migrations to begin. It is Twilight (double) migration
thought that migrating plankton sense Some mesopelagic zooplankton rise to the epipelagic zone at dusk, descend during the night, rise
again near dawn, and then descend to their daytime position.
the ambient light in the water around
Time
them and rise or fall through the water feet m
column to keep it at a constant level. 0 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400
These regions of constant light
conditions are known as “isolumes.”
Depth
Evidence for this theory is provided by

observations that show that plankton
migrate different distances depending
825 250
on how cloudy the sky is, and that a
solar eclipse can trigger migrations at
migration pattern
the wrong time of day.
1,650 500
133
Seasonal vertical migrations BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Seasonal vertical migration of a North Pacific copepod Key words

feet m larva (SVM)
0 0 plankton temperate
polar vertical migration
season zooplankton
seasonal vertical
migration
eggs nauplius adult
larva
Seasonal vertical migration
● A seasonal vertical migration (SVM)
is a migration pattern through the
water column that is triggered by a
change in the season
330 100 ● SVMs are most common in polar or
temperate waters where there is a
large variation in climate between
seasons.
Polar zooplankton
● In polar regions, phytoplankton
production is highly seasonal, being
greatest in spring and summer.
● The zooplankton that feed on them
are only found in surface waters
during spring and summer.
660 200 ● In autumn and winter they remain at
cooler depths to conserve energy.
Depth
Life cycle migrations

● Some species migrate to different
depths in the water column at
different stages of their life cycle.
● These life cycle stages often
correspond to seasons.
● For example, among free-living
copepods, different stages of the life
cycle are commonly found at different
990 300
depths, and are associated with
different seasons of the year.
1,320 400
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
134
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seaweed

Key words Types of seaweed
algae holdfast
brown algae phaeophyte
chlorophyte red algae
frond rhodophyte
green algae
Seaweed
● Seaweed are a large and vaguely
defined group of marine algae.
● They are distinct from phytoplankton
(many of which are also algae)
because they spend at least a part of
their lives attached to the seabed.
● They also differ from most other algae Ulva
Fucus vesiculosus
in that they are generally multicellular
and not microscopic in size.
● Seaweed are not “higher” plants like
most of the plants on land because
they do not have roots, shoots, or Enteromorpha
flowers. They are a simpler and much
older group of organisms.
● Seaweed have “holdfasts” instead of
roots that attach them to the seabed
and “fronds” instead of leaves.
● Some seaweeds have gas-filled
bladders that help them to float.
● There are about 10,000 species of
seaweed compared to about 235,000
species of flowering plant.
● Seaweed are either red, green, or
brown. Chlorophyta (green algae)
include green seaweed, phaeophyta
(brown algae) include brown seaweed,
Laminaria
and rhodophyta (red algae) include Chondria
red seaweed.
● Most phaeophyta and rhodophyta are
marine organisms, but many Division Approx. no. Structure and size Photosynthetic Storage
chlorophyta are freshwater or (common name) living marine pigments products
species
terrestrial organisms.
Chlorophyta 900 Unicellular and Chlorophyll Starch
(green algae) multicellular Carotenes
Examples: Ranging from
Ulva, Enteromorpha microscopic 0.0004 inches
(10 µm) to 3 feet (1 m)
long.
Phaeophyta 1,500 Multicellular. Chlorophyll Laminarin

(brown algae) 4 inches (10 cm) Xanthophylls and others
Examples: to 30 feet (9 m) long. Carotenoids (e.g. fucox-
Fucus vesiculosus, anthin)

Laminaria
Rhodophyta 4,000 Unicellular and Chlorophyll Starch and

(red algae) multicellular. Carotenes others
Examples: Microscopic Phycobilins
Chondria 0.0008 inches (20 µm) to 6 feet
(2 m) long.
135
Sponges and cnidaria BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Sponges Key words

Phylum Porifera cnidarian
poriferan
soft coral
sponge
Sponges (Phylum Porifera)

c glass sponge
● Sponges are a group of very simple
animals. They are also known as
poriferans after their phylum Porifera.
There are about 10,000 species, most
of which are marine, though a few are
freshwater.
● They range in size from a fraction of
an inch (a few mm) to 6 feet (2 m).
● They have no nerves, muscles, or
a calcareous sponge
internal organs, and consist essentially
of a body cavity connected to the
exterior by pores.
● Sponges are filter feeders: flagellated
collar cells line the body cavity and are
used to create water currents that
b horny sponge draw in oxygen and food particles.
● Four classes of sponge are recognized,
based on structure and composition of
Cnidarians the skeleton:
Phylum Cnidaria class Calcare (a);
class Demospongiae (b);
class Hexactinellida (c);
class Sclerospongiae (rare).
Cnidarians
(Phylum Cnidaria)
● Cnidarians are a group of simple
d jellyfish
animals that include sea anemones,
jellyfish, hydras, and corals.
● There are about 9,400 species: most
are marine, but a few live in
freshwater.
● They are radially symmetrical with a
mouth, simple sensory organs,
and a nervous system.
f soft coral ● They have one of two basic body
patterns: polyp (hydroid) or medusa.
● They capture prey items using
tentacles and nematocysts
(stinging cells).
● There are four classes of cnidarians:

class Hydrozoa (hydroids);
class Scyphozoa (true jellyfish) (d);
class Anthozoa (sea anemones, e,
and corals, f);
class Cubozoa (sea wasps and box
jellyfish).
e sea anemone
136
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Marine worms

Turbellarian flatworm
Key words
annelid nemertean
chaetognathan platyhelminth
nematode
Flatworms
(Platyhelminths)
● There are about 15,000 species of
flatworm, most of which are parasitic.
● One class—Turbellaria—has free-living
marine representatives: small flatworms
with a simple gut and ciliated
underside.
Ribbonworm
Ribbonworms
(Nemerteans)
● There are about 650 species of
ribbonworm, most of which are marine,
with a few living in freshwater or soil.
● They are small ribbonlike benthic
worms with a ciliated body surface and
a long proboscis used for capturing
prey.
Roundworms
(Nematodes) Roundworm
(nematode)
● There are about 80,000 species, living in
all habitats.
● Roundworms have a through gut.
● Many are free-living and some are
parasitic. Most free-living roundworms
are less than 0.5 inches (6 mm) long.
One parasite species living inside a
sperm whale’s gut reaches 30 feet
(9 m) in length. Sandworm
(polychaete)
Segmented worms
(Annelids)
● There are about 15,000 species, living in
all habitats.
● The body is divided into many clearly
visible segments.
● Two classes contain marine
representatives: Class Polychaeta
(polychaetes or bristleworms), e.g.,
sandworm, Nereis; and Class Hirudinea
(leeches).
Arrow worms Arrow worm

(Chaetognathans) (chaetognath)
● There are only about 60 species, all of
which are marine.
● Arrow worms are important
zooplankton, with almost transparent
bodies.
137
Mollusks BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Chiton Whelk Key words

mollusk
Mollusks
(Phylum Mollusca)
● Mollusks are a large and diverse group
of animals.
● There are about 65,000 living species
of mollusk. Most are marine, but some
are freshwater or terrestrial.
Mussel an inch (a few mm) to the giant squid

at 60 feet (18 m).
● They have unsegmented bodies,
Tusk shell usually with an external shell
(sometimes internal).
● Despite their great variety of forms, all
mollusk bodies have a similar plan:
head (with tentacles and eyes); a
muscular foot; a visceral mass
containing the major internal organs;
and a mantle that secretes the shell,
where present.
● There are seven classes of mollusk,
five of which have common marine
representatives:
class Amphineura (chitons);
class Gastropoda (gastropods—
includes snails and limpets);
class Scaphopoda (tusk shells);
class Bivalvia (bivalves, including
clams, oysters, and mussels);
class Cephalopoda (cephalopods,
including octopus, cuttlefish,
and squid).
Octopus

138
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Arthropods

Key words Class Merostomata Class Pycnogonida
arthropod
exoskeleton
Arthropods
(Phylum Arthropoda)
● Arthropods are the largest group of
animals. About 80 percent of species
alive today belong to the phylum
Arthropoda.
● There are about one million known
living species. Most are terrestrial, but
about 50,000 are marine. horseshoe crab sea spider
● Some modern classifications consider
the phylum Arthropoda to be three
separate phyla: the Chelicerata
(chelicerates); the Mandibulata
(mandibulate arthropods); and the
Crustacea (crustaceans). Subclass Branchiopoda Subclass Ostracoda
● The name “Arthropoda” refers to the
jointed legs characteristic of this
phylum.
● All have bodies covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin and/or
calcium carbonate. brine shrimp ostracod
an inch (less than 1 mm) to the spider
crab at 6 feet (2 m) across.
● There are several classes, three of
which have common marine
representatives:
class Merostomata (horseshoe crabs);
class Pycnogonida (sea spiders);
class Crustacea (crustaceans):
subclass Branchiopoda (brine
shrimps),
subclass Ostracoda (ostracods), Subclass Copepoda Subclass Cirripedia
subclass Copepoda (copepods),
subclass Cirripedia (barnacles),
subclass Malacostraca.
● There are several orders, including:
order Isopoda (isopods);
order Amphipoda (amphipods);
order Eupausiacea (euphausiids, copepod barnacle
including krill);
order Decapoda (decapods,

including crabs, lobsters, and
shrimps).
139
Echinoderms BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Class Echinoidea Key words

echinoderm
echinodermata
Echinoderms
(Phylum Echinodermata)
● Echinoderms are a group of
exclusively marine animals. It is the
Class Asteroidea largest phylum with no freshwater or
terrestrial representatives.
● There are about 70,000 living
sea urchin
species.
● They range in size from less than an
inch (20 mm) to the tiger’s tail sea
sea star cucumber at 6 feet (2 m) long.
(starfish) ● The name echinoderm, meaning
“spiny-skinned,” derives from the
Class Opiuroidea spines embedded in the body
wall of most forms.
● Most echinoderms have
radial symmetry, with components
distributed to a five-part plan.
● Many echinoderms are able to regrow
large parts of their bodies. A starfish
brittle star
cut radially into several parts (like
Class Crinoidea cutting a cake) can eventually
regenerate into the same number of
individual starfish.
● The water vascular system, a hydraulic
system used to extend and withdraw
tubed feet or tentacles, is unique to
echinoderms.
● There are six classes, five of which
have common marine representatives:
class Echinoidea (sea urchins,
sand dollars);
class Asteroidea (sea stars
or starfish);
class Opiuroidea (brittle stars);
class Crinoidea (feather stars,
sea lily sea lilies);
Class Holothuroidea (feather star)
class Holothuroidea (sea
cucumbers);
class Concentricycloidea (sea
daisies)—only two species are
known.
sea cucumber
140
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Jawless fish

Key words Anaspid
(Jamoytius)
agnathan
jawless fish
Ancient jawless fish row of gill openings

● Early jawless fish had evolved by the
Cambrian period (543–490 mya) and sucking mouth
were the forerunners of today’s fish.
● One group, the ostracoderms,
diversified into a variety of forms,
most of which became extinct by the rasping tongue
end of the Devonian period Lamprey
(354 mya).
● One group of ostracoderms, the
rasping sucker
anaspids, had features similar to those
of modern lampreys.
Modern jawless fish

● Modern jawless fish (agnathans) have
specialized lifestyles as external
parasites (lampreys) or as deep-sea
scavengers (hagfish).
● Agnathans lack the vertebral column
(spine) and jaws of other modern
vertebrates.
Lampreys
● Lampreys attach to fish using a row of gill
suckerlike mouth. The lamprey’s openings
rasping sucker and tongue scrape the
surface of the fish to draw blood and
break down tissues on which the
lamprey feeds.
● Sea lampreys return to freshwater to
breed. Their larvae undergo
prolonged development before Hagfish row of gill
entering the sea to grow into adults. openings
Hagfish
● Hagfish locate dead or dying prey
using their tentacles, which are
sensitive to touch and smell.
● Once a prey fish is found, the hagfish sensory tentacles
uses its toothed tongue to bore into
the side of the victim, or enters via the
mouth. It then consumes the prey

from the inside.
● Lacking biting jaws, the hagfish loops
knotted body for leverage when feeding
its body into a knot to provide
leverage to pull away chunks of flesh.
141
Jawed fish BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
A possible evolutionary scheme for modern fish Key words

agnathan
Chondrichthyes
500
jawed fish
Osteichthyes
Evolution of jaws
400 ● The evolution of jaws and paired fins
is associated with at least four groups
of ancient fish that had evolved by the
Silurian (443–417 mya) and Devonian
Million years ago (mya)
(417–354 mya) periods.

● Jaws evolved from skeletal frameworks
300 that supported the gills.
● Jaws were a major advance, enabling
fish to bite and chew rather than
simply filter or suck.
● The evolution of paired fins—pectoral
fins at the shoulder and pelvic fins
200 near the vent—was another major
advance. These conferred much
greater stability and maneuverability.
● Placoderms were among the first fish
with jaws and paired fins. They
emerged in the Silurian period and
100 dominated the seas of the Devonian.
● Placoderms had primitive jaws with
jagged bony edges that served as
teeth. Their jaws opened by means of
a joint between the head and the body
that allowed the head to rock
0 backwards and opened the mouth.
lobe-finned ray-finned sharks skates, rays chimeras hagfish lampreys ● Competition from sharks and bony
fish fish
fish is thought to have caused the
extinction of the placoderms.
● Sharks and sharklike fishes are
Class Osteichthyes Class Chondrichthyes Class Agnatha the oldest jawed fishes still in
(bony fish) (cartilaginous fish) (jawless fish) the oceans today. They are
also cartilaginous.
● Modern cartilaginous
fish and bony fish have
paired fins, though in
some forms these fins
have been secondarily
lost.
142
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Cartilaginous fish

Key words
cartilaginous fish
Chondrichthyes
Cartilaginous fish Features of sharks, skates, and rays

● Cartilaginous fish have a skeleton
composed entirely of cartilage, rather
than bone. toothlike placoid scales ampullae of Lorenzini
● Cartilaginous fish belong to the
vertebrate class Chondrichthyes.
● There are two modern subclasses:
Elasmobranchii (elasmobranchs),
e.g., sharks, dogfish, skates, and
rays; and
Holocephali (holocephalans),
e.g., chimeras or ratfish.
Features of sharks,
skates, and rays
● Ampullae of Lorenzini (bioelectric
sensors)
● Toothlike placoid scales
● Gill slits
● Large, fat-rich liver to assist buoyancy
● Spiral valve in intestine increases
surface area for food absorption
● Claspers (in male)
● Caudal fin with upper lobe usually
larger than lower
dorsal fins stomach
lateral line
caudal fin
anal fin gill slits nostril

pectoral fin
pelvic fin large, fat-rich liver
claspers (in male) spiral valve in intestine

143
Diversity of BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
cartilaginous fish Key words

cartilaginous fish
Chondrichthyes
shark
Whale shark
Cartilaginous
fish diversity
● There are about 950 species of
cartilaginous fish of which about
920 are elasmobranchs (subclass
Great white shark
Elasmobranchii) and 34 are
holocephalans (subclass Holocephali).
● The diversity of cartilaginous fish has
declined since the Permian period
(250–300 mya). Nevertheless, it is still
a diverse group. Examples of
cartilaginous fishes can be found from
the shallowest to the deepest parts of
the Ocean.
Hammerhead shark Examples of

cartilaginous fish
Whale shark, Rhincodon typus.
A plankton feeder and the world’s
largest fish.
Great white shark, Carcharodon
carcharias. Its preferred diet includes
oil-rich fish and fat-rich mammals, such
Frilled shark
as seals.
Hammerhead shark, Sphyrna
zygaena. Its hammerhead probably
serves to separate sensory organs and so
enhance “stereo” sensory acuity.
Frilled shark, Chlamydoselachus
anguineus. A slow-moving deep-water
shark.
American sawshark, Pristiophorus
American
sawshark schroederi. The saw is probably swept
back and forth to stun and kill fish or
uncover bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
Pacific manta ray, Manta hamiltoni.
A plankton feeder.
Painted ray, Raja microcellata. Feeds
Painted ray
predominantly on bottom-dwelling fish
and shellfish.
Pacific manta ray Longnose chimera, Harriotta
raleighana. This small, slow-moving fish

lives in deep water and feeds on bottom-
dwelling animals, which it detects with
Longnose chimera its long snout.
144
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Shark attacks

Key words
Great white shark
shark (Carcharodon carcharias)
Facts and figures

● In 2004, the International Shark Attack
File (ISAF) recorded 61 unprovoked
shark attacks on humans, with seven
fatalities. In that same year, tens of
millions of sharks were killed by
Tiger shark
humans. (Galeocerdo cuvier)
● Of about 400 species of shark, fewer
than 40 are implicated in attacks on
humans. In some cases, these attacks
follow provocation.
● The number of shark attacks per year
is directly related to the number of
person-hours spent in the sea.
● More attacks are recorded in warm
waters. This is partly because
potentially dangerous sharks are more Bull shark
prevalent there, but also because of (Carcharhinus leucas)
the much greater number of person-
hours spent in the water.
● The three species most often
implicated in shark attacks (where the
species is identified) are the great
white shark (Carcharodon
carcharias), the tiger shark
(Galeocerdo cuvier), and the bull
shark (Carcharhinus leucas).
Confirmed unprovoked shark attacks around the world, 1994–2004

1994 7 57
1995 10 67
1996 3 43
1997 9 49
1998 6 51
1999 4 56
2000 10 78
2001 4 68
fatal attacks
2002 3 63
2003 8 4 57
total attacks
2004 7 61
145
Bony fish BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Features of bony fish Key words

bony fish
dorsal fins lobe-finned fish
Osteichthyes
lateral line nostril ray-finned fish
Bony fish
● Bony fish have a skeleton composed
entirely of bone. This distinguishes
them from the class of fish with
skeletons made of cartilage.
● Bony fish belong to the vertebrate
class Osteichthyes.
stomach pectoral fin ● There are two modern classes:
class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish),
anal fin pelvic fin e.g., freshwater lungfish and the
coelacanth; and
class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish),
which includes almost all modern
bony fish.
Ray-finned fish
● Ray-finned fish have straight, bony rays
projecting from the body to support
their fins.
● Modern ray-finned fish have bony
skeletons, widely gaping jaws, thin
bony scales scales, highly mobile fins, a
symmetrical tail, and swim bladders.
Lobe-finned fish
● There are only seven known species of
sarcopterygians (lobe-finned fish).
● Their fins are supported by scaly lobes
swim bladder
containing bones and muscles. These
fleshy lobes are thought to have given
rise to the limbs of backboned animals
that live on land today.
● Lobe-finned fish first appeared about
400 million years ago.
caudal fin long intestine gill cover

highly maneuverable fins

146
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Diversity of bony fish

Key words Coelacanth
bony fish
lobe-finned fish
Osteichthyes
ray-finned fish
Bony fish diversity

