(B Purushothama) Humidification and Ventilation Ma (BookFi) 2

Humidification and ventilation management
in textile industry
About the Author
B. Purushothama completed his B.Sc (Textiles) in 1969 and then M.Sc
(Textiles) in 1974 from Bangalore University. He is a postgraduate in Business
Administration from St Joseph’s College of Business Administration,
Bangalore. He associated with The Textile Association (India) in 1973 and
got Fellowship of The Textile Association (India) in 1985, and Fellowship of
Institute of Engineers in 2009. He is a Lead Auditor in ISO 9000 since 1994
and a Certified Quality Analyst from Tata Quality Management Services. He
took extensive training in Total Quality Management from M/s Win Research
and Consultants, Mumbai. He got trained by Tata Quality Management Services
for the JRD QV (The Quality System named after late JRD Tata and now
called as TBEM, i.e. Tata Business Excellency Model) and Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Awards. He worked as an examiner for TBEM for 5 years
and has trained thousands in Total Quality Management, Malcolm Baldrige
Quality Awards and in various technical aspects of textiles.
B. Purushothama, in his service of 40 years in the textile and garment
industry, has worked in various capacities in Spinning, Maintenance, Projects,
Quality Assurance, and in Research. He has published over 50 papers in various
technical and management areas, and has presented papers in various
conferences and seminars. Some of his publications include Fundamentals of
Textile Mill Management, Guidelines to Process management in Textiles,
Quality management in Garment Industry, Winning Strategies, In the
Wonderland of Problems, etc. He has guided hundreds of students from
different universities and colleges in their project works.
He is an active member of The Textile Association (India) and has served
as Joint Secretary, Secretary, Management Committee Member, and Chairman
of Ichalkaranji Miraj Unit. He is also a member of Spinning Advisory sub-
committee of BTRA (Bombay Textile Research Association, Mumbai). He
was a member of TX-30 sub-committee of Bureau of Indian standards, dealing
with Industrial textiles and Geo textiles. He has also served as a member of
syllabus committee for Shivaji University for B.Text. He is a member of
various associations like Quality Council of India, Gokak Management
Association and Asian technology group, which work for the spread of
knowledge.
He is also active in Kannada Literature and has written novels, poems, and
devotional songs in Kannada, and several books on Management, Hilarious
talks, etc. Huchchuraamana Muktakagalu and Kareyutide Yasha Shikhara are
books on Management written in Kannada. Huchchana vichaaradhaare, a
hilarious book of philosophy; Tumula, Kaalada hakki, Ayyo Huchchumundede,
Miss Maala and Jagadodharana are social novels; Gaardhabha Maartanda
and Banni Makkale Kathe Heltini are short stories for children; Sumamaale,
light poems; and Gana stuti and Devaranaamagalu are devotional songs.
Humidification and ventilation
management in textile
industry
B. Purushothama
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA (P) LTD

New Delhi ● Cambridge ● Oxford
Published by Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd.
Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd., G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28, Ansari Road
Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110 002, India
www.woodheadpublishingindia.com
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington

Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
First published 2009, Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd.

© Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd., 2009
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded
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ing India (P) Ltd. for such copying.
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Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd. ISBN 13: 978-81-908001-2-9

Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd. EAN: 9788190800129
Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, New Delhi

Printed and bound by Raj Press, New Delhi
Contents
Preface ix
1 Need for maintaining humidity 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Relation of humidity to working in the textile mills 2
1.3 Dust control 5
1.4 Control of air pollution 8
1.5 Air changes 8
1.6 Humidity and the health 9
1.7 Protection of electronics and equipments 10
2 A glance at the developments 12

2.1 General 12
2.2 Unit humidifiers 14
2.3 Central station-type plant 14
2.4 Supplementary humidification 18
2.5 All-air system 18
2.6 Energy management 18
3 Different types of humidification 22

3.1 Steam humidification 22
3.2 Evaporative pan 29
3.3 Water spray humidifiers 36
4 Air handling units in textile industry 41

4.1 Introduction 41
vi Contents
4.2 Supplying air to air washer plants 45

4.3 Air filter construction and cleaning system 49
4.4 Type of fans used 57
4.5 Gravity louver damper 62
4.6 Eliminators 62
4.7 Water spray 65
4.8 Water supply 71
4.9 Supply air distribution 73
4.10 Roto-spray units 76
4.11 Chilling plants or cooling towers 76
4.12 Temperature and humidity monitoring 85
5 Humidification requirements in manmade-

fibre plants 87
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Quench box 87
5.3 Take-up area 89
5.4 Draw twist area 91
5.5 Textile area 91
5.6 Other areas 92
6 Humidification requirements in nonwoven plants 95

6.1 Processes in nonwoven plant 95
6.2 Air distribution needs in nonwoven industry 96
6.3 Material air-conditioning and spot air-conditioning 98
6.4 Cleaning of the air 98
6.5 Recycling and disposal of wastes 99
6.6 Compact Filter Unit (CFU) 100
7 Concept of total air control 101

7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Different individual solutions 102
7.3 Cleaning and disposal of air 105
7.4 Controls 108
7.5 After-sales service: trouble-free operation 109
8 Localised humidification control 110

8.1 Need for localised humidification control 110
8.2 Use of heating lamps 111
8.3 Subsystem humidification 112
Contents vii
8.4 AirBell air outlet 114

8.5 Exhausting air 115
8.6 Machine air-conditioning 117
8.7 Super soft terry towels weaving 118
8.8 Yarn-conditioning plants 118
8.9 Static elimination 120
9 Maintenance of humidity 121

9.1 Understanding the calculations 121
9.2 Operation and problems associated with air washer systems 130
9.3 Efficient use of humidification plants 136
9.4 Keeping AHUs clean 139
9.5 Monitoring humidity 149
9.6 Problems of not getting required conditions 153
9.7 Basic humidity control preparation 155
9.8 Guidelines to select supply outlets and return grilles 156
9.9 Guidelines to size the duct runs 157
9.10 Power consumption 157
9.11 Ionisation of air using chemicals 160
10 Auxiliary units to make humidification

units effective 162
10.1 Building design to have effective control of humidity 162
11 Air-conditioning units 174

11.1 History of air conditioning 174
11.2 Application of air conditioning 177
11.3 Different types of air conditioners 179
11.4 Design for air conditioning system 185
11.5 Central air conditioning 192
11.6 Health implications 193
12 Air pollution control in textile industry 194