● There are about 23,000 species of Giant Maori wrasse
living bony fish of which nearly all
are actinopterygians (class
Actinopterygii) and only seven are
sarcopterygians (class Sarcoptergyii).
● Their versatile anatomy and Northern bluefin tuna
physiology has enabled
actinopterygians (ray-finned fish) to
exploit most marine environments.
Examples of bony fish

Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae)
A lobe-finned fish believed to have been
extinct for about 65 million years until a
freshly-caught specimen was identified
Northern anchovy
in 1938.
Giant Maori wrasse (Cheilinus
undulatus). An inhabitant of tropical
and subtropical waters, including coral
reefs. It grows to about 7 feet (2.2 m)
long and weighs up to about 420
pounds (190 kg).
Northern bluefin tuna (Thunnus
thynnus). A fast-swimming pelagic
predator. During long migrations it
Sharksucker
covers straight-line distances of more
than 40 miles (65 km) a day.
Northern anchovy (Engraulis
mordax). A small, pelagic fish, it filters
the water for zooplankton and larger Seahorse
phytoplankton.
Sharksucker (Echeneis naucrates). It
attaches itself to sharks and other large
fish and hitches a ride. It is a generalist
feeder, sometimes feeding on the scraps
of food left by the larger fish. European eel
Seahorse (Hippocampus). An
inhabitant of floating or attached
seaweed. Unusually, the male incubates
fertilized eggs in a pouch and gives birth
to live young.
European eel (Anguilla anguilla). It
spawns in the Sargasso Sea and migrates Atlantic halibut
to fresh water during its larval

development, returning to ocean water
when adult.
Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus
hippoglossus). The largest of the flatfish,
it reaches 8 feet (2.5 m) and 690 pounds
(315 kg).
147
Marine reptiles BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS

Indo-Pacific crocodile
Key words
reptile
Marine reptiles
● From 180 to 90 million years ago
various reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs
and plesiosaurs, were dominant
marine predators.
Marine iguana ● Reptiles, however, originated on land.
They are less well suited to life in the
sea than many other animal groups.
● Reptiles are unable to expel large
quantities of salt through their
kidneys. They have evolved salt-
secreting glands in the head region to
expel excess salts.
● Today, of about 6,000 remaining
species of reptile, only about 80 are
truly marine. Of these, more than
70 are snakes.
Crocodiles
● Two species of crocodile have wide
distributions in brackish water: the
American crocodile, Crocodylus
acutus, and the Indo-Pacific crocodile,
Leatherback turtle Crocodylus porosus.
A marine lizard
● Only one species of lizard, the marine
iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus, is
truly marine.
Marine turtles
● Seven species are recognized. All lay
eggs onshore and some species, such
as the green turtle, Chelonia mydas,
carry out long migrations.
Sea snakes
● About 60 species are well adapted to
marine life, while a further dozen or
so feed in shallow coastal waters but
spend part of their time on land.
Yellow-bellied
● Many of the true marine snakes, such
sea snake
as the yellow-bellied sea snake,
Pelamis platurus, have a small mouth
and inject potent venom to
immobilize their fish prey rapidly.
Pelamis gives birth to young at sea
and may be the world’s most
abundant reptile.
148
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seabirds

Key words Emperor penguin
seabird
Seabirds
● Birds, like reptiles and mammals,
originated on land.
● Those birds best adapted to marine
life are regarded as “true” seabirds.
True seabirds have adaptations such as
salt-secreting glands and webbed feet. Little shearwater
Wandering albatross
● Seabirds require a land base on which
to nest, lay eggs, and rear their young.
● Of the 9,000 living species of bird,
fewer than 350 are true seabirds.
● There are four major orders of true
seabirds: Sphenisciformes (penguins);
Procellariiformes (tubenoses, such as
petrels and albatrosses);
Charadriiformes (includes auks, gulls,
puffins, and terns); and
Pelecaniformes (includes cormorants,
frigate birds, gannets, and pelicans).
● Shorebirds, or waders, are important Arctic tern
predators on sandy and muddy Great black-backed gull
shores. They are not however true
seabirds, so are not discussed here.
Penguins
● The 17 species of penguin all live in
the Southern Hemisphere. Great cormorant
● Among seabirds, they are the best
adapted for swimming underwater
Brown pelican
because their wings have evolved to
become flippers.
● The emperor penguin, Aptenodytes
forsteri, is the deepest-diving of all
birds and can capture prey at depths
down to 820 feet (250 m).
Tubenoses (petrels,
shearwaters, and Charadriiformes Pelecaniformes
albatrosses)
● Tubenose refers to the nostrils that are Auks, gulls, puffins, and terns Cormorants, frigate birds, gannets,
● This diverse order contains more and pelicans
fused into a single tube along the top
species of seabird than any other. ● Diverse in appearance, these birds all
of the bill.
● The great black-backed gull, Larus have webbed feet.
● This group contains the largest true
marinus, is a generalist predator ● The brown pelican, Pelecanus
seabird, the wandering albatross,
and scavenger. occidentalis, aerial dives to catch fish.
Diomedea exulans, and some of the
● The Arctic tern, Sterna paradisea, by ● The great cormorant, Phalacrocorax
smallest, such as the little shearwater,
contrast, uses its slender beak to carbo, surface dives and pursues its
Puffinus assimilis.
catch small fish from the sea surface. prey underwater.
● All tubenoses are ocean-going, only
returning to land to breed.
149
Seabird feeding strategies BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Key words
seabird
jaeger and
great skua
Feeding strategies
● Seabirds exhibit a wide range of
tern pelican specialized hunting techniques.
tern ● Each is an adaptation to exploit a
gull skimmer
particular type of prey item, thereby
reducing competition with birds of
other species.
Aerial piracy
● Some seabirds acquire a proportion of
their food by stealing catches made by
other seabirds. This is referred to as
“kleptoparasitism.” Some also prey on
young seabirds or take eggs.
● Jaegers, great skuas, and frigate birds
are examples of seabirds that use
these feeding strategies.
Surface feeding
● Surface feeding involves taking food or
prey from the ocean’s surface.
● Some birds surface feed while in flight
by either skimming the surface with an
open beak or dipping down to grab
floating food. In-flight surface feeders
are the most acrobatic seabirds and
include gulls, terns, and skimmers.
● Other birds surface feed by landing
and then taking any food around
them.
gannet
Plunge diving
● Plunge divers catch food by diving into
the water from the air. They rely on
speed to attain depth and have little
control under water.
● Terns, pelicans, and gannets are
examples of plunge divers.
Pursuit diving
● Pursuit divers catch food by diving

shearwater penguin cormorant from the surface and then using
specially adapted wings or feet to
propel themselves underwater.
● Many of these birds are either weak
fliers or cannot fly at all. Examples are
penguins and cormorants.
150
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Marine mammals

Key words Sperm whale
(Physeter catodon)
mammal
Whales, dolphins, and

porpoises (cetaceans) Humpback whale
● Cetaceans are the most highly-adapted (Megaptera novaeangliae)
marine mammals and give birth
underwater.
● There are two suborders: Odontoceti
(toothed whales, including the sperm
whale, dolphins, and porpoises), and
Mysticeti (baleen whales, such as the West Indian manatee
humpback whale). (Trichechus manatus)
Manatees and the dugong

(sirenians or sea cows)
● Sirenians are related to modern-day
proboscideans (the order that
includes elephants), are well-adapted
to an aquatic life and give birth in Californian sea lion
water. (Zalophus californianus)
● There are two families: Trichechidae
(three species of manatee) and
Dugongidae (one species of dugong).
Seals, sea lions, and Weddell seal

walruses (pinnipeds) (Leptonychotes weddelli)
● Pinnipeds are most closely related to
terrestrial carnivores.
● There are three families: Otariidae
(sea lions and fur seals), Phocidae
(true seals, such as the Weddell seal)
and Odobenidae (walrus).
Walrus
Marine-adapted otters (Odobenus rosmarus)
● Two species of otter are marine-
adapted.
● The sea otter, Enhydra lutris, may
remain at sea throughout its life, while
the little-known marine otter, Lutra
felina, regularly comes ashore. Sea otter
(Enhydra lutris)
Polar bear
● Of the bear family only the polar bear
is marine-adapted.
● It has partially-webbed front paws and
is a strong swimmer, but spends most
of its time on ice floes or on land.
Polar bear
(Ursus maritimus)
151
Sea otters BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Distribution of the sea otter in North America Key words

adaptation
mammal
Alaska
tail
Canada Distribution and ecology
● The sea otter, Enhydra lutris, is
distributed in coastal waters across the
North Pacific, from Siberia to central
California. It has been reintroduced
hindlimbs
into some areas where historically it
was in decline due to hunting.
● It primarily feeds on invertebrates,
unlike its freshwater relatives, which
primarily feed on fish.
dense fur ● It is commonly associated with kelp
beds where it may play an important
role in controlling populations of sea
urchins. In the absence of sea otters,
sea urchins have been known to
decimate kelp beds, encouraging a
ears boom and bust cycle of algal growth.
Adaptations
● Although the sea otter has adapted
behaviorally to a marine existence, it
shows relatively few structural and
physiological marine adaptations.
● The sea otter remains at sea for most
of its life, but can stay submerged for
only a few minutes.
● Its fur is the densest of any mammal,
but sea otters lack a layer of blubber
beneath the skin and must groom
themselves regularly to grease the
hairs and trap air in their coats.
● In comparison to river otters (which
spend a proportion of their time on
land), sea otters do show some
adaptation for an aquatic existence.
● The ears are folded and valvelike
rather than cupped and projecting.
● The hindlimbs are flipperlike and fully
Tool users Threats webbed as opposed to the partially-
● The sea otter is one of the few ● Between 1741 and 1911, sea otters were webbed feet of river otters.
animals to use a “tool.” heavily exploited for their fur. In 1911, ● The tail is short and horizontally
● The otter floats on its back balancing the Fur Seal Treaty was signed, legally flattened, rather than long and
a stone on its chest. It uses the stone protecting sea otters as well as seals.
as an anvil on which to crack open The sea otter has recovered well, with pointed.
hard-shelled invertebrates such as sea overall population numbers in the
urchins, abalone, clams, mussels, and 10,000s.
crabs. ● The sea otter is susceptible to coastal
pollution. In 1989, at least 1,000 sea
otters were killed by the Exxon Valdez
oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska.
152
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Manatees and dugongs

Key words Manatee
(Trichechidae)
sparse hair
adaptation
mammal
sirenian
Distribution and ecology

● The dugong is found in the Indian and
western Pacific oceans.
● The three manatee species are found
in parts of the Atlantic Ocean and
associated rivers and estuaries; the
Amazonian manatee is a freshwater-
only species.
● Dugongs graze predominantly on
seagrasses, while manatees consume a
wide variety of aquatic plants—both
floating and attached.
Adaptations
● Manatees and dugongs (also called tail forelimb
sirenians or sea cows) are well
adapted to an aquatic existence.
● Their hair is sparse; they have no
external ear flaps; their forelimbs are
akin to strong paddles; and the tail is
flattened horizontally: the dugong like
the flukes of a whale, and the manatee
like the paddle of a beaver. Dugong
(Dugongidae)
● Like whales, sea cows give birth in the
water.
● Sea cows can stay submerged for up to
sparse hair
10–20 minutes.
● Sea cows have a thin blubber layer
and lack heat exchange structures to
conserve body heat; this may explain
why surviving species are only tropical
or subtropical.
tail
Threats
● Historically, sea cows—slow and
bulky—have been hunted for their
meat, skin, and oil-rich blubber.
Dugongs grow to 10 feet (3 m) and
925 pounds (420 kg), and manatees to
15 feet (4.5 m) and 1,320 pounds
(600 kg).
● The largest sirenian, Steller’s sea cow,

was hunted to extinction by the
forelimb
1760s—within 30 years of its discovery
by Europeans.
● All species are susceptible to near-
shore pollution and habitat loss from
coastal development. Every year, some
Florida manatees are killed by
collisions with powerboats.
153
Seals, sea lions, BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
and walruses Key words

adaptation
Walrus mammal
(Odobenus rosmarus) pinnipedia
Classification
● Seals, sea lions, and walruses are
pinnipeds (order Pinnipedia: from the
Latin meaning “wing-footed”).
● There are three families:
Phocidae (true or earless seals,
19 species);
Otariidae (eared seals, 14 species;
sea lions and fur seals);
Odobenidae (walrus, one species).
Adaptations
True (earless) seals and eared seals ● Pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and
ear walruses) are comparatively well
Harp seal adapted to an aquatic existence:
(Phoca groenlandica)
● Their fur is short and dense, especially
in fur seals.
Californian sea lion
(Zalophus californianus) ● There is a thick layer of insulating
blubber (thinner in fur seals).
ear ● Some species of true (earless) seal are
very deep divers: the Weddell seal,
hindlimb forelimb Leptonychotes weddellii, has been
recorded at 2,300 feet (700 m) with
dive times in excess of 80 minutes; the
Southern elephant seal, Mirounga
leonina, at 5,580 feet (1,700 m) with
dive times up to 120 minutes.
● True (earless) seals show greater
adaptation to a marine existence than
eared seals, suggesting they made the
hindlimb land-to-sea transition earlier. Both
forelimb types of seal give birth on land.
Comparison of true (earless) seals and eared seals

True (earless) seals Eared seals
External ear absent External ear present
In water, they use hindlimbs in a similar manner to a fish’s In water, they swim using forelimbs and steer using
tail, with powerful side-to-side strokes. hindlimbs.
On land, they cannot rotate their hindlimbs forward, On land, the hindlimbs are rotated forward and are used for
but propel themselves with their front flippers. walking.
In most species, the young are born at an advanced In general, the young are born at an earlier stage of
stage of development. In some species, the young can development and spend a longer time on land before taking
swim within a matter of hours. to the water.
154
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Whales, dolphins,

Key words
adaptation
and porpoises
baleen whale
Sperm whale
cetacean
mammal
toothed whale
Classification
● Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are
cetaceans (order Cetacea: derived
from Latin cetus and Greek ketos
meaning “large sea creature” or
“sea monster”).
● Technically, all cetaceans are whales.
Strictly, “dolphin” refers to certain
smaller whales with conical-shaped
teeth (members of the family
Delphinidae). “Porpoise” refers to
smaller whales with spade-shaped
teeth, blunt snouts, and other
structural differences, although the
name is sometimes used to refer to
any small cetacean. Blue whale
● There are two suborders:
Odontoceti (toothed whales, about 1 2 4 5 6
70 species);
Mysticeti (baleen whales,
11 species).
Features of cetaceans
1 Except for sirenians (sea cows),
cetaceans are the only mammals
that spend their entire lives in water Right whale
and give birth in water. Cetaceans
are the mammals best adapted to
an aquatic existence.
2 The body is streamlined and lacks
hair. Below the skin is a thick
layer of insulating blubber
(subcutaneous fat);
3 The tail with its two horizontal
flukes moves up and down to
propel the animal forward.
4 The hindlimbs are absent or

vestigial. The forelimbs serve as
flippers for steering.
5 Nostrils are located on top of the
head and exit through one or two
blowholes;
6 No external ear.
155
Toothed whales BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Diversity Physeteridae Key words

The six families of suborder Odontoceti: (sperm whales, 3 species)
mammal
Sperm whale (Physeter catodon) toothed whale
General features
● The toothed whales, or odontocetes,
belong to the suborder Odontoceti
(derived from the Greek odontos for
“tooth”).
Delphinidae ● Odontocetes have a single blowhole.
(oceanic dolphins, 33 species,
● Dentition varies considerably by
including orca and pilot whales)
species. Most narwhals have only two
Orca (Orcinus orca) teeth, whereas many dolphin species
have more than a hundred.
● Most toothed whales consume fish,
squid, and larger crustaceans. Orcas,
however, hunt other marine mammals,
Monodontidae especially seals.
(Arctic whales, 2 species: ● Toothed whales produce a wide
narwhal and beluga) repertoire of sounds, both for
Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) communication and echolocation.
● Most odontocetes are highly social,
and some hunt in coordinated pairs
or larger groups. Orcas, and some
dolphins and other species, are known
to maintain close family and friendship
bonds throughout their lifetimes.
Phocoenidae
(porpoises, 6 species) ● Of the dolphins, the bottle-nosed
species is the most familiar to humans,
Common porpoise with its renowned friendliness and
(Phocoena phocoena)
ability to perform tricks.
● Dolphins are believed to be among
the most intelligent animals on Earth.
Features of narwhals
● The narwhal (Monodon monoceros)
lives in the very cold waters of the
Platanistidae
(river dolphins, 5 species) Arctic, sometimes traveling in large
groups.
Franciscana ● They only have two teeth, one of
(Pontoporia blainvillei)
which in males protrudes and grows
into a long spiral tusk that can reach
almost nine feet (2.7 m) long.
● It is not known exactly what this tooth
is used for, but early sightings of the
Ziphiidae narwhal may have given rise to

(beaked and bottlenose whales,
21 species) unicorn legends.
Baird’s beaked whale

(Berardius bairdii)
156
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Baleen whales

Key words Diversity Balaenidae
The four families of suborder Mysticeti: (right whales, 2 species)
baleen whale
mammal Eubalaenidae
(Pygmy right whale, 1 species)
plankton
General features
● The baleen whales, or mysticetes,
belong to the suborder Mysticeti Northern right whale
(Eubalaena glacialis)
(“moustached” whales).
● The “baleen” is a keratinous substance
Mouth:
cross section
that replaces teeth: it is composed of
hundreds of vertical plates attached to
baleen baleen
the upper jaw. The plates are flexible
structures with hairlike projections, tongue tongue
and are used to filter small prey items
from the water.
● The 11 species of baleen whale covers
tongue lower
most of the larger whales, including raised jawbone
the blue whale, Balaenoptera
musculus, which reaches 200 tons
(180 tonnes) in weight and 110 feet Eschrichtiidae
(33 m) in length, and is probably the (Gray whale, 1 species)
largest animal that has ever lived.
● Mysticetes have two blowholes lying
side by side.
● Most baleen whales consume krill and
other zooplankton, plus schooling fish
or small squid. Gray whales feed on
bottom-living amphipods, crabs,
Gray whale
mollusks, and polychaete worms, (Eschrichtius robustus)
which they suction from the seafloor.
● Baleen whales produce a wide Balaenopteridae
repertoire of sound for (rorqual whales, 6 species;
including blue whale and humpback whale)
communication. Humpback whales
produce loud noises to scare and
gather schools
of fish.
● Baleen whales are
Blue whale
(Balaenoptera musculus)
social animals.
Humpbacks
sometimes work
together in a coordinated group to
form a “bubble net” to gather together
fish or zooplankton for consumption.
Mouth:
cross section
baleen
tongue
tongue
raised
lower
baleen jawbone
157
Echolocation BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
The mechanism of echolocation in dolphins Key words

adaptation
1 2 3 echolocation
mammal
toothed whale
Echolocation
● Echolocation is the detection of
objects by the use of reflected sound.
● Dolphins and other marine mammals
use echolocation because sound
provides a better method of sensing
the environment than light under
water.
1 Clicks are produced by passing air across soft tissues in the nasal passages. ● Dolphins and other toothed whales
(odontocetes) generate loud sounds
2 The melon—a fatty structure—focuses the clicks as a narrow beam of sound.
and then listen for the echo of these
3 Echolocation clicks reach a target prey item. sounds.
● Bottlenose dolphins produce
broadband echolocation clicks in the
range 20–220 kilohertz (kHz), and can
detect target items as small as
0.06 inches (1.5 mm) in diameter.
Stun gun theory

● According to one hypothesis—yet to
be verified—loud clicks produced by
toothed whales could be used to stun
prey.
● This might help explain how
comparatively slow-swimming sperm
whales are able to catch fast-swimming
squid.
6 5 4
4 The returning echo provides information on distance, size, and reflective properties
of the prey item.
5 Returning echoes are channeled to the inner ear via a fat body in the lower jaw.
6 An acoustic window of thin bone amplifies vibrations in the fat body.