12.2 Source of air pollution 195
12.3 Air pollution control 196
12.4 Use of UV disinfestations 203
12.5 An integrated approach for the textile industry 204
viii Contents
13 Dehumidification 206
13.2 Reducing the humidity 206
13.3 Types of dehumidification 207
14 Designing heating, ventilating and air-

conditioning (HVAC) 212
14.1 What is HVAC? 212
14.2 Fundamental of energy and resource-efficient HVAC design 213
15 Definitions of terms used in humidification

engineering 227
Appendix 1 Some of the commercial humidification plants 253

Appendix 2 Cooling and heating systems 308
Appendix 3 Fogging fans and Jets 317
Appendix 4 Spray nozzles and mist eliminators 346
Appendix 5 Fans and blowers 356
Appendix 6 Dampers and diffusers 373
Appendix 7 Sensors and data loggers 387
Appendix 8 Dehumidifiers 418
Appendix 9 Fume and dust control, air ventilation 424
hose and ducts
Appendix 10 Filters and dust collectors 431
References 443
Preface ix
Preface
The importance of maintaining and managing humidity and temperature

in a textile mill is not a new concept, but understanding the requirements,
the equipment capabilities and utilizing them to get the best results is a
challenge the technicians face all the time. Now the systems have changed
from manually operated to fully automatic; however, unless one knows
how to monitor, he shall still have the problem. Some guidelines are needed
for the shop floor technicians relating to maintenance of humidity and
monitoring the air.
The idea of writing a book on Managing of Humidity came from my
friend Ananth Harnahalli. I hesitated first, as I was only a Textile
Technologist and not a Humidification Engineer. Ananth reminded me that
I had faced lot of problems due to improper maintenance of humidity while
working on the shop floor and had struggled a lot to get required conditions.
The problems faced were always unique as the systems were getting
changed, materials were getting changed and also the working conditions.
Ananth told that the purpose of this book should be to guide the shop floor
technicians and engineers in maintaining required conditions and to act in
advance. They need the basic concepts and the choice available in the
market to update their humidification plants; hence this book.
An attempt is made to collect and provide information starting from the
basic concepts, developments, varying needs of the industry, the problems
associated with maintenance of plants to get the required conditions,
designing of plant capacity, modification or designing of building to get
the best results, various issues of health and hygiene, the pollution control
issues, various models available in the market, etc. However, it should be
noted that it is practically impossible to explain all the equipments and
give details of all manufacturers. Hence, efforts are made to explain at
least one unit in each type.
I am thankful for all the information providers, without which this book
would not have come out. Also I am thankful to all my friends who
x Preface
encouraged me to write this book, and the family members for their
complete cooperation. My special thanks are to Ravindra Saxena and Sumit
Aggarwal for the initiations taken to publish this book so that it could
reach masses.
B. Purushothama
1
Need for maintaining humidity
1.1 Introduction
Spinning of yarn from cotton and then weaving or knitting cloth from the
yarn is known to mankind for millenniums. It is probably one of the first
crafts developed as men’s thought of civilisation. As this primitive craft
flourished in tune with civilisation, the ancients learnt that if water is
sprayed on the floor on the hot days or if wet cloth is kept over the warp,
the working is easier because of less yarn breakage. This was the state of
affairs till 200 years back, but as the industrial revolution took place and
mass production was aimed, different methods were developed to provide
moisture to the material in process. As more people were concentrated
under one roof along with number of machines working at a pace, the
generation of temperature also added to the problem. Though frequent
use of water cans for humidity, and wide windows for fresh air were
provided, it did not help in improving the working conditions. The increase
in speed of machinery also liberated fibrous dust.
Air is an important element for every human being. Man’s capacity for
work and his general health may seriously be impaired by defective
ventilation. The purity of air, the temperature and the movement of air are
few of the many factors to be considered. The comfort of an occupied
space depends as much on its condition as on its freshness. Although
humidity is invisible to our eyes, we can easily observe its effects. In human
terms, we are more comfortable and more efficient with proper
humidification. In business and industrial environments, the performance
of equipment and materials is enhanced by effectively applying humidity
control. Maintaining indoor air quality through humidity management can
lower the energy costs, increase productivity, save labour and maintenance
costs, and ensure product quality. Controlled humidification helps to protect
humidity-sensitive materials, personnel, delicate machinery and equipment.
Beyond the important issues of comfort and process control, humidity
1
2 Humidification and ventilation management in textile industry
control can help safeguard against explosive atmospheres. In short,

humidification can provide a better environment and improve the quality
of life and work.
Air free from dirt, debris and fibres that is closely maintained within
fixed limits of temperature and humidity is a vital necessity to the textile
industry. It is not only because of the changes in dielectric properties and
tensile properties of fibres due to varying humidity and temperature, but
also for maintaining a clean working environment. The generation of static
electricity while processing in spinning and weaving creates dust and fibre
fly (fluff). Higher moisture content lowers the insulation resistance and
helps to carry off the electrostatic charge. Hence, relative humidity needs
to be maintained above the lower limit, specified for various textile
processes so as to avoid the problems of yarn breakage in dry and brittle
condition and also minimise the build up of static charge so as to reduce
dust and fibre fly (fluff).
1.2 Relation of humidity to working in the textile

mills
Correct ambient conditions are essential to prevent degradation of textile
materials during a series of operations right from beating in blow room to
weaving fabric at loom shed or knitting the fabric or producing non-woven
sheets. Fibres should have requisite properties so that the final product
retains its basic shape, size and strength. Above certain moisture limit, i.e.
above the upper limit of relative humidity for the fibre and the process,
fibres tend to stick and lead to formation of laps on the rolls which disrupt
the production process. Removal of laps is not only a manual and time-
consuming process, but results in the damage of machine parts, especially
the rubber coatings. Fibres become brittle and store electric charges
generated because of friction between the fibres during their
individualisation process when atmospheric relative humidity is very low.
In case of weaving, as the warp yarns are coated with size film, the
environment should be suitable for the size film on the yarn. Too low
humidity makes size film brittle resulting in cracking of the film, where as
too high humidity makes the beam soft.
Modern spinning equipments are designed to operate at high spindle
speed; however, the increase in ambient temper ature curtails the speed
limits of operation. Moreover, the sophisticated electronic controls in
modern textile machinery also require controlled temperature which should
not exceed 33°C or so. It is also necessary to limit the range of temperature
to which the textile machinery is exposed, since the steel and aluminium
parts of machinery which expand at different rates with temperature rise
Need for maintaining humidity 3
(due to difference in co-efficient of thermal expansion) will be subjected