7 The inner ear interprets sound transmitted through the lower jaw.
158
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Fish migration

Key words Fish migration routes
anadromous spawning ground
catadromous
current
larva United States Skipjack tuna
Several distinct populations of Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus
migration pelamis) live in the warm Pacific. The eastern Pacific
population migrates between central Pacific spawning
c grounds and near-coastal feeding areas.
Migration b a Young hatch in spawning grounds where they stay
● Migration is a b and grow for several months.
means of ensuring
reproductive d b The juvenile fish, about 12 inches (30 cm) long,
migrate east, carried part or most of the way on the
success and a
North and South Equatorial Countercurrents.
optimizing d c South
feeding. America c The fish spend a year in rich feeding grounds where
b they mature.
● For animals that
migrate, feeding d As young adults, the tuna migrate westward to the
grounds are spawning grounds, carried on the equatorial
currents. Adults repeat the migration pattern, but
commonly prevailing ocean do not travel at the same time or to exactly
distinct from currents the same eastern feeding areas as juveniles.
breeding grounds.
● Adults and young
Pacific salmon
may feed on Russia Alaska Seven species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) live in the
different food North Pacific. They are anadromous (spend most of
e their lives in the sea but migrate to freshwater to breed).
resources, in Pacific salmon spawn once and then die. The Sockeye
different f salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) migrates between Alaskan
h Canada
locations, which waters and the central extreme North Pacific.
reduces g e Young hatch in freshwater spawning grounds near
competition where they live and grow for about two years.
between them. g
f As juvenile salmon (smolts) they migrate to the
ocean and enter a period of intense feeding and
United
rapid growth.
States
g The salmon ride prevailing currents as they grow
to maturity.
h When mature, they return to their original freshwater

prevailing ocean spawning grounds to breed and die.
currents At sea, salmon probably navigate using geomagnetic
clues and subtle changes in water quality.
Approaching freshwater, they recognize the “flavor”
of their home stream.
European freshwater eel

The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) like its North
American counterpart (Anguilla rostrata) is catadromous
k (spends most of its life in freshwater but migrates to
Canada k
the sea to breed).
Europe
i Young hatch in the waters of the Sargasso Sea.
k
United j j The leptocephalus (leaf-shaped) eel larvae travel
States l north and then east on the Gulf Stream to reach the
coasts of Western Europe.

i
k The larvae metamorphose into young elvers and
Africa enter rivers and move upstream to feeding areas
where they will live for up to ten years.
l They return to the deep waters of the Sargasso Sea

to spawn and then die.
prevailing ocean larva

currents adult
159
Turtle migration BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Green turtle migration Key words

The best-documented feat of long-distance navigation by the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas)
takes place between the east coast of Brazil and Ascension Island—a 5-mile (8-km) wide current
island in the middle of the South Atlantic. migration
seagrass
Precise migration routes are not known. More information is available on female turtles because
they can be readily tagged on their nesting beaches. Males remain at sea.
a Adult males and females arrive at

Marine turtles
Ascension Island and may mate
offshore. Pregnant females come ● Marine turtles hatch
ashore to dig a hole in the sandy from eggs laid on
beach and lay their eggs in batches remote sandy beaches.
of about one hundred. Young turtles
hatch 6–8 weeks later and head ● In some turtle species,
straight for the sea. adults complete their
migratory cycle by
traveling hundreds of
miles from feeding
grounds to reach the
nesting beaches where
they originally hatched.
a Magnetic
compass
● Turtles navigate with the
help of an internal
geomagnetic compass.
● Researchers studying
the loggerhead turtle
have established that
this compass is probably
set when hatchlings
b The young turtles probably migrate
leave their nest.
on the South Atlantic Equatorial
Current to reach feeding grounds ● In laboratory studies,
near the Brazilian coast. changing the
c After a year, green turtles begin to c orientation of a
congregate on feeding grounds b magnetic field causes
along the Brazilian coast, a young turtles to change
where they graze on seagrasses.
their swimming
direction.
● New hatchlings run
toward the surf
attracted by the
reflection of light from
the Moon and stars. The
d Adult turtles migrate to Ascension geomagnetic compass is
Island to complete the life cycle. probably set at this
Adult females make the journey stage and will aid the
every 2–3 years.
turtles in navigation.
d ● In the surf zone, the
hatchlings travel out to

sea guided by incoming
waves using their
newly-established
geomagnetic compass.
160
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seabird migration

Key words Arctic tern migration
Arctic subarctic
hemisphere
Southward migration routes
migration
plankton
seabird
Arctic Ocean
a
a
Arctic tern
migration a aa a
● The Arctic tern (Sterna North Europe
America Asia
paradisaea) is arguably
the world’s greatest
migrator.
● When adult, it makes
annual migrations of Africa
20,000 miles (32,000
km) north–south across South
both hemispheres and America
back again.
Navigation
methods b b b b
● The more experienced Southern Ocean
navigators in a flock of
migrating birds may
pool their resources— a Arctic terns nest in summer along the northern coasts of Europe and North America.
both innate and those
b In the autumn, they migrate to the extreme south of the South Atlantic, and the Southern
based on experience— Ocean.
for the benefit of the
c They arrive in the austral (Southern Hemisphere) summer. Here, they take advantage of rich
entire flock.
plankton productivity to feed voraciously.
● Birds navigate using
visual cues such as d In the austral late summer, the terns migrate northward, returning to their Arctic and subarctic
wave patterns and land breeding and feeding grounds in the northern spring.
topography.
● During the day, some
Northward migration routes
species of bird can
orientate themselves by
the position of the Sun
Arctic Ocean
as it passes overhead
from east to west.
● At night, they can
navigate by taking into North Europe Asia
account the position of America
major constellations. d
● In many seabirds, d
smell is important in
both navigation and
finding food. Africa
● At least some bird

South
species can detect and America
orientate themselves d
d
to Earth’s
magnetic field.
c Southern Ocean c c
161
Whale migration BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Humpback whale migration Key words

Most Southern Hemisphere Humpback populations form genetically distinct populations that only
rarely exchange members. There is greater intermixing between the various populations in the baleen whale subtropical
Northern Hemisphere. Northern and Southern Hemisphere humpbacks rarely, if ever, meet. hemisphere tropical
mammal
a Humpback whales in the Northern Hemisphere feed in subarctic waters in the northern
migration
summer.
subarctic
b They winter, mate, and calve in subtropical waters.
c Southern Hemisphere humpbacks feed in Southern Ocean waters in the austral summer.
Whales
d They winter, mate, and calve in tropical and subtropical waters.
● All baleen whales, except the bowhead
whale, Balaena mysticetus, migrate
between cold-water feeding areas and
Gray whale migration warm-water breeding areas.
Eastern Pacific gray whales migrate between the waters off Baja, California, and the Bering Sea. ● The bowhead whale calves in polar
For adults unaccompanied by calves, the migration cycle is an eight-month, 10,000-mile
(16,000-km) round trip. seas. Two species—the gray whale,
Eschrichtius robustus, and the
e Eastern Pacific gray whales feed on bottom-living amphipod crustaceans in the Bering Sea humpback whale, Megaptera
during the northern summer.
novaeangliae—make long migrations
f They migrate to their winter breeding and calving grounds in autumn. along predictable routes.
g Whales are conceived in the waters off Baja, California, and are born there about 13 months ● Migrating to warm waters in winter
later. may be a means of conserving heat
h On the return journey to the Bering Sea, mothers with newborn calves tend to take a slower, loss when food is less abundant in
safer route farther from land. Males, and females without calves, follow the coast more closely. cooler waters. Calf survival may also
be better in warm waters.
Humpback whale migration
Gray whale migration
Russia Russia
Alaska Alaska
e
Canada Canada
f h
California California
Mexico Mexico
g
162
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Mangrove swamps

Key words Mangrove swamp environments
fauna
mangrove
subtropical
tropical
Mangroves tree snake egret

● Mangrove forests develop on tropical
and subtropical shores where muddy
sediments accumulate. Like the salt
marshes of cooler climatic zones, they
are also associated with estuaries.
● Mangrove bushes and trees create
a network of roots and shoots
that form a three-dimensional iguana
a
lattice at the interface
of land and sea.
Mangrove swamp
environments:
Arboreal fauna
a A community of terrestrial and semi-
terrestrial animals lives in the
branches of mangroves. They feed
on each other and/or the animal life
in the water below.
mangrove crab periwinkle
Marine hard-bottom fauna high tide
b Sessile animals attach to the large
surface area offered by the mangrove
root system above the surface of the oyster
mud.
b
Marine soft-bottom fauna tunicate
c In the mud below the mangrove
trees, a variety of animals burrows
through the surface, bringing oxygen
to the otherwise oxygen-poor mud.
Marine fauna visitors c

fiddler crab
d Pelagic and planktonic animals enter
prawns
and leave on the rising and falling
tides. Water channels between mullet polychaete worm
low tide
mangrove stands provide nurseries
for commercially important fish,
shellfish, and crustaceans.

d
163
Mangrove forests and BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
salt marshes Key words

erosion salt marsh
estuary subtropical
latitude temperate
mangrove tropical
polar
Distribution of mangrove forests
Mangrove forests
● Mangrove forests are
found between latitudes
30°N and 30°S.
Europe ● They are found on tropical
North
America Asia and subtropical shorelines
in the upper tidal range.
● Shallow and aerial roots
enable them to survive in
oxygen-poor mud.
Africa
● Mangrove forests filter
nitrates and metals from
runoff and help stabilize
South
coastlines against erosion.
America
● They offer vital nursery
grounds for commercially
Australia
important fish,
crustaceans, and shellfish.
● They provide a habitat for
birds, reptiles, mammals,
insects, and amphibians.
Distribution of salt marshes

Salt marshes
● Salt marshes are found
between latitudes
30°–65°N and 30°–65°S.
Europe ● They are dominated by
North
America Asia salt-tolerant grasses such
as the cordgrasses.
● They are found along
sheltered, low-lying
Africa coastal strips, often near
estuaries.
● They are inhospitable for
terrestrial predators and
South grazers so they are a safe
America
haven for birds.
● They are nursery grounds
Australia
for many commercially
important fish species.
164
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Coral polyps

Key words Coral polyp colony
algae plankton
coral polyp
exoskeleton reef
hard coral soft coral
photosynthesis
Hard corals
● Hard coral polyps lay down an calcium carbonate exoskeleton
exoskeleton of calcium carbonate
(chalk). Individuals in a colony are
connected by a septum of living
material. When the polyp dies, the Coral polyp
skeleton remains and forms the hard
tentacle mouth gullet epidermis
stony foundation of the coral reef. (outer layer)
● Hard corals are animal, vegetable, and
mineral. Symbiotic algae
(zooxanthellae) live within the
tissues of the hard coral. They
provide the hard coral with
organic foods and enhance the
coral’s chalk-
secreting ability.
The coral
provides the algae
with a safe home and nutrients to
aid photosynthesis.
● Coral polpys feed using tentacles to

trap small planktonic organisms. Hard
corals cannot, however, survive mesentery
without their algal partners. Their
dependency on algal photosynthesis theca (wall)
means that corals are restricted to
sunlit waters. Under thermal stress or
pollution, corals may eject their algal
partners and die (coral bleaching).
Soft corals
● Soft corals produce chalky skeletal
elements (spicules) within their calcium carbonate exoskeleton
tissues rather than secrete an
exoskeleton. They do not have the mesenterial filament
symbiotic association with algae
(zooxanthellae) and so they do not lay
down a hard exoskeleton.

● Consequently, soft corals are not reef-
building but they can live and grow in
the absence of strong sunlight.
zooxanthellae
165
Coral reef formations BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
1 Fringing reef Key words

volcanic island small lagoon coral sediment sea
atoll reef
barrier reef seamount
fringing reef coral subtropical
fringing reef tropical
lagoon volcanic island
larvae
Coral reef formation

● The three major types of coral reef
follow a developmental sequence:
1 Fringing reef
● A fringing reef is a reef that develops
directly alongside the line of a coast.
● They are common in tropical and
subtropical waters where there is a
hard surface on which coral larvae
can settle.
2 Barrier reef ● The largest fringing reef is found along
lagoon volcanic island coral sediment sea the coasts of the Red Sea. It is 2,500
miles (4,000 km) in extent.
barrier reef
2 Barrier reef
● A barrier reef is separated from the
shore by a lagoon of open water.
● They develop where the coastline is
gradually subsiding alongside a
fringing reef.
● The largest barrier reef system is
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. It is
about 1,250 miles (2,000 km) long and
for most of its length is separated from
the mainland by a lagoon that is at
least 25 miles (40 km) wide.
3 Coral atoll
● A coral atoll is a final stage in coral-
reef development on volcanic islands.
3 Coral atoll ● As the volcanic island subsides, its
volcanic island atoll lagoon coral sediment coral knoll sea
fringing reef becomes a barrier reef
coral atoll and then, as the island subsides below
the sea surface, a ring of coral called
an atoll is formed.
● Coral atolls are associated with the
volcanic islands of the Indian and
Pacific oceans.
● If the rate of subsidence outstrips the
rate at which coral grows, the coral

will die at sunlight-deprived depths.
The coral atoll then becomes a
seamount.
166
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Distribution of coral reefs

Key words Coral forms
algae reef
coral salinity
estuary sediment
hard coral subtropical
isotherm tropical
photosynthesis
a
Hard coral distribution c

● Hard corals are restricted to warm,
clear, sunlit seawaters with near- b
normal salinity.
● Almost all coral reefs are found in
subtropical and tropical waters within
the boundaries of the 68°F (20°C)
summer isotherm.
● The requirement of light for algal
photosynthesis means that hard coral
is typically restricted to a maximum Types of coral
depth of about 165 feet (50 m). a Example of a “branching” coral form c Example of a “table” coral form
● Dilution of seawater by freshwater
inhibits the establishment of coral. b Example of “brain” coral form
Sediment also readily smothers a coral
reef. Typically, large gaps occur in coral
reefs in the vicinity of estuaries.
Hard coral distribution
area within 68°F (20°C) area over which coral reefs
summer isotherms are found
80°
60°
North
Asia America Europe
40°
20°
Latitude
Africa
0°
South
America
20°
Australia
40°
60°
120° 160° 160° 120° 80° 40° 0° 40° 80°

Longitude
167
Coral reef zones BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
a Reef face Key words

The outer edge of a coral reef. This typically exhibits vertical zonation. coral reef flat
lagoon reef zone
1 Reef crest or algal ridge. Encrusting coralline algae rather than coral often inhabits this region reef shore
of great turbulence. reef crest vertical zonation
reef face
2 Massive or compact hard corals that can withstand surge conditions are prevalent toward
the upper part of the reef face.
Reef habitats
● Coral reefs are complex structures.
3 More delicate hard corals are found to a depth of approximate 165 feet (50 m). At moderate
The kinds of coral that grow within
levels, coral forms are branches, columns, or whorls growing upwards toward the light. At
them depend on depth, turbulence,
deeper levels, corals may grow in flattened sheets (laminar formation) to catch available light.
and other factors.
● The various zones of a coral reef
4 Beyond about 165 feet (50 m) sunlight penetration is insufficient for hard coral growth. Soft
provide different habitats for a wide
corals and sponges predominate here.
range of marine life.
a b c d
1
2
3
b Reef flat The threat of pollution

The landward edge of a fringe or barrier reef. Relatively protected from wave action, and ● Coral reefs and the diverse ecosystems
being close to the sea surface, this region usually contains an extensive selection of corals. they support are highly vulnerable to
degradation by human pollution.
c Lagoon ● Oil, pesticides, fertilizers, and other
The open water between reef and land may cover a fine floor of coral sand that harbors chemicals discharged by human
seagrasses and seaweeds. Where the seafloor is hard, clumps of coral may grow to the industry poison corals, or indirectly
surface to form coral knolls (pinnacles). destroy them by increasing algal
blooms that blot out the sunlight
d Beach they require.
● Reefs close to large coastal cities such

On the nearby shore, palm trees may grow in the coral sand or mangroves may grow in the
mud.
as Hong Kong and Singapore have
already disappeared. Conservation
initiatives are underway in some areas
however, e.g., the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary, which is
working to limit the impact of human
activities on the Florida reefs.
168
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Seagrass meadows

Key words Seagrass features
bacteria temperate
inflorescence bearing flowers
chlorophyte tropical
epiphyte
seagrass
sediment
shoot
Seagrasses
● Seagrasses are flowering marine plants
related to lilies. They are descended
from true land plants.
● Seagrass flowers are pollinated
underwater and the resulting seeds
are dispersed on water currents.
● Seagrasses are more successful than rhizome
seaweeds at exploiting soft-bottom
sediments because they have roots.
root
● Their branching stems can extend
horizontally to form rhizomes that
give rise to new shoots.
Distribution
● Seagrass meadows are commonly
found in sandy subtidal areas of
quiet water.
● Of the 50 or so species of seagrass,
most are found in tropical waters.
● Dominant temperate species, such as
eelgrass (Zostera), give way in warmer
waters to tropical species such as
manatee grass (Syringodium) and
turtle grass (Thalassia).
Seagrass community
● Microscopic diatoms known as
epiphytes, cyanobacteria, and
chlorophytes (green algae) grow on eelgrass manatee grass turtle grass
the surface of seagrass blades.
● Green turtles and sea cows consume
Seagrass productivity Economic importance
seagrasses. Many more animals eat ● Seagrasses live in clear, shallow water ● Seagrass meadows provide
seagrass epiphytes. where light intensity is high. nursery grounds for fish,
● Most creatures in the seagrass ● Seagrasses have true roots, which crustaceans, and bivalve
community feed on seagrass and dead means they can extract nutrients from mollusks. On North American
or decaying plant material. Fungi and the sediment. Seaweed and coasts, for example,
bacteria are decomposers consumed phytoplankton rely on the supply of commercial stocks of
by larger microbes that, in turn, are nutrients in seawater. menhaden and salmon live in
consumed by larger deposit feeders ● Cyanobacteria living on the surface of seagrasses during their
such as sea cucumbers, clams, and seagrass blades can “fix” nitrogen. This subadult years.
polychaete worms. means that they are able to absorb ● By encouraging sedimentation
● Suspension feeders, such as sea nitrogen from the environment and and acting as wave and
squirts, bryozoans, and hydroids, live convert it into a form that can be used current breaks, seagrass
attached to seagrass blades. by plants as food. meadows protect many
● Crabs, lobsters, and fish such as mullet ● These combined effects mean that coastlines
are omnivores grazing within seagrass seagrass productivity can reach as high from erosion.
communities. as 4 kg C/m2/year in tropical waters.
169
Kelp forests BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
Kelp features Key words

algae
epiphytes
kelp
polar
temperate
frond (blade)
Kelp
● Kelp refers to certain genera of brown
algae.
● Large kelps—such as Macrocystis and
Sea bamboo Nereocystis—create a floating surface

(Ecklonia maxima) canopy. Smaller kelps—such as
Ecklonia and Laminaria—grow from
dense “beds” below the surface.
pneumatocyst ● Typically, a kelp plant has a flexible
(gas-filled bladder)
stipe (stalk) to which are attached
fronds (blades: the equivalent of
leaves). The plant is attached to the
stipe (stalk) hard substrate by a holdfast. Some
kelps have one or more gas-filled
floats (pneumatocysts) that buoy up
the fronds to reach the light.
holdfast Distribution
● Kelp grow subtidally on a hard
substrate in temperate and polar
regions, particularly where there is
reasonable water circulation.
● They are found in similar habitats to
those occupied by coral reefs in
Giant kelp
warmer waters. Kelp are grown where
(Macrocystis pyrifera) water temperatures are lower than
68°F (20°C).
Sugar kelp
(Laminaria Kelp forest community
saccharina)
● Where kelp growth is dense and tall
the canopy traps much of the available
light, creating a dimly lit understory.
● Kelp fronds provide food for sea
urchins and some snails and sea slugs.
● Diatoms known as epiphytes grow on
fronds, as well as bryozoans, hydroids,
and filter-feeding polychaetes. Small
snails and crustaceans graze or hunt
Kelp forest productivity Economic importance on the fronds.
● Seafloor inhabitants include crabs, sea
● The giant kelp Macrocystis ● Some kelps are used as cattle feed, land
stars, sea squirts, sponges, various
pyrifera, can grow to 165 feet fertilizers, and even as human food.
bivalve mollusks, and octopuses.

(50 m), with a daily growth ● Alginates are extracted from kelps and
● Fish are abundant at all levels, and
rate of 12 inches (30 cm). are used as emulsifiers, thickeners, and
crabs and otters also find concealment
● In clear, moderately nutrient- stabilizers in products ranging from
here from larger predators.
rich water, productivity can cosmetics and foodstuffs to medicines.
● Various suspension-feeders, including
reach 2 kg C/m2/per year. ● In the United States and Canada, more
polychaete worms, crustaceans, and
than 22,000 tons (20,000 tonnes) dry
brittlestars, are found on holdfasts and
weight of giant kelp is harvested annually.
the nearby seafloor.
170
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Hydrothermal vents

Key words Hydrothermal vent environment
bacteria white smoker
white smoker sulfide-rich warm water black smoker
black smoker
chemosynthesis sulfide-rich hot water
hydrothermal
vent
White smokers
● A white smoker is a deep
seafloor hydrothermal vent.
● They are known as white
smokers because minerals
dissolved in the water they
expel make them look like
miniature volcanoes belching
white smoke.
● Communities of marine
creatures were found around
these vents living far beyond the
reach of sunlight.
● White smokers discharge water
rich in hydrogen sulfide, often
with dissolved oxygen and
nitrate, at temperatures of
36–73°F (2–23°C).
● The biological communities
associated with such vents giant clams vestimentiferan worms
include 3-foot (1 m) long (Calyptogena) (Riftia)
vestimentiferan worms and galatheid crabs
12-inch (30 cm) clams. (Munidopsis)
● Biomass in these vent Ecological communities
communities is at least a brachyuran crabs
(Bythograea) ● The biological communities
thousand times higher than in
associated with both white and black
the seafloor communities giant mussels
(Bathymodiolus) smokers appear to contain members
normally found at this depth.
with similar ecological roles,
● Chemosynthetic bacteria—
although the species involved do
both free-living and those living
vary. Large clams, mussels, and/or
symbiotically inside worms,
vestimentiferan worms are typically
clams, and other animals—are
a dominant feature of eastern
the energy source for the vent
Pacific vents.
community.
● Chemosynthesis—the
production of organic Types of hydrothermal vents
compounds using energy
derived from the oxidation of Black smoker such as iron and manganese, but
inorganic compounds—is the ● Black smokers are another form of without oxygen or nitrate.
energy source for such deep seafloor hydrothermal vent. ● Their flow rates are much higher
communities, rather than ● They discharge dark-colored water than those of white smokers.
photosynthesis (the production and often produce chimneys of Shallow water vents
of organic compounds utilizing deposited material around the vent ● Hydrothermal vents releasing water
sunlight energy). mouth. rich in sulfides are found in intertidal

● The water discharged from a black areas off Southern California.
smoker is hot: 518–716°F ● These vents support mats of sulfide-
(270–380°C); and typically rich in oxidizing bacteria that are grazed
hydrogen sulfide and certain metals by limpets.
171
Hydrothermal vent BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS
communities Key words

bacteria
chemosynthesis
Giant tube worm hydrothermal
(Riftia pachyptila)
vent
plume
Tube worms
● The tube worm (Riftia pachyptila)
comprises the bulk of the biomass in
many eastern Pacific hydrothermal
vent communities.
heart
● The species can grow to 3 feet (1 m)
in length and 2 inches (5 cm) or more
in diameter.
trophosome (feeding body) ● The worm lacks a functional mouth
packed with bacteria and gut. Instead, a feeding body, the
fine blood vessel (capillary)
“trophosome,” packed with symbiotic
cells of the trophosome bacteria, apparently provides the
worm’s nutritional requirements.
● The dry weight of bacteria inside the
parts of the trophosome is greater than that of the
circulatory system worm’s body itself.
● The bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide
and, by chemosynthesis, manufacture
organic matter.
● The worm absorbs hydrogen sulfide
(highly toxic to most organisms) and
carries it in the blood bound to
hemoglobin.
● The worm exchanges gases with its
surroundings (absorbing oxygen and
hydrogen sulfide and excreting carbon
dioxide) using its gill-like plume,
which is richly supplied with
hemoglobin-rich blood.
Other members of the

organic matter
released
hydrothermal vent fauna
bacterium by bacteria ● Some other vent animals, notably large
clams (Calyptogena) and mussels
(Bathymodiolus), also contain
symbiotic bacteria that supply them
with food by chemosynthesis. These
mollusks also filter feed.
● Many members of the hydrothermal
vent community are filter feeders.
They consume small clumps of
bacteria that break off the bacterial

mats that grow in and around the
hydrothermal vents.
sulfide and carbon ● Other community members, such as
dioxide absorbed by
bacteria
gastropod mollusks, graze directly on
bacterial mats.
● Predators include vent fish and crabs.
172
BIOLOGY OF THE OCEANS Cold-water seep

Key words
bacteria hydrocarbon
communities
chemosynthesis seep
cold seep
continental slope
gas hydrate
Cold seeps
● A cold seep is a location on the ocean
floor where hydrocarbon-rich fluids
seep into seawater.
● Unlike black and white smokers, cold
starfish
seep emissions are at the same
temperature as the surrounding crab
seawater.
● Cold seeps support communities
similar to those found at black and
white smokers. Chemosynthetic
bacteria support animals that include
sea stars, crabs, clams, mussels,
shrimps, and anemones.
● Cold seeps are thought to emit at a
slow and dependable rate, unlike black brine shrimp
and white smokers, which are volatile
and short-lived. Tube worms living
near cold seeps are thought to have
lifespans of 170 to 250 years. sea anemone
Hydrocarbon seeps
● Oil and gas seeps at depths of
2,000–2,300 feet (600–700 m) on the
continental slope of the Gulf of
Mexico were found to support an
abundance of chemosynthetic bacteria seafloor iceworm burrow gas hydrate mound
that used hydrogen sulfide and/or
methane as their energy source.
● A new species of polychaete worm,
called the “iceworm,” was discovered
in burrows inside mounds of gas
hydrate (an icelike substance formed
when methane or other hydrocarbon
molecules are trapped in a chemical
lattice at low temperature and high
pressure).
iceworm isopod
(iceworm predator)
173
Latitude MARINE EXPLORATION
Key words
Antarctic Circle midnight Sun
Arctic Circle nautical mile
equator parallel
hemisphere Tropic of Cancer
latitude Tropic of
line of latitude Capricorn
N Northern Hemisphere Lines of latitude

● Latitude is an angular measurement
plane of the equator (0°) describing distance north or south of
the equator on Earth’s surface.
● Latitude is a measure of the angle that
Southern Hemisphere
S the perpendicular (line at right angles)
from a location on Earth’s surface
makes with the plane of the equator.
● Perpendiculars from Earth’s surface do
not always intersect the center of the
North Pole globe because Earth is not perfectly
spherical—it is flattened at the poles.
● A latitude measurement always falls
within the range 0 degrees (on the
equator) to 90 degrees north or south
90°N (at the North or South poles).
● Each degree of latitude may be
subdivided into 60 “minutes.” Minutes
75°N are usually expressed to one or two
decimal places. For example 25˚37.5'
N(orth) or S(outh). Minutes were
60°N
formerly subdivided into 60 “seconds.”
● One minute of latitude is
approximately equivalent to one
nautical mile on Earth’s surface.
● All points at a given latitude are said to
45°N constitute a “line of latitude.” Lines of

latitude are also known as “parallels.”
● The “Tropic of Cancer” and the “Tropic
of Capricorn” are lines of latitude at
23˚27'N and 23˚27'S respectively.
30°N
It is only possible for the Sun to be
directly overhead at latitudes between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
15°N
● The “Arctic Circle” and the “Antarctic
Circle” are lines of latitude at 66˚33'N
and 66˚33'S respectively. It is only
0° possible for the Sun to be above the
horizon for 24 hours (“midnight Sun”)
above and below these latitudes.

15°S ● A latitude measurement must be
combined with a longitude
measurement to give location on the
surface of Earth.
174
MARINE EXPLORATION Longitude

Key words
equator line of longitude
Greenwich longitude
meridian meridian
hemisphere prime meridian
international date time zone
line
Lines of longitude Western Hemisphere

● Longitude is an angular measurement
describing distance east or west of a plane of the Greenwich meridian/
W E
north–south line known as the “prime international date line (0˚/360˚)
meridian.”
● The prime meridian is an arbitrary line
Eastern Hemisphere
running between the North and South
poles that was designated the line of
zero degrees longitude at an
international conference in 1884. It is
also known as the “Greenwich
meridian” because it runs through
Greenwich, England.
● The longitude of a location is a
measure of the angle that its meridian
makes with the prime meridian at the
center of Earth and in the plane
of the equator.
● A longitude measurement always falls
into the range zero degrees (on the
prime meridian) to 180 degrees east
or west.
● Each degree of longitude may be
subdivided into 60 “minutes.” Minutes
are usually expressed to one or two
decimal places. For example 46˚50.5'
E(ast) or W(est). Minutes were
formerly subdivided into 60 “seconds.”
● All points at a given longitude are said
to constitute a “line of longitude.”
90°W 75°W 60°W 45°W 30°W 15°W 0° 15°E 30°E
Lines of longitude are also known as
“meridians.”
● Lines of longitude are perpendicular
(at right angles) to lines of latitude.
● One degree of longitude varies from
0 miles (0 km) at the poles to
69 miles (111 km) at the equator.
● Earth spins on its axis once every 24
hours, so all 360 degrees (180 degrees
east plus 180 degrees west) of
longitude pass beneath the Sun each

day. One hour of time is therefore
considered equivalent to 15 degrees of
longitude, and the world’s time zones
are based on this equation.
175
Modern navigation MARINE EXPLORATION
b
LORAN system Key words
a Master station Global
Positioning radio direction
b Secondary station 1
System (GPS) finding
c Secondary station 2 radar
d Intersecting radio signals

a LORAN
e Vessel’s position
● LORAN (from “LOng RAnge
Navigation”) is used by ships
d e approaching land from the sea. A
c receiver onboard ship compares radio
lines of signals sent from one or two “master”
position stations and two “secondary” stations
on land. The ship’s position is the
Radio direction finding (RDF) point where the relative signals
1 intersect, and is marked on
1 Loop aerial a chart.
2 Beacons ● The system has a maximum range of
2 2 about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) and is
accurate to within 50 yards (45 m).
2 2 Radio direction finding (RDF)

● Radio waves can be considered to
travel on a straight-line axis and can be
used like a line-of-sight bearing.
● As a ship’s radio receiver’s aerial is
rotated, the intensity of radio signals
Radar from beacons increases and decreases
relative to the bearings of the beacons.
● By recording the bearings of two or
more land-based radio beacons, a
Satellite systems ship’s position fix may be obtained.
● The range of RDF is less than that
● In the TRANSIT system, electronic
equipment onboard a ship measures Satellite systems: GPS of LORAN.
the change in frequency of radio 1 Satellite 1
signals from orbiting satellites as Radar
they move toward or away from the 2 Satellite 2 ● This system is based on transmitting
ship. It is based on the “Doppler radio signals toward an object and
3 Satellite 3 detecting the signals that bounce back.
Effect,” just as the sound of an
4 Broadcast signals ● The time interval between
emergency vehicle’s siren changes
pitch with motion toward or away transmission and reception of signals
5 Vessel’s position gives a measure of distance.
from the hearer. Navigation
● Reflected signals can also be displayed
computers fix the ship’s position by
analyzing signals from several 2 on a screen, giving the direction and
1 3 distance of the object from the ship,
satellites. This system is accurate to
within 100 yards (90 m). and acting as an aid that helps to
avoid collisions.
● Global Positioning System (GPS)
satellites constantly broadcast their

position and time. Computerized
receivers on vessels analyze the 4
data from at least three different
satellites to pinpoint the ship’s
position with an accuracy of about
66 feet (20 m). 5
176
MARINE EXPLORATION Early diving apparatus

Key words 1430 1680
diving bell
diving suit
Diving equipment
● The earliest diving equipment
consisted of nothing more than a rock
and a rope. Divers would tie a rope
around their waist and reach the
bottom by holding on to a heavy
boulder. No air was supplied to these
divers—they simply held their breath.
Sponge divers in the Mediterranean
and pearl divers in the Indian Ocean
still use this technique.
● Historians are not sure when
specialized diving equipment was first
used. According to legend, Alexander This illustration of a diving suit from an This design shows important developments
the Great used a diving bell to visit the anonymous manuscript is one of the earliest in the evolution of the modern diving suit.
to show the use of a flexible air hoses that Air from the surface is piped into a rigid,
seabed in the fourth century BCE. would enable the diver to stay submerged metal helmet. There are also two pipes
● The origin of diving suits is also for extended periods. The staring eyes may running to the surface—one for inhaling,
obscure. According to manuscripts, represent glass goggles that would allow and one for exhaling. Lastly, the diver has
clearer vision underwater. This diver appears webbed footwear to make locomotion
suits with air hoses running to the to be involved in salvaging valuable cargo. through the water easier.
surface were in use in the 15th
century. It is not known if these suits
were practical or even if they were
ever actually used. c. 1837 1914
● The first documented use of a diving
bell came in 1690 when Edmund
Halley designed an open-bottomed
chamber, supplied with air from the
surface, that was tested at 60 feet
(18 m) for 90 minutes.
● The first true diving suit was made by
German engineer Augustus Siebe in
about 1837. Early diving suits were
made of waterproofed canvas or
leather, often strengthened with
wooden hoops inside, and the helmet
was metal (usually copper) to
withstand water pressure.
● Later, suits were “armored” to enable
them to withstand water pressure at
greater depths. These suits were made
entirely of steel or other high tensile
materials.
Although not the first armored diving suit, This elaborate design, tested in the United
this design was the first to include articulated States, is one of many developed at the
joints. It also incorporated weighted boots beginning of the 20th century to solve the
to prevent the diver from floating off the problems of resistance to high pressure and
bottom. Articulation proved to be a difficult articulation. The joints are massively
problem to solve since it introduces weak armored and the body is designed to provide
points to the suit at the joints. maximum pressure resistance.
177
Scuba diving apparatus MARINE EXPLORATION
Scuba diver Key words

snorkel
aqualung
decompression
face mask
sickness
demand regulator, controls air flow diving suit
air tanks
air hose
Scuba diving
● Scuba is an acronym of “Self-
buoyancy compensator
Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus.”
● A scuba diver wears metal tanks that
hold compressed air. They supply air
to the diver at the same pressure as
the surrounding water pressure. The
scuba instrument panel
diver uses air more quickly at deeper
depths.
● The diver exhales used air into the
water.
● British inventor William James made
the first scuba unit in 1825, but
Frenchmen Jacques-Yves Cousteau and
Emile Gagnan did not develop the
aqualung used today until 1942.
wet suit
Risks and limits
● There are risks associated with scuba
diving including: injury to the lungs
caused by over-expansion during rapid
ascent, nitrogen narcosis, and
decompression sickness.
● These can easily be avoided if divers
dive safely within agreed dive plans.
● Recreational or sport divers dive to a
maximum depth of 130 feet (42 m)
and use nondecompression diving.
fins
How a scuba unit works

1 Diver breathes in via mouthpiece.
9
4 3 2 Flexible diaphragm pulled inward,
1 pushing inlet valve 3 open.
4 Air from tanks enters.
6
7 5 Exhaust valve closed.
6 Air reaches diver.