to mechanical stress. Hence, along with the maintenance of stable relative
humidity conditions, recommended for different textile processes, it is also
desirable to maintain the temperature level within a range, without
fluctuation.
Mechanical properties of fibres and yarns also depend on the
surrounding temperature conditions to which these are exposed during
the textile process. Apart from the dust levels, the stickiness in some of
the cottons also demands controlled weather. When cotton is sticky, higher
humidity creates sticking of fibres to rollers and other parts of the machine.
The general reasons for controlling temperature and humidity in a textile
mill are as follows:
● Dry air causes lower regain and this contributes to poor quality and
lower productivity.
● Yarns with low moisture content are weaker, thinner, more brittle
and less elastic, create more friction and are more prone to static
electrification.
● Materials at optimum regain are less prone to breakage, heating and
friction effects; they handle better, have fewer imperfections, are more
uniform and feel better.
● Higher humidity reduces static problems. Reduced static makes
materials more manageable and increases machine speed.
● Textile weights are standardised at 60% RH and 20°C. Low humidity
causes lower material weight and lowered profits.
● Low humidity causes fabric shrinkage. Maintained humidity permits
greater reliability in cutting and fitting during garment creation and
contributes to the maintenance of specification where dimensions
are important, such as in the carpet industry.
● Humidification reduces fly and micro-dust, giving a healthier and
more comfortable working environment.
Adequate yarn humidity (moisture in yarn) is needed to enhance the
strength and the elasticity and to have smooth yarn surface. Both tensile
strength and elasticity depend on fibre and spinning characteristics, on
warp pre-treatment (slashing) and increase with moisture content of the
yarn being fed into the weaving process. Hairiness depends on the spinning
system, speed, humidity and the fibre quality. Higher spindle speed, lower
humidity and abrasion while spinning are the major reasons for increased
hairiness. It is reduced by slashing, as fibres protruding from the yarn are
glued to it. Moisture content smoothens the hairs and lubricates the yarn
surface. Abrasion between yarns, mainly in the shed area, removes short
fibres (lint) and size dust from the warp yarn. Adequate yarn moisture
reduces the fall out.
While weaving, the yarn adsorbs water from the air. Lint and dust falling
out from the yarn are incorporated into the room air. Power consumed by
the loom and other devices in the room is converted into heat and
incorporated into the room air. This heat evaporates the moisture from
yarn. Previous results show that yarns perform best in weaving machines
when their moisture content is 7–9% (parts of water in 100 parts of dry
yarn). Less moisture reduces strength, elasticity and smoothness. Higher
moisture may make the size glue the warp yarns together. Therefore, there
is a need to humidify the area with suitable controls.
Maintaining adequate high RH levels provides the most effective and
economical means of preventing the build-up of static charges. With high
RH, an invisible film of moisture forms on surfaces in the room. The
presence of normal impurities makes this film a conductor that carries
static electricity harmlessly to the ground before it can harm. A relative
humidity of at least 45% is needed to reduce or prevent the accumulation
of static charges, although some materials such as wool and certain
synthetic fabrics may require higher RH levels. Similarly, heat-generating
machines may require higher RH to provide sufficient moisture in proximity
to the machine to dissipate static charges.
Due to high heat dissipation from spinning as well as weaving and
knitting equipment, there is a significant increase in temperature conditions
particularly in the vicinity of the machinery and their driving motors. The
natural wax covering cotton fibres softens at these raised temperature
conditions, thereby adversely affecting the lubricating property of wax
for controlling static and dynamic friction.
Increase in temperature beyond the design limit also reduces the relative
humidity condition near the processing elements of the machinery. Hence
textile air-engineering design has to take care of controlled air flow within
the textile machinery for dissipating heat generated at the source and it is
customary to carry the waste heat along with the return air to the return air
trench. The quantity of return air going to exhaust or re-circulation is
regulated for controlling the inside design conditions.
The requirement of humidity is lower at blow room at around 45–50%,
moderate at spinning processes from carding to ring spinning at around
55%, around 65% in winding and warping, where as weaving rooms need
high relative humidity of 80–85% at the warp sheet level, i.e. at ‘loom
sphere’, whereas it would suffice to maintain general humidity condition
in the room at around 65% RH. Knitting operation also requires a stable
relative humidity condition at 55±5% for precise control of yarn tension.
Hence it is important to maintain stable relative humidity conditions within
the prescribed tolerance limits at all steps of textile processing.
Workers are a part of manufacturing process. Therefore, the conditions
maintained in the shed should not only be comfortable for the process and
the product but they should also be comfortable to the people. Following
table gives generally recommended humidity levels in a textile mill:
Table 1.1 General recommendations of RH% in a textile mill
Department Cotton Man-made Department Wool (%)

(%) fibres (%)
Opening and picking 45–60 50–55 Raw wool storage 50–55

Carding 50–55 50–60 Mixing and blending 65–70
Silver lapping 55–60 55–65 Carding – worsted 60–70
Ribbon lapping 55–60 55–65 Carding – woolen 60–75
Combing 55–65 55–65 Combing – worsted 65–75
Drawing 50–60 50–60 Drawing – worsted –
Roving 50–60 50–60 Bradford system 50–60
Spinning 45–60 50–65 French system 65–70
Winding and spooling 60–65 60–65 Spinning – Bradford Worsted 50–55
Twisting 60–65 50–65 French (mule) 75–85
Warping 55–70 50–65 Woolen (mule) 65–75
Knitting 60–65 50–60 Winding and spooling 55–60
Weaving 70–85 60–70 Warping – worsted 50–55
Similar to the requirement of humidity, the temperature also plays a

very important role in the textile processes. Following are the normal
temperature levels followed in textile mills.
Table 1.2 Normal temperature levels followed in textile mills
Department Minimum temperature Maximum temperature
°C °F °C °F
Cotton mixing 27 80 33 92
Blow room 27 80 35 95
Cards and draw frames 27 80 35 95
Comber 27 80 33 92
Ring frame 30 85 35 95
Winding 27 80 33 92
Warping 27 80 33 92
Weaving 21 70 31 88
1.3 Dust control