7 Diver breathes out.
8 8 Diaphragm pushed back, allowing
2
inlet valve 9 to close.
10 10 Exhaust valve pushed open,
5
releasing used air.
178
MARINE EXPLORATION Rebreathing apparatus

Key words Scuba breathing (open circuit)
Rebreather advantages
aqualung a Tank contains air.
● Lighter and less cumbersome.
diving suit b Diver inhales air. ● Allows longer safe-dive time.
rebreather ● No bubbles means better visibility
c Diver exhales air with increased carbon for underwater filming and is less
dioxide content into water. liable to scare underwater sea
creatures.
Rebreather (closed circuit)
Rebreathers d Tank 1 contains air.

● A rebreather is a form of scuba e Tank 2 contains pure oxygen.
equipment that recycles the air
f Diver inhales air.
Rebreather disadvantages
breathed out by the diver instead of
g Diver exhales air with increased carbon ● Expensive.
expelling it into the water. ● Complex mechanism that needs
dioxide content.
more maintenance.
h Carbon dioxide is removed from exhaled air ● Defective devices can cause the
by “scrubber” compound (e.g., soda lime). diver to breathe the scrubber
compound.
i Oxygen from tank 2 is added to exhaled
air and the diver rebreathes exhaled air.
Scuba breathing fresh air

(open circuit) exhaled air
b c
Rebreather fresh air

1
(closed circuit) exhaled air
exhaled air
d with CO2 removed
f g
pure oxygen
oxygenated air
rebreathed
oxygenated air
i h
2 e
179
Modern deep-sea diving MARINE EXPLORATION
Depth Decompression time Key words

6 hours 12 hours
heliox (ROV)
hyperbaric diving
remotely
operated
feet m vehicle
The petroleum industry

● Modern deep-sea diving is particularly
important in the petroleum industry,
50
where divers are needed to inspect
and repair underwater pipelines, or
20
perform other tasks that cannot yet be
carried out by remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs).
● Deep-sea diving is a high risk, but
100 therefore well-paid occupation, using

cutting-edge science and technology.
Onshore research
40 ● Before deep dives are made,
Time
submerged extensive research is carried out into
the effects of the extreme pressures
1 hour 150 and necessary decompression times
for such dives. This research is
3 carried out onshore in
compression/decompression
chambers at “hyperbaric” diving
research centers.
60 ● There are major hyperbaric centers at
200
Duke University Medical Center,
Durham, NC; Marseilles, France;
Hamburg, Germany; Bergen, Norway;
Toronto, Canada; and elsewhere.
1 hour
Equipment
250 ● Diving suits are usually made of
80
canvas, and helmets of copper or
8
fiberglass, which is more lightweight.
For very deep dives, suits are armored.
● Special mixtures of gas, such as hydrox
(hydrogen and oxygen), and heliox
(helium and oxygen), are used for
300 deep dives. The hydrogen or helium
replaces atmospheric nitrogen, which
is toxic at high pressures.
100 ● Hoses from the surface supply
breathing gas, hot water to warm the
diving suit, electricity or high-pressure

air (pneumatics) to operate tools,
1 hour 350
gases for welding tools, and cables for
12 voice links and video equipment.
6 hours 12 hours
120
180
MARINE EXPLORATION Historical submersibles

Key words
Diving bells Early submersibles
diving bell
nuclear
submarine
submarine
submersible
Submersibles
● A submersible is any type of vehicle
that travels underwater.
● A submarine is a shiplike submersible
that mainly has military uses. Other
submersibles are vessels for exploring
the ocean depths.
1
Diving bells
● In the 1620s, Dutchman Cornelius van 2
Drebbel built a wooden rowboat
covered with waterproof hides that 4
was used as the first true submersible.
● The diving bell was also developed at
this time. 3
Early submersibles
● The first propeller-driven submarine
was invented in 1776 by American 1 entry/exit hatch 3 rudder
David Bushnell. 2 wooden vessel 4 propeller
● Called The Turtle, it was a wooden,
egg-shaped vessel, weighted at the
bottom, in which the single passenger Fulton’s Nautilus
turned crankshafts by hand to rotate
the propellers.
Fulton’s Nautilus
● In 1800, American Robert Fulton built
the Nautilus, a 21-foot (6.4 m) long
copper-covered vessel that was a
sailboat on the surface, but which,
with the sails removed and the hatch
covered over, became a submarine.
Powered submersibles
● In 1875, American John Philip Holland
developed Holland I, a metal-hulled
one-man manually propelled craft that
was 16 feet (5.3 m) long, 2 feet
(0.6 m) deep, and 20 inches (50 cm)
wide. Holland later developed a 53-
foot (16 m) long submarine powered

by gasoline and electric batteries.
● Britain launched the first diesel-
powered submarine in 1908.
● The world’s first nuclear submarine,
Nautilus, was built in the United
States in 1955.
181
Modern submarines MARINE EXPLORATION
Nuclear submarine Key words

autonomous remotely
underwater operated vehicle
vehicle (AUV) (ROV)
propeller nuclear submarine
submarine submersible
rudder control tower
long, tough, streamlined outer hull fins (diving planes) Modern submersibles
prevents vessel being crushed help maneuver vessel
● Today’s nuclear submarines are used
by the military, and deep-sea
inner hull
submersibles are used for scientific
research and exploration.
● Deep-sea submersibles include both
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
and autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs).
living quarters Submarines

nuclear reactor for main power ● Modern submarines range in length
generators from 200–600 feet (61–183 m) and are
about 30 feet (9 m) in width. They
ballast tanks between hulls
have a crew of up to 200 and can stay
diesel/electric engines
submerged for months at a time.
for backup power
● The fastest submarines can reach
speeds of 45 knots (51 miles per hour;
83 kmph) and can dive to depths in
excess of 2,600 feet (800 m).
Descending and ascending

● Ballast tanks are usually filled with air.
● To descend, the tanks are flooded with seawater.
● To ascend, compressed air is used to push out the water.
Descent Ascent
valves open— valves open— compressed air valves open—
air pushed out tanks fill pumped in water forced
with water out
valves closed
182
MARINE EXPLORATION Crewed submersibles

Key words Crewed submersible Alvin
hydrothermal remotely
vent operated External view
nuclear vehicle
submarine (ROV)
Deep-sea submersibles thrusters

viewing
● Vehicles capable of submerging port
beneath the surface of the sea, moving ALVIN
under their own power, and then re-
emerging at will, were first conceived
as weapons of war.
● In 1963 the Thresher, a U.S. Navy
nuclear submarine, sank in 8,000 feet
(2,400 m) of water in the Atlantic,
killing all onboard. When it was
realized that there was no vehicle
capable of making a rescue attempt at
that depth and that the majority of the
seafloor was unknown to science there
was a great impetus to design and
build deep-water research vehicles.
● The U.S. Navy built two submersibles
capable of rescuing submarine crews
at depths as great as 5,000 feet
(1,500 m). The Deep Submergence dock for
Rescue Vehicle-1 (DSRV-1) Mystic was ROV Jason viewing port
launched in 1970, and the DSRV-2
Avalon in 1972.
Alvin Cross section

● Alvin is a crewed submersible built by
still and video cameras with lighting
the U.S. Navy and usually operated by
the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution. It is also known as Deep hatch
Submergence Vehicle 2 (DSV 2).
● Launched in 1964, it has made more
ALVIN
than 3,500 dives reaching depths of tanks for variable air and
13,120 feet (4,000 m). seawater ballast
● Alvin carries a crew of three and can
be fitted with a wide array of sensory
and recording equipment.
● The submersible is often used in
association with the remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) Jason.
● In 1966 Alvin was used to locate and
recover a nuclear weapon lost in the
Mediterranean Sea.
● In 1977 scientists on board Alvin

made the first studies of hydrothermal
vents and hydrothermal vent
communities in the deep Pacific.
● In 1985–86 Alvin was used extensively
batteries
in the exploration of the wreck of the
Titanic.
titanium pressure sphere for crew
183
Uncrewed submersibles MARINE EXPLORATION
Remotely Operated Vehicle Jason Key words

autonomous remotely
tether to Alvin
underwater operated
vehicle (AUV) vehicle
(ROV)
submersible
Remotely Operated and

Autonomous Vehicles
● There are two varieties of uncrewed
submersible used in underwater
exploration—remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous
underwater vehicles (AUVs).
ROVs
● ROVs are robotlike submersibles
smaller than crewed underwater
vehicles.
lights hull flotation tanks
● They have greater maneuverability
than crewed vehicles and are able to
stills camera
stay submerged for longer.
● Instruments able to record
temperature, chemical, and light
intensity data can be mounted on
ROVs as well as lights, video cameras,
sonar instruments, and manipulators.
thrusters ● They are tethered to a surface vessel
or a crewed submersible via a cable
that enables a remote pilot to control
the vehicle and enables data to be
transmitted live to observers.
compass
strobe lights
Jason
● The ROV Jason is a highly successful
video camera vehicle operated by the Woods Hole
onboard electronics
Oceanographic Institution.
● It was developed in the early 1980s
and in 1985–86 it was used in
Autonomous Benthic Explorer (ABE) conjunction with the crewed
● ABE is an autonomous underwater black and white cameras thrusters
submersible Alvin to explore the
vehicle (AUV) operated by the wreck of the Titanic in deep waters of
Woods Hole Oceanographic docking equipment the North Atlantic.
Institution.
● ABE has conducted surveys of the AUVs

seafloor at depths of 7,200 feet ● AUVs are the latest development in
(2,200 m). It is capable of making
pre-programed repeated
deep-sea exploration technology.
measurements over a long period ● They are self-contained and fully
of time. autonomous.
● Once programed they can submerge
and carry out repetitive measurement
over a large area for long periods.
● Because they are untethered, AUVs are
color side flotation tanks able to penetrate confined spaces,

camera thrusters or pods such as caves or the interior of
wrecked hulls.
184
MARINE EXPLORATION Submarine vehicles

Key words Maximum operating depths
autonomous remotely
Depth
underwater operated Scuba diver
feet
vehicle (AUV) vehicle
(m)
diving suit (ROV)
submersible 3,280
(1,000)
Scuba diver Deep-diving suit

● Maximum depth: 656 feet (200 m)
6,560
● Has no protection against high (2,000)
pressure.
Deep-diving suit
● Maximum depth: 1,476 feet (450 m) 9,840
● Pressurized, self-contained suit with
(3,000)
articulated limbs and manipulators. Nuclear submarine
Nuclear submarine
13,120
● Maximum depth: 3,280 feet (1,000 m) (4,000)
Alvin
● Actual operating depths and survivable
depths are military secrets.
Alvin 16,400
● U.S. crewed submarine with titanium
Seacliff II
pressure hull.
Seacliff II 19,680
(6,000)
● Maximum depth: 19,684 feet (6,000 m)
● Crewed U.S. submersible.
Jason 22,960
Jason
● Uncrewed U.S. remotely operated
vehicle.
Shinkai 6500 Shinkai 6500

26,250
(8,000)
● Maximum depth: 21,325 feet (6,500 m)
● Crewed Japanese submersible;
deepest diving crewed vehicle
currently in operation. 29,530
(9,000)
Kaiko
Kaiko
● Maximum depth: 35,797 feet
(10,911 m)
● Uncrewed Japanese remotely operated 32,800
(10,000)
vehicle reached this depth in 1995.
Trieste
Trieste
● Maximum depth: 35,802 feet
36,100
(10,912 m) (11,000)
● Crewed vehicle; made the deepest
ever dive, to Challenger Deep—the
deepest known point of the Mariana
Trench in the Pacific—in 1960.
185
Satellite technology MARINE EXPLORATION
Measuring ocean roughness Measuring sea surface slope Key words

1 Satellite 1 Satellite (in position for first active sensing
measurement)
2 Microwave radiation passive sensing
2 Microwave radiation remote sensing
3 Sea surface satellite
3 Sea surface
4 Scatterometer picks up reflected
microwaves 4 Altimeter picks up reflected microwaves
5 Satellite (in position for second

measurement) Remote sensing
● Satellites can carry
equipment that pick up
signals or radiation
1 1 5 from the surface of
Earth to create global
pictures so that large-
4 scale phenomena may
2 4
2 2 4 be observed.
● Satellite sensing allows
3 3 areas that are
otherwise inaccessible
to be observed, for
example mid-oceans,
deserts, mountain tops,
and areas around
Passive sensors Active sensors Antarctica and the
Arctic during winter.
Sensor Visible Infrared Microwave Radar ● Remote sensing
class waveband
satellites rely on
electromagnetic
radiation to convey
information. There are
Sensor Multispectral Imaging Scanning Imaging three distinct
type scanners and radiometers radiometers scanners
cameras Altimeters wavebands of
Scatterometers electromagnetic
radiation that are not
fully absorbed or
Main Clearness of Sea surface Roughness Roughness Surface scattered by the
measurement ocean water temperature of ocean of ocean height/slope atmosphere, and these
(ocean color)
are the foundation of
remote sensing. The
“spectral windows”
Other Chlorophyll Layering of Surface winds Surface winds Ocean currents involved are the visible
measurements Particles in water Wave height Wave height Ocean depth waveband, parts of the
water (pollution) Surface slicks Surface slicks
Ocean depth
infrared waveband, and
microwaves, which
include radar.
● Remote sensing
Passive sensing Active sensing satellites orbit Earth at
● Passive remote sensing detects ● Active sensing satellites transmit altitudes ranging from
natural radiation from the surface electromagnetic radiation to 300 miles (480 km) to
of the land and sea. This includes Earth’s surface then detect its 22,400 miles
visible, infrared, and microwave reflection. They use only (36,000 km).
radiation. microwave radiation, which
● Sensors include cameras, includes radar.
scanners, spectrometers, and ● Sensors include imaging scanners,
radiometers. altimeters, and scatterometers.
186
MARINE EXPLORATION Sonar techniques

Key words Passive sonar Active sonar
ship ship
active sonar
transmitter receiver
passive sonar
sonar
reflected
sound waves sound waves sound waves
from object transmitted (echo)
detector
Sonar techniques object
● Sonar is an acronym of “SOund
NAvigation and Ranging.”
● It refers to the use of sound to
Types of active sonar
Echo sounders
discover the location and distribution
● Weak, high-frequency pings are used to lowered onto the sea from helicopters, or
of underwater objects or features. discover distances from objects. attached to buoys, which transmit the
● It can also be used to generate ● Echo sounders are suspended from ships, recordings by radio to ships or shore stations.
underwater images and measure the transmitter/
speed of objects. receiver
● Sound can be used in this way because
it travels more efficiently through
water than it does through air. Radar sound waves reflected
waves (echo)
does not work well in water.
● There are two main types of sonar—
passive sonar and active sonar.
Passive sonar
● Passive sonar detects sound waves Seismic reflection profilers
given off by objects. It involves ● These mostly use high-energy, low-frequency can find the thickness of rock beds and indicate
listening to underwater sounds from explosives to create sound waves, which are the type of rock.
reflected from rock layers in the seabed. They
marine mammals, such as whales, or
receiver on ship
from submarines or other underwater
vessels. explosive sound source
● Ancient mariners used to listen to
reflected waves
whale song through the hulls of their sound waves from rock layers
ships, but it was not until WWI that a
simple underwater microphone was
made to listen out for enemy subs.
● Passive sonar can primarily determine
Side-scan sonars
the direction of objects. Submersibles
● These cameras build up a picture or image of ● Side-scan sonar can also be used to study
and submarines mainly use passive surfaces or objects. They are used to map the fish populations, including their size, number,
sonar as it does not reveal their topography of the seabed. and species.
● Strips of seabed up to 37 miles (60 km) wide
position underwater. scanner on ship
and 16,400 feet (5,000 m) long can be
mapped at a time.
Active sonar
● With active sonar, sound is emitted
into the ocean in short bursts or
“pings” and the reflections detected. transmitter
● The distance to an object is calculated
from the echo transmission and return sound waves
interval and the speed of sound in reflected waves
water (about 1 mile per second;

1.6 km/s).
● Active sonar is more often used by
surface ships than submersibles. Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs)
● These systems became a widely used which they are traveling is in motion. The size
oceanographic tool in the 1980s. They use and direction (up or down) of the shift can be
sound to measure current direction and speed used to calculate current speed and direction.
by making use of the doppler shift. Sound ADCPs are either mounted on the bottom of
waves change in pitch if the water through a ship, or anchored to the seabed.
187
World fish catch MARINE ECONOMICS
Ranking of fishing zone catches, 2003 Key words

Million tons (million tonnes)
fishing zone
1 Pacific, Northwest 24.14 (21.90) 10 Atlantic, Southwest 2.27 (2.06)
2 Pacific, Western Central 11.84 (10.74) 11 Pacific, Eastern Central 2.06 (1.87)
3 Pacific, Southeast 11.61 (10.53) 12 Atlantic, Western Central 1.94 (1.76)
4 Atlantic, Northeast 11.32 (10.27) 13 Atlantic, Southeast 1.92 (1.74)
5 Indian Ocean, Eastern 5.89 (5.34) 14 Mediterranean and Black Sea 1.62 (1.47) Fishing zones
6 Indian Ocean, Western 4.71 (4.27) 15 Pacific, Southwest 0.77 (0.70) ● For the purposes of economic analysis,
7 Atlantic, Eastern Central 3.63 (3.29) 16 Atlantic, Antarctic 0.14 (0.13) the world’s total fishing production is
divided into oceanic fishing catch
8 Pacific, Northeast 3.22 (2.92) 17 Indian Ocean, Antarctic 0.01 (0.01)
zones by the United Nations Food and
9 Atlantic, Northwest 2.56 (2.32) 18 Pacific, Antarctic 0.002 (0.002) Agriculture Organization (FAO).
4
8
1 9
14
12 7
11
2
5 5
13
3 10
15
17
17
16
18
source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization
Worldwide catches from marine fisheries

Million tons (million tonnes)
1950 18.7 (17) = 5 million tons
1961 38.5 (34.9)
1983 75.3 (68.3)
1996 96.0 (87.1)
2003 89.6 (81.3)

188
MARINE ECONOMICS World fish stocks

Key words Northwest Atlantic Northeast Atlantic
million tons million tons
fishing zone 5 15
fish stocks
overfishing 4 12
3 9
2 6
Fish in the world 1 3
food supply
● The United Nations Food and 0 0
1970 1980 1990 2000* 1970 1980 1990 2000*
Agriculture Organization (FAO)
estimates that fish provides 20 percent
Eastern Central Atlantic Southeast Atlantic
of total protein intake for half the million tons million tons
world’s population. 5 5
● Demand is constantly increasing with
an ever-growing world population. 4 4
● Much of the production that meets 3 3

this demand is now made by
aquaculture (both inland and marine), 2 2
since the world’s natural fish stocks
1 1
have been drastically reduced by
overfishing in the latter part of the 0 0
twentieth century. 1970 1980 1990 2000* 1970 1980 1990 2000*
Overfishing Northwest Pacific Northeast Pacific

● Overfishing can be defined as 30 5
occurring when so many fish are being
25 4
caught in an area that there are not
enough fish left to breed and produce 20
3
replacements. 15
● In terms of economics, overfishing can 2
10
occur before this level of negative
5 1
growth is reached, if the increased
cost of fishing is not matched by a 0 0
continual increase in the quantities of 1970 1980 1990 2000* 1970 1980 1990 2000*
fish available to be caught.
Western Central Pacific Southwest Pacific
10 1.0
8 0.8
1 31% Under or approaching full 6 0.6

exploitation
4 0.4
2 44% Fully exploited; likely to become
over-exploited
2 0.2
3 16% Over-exploited; catches likely to
fall 0 0
1970 1980 1990 2000* 1970 1980 1990 2000*
4 6% Depleted; rapid fall in catches *latest available data
evident
5 3% Recovering slowly from depletion Status of world fish stocks
1 2 3 4 5
189
Aquaculture MARINE ECONOMICS
World marine fisheries production Key words

a 100
aquaculture
85.2 86.6 84.2 84.5 mariculture
79.6 81.3
80
60
Million tons
Aquaculture
40 ● Aquaculture is defined by the United
Nations as the farming of aquatic
organisms, including fish, mollusks,
20 15.2 15.9 16.7 crustaceans, and aquatic plants.
12.0 13.3 14.2
● Farmed stocks are included in
aquaculture statistics only if they are
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 owned, cultivated, and harvested
Year
exclusively by an individual or
corporation.
Aquaculture production: top ten producers in 2002
● Mariculture is aquaculture that takes
China place exclusively in a marine
27,767 environment.
India 2,191 ● Aquaculture is an increasingly
important source of the world’s food
Indonesia 914
supply, particularly for developing
Japan 828 nations. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Bangladesh 786 Nations (FAO) aquaculture provided
3.9 percent of global fish supplies in
Thailand 644 1970 and 29.9 percent in 2002.
● Aquaculture production has grown at
Norway 553
an average rate of 8.9 percent per year
Chile 545 since 1970. This compares to an
annual growth rate of 1.2 percent for
Vietnam 518 capture fisheries and 2.8 percent for
farmed meat production on land.
United States 497 ● China dominates world aquaculture,
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 producing many times more fish than

Tons
the rest of the world put together.
b Trend of world aquaculture production by major species groups
25
20
a
total marine capture
15 total mariculture
Million tons
10
b fish
mollusks
5 aquatic plants
crustaceans
other aquatic animals
0
1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002
Year
190
MARINE ECONOMICS Decline of whaling

Key words Whale catches (1900–86*)
*No commercial whaling has taken place since 1986
whaling
35,000 35,000
Blue Fin
30,000 30,000
25,000 25,000
Commercial whaling
● Commercial whaling was begun in the
20,000 20,000
first or second century CE by the
Japanese.
● In Europe, the Basques and
15,000 15,000
Norwegians began whaling between

800 and 1000 CE. 10,000 10,000
● By the 18th century, whaling had
spread to most of the world’s oceans. 5,000 5,000
● Modern whaling began in the middle
of the 19th century with the 0 0
1900 1986 1900 1986
introduction of rocket-powered Year Year
harpoon guns and faster, steam-
powered vessels.
● In the 20th century factory-ship 35,000 35,000
Humpback Sei
whaling reduced many populations
of whales to near extinction and 30,000 30,000
eventually resulted in a total
worldwide ban on commercial 25,000 25,000
hunting.
● Catches of the five most commonly 20,000 20,000
hunted whales rose steadily during
the 20th century. 15,000 15,000
● Depletion of whale numbers and
international agreement caused a 10,000 10,000
sharp downturn in hunting in the
mid-1970s. 5,000 5,000
● An international moratorium on
commercial whaling was agreed in 0 0
1982 and came into effect in 1986. 1900 1986 1900 1986
Year Year
● Today the moratorium is still in place.
Small numbers of whales are allowed
to be hunted for scientific research 35,000 35,000
only, and some traditional subsistence Sperm Others
cultures are granted a small catch 30,000 30,000
allocation. No commercial whaling has
taken place since 1986. 25,000 25,000
● At the beginning of the 21st century
large areas of the world’s oceans are 20,000 20,000
whale sanctuaries.
● Japan and Norway have repeatedly
15,000 15,000
requested that the ban on commercial

whaling be lifted. To date, neither have
10,000 10,000
managed to secure the two-thirds
majority of the International Whaling
5,000 5,000
Commission needed for such a
decision.
0 0
1900 1986 1900 1986
Year Year
191
Mineral wealth MARINE ECONOMICS
Minerals dissolved and suspended in seawater Key words

continental shelf mineral
a Elements continental slope sediment
(parts per million) manganese
chlorine 18,980 nodule
b sodium 10,501
magnesium 1,272
Minerals in seawater
sulfur 884 ● Seventy-three of the 93 naturally
calcium 400 occurring elements are found in
potassium 380 seawater in measurable amounts.
others 116 ● Sodium chloride (salt), magnesium,
and bromine are the most commonly
Elements in seawater extracted substances.
a 1,000,000 gallons of seawater ● Iodine in seawater is naturally
concentrated in seaweed, which can
b Proportion of dissolved and suspended elements
then be harvested by people.
Sediments and deposits

● Manganese nodules represent a huge
Sediments and deposits on the ocean floor untapped source of manganese,
cobalt, and other elements.
● Gold, diamonds, and other heavy
elements are concentrated in shallow
waters by the sorting action of waves.
1 ● Large quantities of potentially
4
2 exploitable metal sulfides are present
3 around hydrothermal vents
on mid-ocean ridges.
● Gas hydrates are a potentially huge
Minerals on the ocean floor source of energy.

● Ore-bearing sands and gravels are
1 Continental shelf—heavy metals, sands, and gravels
abundant in shallow seas.
2 Continental slope—sands and gravels, gas hydrates in polar regions
3 Abyssal plain—manganese nodules, gas hydrates Beneath the ocean floor
● Oil and gas deposits beneath the
4 Mid-ocean ridge—metal sulfide deposits
ocean floor are believed to be at least
as plentiful as those so far discovered
on land.
● Salt and sulfur are also mined from
Sediments and deposits in rocks beneath the ocean floor deposits beneath the ocean floor.
● A growing proportion of oil and gas
impermeable rock gas oil water salt dome production comes from offshore sites.
192
MARINE ECONOMICS Exploiting seawater

Key words Flash distillation process
desalination 1 Seawater enters the first condenser, which has low pressure and a temperature up to
mineral 140°F (60°C), where it boils instantly.
2 Seawater is pumped into a second chamber with a temperature of 160°F (71°C).
3 Seawater enters a third chamber with a temperature of 180°F (82°C).
4 As the steam loses heat it condenses as pure water, which runs off and is collected.
Desalination 5 Hypersaline water (seawater with a large part of pure water distilled out) is pumped
● Desalination is the process of out to sea.
removing salts and minerals from
water to obtain freshwater.
● In parts of the world where there is
little freshwater but cheap fuel, such
2 3
as the oil-rich Middle East, 1
desalination processes can be
economically viable. 4
● Multiple flash distillation is the most
commonly used process. 5
● Desalination by freezing is also being
researched and icebergs have been
identified as a potential source of Salt evaporation process
freshwater.
1 Seawater is pumped into shallow pools known as pans.
● Desalination is carried out in more
than 100 countries. Saudi Arabia 2 Sunshine and wind evaporate the seawater.
accounts for 24 percent of the world’s 3 Calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate settle out of the seawater.
desalination capacity.
● Desalination is often more ecologically
4 The brine is moved to a second pool where sodium chloride (salt) settles out.
desirable than extracting freshwater 5 More brine is pumped in until a thick deposit of salt can be harvested from the bottom
from sources deep underground, but of the pan.
it can produce hypersaline waste water
that can harm marine environments.
Extracting salt 2
● Separating salt from seawater by
evaporation has been carried out by
people for thousands of years. 1 4
● Salt can also be extracted from
seawater by freezing, but the process
is expensive in its use of power.
● The separation of salt from seawater 3 5
by evaporation in the past has left vast
underground deposits of salt, which
are exploited today by mining. Magnesium extraction process
1 Seawater is mixed in a vast tank with lime so that magnesium hydroxide settles out.
Magnesium and bromine 2 Magnesium hydroxide is filtered off and treated with hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium
● Magnesium is a light metal used in chloride.
anti-corrosion alloys and munitions.
3 An electrolytic cell separates dissolved magnesium chloride into pure magnesium and
● Bromine is used in medicine, chlorine.
photography, dyes, and metallurgy— + –

70 percent of the world’s bromine
comes from the oceans.
● Magnesium and bromine are extracted 1
from seawater by chemical processes.
2 3
193
Mining for aggregates MARINE ECONOMICS
Distribution of exploited aggregates Key words

aggregate
gold and diamonds dredging
tin
other minerals
Aggregates
● Coarse and fine
sediments laid down
as sands and gravels
are currently the
Europe most profitable and
North widely exploited
Asia
America
resources from the
ocean floor.
● They are found
Africa
close to land in
shallow waters off
South
America
the continental
shelf.
Australia
● Sand and gravel for
use in the
manufacture of
concrete is the most
common form of
aggregate mining
from the seabed.
● Sands rich in aragonite, a compound
used in glass and cement production,
Shallow dredging operation are dredged in huge quantities from
the seas off the Bahamas.
1 dredging vessel
● Tin-rich ores are dredged from the
2 mineral-rich sediment waters around Southeast Asia.
3 boom lowered into the water ● Barium sulfate is dredged from waters
off the coasts of Sri lanka.
4 continuous chain of buckets to collect sediment
● Gold, diamonds, and other heavy
5 conveyor belt to deliver sediment onto barges minerals are concentrated in shallow
waters by the sorting action of waves,
but it is rarely economically viable to
recover them by dredging.
5
Dredging
3
● Dredging is the most common
method of recovering valuable
resources from the seabed, but it is
1 also carried out for other reasons.
● Dredging is necessary to keep many of
the world’s most important estuaries

open to shipping.
4 ● Very large-scale dredging operations
have been used to create new land for
2
development in crowded areas such as
Hong Kong and Japan.
194
MARINE ECONOMICS Oil exploration

Key words Methods of offshore oil exploration
gravimeter General geologic survey
magnetometer
oil rig
sound wave
Methods of offshore oil

exploration
General geologic survey
● The known or theoretically inferred
geology of the seabed enables
geologists to determine the areas
worth investigating for oil.
● Aircraft or surface vessels with
extremely sensitive equipment are Detailed geologic survey
able to detect changes in local gravity
(gravimeter) or magnetic fields
(magnetometer) that indicate the
general nature of the seabed.
Detailed geologic survey

● Sound waves from underwater
explosions or releases of high pressure
air travel through strata of the seabed
and rebound off deep, hard rock.
● Vessels with trailing sonar devices pick
up these sound waves and analyze
them to determine the presence of Test drilling
features associated with oil and gas
deposits.
Test drilling
● A mobile test drilling rig is brought in
if the geology is promising.
● The definite presence of oil cannot be
determined without test drilling.
● If oil is found in commercial quantities
a permanent drilling rig may be
erected to exploit the site.
Demand for oil

● World demand for oil is rising steadily.
Projected world oil demand
It is unlikely that major new reserves
(Million barrels per day)
will be found onshore so this demand
will have to be met from offshore
sources. Oil companies continue to
spend billions of dollars in the search
1995 (69.9)
for offshore oil reserves.

2000 (77.8)
2005 (83.2)
2010 (90.2)
2025 (121)
195
Offshore drilling MARINE ECONOMICS
Jack-up rig Fully-floating rig Gravity platform Key words

fully-floating rig
gravity platform
jack-up rig
oil rig
Drilling rigs
● There are two main classes of offshore
drilling rigs: exploratory and
permanent.
● Exploratory rigs are mobile and their
test drills are used to identify the
presence of oil deposits.
● If the exploratory rig finds significant
deposits, a permanent rig may be
brought in to exploit it long-term.
Jack-up rig
● A jack-up rig is free-floating and may
have a shiplike hull.
● Once in position to drill, three or four
telescopic legs are extended down to
the seabed.
● When drilling is finished the legs are
retracted and the rig can be towed to
a new site.
● The jack-up rig is able to operate in
water depths up to 300 feet (100 m).
Fully-floating rig
● A fully-floating rig is mounted on a
free-floating, self-powered hull.
● Once in position, several computer-
controlled motors all around the
vessel keep it on station.
● When drilling is finished the vessel
moves to another site under its
own power.
● The fully-floating rig is able to
operate in waters deeper than
350 feet (120 m).
Gravity platform
● The gravity platform rig is towed to
station and then lowered into
position. It is not moved once
it has started production.
● The sheer weight of its legs and ballast

section keeps the rig in position.
● The ballast section may also be
used for temporary oil storage.
● Oil may be taken ashore by tankers
or a permanent pipeline.
● The gravity platform is able to operate
in water depths up to 500 feet (150 m).
196
MARINE ECONOMICS Energy from the oceans

Key words Tidal power
power station
estuary wave power
thermal energy water flow
tidal power
tide
tropical
1
Tidal power
● Tidal power stations exploit the
predictable daily rise and fall of tides.
● To be economically viable a tidal
power station needs to be placed in a
2
bay or estuary with a tidal range
forced air
greater than 15 feet (3 m).
Wave power
● As the tide rises, water flows into the
estuary through open gates in the
power station dam.
1 At high tide the gates are closed,
creating a large reservoir of water. rising water turbine
2 The gates are opened and the pent-up
closed column
water flows out through electricity-
generating turbines in the dam.
1
Wave power
● It is estimated that energy equivalent
to a 50 megaton nuclear explosion is
released onto the world’s coastlines by
waves every day.
● Many designs for machines to harness
this power have been built and tested.
● A typical design takes advantage of the
rising and falling motion of a wave: 2
1 Water rises in a closed column, forcing
air up, which then turns an electricity Thermal energy
generating turbine.
2 Water falls in the column, sucking air liquid ammonia
back down and causing it to turn the warm water
turbine again.
Thermal energy
● The oceans absorb and store huge
quantities of solar energy.
● Thermal energy plants are feasible in
tropical regions where the
turbines
temperature differential between
warm surface water and the cold deep
water is more than 36°F (20˚C).
● Warm water at the surface is used to
vaporize liquid ammonia, which then

drives electricity-generating turbines.
● The ammonia is condensed using cold condensed ammonia
water at a depth of 2,000–3,000 feet
(600–1,000 m).
● The liquid ammonia is returned to the
cold water
vaporizing chamber and the cycle is
repeated.
197
Shipping industry MARINE ECONOMICS
Major shipping routes Key words

container ship supertanker
over 250 million tons Lighter Aboard
Ship (LASH)
100–250 million tons oil tanker
30–100 million tons shipping
Suez Canal
Panama
Canal
Shipping routes
● The most used routes connect the
United States with Europe, and both
with the oilfields of the Middle East.
● During the closure of the Suez Canal
Container Ship
(1967–75) due to the Arab–Israeli
● Transports pre-packed metal containers 20 feet by 8 feet by 8 feet (6 m x 2.5 m x 2.5m).
conflict, much larger oil tankers were
● Typically able to carry over 1,000 containers giving a total capacity of 10,900 tons.
built to make the longer journey to
● Loading and unloading to and from trains and trucks is by crane.
the Middle East oilfields cost-effective.
Many oil tankers and cargo vessels are
now too large to use the Suez Canal
and are forced to take the long route
around southern Africa.
● About 13,000 transits of the Panama
Supertanker Canal are made each year, but many
● Transports liquid cargo (usually oil). modern vessels are also too large to
● Hull space is divided into separate holds with an overall capacity of more than 450,000 tons. use this waterway.
● Loading and unloading is achieved with pumps. ● There are about 90,000 registered
cargo vessels on the world’s oceans
(2003). About 11,000 of these fly the

flag of the United States.
● Rotterdam, Netherlands has the
world’s busiest port (by volume).
Lighter Aboard Ship (LASH) ● The busiest port in the United
● Transports pre-packed barges (lighters) each containing over 300 tons of cargo. States (by volume) is the port
● Typically able to carry 70 to 90 barges giving a total capacity of up to 27,000 tons. of South Louisiana.
● Barges are loaded and unloaded directly from the water using a traveling crane on the vessel.
198
KEY WORDS
baleen whale Whales with horny slats instead of teeth
Key words that are used to filter plankton from the water.
bar (1) A unit of pressure equal to about one
abyssal hills Low hills on the seafloor. atmosphere. (2) A sandy or muddy ridge across the
abyssal plain The deep and mostly flat region that mouth of a bay or estuary.
makes up most of the seafloor. bar-built estuary A type of estuary with a sandy or
abyssal zone The seabed of the deep ocean. muddy barrier across its mouth.
abyssopelagic zone The deep, lightless ocean between barrier island An island close to a shoreline formed
about 12,000 and 20,000 feet (3,660–6,100 m). from sediment.
active sensing Sensing that involves transmitting sound, barrier reef A reef that follows a shoreline and is
radar, radio, or other waves and the detection of separated from it by a deep lagoon.
reflections. basin A major depression in Earth’s surface that
active sonar Sonar that detects artificially produced contains a sea, an ocean, or part of an ocean.
sound waves reflected from objects in the ocean. bathyal zone The seabed of the continental slope.
adaptation The adjustment of an organism or bathypelagic zone The mid-depth region of the open
population to its environment through genetic changes. ocean between about 3,300 and 12,000 feet (1,000 and
aeolian transport Movement by wind. 3,600 m).
aggregate A collection of granular material. bay A region of the ocean close to and semi-enclosed
agnathan A jawless fish. by land. Usually smaller than a gulf.
algae A large and diverse group of plantlike organisms bay-head beach A beach in a bay that is largely
capable of photosynthesis. protected from erosion by headlands.
alluvial fan A fan-shaped accumulation of alluvium or benthic realm The region near or at the bottom of the
sediment usually at the mouth of a river estuary. ocean regardless of depth.
anadromous Fish that spend most of their adult lives in benthos Organisms that live on or near the bottom of
a marine environment but breed in freshwater. the ocean regardless of depth.
anaerobic Not requiring oxygen. biogenous sediment Sediment that has a biological
annelid A worm with a cylindrical segmented body. origin, such as the bodies of dead sea creatures.
Antarctic The region south of the Antarctic Circle. biogeochemical cycle The interaction of biological,
Antarctica The continent within the Antarctic Circle. geological, and chemical processes.
Antarctic Circle A line of latitude at 66.5˚S. biogeographical zone A region of the ocean that can be
aphotic zone The ocean below a depth of about defined by the kind of organisms that live there.
100 feet (30 m) where no sunlight penetrates. biological capture The removal of major ions from
aquaculture The farming of aquatic organisms. seawater by living organism.
aqualung Breathing equipment used by divers. bioluminescence The production of light by living
Arctic The region north of the Arctic Circle. organisms.
Arctic Circle A line of latitude at 66.5˚N. biosphere The entire volume of Earth’s land, air, and
arthropod A member of a large, diverse group of ocean that supports or is capable of supporting life.
invertebrate animals characterized by segmented bodies black smoker A form of hydrothermal vent that emits
and jointed legs. dark, mineral-saturated water at high temperatures.
asthenosphere A partially molten layer of rock blowhole A passageway connecting the roof of a sea
immediately below Earth’s crust. cave with the surface of the land above.
atmosphere Earth’s envelope of gases. bony fish A fish that has a skeleton composed
atmospheric fallout Particles introduced to the completely of bone.
atmosphere by volcanic activity or storms that later fall bottom water Seawater at or near the bottom of the
to the surface of Earth or into the ocean. water column.
atmospheric pressure The pressure created by the boulder beach A beach with a belt of shingle and
atmosphere. At sea level atmospheric pressure is about boulders at the base of a cliff.
14.7 pounds per square inch (1.033 kg/cm2). breaker A wave that breaks into foam on a shore.
atoll A ring of coral reef around a subsiding volcanic brown algae A class of algae that are predominantly
brown in color.
island. It encloses a lagoon.