Normally, the term ‘textile mill’ reminds of cotton dust laden environment.
Major problem of cotton dust exists in the blow room and carding section
of spinning mill, whereas exposure level in other areas is comparatively
not much. In spinning mill, the extent of cotton dust contamination varies
from section to section; it is worst in the blow room and minimum at the
cone winding section.
Cotton dust is defined as dust present in the air during the handling or
processing of cotton, which may contain a mixture of many substances
including ground up plant matter, fibre, bacteria, fungi, soil, pesticides,

non-cotton plant matter and other contaminants which may have
accumulated with the cotton during the growing, harvesting and subsequent
processing or storage periods. Any dust present during the handling and
processing of cotton through the weaving or knitting of fabrics, and dust
present in other operations or manufacturing processes using raw or waste
cotton fibres and cotton fibre by-products from textile mills are considered
cotton dust within this definition. The workers are exposed to such working
environment and inhale fibrous particles and dust whole day. Generally
air suction system exists in all departments to maintain certain humidity
and to remove air contaminants; however, at some places it works
effectively, but at certain areas improper air exchange results into
suffocation and inconvenience for the workers. In a weaving mill, fibrous
particles in small quantity are present in the working environment, which
are inhaled by most of the workers. These small fibrous particles are
generated during weaving activities and disperse in occupational air. It is
therefore essential to have sufficient circulation of filtered air. Air washers
and ventilation systems are very essential for this.
All textile manufacturing processes, except garment making, generate
environmental pollution. During cotton spinning and weaving, dust and
fly are released into the air streams of the production departments. Most
of the modern textile mills are equipped with automatic waste removal,
dust filtration and humidification plants. The dust and fly released by the
machines are sucked away by suction nozzles and ducts. The dust laden
air is filtered, humidified and re-circulated. The number of air changes
per hour is optimised in each department to keep the air streams clean and
hygienic to prevent any risk to the health of the workers. The normal air
changes are as follows:
Table 1.3 Normal air changes per hour
Department Number of air changes

per hour
Blow room, drawing, combing and roving 15
Carding 20
Spinning 45
Winding 30
Twisting, warping, sizing and weaving 20
To minimize risk of industrial diseases such as byssinosis (lung

disease) among the workers, the US Occupational Safety and Health
Authority (OSHA) has specified concentration limits of dust in the air
streams of production rooms for compliance by the concerned industries
as follows:
● 0.5 mgm per cubic metre, from blowing to roving preparation and
for manufacture of nonwovens.
● 0.2 mgm per cubic meter, for spinning, twisting, winding and warping.
● 0.75 mgm per cubic metre, for sizing and weaving.
With the industrial growth, the quality of air has been considerably
deteriorated. Atmospheric air contains lot of aerosol. This has created the
need for air-conditioning, which implies fresh air supply, removal of
aerosols and heat, and air motion for cooling and refreshing. Compliance
with the above listed limits for air cleanliness brings in economic benefits
for the textile mills in the form of improved worker attendance, product
quality, process efficiency, reduced end-breakage rate in spinning and
weaving mills and improved yield of yarn.
Because of this need, the textile industry is one of the largest industrial
users of air-washing equipment. Similar equipment is used in other
industries such as automotive industry spray paint booths, tobacco industry,
hospital surgery and nursery rooms, photographic film manufacturing
plants and aircraft industry’s clean rooms. Each of these industries normally
uses water in a gas scrubbing device to clean and process air so that it
meets their particular clean air standards. The use of air-washing equipment
in the textile industry is more difficult to understand than in other industries
as there are many different processes and different combinations of
processes in one plant. Air washers are utilised throughout the various
processes in cotton mills where raw cotton is processed into woven cotton
fabric. They are also used in blending plants where raw cotton is processed
and blended with synthetic staple into yarn and then woven into blended
fabric. Man-made fibre plants producing nylon or polyester yarn also use
air washers. Fibreglass plants producing fibreglass yarn for tyre cord and
other industrial uses also utilise air washers extensively. Some of these
plants have gas-scrubber systems which double as plant air washers and
which present some of the most difficult water-treatment problems. Air
washers are found extensively in knitting plants including ladies’ hosiery
plants, and in carpet mills where carpet yarn is processed and dyed, as
well as in the carpet weaving plants. Dyeing, finishing, and bleaching
processes generally do not require air washer systems; but these processes
are often located in the same plant as one or more of the previously
described processes. For example, a plant blending cotton with synthetic
staple to produce drapery material may have another section of the plant
where they dye this material, finish it, and possibly run it through a printing
process. Although dyeing and finishing operations do not require air
washers, they have started using various types of smoke-abatement
equipments to control vapours emanating from the plant from some of

these finishing processes.
1.4 Control of air pollution

The textile industry is plagued by air pollution problems which must be
resolved. In particular, smoke and odour arising in the process require
abatement. The major air pollution problem in the textile industry occurs
during the finishing stages, where various processes are employed for
coating the fabrics. After the coatings are applied, the coated fabrics are
cured by heating in ovens, dryers, tenter frames, etc. A frequent result is
the vapourisation of the organic compounds into high molecular weight
volatile organic (usually hydrocarbon) compounds (VOCs). In terms of
actual emissions, the industry must also deal with larger particles,
principally lint. The other problem is the creation of VOCs, which take
the form of visible and invisible smoke, and objectionable odour. Smoke
is basically made up of tiny solid or liquid particles of VOCs less than one
micron in size that are suspended in the gaseous discharge. When the
smoke/gas mix goes up the stack, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) measures the density or opacity of the emission using an official
transparent template, and labels the opacity as ranging from 0 to 100%.
The more opaque the smoke, the more visible it is. Opacity of smoke is
actually related to the quantity, rather than the weight, of particles present
in the gas.
The problem with odour is that it is not practically measurable. It is a
sensation originated by interaction between molecules of hydrocarbons
and ten million nerve fibres in the human olfactory membranes. The human
nose can differentiate between 4000 different odours. The odours
associated with textile plant emissions are usually caused by hydrocarbons
with molecular weight less than 200, and fewer than 15 carbon molecules
(C1 to C14). These odorous molecules attach themselves to the particles
of smoke and can be carried at great distances from their point of origin,
causing complaints. Proper system for collecting the polluted air and
directing it for suitable treatment is an important aspect of air controlling
in textile industry.
1.5 Air changes

The number of air change is an important factor to ensure that air is clean
and safe. The number of air changes required depends on the type of activity
being taking place. Following table gives the specified air changes for
different levels of air controls:
Table 1.4 Specified air changes at different levels of air control
ISO Controls Air velocity Air changes HEPA coverage

class at table level rate per hour as % of ceiling
in FPM
1 Stringent 70–130 >750 100
2 Stringent 70–130 >750 100
3 Stringent 70–130 >750 100
4 Stringent 70–110 500–600 100
5 Stringent 70–90 150–400 100
6 Intermediate 25–40 60–100 33–40
7 Intermediate 10–15 25–40 10–15
8 Less stringent 3–5 10–15 05–10
The method used to calculate CFM requirements for a given fan or fans
is based on complete number of changes of air in a structure or room in a
given period. To determine the CFM required, the room volume (in cubic
ft.) is divided by the appropriate ‘minutes per air change’. In textile industry
the minutes per air change ranges from 5 to 15. Additional considerations
are local code requirements on air changes, specific use of the space and
the type of climate in the area. Air changes are required more when the
people working in a section, the generation of heat, or the generation of
dust is more and the maximum dust level is allowed in the air.
When considering air purification systems, it is typical to evaluate the
filter media, product efficiency claims, and the size and portability of the
unit. The most important factor in the success of any system is the frequency
of air changes per hour (ACH) that the system can create. The rate of
ACH determines the rate at which the total volume of air in the room is
cleaned by an air purification system, which is a major factor in the degree
of air cleaning that can be achieved.
1.6 Humidity and the health