authigenesis The spontaneous crystallization of calcareous sediment Sediment composed of calcium
sediment within the water column. carbonate usually from the shells of living organisms.
autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) A robotic calving The separation of icebergs from a glacier.
vehicle used for deep sea exploration. carbon cycle The continuous circulation of carbon
bacteria Single-celled organisms that break down the through the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
waste materials or bodies of other dead organisms. atmosphere.
bacterioplankton Bacteria that live as plankton.
199
KEY WORDS
cartilaginous fish A fish that has a skeleton completely crest The highest point of a wave.
composed of cartilage. crust The outer surface of Earth.
catadromous Fish that spend most of their adult lives in crustacean A group of arthropod marine invertebrates
a freshwater environment yet breed in the ocean. that includes crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.
cetacean A marine mammal such as a whale, dolphin, current A consistent flow of water in the same direction.
or porpoise. Currents may be on the surface or deep in the ocean.
chaetognathan Free-swimming wormlike plankton. decompression sickness A potentially fatal condition
chemosynthesis The process by which chemical energy that occurs if a diver ascends too rapidly from a deep
is used by organisms to make organic compounds from high-pressure environment.
inorganic compounds. deep scattering layer (DSL) Horizontal bands at
chlorophyte A green alga. different depths in the ocean that scatter sound. They
Chondrichthyes The class of cartilaginous fish. are caused by concentrations of marine organisms as
climate The average weather condition for a location they migrate through the water column.
over an extended period of time. depth zone A division of the water column according to
cnidarian A marine animal such as a jellyfish, coral, or depth.
sea anemone. desalination The removal of salts from seawater.
coast The region of land influenced by sea. diel vertical migration (DVM) The daily migration of
coastal erosion Erosion of the coast by wave action marine organisms through the water column.
and currents. diffuse vent A hydrothermal vent that emits heated
coastline The line that divides an environment in which water across a wide area rather than at a single site.
marine processes are dominant from an environment in disphotic zone The depths in the water column to
which terrestrial processes are dominant. which minimal sunlight is able to penetrate.
cold current A current carrying water that is colder than dissolved organic material (DOM) Organic material in
the surrounding water temperature. solution in seawater.
cold seep A location where cold water infused with diurnal tide A tide that results in one high tide and one
minerals, hydrocarbons, or other compounds flows into low tide in the same day.
the ocean from beneath the seafloor. divergent boundary The boundary between two
cometary theory The theory that the majority of the lithospheric plates that are moving away from each
water in the ocean came from comets. other. Usually a mid-ocean or spreading ridge.
container ship A freight ship that transports diving bell A simple diving chamber filled with
standardized containers. pressurized air and open to the water at the bottom.
continental crust The outermost layer of Earth that downwelling Sinking surface water.
makes up the landmasses. dredging The mechanical removal of sediment.
continental drift The theory that the continents travel earthquake The energy released by a sudden
across Earth’s surface under the influence of plate movement in Earth’s crust.
tectonics. echinoderm One of a group of simple marine animals
continental margin The region of a continent that lies that includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.
beneath the ocean. echolocation The use of sound to sense the physical
continental rise The gentle slope at the bottom of the environment.
continental slope consisting of material that has slid eddy A rapidly rotating current.
down from the continental slope. Ekman spiral The tendency for the Coriolis effect to
continental shelf The shallow seafloor that extends deflect the direction of a current created by winds
from the shore to the edge of the continental slope. through a greater and greater angle as depth increases.
continental slope The steep slope that descends from Ekman transport The net movement of oceanic surface
the continental shelf to the abyssal plain. water resulting from the Coriolis effect.
convergence A region where water masses with element One of the 92 naturally occurring substances
different properties (for example temperature) merge. that are not combinations of other substances.
convergent boundary The boundary between two El Niño An occasional warming of sea surface
masses of water with different properties. temperatures across the Pacific Ocean.
coral Marine invertebrate organisms that build reefs. epipelagic zone The top layer of the open ocean down
coral reef A calcium carbonate platform composed of to a depth of about 300 to 700 feet (90–210 m).
the exoskeletons of generations of coral polyps. epiphyte A nonparasitic plant that grows on the surface
Coriolis effect The tendency for ocean currents and of another plant.
winds to be deflected to the west by the eastward equator An abstract line around the middle of Earth
rotation of Earth. midway between the North and South poles. The line
cosmogenous sediment Sediment that originates of latitude at 0˚.
from meteorites.
200
KEY WORDS
erosion The movement of material from one area to gravimeter An instrument for measuring gravity.
another by the action of the ocean, running water, gravity platform An oil rig that is held in place by its
precipitation, ice, or wind. sheer weight.
estuary Where a river meets the sea. grease ice An early stage in the formation of sea ice.
euphotic zone The shallow top layer of the ocean that green algae Algae that are predominantly green.
receives sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur. greenhouse gas A gas that traps heat in the
eustasy Referring to sea level measured from the center atmosphere.
of Earth rather than with reference to any coastline. Greenwich meridian Another name for the prime
evaporation A change in state from a liquid to a gas. meridian or the line of longitude at 0˚.
evolution The gradual development of different species. gulf A region of an ocean enclosed on three sides by
exoskeleton A hard protective shell of an organism. land and usually larger than a bay.
fair-weather waterspout A waterspout that forms in guyot A flat-topped mountain under the sea.
association with thunderstorms rather than tornadoes. gyre A roughly circular current.
fault A fracture in Earth’s crust. hadal zone The very deepest part of the ocean
fauna The animal life of a region. extending to the bottom of the deepest trenches.
fetch The influence of the wind on wave height over a hard coral Coral polyps that excrete hard calcium
period of time across a stretch of water. carbonate exoskeletons.
finger rifting A series of small fissures in sea ice that headland A piece of land that protrudes into the sea.
form when one ice floe is forced under another. heat capacity The amount of heat required to raise the
fishing zone An administrative area used to measure temperature of a defined quantity of a pure substance
quantities of fish caught. by one degree celsius.
fish stocks The quantity of fish available for fishing. heat sink A body that adsorbs and stores heat.
fjord An estuary with a U-shaped cross section formed heavy water Water containing a higher than usual
when seawater floods a valley carved by a glacier. concentration of deuterium.
floe A flat portion of free-floating ice of any size. heliox A mixture of helium and oxygen.
flora The plant life of a region. hemisphere A half of Earth, bisected at the equator to
food chain A sequence of organisms where each give the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, or
member is food for the next member higher in through the poles, to produce the Eastern and Western
the chain. Hemispheres.
food web An interrelated complex of food chains. high tide The maximum height reached by a rising tide.
frazil Individual ice crystals floating on the sea. holdfast A rootlike anchor that attaches a marine plant
fringing reef A coral reef along a coast that is not to a firm substrate.
separated from the shore by a lagoon. holoplankton Organisms that spend the whole of their
frond The leaflike part of a seaweed. life cycle as plankton.
fully-floating rig An oil rig that floats. hot spot A weakness in Earth’s crust where magma
gas hydrate A crystalline solid composed of gas and routinely upwells or erupts to the surface.
water molecules. hydrocarbon An organic compound consisting of only
geoid The shape that the Ocean’s surface would have if carbon and hydrogen.
there were no perturbing forces such as tides, winds, or hydrocarbon seep An area on the seabed from which
currents. Dips and bumps in the surface of this shape hydrocarbons seep into the water column.
are due to local variations in gravity caused by the hydrogen bonding The cohesive force between
uneven density of the crust, core, and mantle beneath. hydrogen, oxygen, iron, and nitrogen atoms.
geostrophic current A current produced by Earth’s hydrogenous sediment A sediment composed of
rotation and the Coriolis effect. minerals precipitated from seawater.
geostrophic gyre A circular current produced by Earth’s hydrosphere All the water on Earth in its liquid form.
rotation and the Coriolis effect. hydrothermal vent Vents emitting heated, mineral-rich
glacial sediment Sediment deposited by a glacier. water on the ocean floor.
glacier A large, flowing mass of ice that moves from hyperbaric diving Diving to depths where pressure is
highlands down toward the sea. significantly above atmospheric pressure.
Global Positioning System (GPS) A navigation system hypersaline Having a salt content greater than average
that uses signals from orbiting satellites. seawater (35 parts per thousand).
global warming A sustained rise in average hyposaline Having a salt content less than average
temperatures across Earth. seawater (35 parts per thousand).
Gondwana A supercontintent thought to have existed ice age A geological period of extensive glacial activity.
on Earth between 180 and 100 million years ago, iceberg A massive piece of freshwater ice floating in the
composed of the landmasses that now mainly comprise ocean that has broken away from a glacier.
the continents of the Southern Hemisphere. ice cap A mass of ice that permanently covers an area.
201
KEY WORDS
infiltration The movement of water through a porous lithospheric plate One of the solid, but distinct,
medium. segments that make up the outer surface of Earth.
intermediate water Water at mid-depths in the ocean. lobe-finned fish (or sarcopterygians) An ancient group
internal wave A wave that forms at the boundary of two of fish including coelacanths, which have fleshy-lobed
layers of water with different properties. fins capable of supporting weight on land, and which
international date line A line of longitude approximately may be the remote ancestors of land tetrapods.
antipodean with the Greenwich meridian, longitude An angular measure of distance east or west
conventionally agreed as the starting point of each day. of the prime meridian.
interstitial space The gaps between grains of sediment. longshore current A current running parallel to a shore.
intertidal zone The area of a shore between the average longshore drift A tendency for sediment to be carried
highest and lowest tides. along a shore by waves breaking at an angle to that
island arc A chain of volcanic islands. shore.
island chain A line of islands associated with a lowland beach A broad, gently sloping sandy beach.
geological feature, such as a trench or a hot spot. low tide The lowest height reached by a falling tide.
isostasy The equilibrium state of lithospheric plates magma Molten rock beneath Earth’s surface.
floating on the asthenosphere. magnetometer An instrument for measuring
isotherm A line connecting points of the same magnetic fields.
temperature. mammal Any warm-blooded, vertebrate animal whose
isthmus A narrow strip of land with water on either side young are born live and nurtured on milk.
connecting two larger areas of land. manganese nodule A small, roughly spherical nugget of
jack-up rig An oil rig with legs that can be extended and metal that forms on the deep ocean floor.
retracted. mangrove A salt-tolerant tree that grows in the
jawed fish A modern group of fish with jaws and paired intertidal zone of some tropical and subtropical coasts.
fins. mantle The interior of Earth below the solid crust and
jawless fish An ancient group of fish that lack jaws and above the core.
paired fins. mariculture The farming of marine organisms.
kelp A family of large brown seaweed. meiofauna Tiny animals that live in the spaces between
kelp bed An area in which many kelp plants are grains of a sediment.
established. meridian Another name for a line of longitude.
keystone predator A predator that feeds on species that meroplankton Organisms that spend only the larval
compete with each other. Removing a keystone stage of their life cycle as plankton.
predator results in a reduction in species diversity. mesopelagic zone The open ocean at depths between
lagoon A shallow body of water separated from the about 700 and 3,300 feet (210–1,000 m).
open sea by a reef or a sandbar. microbial loop The activities of marine bacteria and
land bridge A stretch of land that allows land-based life protozoa in breaking down organic detritus and making
to cross from one landmass to another. it available to a food chain.
larva A stage in an insect’s or marine creature’s life micrometeorite A meteorite no larger than a particle of
cycle before maturity. sand.
latent heat of fusion The amount of energy absorbed midnight Sun The seasonal polar phenomenon in which
during melting or lost during freezing. the Sun is above the horizon for 24 hours in a day.
latent heat of vaporization The amount of energy mid-ocean ridge A chain of undersea mountains that
absorbed during vaporization, or lost during usually marks the line of a spreading ridge.
condensation. migration The periodic or seasonal movement of
latitude An angular measure of distance north or south animals from one location to another.
of the equator. mineral A naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid.
Laurasia A supercontintent thought to have existed on mixed tide A tide with marked differences in the height
Earth between 180 and 100 million years ago, of daily high and low tides.
composed of the landmasses that now mainly comprise molecular size The physical size of a molecule of a
the continents of the Northern Hemisphere. substance.
Lighter Aboard Ship (LASH) A cargo ship that carries molecule A substance composed of two or more atoms
smaller, unpowered cargo vessels. held together by chemical bonds.