Providing ideal indoor air quality includes air purity, temperature and
moisture level. A low humidity level can be as unhealthy and uncomfortable
as excessive humidity. Dry air causes dry, rough and flaky skin because
the skin’s outer layers lose moisture to the surrounding air. Respiratory
passages such as the nose and throat also lose moisture from their
membranes causing dryness and irritation. Low levels of humidity can
also contribute to respiratory infections, allergic and asthmatic symptoms
and an increase in airborne dust and allergens. If the humidity level is too
low, bacteria, viruses, respiratory infections and allergic asthma will
increase. If the humidity level is too high, dust mites and fungi/mold will
proliferate and allergic asthma will also increase.
Numerous studies done by ASHRAE and other indoor air quality experts,
suggest an optimum RH range of 40–60%. Dryer or wetter causes different
kinds of problems, at each extreme. See the chart below, based on ASHRAE
sponsored research. The shaded portions indicate problems. For example,
bacterial problems shall be less at 26–60% RH and viral problems from
43 to 70%. Most of the problems are not there between 45% and 55%, as
can be seen from the table.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
RH 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Bacteria
Viruses
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Fungi
00000000000
Mites 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Respiratory infections 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Allergic rhinitis and
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
asthma
Chemical interactions
Ozone production
1.1 Comfortable levels of humidification. (ASHRAE findings)
1.7 Protection of electronics and equipments

The last 2 decades have seen a major shift in the technology adopted in
textile industry. The manual operations are being replaced by automations
controlled by programmed electronic logic systems. It is not only the case
with testing laboratories; but monitoring of speeds, settings, temperature,
humidity and various other factors are also controlled by electronic gadgets.
Central to all electronic circuits today is the IC (integrated circuit) or ‘chip’.
The heart of the IC is a wafer-thin miniature circuit engraved in
semiconductor material. Electronic components and chips in particular
can be overstressed by electrical transients (voltage spikes). This may cause
cratering and melting of minute areas of the semiconductor, leading to
operational upsets, loss of memory or permanent failure. The damage may
be immediate or the component may fail sooner than an identical part not
exposed to an electrical transient. A major cause of voltage spikes is
electrostatic discharge (ESD). Although of extremely short duration,
transients can be lethal to the wafer-thin surfaces of semiconductors.
Electrostatic discharge may deliver voltage as high as lightning, and it
strikes faster. In addition to the risk of damage to electronic devices from

static electricity charges, there are grave risks associated with sparks from
static charges in many process applications. Static electricity is extremely
dangerous in the presence of gases, volatile liquids, or explosive dusts
such as is found in munitions plants, paint spray booths, printing plants,
pharmaceutical plants, and other places. Many static control products
(special mats, carpeting, sprays, straps, etc.) are available, but they cannot
replace the work done by humidification, which is a passive static control,
which means working to control static all the time. However, care should
be taken to ensure that there are no condensations on electronic parts. The
RH preferred is from 40 to 70%.
Conclusions
The need for providing conditioned and controlled air, monitoring the air
movement in textile industry is very essential not only from the point of
view of product quality and productivity, but also for the consideration of
the health of employees and the community around. Extensive works have
been done to design the best possible combination considering the
effectiveness and the cost implications. It is not possible to discuss all the
available systems, but some of the widely used systems are discussed in
the further chapters.
2
A glance at the developments
2.1 General
While moving heat via machinery to provide air conditioning is a relatively
modern invention, the cooling of buildings is not. The concept of air
conditioning is known to have been applied in ancient Rome, where
aqueduct water was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool
them. Medieval Persia had buildings that used cisterns and wind towers to
cool buildings during the hot season: cisterns (large open pools in a central
courtyards, not underground tanks) collected rain water; wind towers had
windows that could catch wind and internal vanes to direct the airflow
down into the building, usually over the cistern and out through a downwind
cooling tower. The evaporation of cistern water made the air cool in the
building.
The concept of modern air conditioning was first established by an
American Mr. Stuart W. Cramer in the beginning of 20th century. The
term ‘air conditioning’ was coined by him and defined it as a process of
treating the air so that its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution
with in the room are controlled simultaneously. He was exploring ways to
add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term air
conditioning as an analogue to ‘water conditioning’, then a well-known
process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with
ventilation to ‘condition’ and changed the air in the factories, controlling
the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier further developed
the system, and in 1906 the first Buffalo humidifier and air washer plant
was designed. He adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of
his company. This evaporation of water in air, to provide a cooling effect,
is now known as evaporative cooling.
Early commercial applications of air conditioning were manufactured
to cool air for industrial processing rather than personal comfort. Modern
air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th
12
A glance at the developments 13
century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented
and used in 1902 by Willis Haviland Carrier. Designed to improve
manufacturing process control in a printing plant, his invention controlled
not only temperature but also humidity. The low heat and humidity were
to help maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later,
Carrier’s technology was applied to increase productivity at the workplace,
and the Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet
rising demand. Over a time air conditioning came to be used to improve
comfort in homes and automobiles. Residential sales expanded dramatically
in the 1950s.
Early textile mills had north light roofing to get a uniform sunlight.
Further there used to be windows and number of openings so that the air
could move freely. However, these buildings were not able to protect the
temperature and humidity inside the working area. Any change in outside
temperature or humidity was affecting the work. Normally there used to
be problems in the evenings when temperature was changing, and also in
the afternoons when out side temperature was high. The supervisors had
the main task of getting water sprinkled on the floor in the afternoons, and
getting all windows closed in the nights. There used to be closed steam
pipes to heat the section when the temperature was low. Heating lamps on
draw frames, speed frames and combers was a common feature. The
experience of the technician and the speed at which he could monitor the
facilities was very important for smooth working. After the false ceilings
were introduced, the effect of outside humidity and temperature got
reduced, and also the amount of air to be controlled became less. The
windows were permanently closed, which helped further to control the
temperature and humidity.
As the speed of machinery increased, the precision in controlling
temperature and humidity became prime necessity. The central air washer
plants with automatic controls became an inseparable part of textile mills.
Just a few years ago, textile air washers were designed primarily as
low-air-velocity, non-chilled water systems. They were so large that air-
washer rooms were an integral part of the building housing the textile
operation. Lint and fibre screens ahead of the washers were non-existent
in many cases, and the washer rooms were typically filled with cotton lint.
The warm water in the washer was a perfect environment for bacteria.
Lint, dirt, and other suspended matter in the water continually plugged air
washer spray nozzles, reducing the efficiency. As the industry began to
install air conditioning equipment, these units were upgraded and modified
to perform properly with chilled water.
2.2 Unit humidifiers

Unit humidifiers came into picture in the middle of last century, which
almost became an integral part of textile mills. Unit humidifier or Semi-
Central Duct Unit is a combination of axial flow fan, one or more
centrifugal atomisers, air mixing chamber with interconnected fresh air
and return air dampers to take fresh air as well as to re-circulate
departmental air, a set of large area V-shaped air filters and fabricated
distribution duct with eliminator-type grills. If required, steam heating coils
can also be mounted on return air damper of the mixing chambers.
Roof
Eliminator -
Fresh air Return air dampers
Duct cum-diffuser
dampers
000000000000
Fan Man hole
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00000000 00000000 00000000

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Return water
turf
Humidifier
Heater
Production department
2.1 Unit-type plant.
Different models with various fan capacities from 12000 to 25000 cfm are
available in the market. Unit humidifiers are normally fitted at the top
near the ceiling. The ducts normally shall be extended up to 50 ft (15.2 m).
2.3 Central station-type plant

Early system of air cooling consisted of a cooling coil arrangement in
which supply air was cooled and dehumidified by indirect heat exchange
with cold water pumped through tubing. Willies Carrier, the developer of
air washers, surmised that an alternative design using direct contact
between the air and chilled water might improve performance. In his early
air-conditioning systems, he observed that although the air came in contact
with water on the cooling coil surface, dehumidification occurred. In a
2.2 Semi-central humidification unit.
typical air washer, water droplets are brought into direct contact with the
air resulting in the exchange of heat and mass (moisture) from the air to
the water droplets. If the temperature of supplied water is below the entering
air dew-point temperature, moisture from the air will condense onto the
water droplets; thereby, dehumidifying the supply air stream. If the
incoming air is hot and dry, it takes up the moisture and increases the
humidity.
Air washer plants are big centralised units which use water spray from
a bank of nozzles on air moving with a force. The water spray not only
adds humidity but also cleans the air from dust by making them wet and
heavy, which fall down. A set of eliminators prevent the movement of
water droplets and the dust particles along with the humidified air. Hence,
the production area gets humidified clean air.
2.3 Air-washer plant developed by Willies Carrier.

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Diffusers
Duct
Eliminators
Air washer
00 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 Fan
00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 Return air dampers
Heater
Fresh air
dampers
2.4 Central station – air washer.
The central station-type plants have two units. The main plant consisting
of a fan, air washer and other accessories is located in a plant room, which
is out side the conditioned space. Only the air distribution system is in
conditioned area. The distribution duct is connected with the plant, but is
not an integral part of it. The fan, air washer and circulating pumps are
normally at floor level and have an easy access, where the ducts are at
roof level.
The circulating fan may be either centrifugal type or an axial flow type.
The fan may be installed before the air washer or after the air washer. The
first type is called as blow- through where as the second one is called as
suck-through.
Central station plants are more costly than the unit plants. But they are
more reliable and easily accessible for inspection and maintenance. The life
of these plants is also longer. Air coming out of air washer plants is normally
at 95%, where as in unit plants it is above 100%, and some moisture is
carried with the air in the form of fine mist. Therefore, for the same quantity
of air handled, the Unit humidifiers give more evaporative cooling. However,
dry bulb temperature shall normally be higher inside the department because
of less air circulation in case of Unit humidifiers. The central station type is
more suitable for refrigerative cooling as chilled water can be added as

required. Also dehumidification is possible by supplying water with a
temperature less than the dew point temperature of the air.
As the requirement of air with predetermined temperature and humidity
became need of the day, air heaters and air coolers were developed and
installed along with the humidification plants. Normally, closed steam
radiators or steam coils were installed in the path of air flow after the
humidification unit. Later electrical heating coils with thermostat controls
were introduced. In case of steam coils, the steam pressure was manually
adjusted and monitored, where as with thermostat the temperature is
controlled automatically. A combination of controls of humidity,
temperature and circulation of air led to the concept of air conditioning.
Most of the air-conditioning systems perform the functions of providing
the cooling and heating energy required, conditioning the supply air, that
is, heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and purify, and attenuate
any objectionable noise produced by the HVAC&R equipment, distributing
the conditioned air containing sufficient outdoor air to the conditioned
space and controlling and maintaining the indoor environmental parameters
such as temperature, humidity, cleanliness, air movement, sound level,
and pressure differential between the conditioned space and surroundings
within predetermined limits.
In central hydronic air-conditioning systems, also called as central air-
conditioning systems, air is cooled or heated by coils filled with chilled or
hot water distributed from a central-cooling or -heating plant. It is mostly
applied to large buildings with many zones of conditioned space. An air
system, which is called as air-handling system, is used to condition,
transport and to distribute the conditioned or re-circulated air, get outdoor
air or exhaust air to control the indoor environment according to the
requirement. The major components of an air system are the air-handling
units, supply/return ductwork, fan-powered boxes, space diffusion devices,
and exhaust systems.
Different types of air-handling units are now available which are tailor-
made for the industry or the purpose for which it is applied. The
humidification and ventilation systems used in textile industry can be
grouped in different categories. However, the control of desired conditions
at the work area requires a scientific knowledge of the properties of air
and the competency of the equipment being used. If we are just running a
plant without understanding the basic properties of air and its relations
with water and water vapour, we shall not be able to achieve the required
results, but might end up with more losses. The ventilation requirement
varies widely depending upon the type of industries and nature of work.
In certain industries, beside normal ventilation, air pressurisation is also
required.
2.4 Supplementary humidification

With the season changing, the out side temperature and humidity condition
shall be continuously varying. If the air washer capacity is designed to
handle the driest weather, the plant has to be under utilised in other seasons.
Therefore, the plants are designed considering the normal weather
prevailing for maximum number of days in a year. The deficiency in
capacity can be supplemented by direct water atomisation units especially
for use in dry summer days. Bahnson L-type centrifugal fans were widely
used earlier, but because of its problem of letting coarse drops of water,
its usage is reducing. The pneumatic atomisers are becoming popular
because of good atomisation and better distribution.
2.5 All-air system