line of latitude A line connecting all locations at the mollusk An invertebrate animal with a soft body,
same latitude. muscular foot, and a calcareous shell.
line of longitude A line connecting all locations at the monsoon A wind system in which the prevailing wind
same longitude. direction reverses seasonally.
lithosphere All of the rock and nonbiological sediment muddy shore A shore composed of sediment with
on Earth. particles no larger than 0.0025 inches (0.062 mm).
202
KEY WORDS
natural gas A naturally occurring mixture of phosphorus cycle The continuous circulation of
hydrocarbons used as a fuel. phosphorus through the biosphere, hydrosphere,
nautical mile A unit of distance equal to one minute of lithosphere, and atmosphere.
latitude 1.15 miles (1.85 km). photophore An organ that produces bioluminescence.
neap tide The tide with the smallest range between photosynthesis The process by which plants use
high and low tide. Neap tides occur twice per lunar sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce
month at most locations. carbohydrates as food. Oxygen is a by-product.
nekton All strongly swimming marine organisms capable phytoplankton Plankton that photosynthesize.
of moving against currents. pinnipedia A group of marine mammals with four
nematode A roundworm. swimming flippers that includes seals and sea lions.
nemertean A ribbonworm. plankton All drifting or weakly swimming organisms in
nilas A smooth thin layer of flexible sea ice. the water column that rely on currents for transport.
nitrogen cycle The continuous circulation of nitrogen plate boundary The region where lithospheric plates
through the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, meet and interact.
and atmosphere. platyhelminth A flatworm, fluke, or tapeworm.
Northern Hemisphere The half of Earth north of the polar Refers to the regions of Earth north of latitude
equator. 66.5˚N and south of latitude 66.5˚S.
nuclear submarine A submarine with a nuclear pollution Contamination by harmful substances.
power source. polynya A wide split in an ice floe.
nutrient Any substance that can be taken in by an polyp An individual cnidarian.
organism to promote growth. poriferan A sponge.
Ocean The continuous body of saltwater that covers precipitation All forms of solid or liquid water that fall
about 70 percent of Earth’s surface. from the atmosphere and reach Earth’s surface.
oceanic crust Earth’s crust beneath the ocean. prevailing wind A wind that blows more frequently from
offshore breeze A wind that blows from the land toward one direction over a given period.
a body of water. primary producer An organism that forms part of the
oil rig A platform at sea that supports the equipment lowest link (trophic level) in a food chain.
needed to drill for and extract oil from the seabed. prime meridian The line of longitude at 0˚.
oil tanker A vessel designed to carry oil. protozoa The kingdom of single-celled animal-like
onshore breeze A wind that blows from a body of water organisms.
toward the shore. pycnocline A layer of the water column between the
orbital The circular path described by a water particle halocline and thermocline through which water density
during the passage of a wave. changes with depth.
Osteichthyes A class of fish with skeletons composed radar A system that uses radio waves to detect and
partly of bone and partly of cartilage. locate distant objects.
outgassing theory The theory that most of the oceans’ radiation Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the
water originated from gases that escaped from the form of waves or particles.
primeval Earth and condensed in the atmosphere. radio direction finding A navigation system that involves
overfishing Fishing to the point where the population fixed radio transmitters on the land.
can no longer be sustained. ray-finned fish (or actinopterygians) The class that
pancake ice Unconnected smooth edged discs of ice. includes most modern species of fish, whose fins
Pangaea The single landmass that is thought to have consist of skin webbed with spines.
comprised all the dry land on Earth more than 180 realm A volume or area of the ocean within which
million years ago. conditions are similar.
Panthalassa The ocean that is thought to have rebreather Diving equipment that recirculates breathing
surrounded Pangaea more than 180 million years ago. gases instead of expelling them into the water.
parallel Another name for a line of latitude. red algae Algae with a predominantly red color.
passive sensing Sensing that involves receiving sound red tide A discoloration of the sea surface caused by
or other waves emitted by objects. high concentrations of microorganisms.
passive sonar Sonar that detects sound waves emitted reef A continuous stretch of rock or coral.
by objects in the ocean. reef crest The top of the side of a reef that faces out
pelagic realm The open ocean away from coasts, to sea.
continental shelves, and the ocean floor. reef face The side of a reef that faces out to sea.
perigee The point in an orbit (e.g. the Moon’s) that is reef flat The edge of the side of a reef that faces
closest to Earth. the coast.
petroleum A generic term for oil and oil products. reef zone A region of a reef with distinct environmental
phaeophyte A brown alga. conditions.
203
KEY WORDS
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) A robotic undersea secondary producer An organism that feeds on primary
exploration vehicle controlled by a remote operator. producers and is in turn food for organisms at higher
remote sensing The collection of information about an levels in a food chain.
object or event without having physical contact with it. sediment Fine grains of solid organic or nonorganic
reptile All cold-blooded vertebrate animals that breathe material suspended in or settled out of water.
air at all stages of their life cycles. seiche A standing wave in an enclosed body of water.
respiration The process by which living organisms take semidiurnal tide A tidal pattern that produces two high
up oxygen from the environment and consume organic tides and two low tides each day.
matter, releasing both carbon dioxide and heat. shark An ancient group of fish with cartilaginous
rhodophyte A red alga. skeletons.
rift valley A steep, flat-bottomed depression in Earth’s shelf break The top of a continental slope.
crust. Common at mid-ocean ridges. shipping The commercial transportation of goods
river valley A valley created by a river eroding the by sea.
landscape. shore General term for the area of land adjacent to
rocky shore A shore dominated by solid rock or large a body of water that is submerged at high tide and
rocky fragments. uncovered at low tide.
runoff Precipitation, snow and ice melt, and all other shore deposition The movement of sediment onto
water that flows from the land into the ocean. a shore by wave action or via a river.
salinity A measure of the quantity of dissolved salts shore slope The angle of a shore’s slope.
in seawater. siliceous sediment Sediment composed of silicon
salinometer An instrument for measuring salinity. dioxide usually from the shells of living organisms.
salt marsh A coastal wetland dominated by salt-tolerant sirenian General term for dugongs and manatees.
grasses and other plants. soft coral Coral polyps that do not excrete hard
sand dune A mound or ridge of loose sand heaped up exoskeletons and therefore do not build coral reefs.
by the wind. solvent A liquid in which other substances may be
sandy shore A shore composed of sediment with dissolved.
particles in the size range 0.0025 to 0.08 inches sonar (SOund NAvigation and Ranging) A system for
(0.063–2.0 mm). detecting objects by the use of sound.
satellite A natural or artificial body in orbit around a sound wave A wave that transmits sound.
planet or other celestial object. spawning ground An area where a particular species of
sea A large region of an ocean usually bordered by or marine organism gathers to reproduce.
partially enclosed by land. spit A low sandbank that extends into the sea.
sea arch A natural arch in a headland. sponge Any of a group of simple aquatic organisms that
seabird A bird that frequents marine environments. have porous structures and skeletons of thorny,
sea cave A natural cave in a cliff face created by wave interlocking fibers known as spongin.
action. spreading ridge An mid-ocean ridge where seafloor
seafloor spreading The slow, continual movement of spreading is taking place.
oceanic crust away from a mid-ocean ridge resulting in spring tide The tide with the greatest range between
the widening of an ocean. high and low tide. Spring tides occur twice per lunar
seagrass One of a group of flowering marine plants. month at most locations.
sea ice Ice that forms from seawater. standing wave (or stationary wave) A wave pattern
sea level The mean altitude between high and low produced by two waves with the same frequency and
tides. wavelength travelling in opposite directions.
seamount A volcanic mountain with a peak that lies strait A narrow strip of water bordered by land that
below sea level. connects two larger bodies of water.
season A division of the year according to characteristic strata Layers of rock.
changes in climate. subarctic Regions bordering the Arctic.
seasonal vertical migration (SVM) The vertical subduction The process of one lithospheric plate
migration of organisms through the water column descending beneath another.
during a specific season. sublittoral zone The lowest part of the shore only
sea spray Droplets of seawater blown from the tops of exposed at the lowest tides.
waves. submarine A vehicle capable of carrying a crew beneath
sea stack A pillar of rock left separate from the or on the surface of the water.
mainland by the collapse of a sea arch. submarine canyon A steep V-shaped trench in the
seawater The mixture of water and various dissolved seabed, usually in a continental shelf or slope.
salts found in the ocean. submersible A vehicle capable of operating beneath the
surface of the water.
204
KEY WORDS
subpolar The regions adjacent to the Arctic and transparency The capacity for a medium, such as water,
Antarctic circles from latitudes 50˚–70˚N, and 50˚–70˚S to allow light to pass through it.
respectively. trench A long narrow depression in the seafloor created
substrate The hard surface onto which organisms can where one lithospheric plate sinks beneath another.
attach themselves; the seabed. trochoidal wave A wave with a pointed crest and a
subsurface current A current that moves water below rounded trough.
the surface of the ocean. trophic level A group of organisms in a food chain that
subtidal zone The region of the marine environment feed on the next lower group or are fed on by the next
that is just covered by seawater at low tide. higher group.
subtropical The regions adjacent to the Tropic of tropical The regions between 23.5˚N and 23.5˚S.
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, from 35˚–40˚N, Tropic of Cancer A line of latitude at 23.5˚N.
and 35˚–40˚S respectively. Tropic of Capricorn A line of latitude at 23.5˚S.
supertanker The largest kind of oil tanker. trough The low part of a wave between crests.
surface current A current that affects water near the top tsunami A large sea wave generated by a seismic event.
of the water column. turbidity A measure of the amount of particulate matter
surface tension The tension of a liquid's surface due to suspended in water.
the forces of attraction between its molecules. turbidity current A flowing mass of sediment-laden
surface water Water at or near the top of the water water.
column. twilight zone The depths in the water column to which
swell Waves that have traveled out of the area in which some light penetrates but not enough to allow
they were generated. photosynthesis to take place.
tectonic estuary An estuary that is formed when upwelling Bottom water rising toward the surface.
seawater flows into an area that has subsided due to vertical migration The migration of organisms through
tectonic processes. the water column.
temperate The regions of Earth in which the climate vertical zonation Classifying regions with similar
undergoes seasonal changes of temperature and environmental conditions dependent on altitude.
moisture. They lie primarily between 30˚ and 60˚ volcanic island An island created by volcanic activity.
latitude in both hemispheres. volcano A vent in Earth’s crust through which magma
temperature gradient A change in temperature over and gases can escape.
distance. warm current A current that carries water that is
terrigenous sediment Sediments formed from material warmer than the surrounding water.
that originated on land (continental crust material). water column A hypothetical cylinder of water drawn
thermal energy Energy in the form of heat. from the seabed to the water’s surface and referred to
thermocline The narrow band in the water column when describing the conditions at different depths of
where the temperature gradient is at its maximum. the ocean.
thermohaline Referring to the combined effects of waterspout A rising and rotating column of water and
temperature and salinity. spray generated by an air vortex.
tidal pool A depression in the intertidal zone that wave One of a series of periodic oscillations of the
remains filled with seawater at low tide. surface of a body of water.
tidal power The generation of electricity from tides. wave action The effects of the energy transmitted by
tidal wave The wave motion of the tides. Also another waves on the coast.
name for a tsunami. wave-cut platform A flat terrace extending out to sea
tide The periodic rise and fall of sea level under the from the base of a cliff.
gravitational influence of the Moon and Sun. wavelength The distance between successive wave
time zone One of 24 regions of the globe loosely peaks.
defined by longitude throughout which the same wave power The use of waves to generate electrical
standard time is used. power.
tombolo An island connected to the mainland by a whaling The commercial capture of whales.
narrow bar of sand or shingle. white smoker A form of hydrothermal vent that emits
toothed whale Group of whales with conical teeth that white mineral-saturated water at high temperatures.
feed on fish, squid, or marine mammals. Wilson Cycle The processes by which ocean basins
tornadic waterspout A waterspout formed by a tornado form, widen, and then shrink over geologic time
over the ocean. periods.
transform boundary The boundary between two zooplankton Plankton that are animals rather than
lithospheric plates which are sliding past each other. plants.
transform fault A fault that forms at a transform
boundary.
205
INTERNET RESOURCES
Fisheries Department of the United Nations
Internet resources Food and Agriculture Organization
A wealth of information about and resources for the
world’s fisheries.
There is a lot of useful information on the internet.
http://www.fao.org/fi/
Information on a particular topic may be available
through a search engine such as Google Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
(http://www.google.com). Some of the sites that are Web site of the largest natural feature on Earth.
found in this way may be very useful, others not. http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au
Below is a selection of Web sites related to the
material covered by this book. Harbor Branch Oceanographic
Institution, Inc.
The publisher takes no responsibility for the A leading marine science institution with education,
information contained within these Web sites. research, and conservation programs.
All the sites were accessible in March 2006. http://www.hboi.edu
Alaska Fisheries Science Center Intergovernmental Oceanographic

Conducts field and laboratory research to manage Commission
local marine resources; includes educational materials. A UNESCO initiative to improve international co-
http://www.afsc.noaa.gov operation in the study and management of the Ocean.
http://ioc.unesco.org/iocweb/
American Society of Limnology
and Oceanography Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Advances the science of limnology and oceanography; Assesses scientific and socio-economic information
includes educational resources. relevant for the understanding of climate change.
http://aslo.org http://www.ipcc.ch
Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences International Council for the Exploration
Oceanography through research and education. of the Sea
http://www.bigelow.org Coordinates and promotes marine research in the
North Atlantic.
British Antarctic Survey http://www.ices.dk
A research center with resources for schools.
http://www.antarctica.ac.uk International Hydrographic Organization
Web site of the world’s leading organization for the
Climatic Research Unit of the University of survey and charting of the oceans.
East Anglia http://www.iho.shom.fr
Useful information sheets on climate-related subjects.
http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk International Maritime Organization
The UN’s specialized agency for shipping.
CoastWatch http://www.imo.org
Provides real-time oceanographic satellite data.
http://coastwatch.noaa.gov International Oceanographic Data
and Information Exchange
Environmental Technology Laboratory Facilitates the exchange of oceanographic data and
A NOAA department providing remote sensing information between participating member states.
instrumentation for oceanographers.
http://ioc3.unesco.org/iode/
http://www.etl.noaa.gov
International Tsunami Information Center
FishBase An IOC Web site dedicated to the mitigation of the
Everything students need to know about fish species hazards associated with tsunamis.
in one database. http://www.prh.noaa.gov/itic/
http://www.fishbase.org
206
INTERNET RESOURCES
International Whaling Commission ReefBase
The international body that regulates the whaling An excellent information center dedicated to the
industry. conservation and management of the world’s
http://www.iwcoffice.org coral reefs.
http://www.reefbase.org
Marine Technology Society
Dedicated to the development and sharing of Scripps Institution of Oceanography
information about marine science. One of the largest and most important centers in the
http://www.mtsociety.org world for marine science research.
http://sio.ucsd.edu
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration Seaspace
Information and advice on marine and meteorological A nonprofit corporation with event proceeds funding
matters from the government. a marine-related scholarship program, Seaspace is an
http://www.noaa.gov annual exposition of sports, travel, and scuba diving.
http://www.seaspace.org
National Oceanography Centre,
Southampton University The Global Drifter Center
A leading center of research and education in marine A NOAA operation managing the deployment of
science. drifting buoys for oceanographic and meteorological
http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk research across the globe.
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/gdc.html
National Ocean Service
An agency of NOAA concentrating on the nation’s The Ocean Conservancy
oceans, coasts, and marine navigation. A leading campaign for ocean conservation focusing
http://www.nos.noaa.gov on overfishing and human pollution as major threats
to the marine environment.
National Sea Grant Library http://www.oceanconservancy.org
An archive and lending library of marine science.
Some full-text articles are available online. United Nations Environment Programme
http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu A UN program with the stated mission “to provide
leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the
Ocean Planet environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling
An online archival version of the Smithsonian nations and peoples to improve their quality of life
Institution’s historic traveling exhibition. without compromising that of future generations.”
http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/ocean_planet.html http://www.unep.org
Ocean Surface Topography from Space University-National Oceanographic

An exciting NASA Web site with educational resources Laboratory System
for the study of oceanic science and the weather. An co-ordinating organization of 61 academic
http://topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov institutions and national laboratories involved in
oceanographic research.
Open Directory Project http://www.unols.org
A comprehensive listing of internet resources.
http://dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/ Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Oceanography/ Dedicated to research and higher education at the
frontiers of ocean science, its primary mission is to

Pelagic Fisheries Research Program develop a fundamental understanding of how the
A useful center of fisheries research. oceans function.
http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/ http://www.whoi.edu
207
INDEX
Index e
echinoderms 139
k
kelp forests 169
Index of subject headings. echolocation 157
economics 187–97
Ekman transport 80 l
a El Niño 87 latitude 174
abyssal zone 130 energy from the oceans 194–6 life, origins and history of 98–9
aggregates, mining of 193 environment, marine, sub- light in the sea 59, 124
anthropods 138 divisions of 119 lithospheric plates 31
aquaculture 189 environmental change 100 longitude 173
Arctic Ocean 16 epipelagic zone 120
Atlantic Ocean 14, 102 erosion 48
estuaries 51–2 m
eustasy 54
b mammals, marine 150
exploration 173
manatees 152
bathyal zone 129 mangrove swamps and forests
biogenous sediments 41 f 162–3
biogeochemical cycles 74 Mediterranean Sea 20
bioluminescence 124 fauna of shorelines 110–112 meroplankton 116
birds of the sea 148–9, 161 fish 126–7, 140–6 mesopelagic zone 121–3
breezes, coastal 95 catches and stocks 187–8 microbial loop 104
migration of 158 migration
food chains 101–2 geological 132–3
c of fish and turtles 158-9
carbon, organic 105–6 g of seabirds 160
carbon cycle 75 of whales 161
Caribbean Sea 18 gases minerals from the sea 191
cartilaginous fish 142–3 dissolved in seawater 70 mining for aggregates 193
cliff formation 46 formation of 78 mollusks 137
cnidaria 135 geostrophic gyres 81 muddy shores 111–12
coastal features 45 Gulf of Mexico 18
continental drift 27–8 guyots 33
gyres 81 n
continental margins 38–9
coral and coral reefs 164–7 navigation 175
Coriolis effect 79 h nitrogen cycle 76
crust, oceanic, and continental North Sea 21
26 Hawaiian Islands 24
currents 82–3 holoplankton 115
hydrogenous sediments 43 o
hydrothermal vents 170–1 oceans
d
geography of 9–17
deep scattering layers 131 i origin of 25
deep–sea fish 126–7 profiles 35
deposition 47, 49 ice at sea 61–3 see also seas and oceans
diel vertical migrations 132 Indian Ocean 15 oil
diving apparatus 176–9 intertidal zone 107 exploration and drilling for
dolphins 154 isostasy 54 194–5
downwellings 85 formation of 78
dugongs 152
208
INDEX
p seas and oceans 8–24 t

atmospheric system of 79–97
Pacific Ocean 13 biology of 98–172 temperature of sea surfaces 60
pelagic deep sea 125–7 chemistry of 56–78 terrigenous sediments 42
Persian Gulf 23 depth zones 24 tides 88–90, 118
phosphorus cycle 77 geology of 25–55 topography of ocean surfaces
plankton 113–17 seasonal vertical migrations 133 97
plate boundaries 32 seawater trenches 37
porpoises 154 composition of 68, 70 tsunamis 94
exploitation of 192 turtles 158–9
physical states and properties of
r 57–8, 67
pressure and density 65–6 u
Red Sea 22
red tides 118 residence times in 69 upwellings 85
reptiles, marine 147 seaweed 134
rocky shores 107–9 sediment, oceanic 40–4
seep communities 172 v
sharks 144
s vertical migrations 132–3
shipping industry 197
shore types 50
salinity 52, 71–3
salt marshes 163
shorelines 60, 107–11; see also w
coastal features
sandy shores 110–12 walruses 153
slopes, oceanic 47
Sargasso Sea 19 water
solvent property of water 67
satellite technology 185 molecular structure of 56
sonar 186
scuba diving 177 physical states of 57
sound in the sea 64
seabirds 148–9, 161 properties of 58
sponges 135
seafloor sediments 40 sea also seawater
spreading ridges 36
seafloor spreading 29 waterspouts 96
standing waves 91
seagrass meadows 168 waves 91–4
submersibles, submarines and
sea ice 61 whales 154–6, 161
submarine vehicles 180–4
sea level, changes in 53–5 whaling 190
subtidal zone 128
seals and sea lions 153 Wilson Cycle 30
swamps 162
seamounts 33 worms, marine 136
sea otters 151

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SCIENCE VISUAL RESOURCES

The Diagram Group

Copyright © 2006 The Diagram Group

Editorial: Gordon Lee, Jamie Stokes

Design: Anthony Atherton, Richard Hummerstone,

Illustration: Peter Wilkinson

Picture research: Neil McKenna

Indexer: Martin Hargreaves

For Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data,

You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Marine Science is a learning tool for students and teachers. Full-

Geography of the oceans provides an overview of the physical

Geology of the oceans examines the geological processes that have

Chemistry of the oceans is concerned with the nature of seawater

Ocean-atmosphere system details the engines that drive global

Biology of the oceans is an overview of the wealth of plant and

Marine exploration and Marine economics focus on the human

2 GEOLOGY OF THE OCEANS

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Earth’s water

The importance of water

Seas and Ice Groundwater Lakes and Inland Atmosphere

Earth’s oceans GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

Pacific Ocean Key words

Atlantic Ocean subdivisions of the Ocean—the Pacific,

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS The Eastern Hemisphere

2 Australian–Antarctic Rise 6 Kermadec Trench, South Pacific

3 Ry ūky ū Trench, Japan 7 Tonga Trench, South Pacific

The Western Hemisphere GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

Major topography (continued) Key words

10 East Pacific Rise

South Pacific Ocean South Atlantic Ocean

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Major seas

Bays and gulfs 11

south coast of the United

13 Bering Sea 876,060 (2,269,000) 4,890 (1,491) 810,550 (3,380,000)

Pacific Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

4 more water than all of the

8 Equatorial Countercurrent (707,270,000 km3)

9 East Australia Current Mean depth

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Atlantic Ocean

(274,525,000 km3) 2 Canary Current Stream, it warms northwest Europe.

Indian Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

winds from the southern Indian Ocean (285,681,000 km3)

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

5,440,000 square miles

Major geologic features

There are a series of roughly parallel

ridges across the seafloor of the Arctic

The Alpha Ridge

The Lomonosov Ridge: the current

The Nansen Cordillera. This is near

North of Eurasia, the continental

permanently covered by ice. The amount

Even in summer, the shrinking ice

The Norwegian Current. An

Southern Ocean GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

South America Key words

GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS Caribbean Sea and the