Where high relative humidity levels are to be maintained as in the loom
shed, the common practice was to provide supplementary systems. The
main plant can provide around 60% RH, and the remaining 20% is provided
by Bahnson L-type fans. It is possible to achieve the required 80% humidity
without using supplementary humidification, but by increasing the number
of air changes. Use of two systems such as central unit and supplementary
units is called as split system as the responsibility of providing required
conditions is split into two units. The system eliminating supplementary
unit and managing with only central units are called as all-air system. Air
circulation capacity of the main plant in the case of all-air system should
be quite high, around three times, as compared to split system. This results
in very high capital cost as well as operational cost. However, the all-air
system provides uniform humidity throughout the department compared
to supplementary humidification. Further the water droplets that are
condensed in split humidification can corrode machine parts. The studies
have shown that with air-air system the loom efficiency is higher compared
to supplementary humidification. This increase in efficiency compensates
the increased capital expenses and the running expenses.
Although the air washer plants are supposed to provide 95% humidity
at the diffusers, it fails in a number of cases to reach even 80%. With all-
air system, the provision for supplementing the humidity by additional
humidifiers is not possible. Hence while designing a plant this point needs
to be considered.
2.6 Energy management

The recent developments in humidification are mainly concentrating on
energy savings and pollution control. Helmut Stueble’s invention (US
Patent No 283026 dated 5th March 1996) relates to a process for the cooling
and conditioning of a waste air generated in a textile room from machines
carrying out a textile process. The process comprises of drawing the heated
waste air from the textile room and passing the air through a liquid medium
heat exchanger; drawing a liquid cooling medium at a desired temperature
from a constant source and passing the liquid cooling medium through the
heat exchanger to cool the heated waste air, the liquid cooling medium
thereby being heated by the heated waste air; recycling at least a portion
of the cooled air exiting the heat exchanger back to the textile room; and
directing the heated liquid cooling medium from the heat exchanger to an
operative location in the textile process requiring a separate medium of
approximately the temperature of the heated liquid cooling medium, and
using the heated liquid cooling medium at the location as a source of the
separate medium to reduce the overall energy consumption of the textile
process. Open waters, well and/or tap water of the water supply network
are used for the heat exchange, whereby this water is used after utilisation
in the heat exchange at other locations for the cooling of the process and/
or as hot water for further utilisation in the process.
SITRA–PCRA Climo Control, developed in 2005, was sponsored by
the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA). It helps save
energy to the tune of 25–60% in the existing condition with a pay-back
period of 18 months. Climo Control consists of three different modules to
vary the speed of supplier fan, exhaust fan and water pump in the
humidification plant based on the outside climate. SITRA also developed
energy saving overhead cleaners in the same year and is named ‘SITRA–
PCRA Ener Optimisers’. SITRA has developed five different methods and
based on this, the investment would vary from 0.4 to 5 millions with a
pay-back period ranging from 4 months to 5 years.
Arun Shourie, chairman of PackPlast India, a pioneer in energy saving
projects in textile mill humidification developed Auto Return Air Cleanser
which cleans the return air of textile mill and reuses it, reducing the air
pollution as well as conditioning cost.
An apparatus and a method for humidifying a continuous textile material
are described in European Patent EP1428923 by Bertoldo, Franco 06/16/
2004. The apparatus comprises a rotatable drum having an internal cavity,
the side wall of which is formed externally by a side surface and a tank
facing the side surface. A conveying means for conveying the textile
material through the tank and means for supplying into the tank
substantially saturated steam at a pressure P v and at a temperature Tv and
for supplying into the internal cavity substantially saturated steam at a
pressure P c and at a temperature Tc. The conveying means comprise a
permeable belt for pushing the textile material into direct contact with the
side surface at least in the zone of tank, the steam supplied into the internal
cavity being kept at a pressure Pc less than steam pressure P v inside the
tank by a certain value so as to cause partial and controlled condensation
of the steam supplied into the tank onto the side surface and onto the
textile material.
In a very recent development (Patent Application No. 28/MUM/2007A
dated 26th Jan 2007) by Rakesh Pramodbhai Shah, Nilesh Prafulchandra
Varia and Devand Prafulchandra Varia, steam generated in the steam
generator is injected into the moist air generating chamber through the
insulated pipeline and water is sprayed in the chamber through nozzles.
Humidifier and conditioner chamber is connected with moist air generating
chamber through the insulated pipeline. Velocity of moist air and
temperature in the humidifier and conditioner chamber is controlled by
electronic control panel.
Geiger Stephan, LEU Karl and SUBUIS Robert (Ref International Patent
WO/2007/090313 dated 16 th Aug 2007 Application No PCT/CH2007/
000064) developed a device for evaporation of water.
2.5 Device for evaporation of water.
In this device for the evaporation of liquid, in particular for water, an

evaporation mat is used which is wetted with the liquid on which the liquid
evaporates. The evaporation mat comprises a textile fabric having fibres,
wherein the surface of the fibres is coated with a covering (which comprises
a cured reaction product of a polyamine and a polyalkylene glycol etherified
with end groups of the structure X-CH2[CH(OR)]WCH2–, in which structure
w is an integer from 0 to 1 and, when w is 0, X is a halogen; and when w
is 1, X is halogen and R is hydrogen, or X and R together are –O–.

Preferably, the evaporation mat is a consolidated non-woven which contains
fibres made of a synthetic thermoplastic which are bonded to one another
by means of thermoplastic hot-melt glue at their intersection points. The
devices are used for air humidification, for concentrating solutions, or for
evaporative cooling.
3
Different types of humidification
There are several ways to add moisture to air. Adding thermal energy to
vapourise the water and simply spraying water through misting nozzles
are the two popular categories. The best method depends on how much
water needs to be vapourised; how quickly and what equipments are already
available to help distribute the moisture. In case of very cold and dry
weather, direct injection of steam is used which gives immediate relief.
However, it is not suggested if the temperature is above normal human
body temperature, as it can cause uneasiness among the operators. The
systems adopted for humidifying differ significantly. Humidifying a
hospital operating room is different than those for a textile mill, an office
building, or even a laboratory. Different types of operations have
substantially different requirements for the achievement of proper relative
humidity. These requirements determine what means of humidification
one should use.
3.1 Steam humidification

Steam, evaporative pan and water spray are the popular humidifying
systems used conventionally. Each has particular advantages and
limitations which determine its suitability for a particular application.
Steam is ready-made water vapour that needs only to be mixed with the
air. With evaporative pan humidification, air flows across the surface of
heated water in the pan and absorbs the water vapour. Both steam and
evaporative pan humidification do not affect the temperature of the
humidified air. Water spray humidification disperses water as a fine mist
into the air stream where it evaporates. As it evaporates it draws heat
from the air and cools it.
22
Different types of humidification 23
3.1.1 Direct steam injection

Water is heated to the boiling point where it turns to steam vapour. The
steam is allowed to rise from the unit without the aid of a motorised fan.
This can be used virtually at all commercial, institutional and industrial
applications. Where steam is not readily available, self-contained steam
generating units or central system steam humidifiers are used. Steam
humidifiers use natural fuels like coal, wood, husk, bagasse, furnace oil,
diesel etc., or developed fuel such as electricity to generate steam droplets.
It produces the noisy sound of boiling water. Although the product may be
cheaper, but it costs more to operate than the impeller and ultrasonic type
humidifiers due to the high consumption of electricity used to heat the
water.
Direct Stream Humidification
Cross Section of Manifold
3.1 Direct steam humidification.
The early industrial systems used space heating steam boilers for
humidification. If there were not enough steam system leaks to meet
humidification needs, additional steam would be vented into the space.
When air handlers came along, various steam injection systems were
developed for large scale controlled humidification. Generally, the same
steam was used that provided space heat and perhaps ran industrial
processes. However, this steam contained boiler-water-treatment chemicals.
During the initial days of indoor air quality concerns people were scared
of using boiler chemicals. In some special cases, more environmentally
chemicals were used; but in more cases, dedicated boilers were needed.
This became expensive to install, especially for small facilities and for the
facilities that would otherwise not even have a boiler. This gave rise to the
electric humidification technology. The most recently developed
technology is the direct-fired gas humidification unit. Steam systems are
the most economical, when there is an existing boiler and the application
requires a lot of volume. Since boiler chemicals are still a concern in most
commercial applications, steam-to-steam heat exchangers have been
developed. This way, the low operating cost of the central boiler is obtained,
and there is a lower first cost than buying a dedicated boiler system. There
are also chemicals that are certified safe for humidification applications.
Direct fired natural gas humidifiers produce steam directly. They are
designed to operate with no extra steam pressure build-up and deal with
hard water fouling without the use of treatment chemicals. Direct fired
units are the most economical systems for large applications where there
is no existing boiler.
The first direct fired unit was introduced by DriSteem, and is called the
GTS Humidifier (Gas to Steam). It resembles a large fat-fryer with water
instead of oil in the tank. Units are available from 75 to 600 lbs h-1 steam
output and 100000 to 800000 BTUs per hour gas input.
3.2 Direct fired natural gas humidifier.
Direct steam injection was normally practiced in dry cold winters, as it

give both temperature and humidity, almost instantly. However, there were
problems of the steam getting condensed when it came in contact with
cold roof, and water drops used to fall down. This was very dangerous
when water drops fell on running material or on the machine parts, resulting
in jamming, lapping and breakdown of machines. Some times this led to

stains on the fabrics. Before refilling the water tank, the remaining water
including mineral deposits collected should be tipped out. Depending on
the water hardness the insert must be de-scaled once or twice a month by
using de-scaling agent. The deposits can also be scraped off with a tool,
e.g., a screw driver.
The main advantages of steam humidification are favourable price, a
high humidification performance and little maintenance. The vapourisation
principle guarantees absolutely germ, bacteria and mineral-free
humidification as residues remain in the tank.
3.1.2 Immersion
Immersion humidifiers incorporate electric heating elements in a reservoir
of water to provide humidification. Immersed heating elements raise the
temperature in a tank, boiling the water and generating steam that is sent
to a dispersal unit for absorption into the air. This type of humidifier is
slow to react to humidity changes if it has been off for a while, and typically
does not control the amount of minerals from the water that get introduced
into the air. This method is generally not recommended for data-centre
applications.
3.1.3 Steam canister

Steam canister humidifiers use electrodes inserted into the water reservoir
to pass current through the water, causing it to boil and to discharge pure
steam at 212°F at atmospheric pressure through a steam distributor. This
approach provides greater application flexibility than the infrared since
the canister does not need to be mounted in the conditioned air stream, but
it cannot react to changes in humidity as quickly if it has been off for a
while. The canister portion of the humidifier can be installed inside the air
conditioner or outside the air conditioner on ducts, on walls or in other
locations. The distributor can be mounted in the air conditioner, in duct
work or with a special blower box for free discharge in the space. The
piping for the distributor is specifically sized to match the humidifier’s
capacity and must be located to avoid condensate blockage during
operation. A steam canister humidifier must bring the water in the canister
up to boiling temperature before it is at full capacity, a process that can
take several minutes. It does this by passing an electrical current through
the water between electrodes. The mineral content in the water provides
the conductivity for this to occur. The unit is consuming energy during
this time, and the relative significance of this energy consumption varies
based on how many times the unit turns on and off. Consequently, if
operation is intermittent, steam canister systems will operate less efficiently

than anticipated, and the efficiency of the system may be reduced over
time as the system ages and the electrodes are consumed.
3.3 Steam canister.
As moisture is conveyed into the air unit’s air stream, efficiency can be
affected by losses in the hose and distributor system. The amount of loss
depends primarily on the length of the hose and number of bends. For
example, if the canister is generating 20 lbs h-1 of moisture at the canister
and 4 lbs h-1 is lost due to condensation, the net output is reduced to 16 lbs
h-1 emission. This loss is evidenced by water running back down the hose
to the drain or back into the bottle. Efficiency can also be negatively
impacted if the distributor is located close to the cold metal surfaces on
the leaving side of the evaporator coil because some of the hot steam will
condense on the metal rather than being absorbed into the air. Another
consideration for steam canister systems is water quality. They require
water conductivity levels of between 200MM (micromho) and 500MM
for optimal performance. Higher levels may result in excessive arcing,
and at levels below 060MM, there is insufficient conductivity for current
to flow between the electrodes. The water quality and number of hours of
operation determine the life of the electrodes, which are part of the
replaceable canister assembly. The minerals in the water cause the
consumption of the electrodes, and accordingly, canisters can last for
several weeks or several months. This is typically the only maintenance
item in the system.
3.1.4 Infrared humidification

Infrared humidifiers are typically installed within precision air conditioning
units. Infrared humidifiers use high intensity quartz infrared lamps over a
stainless steel humidifier pan. The infrared radiation from the lamps breaks
the surface tension of the water, allowing the air flowing across it to
evaporate and carry the moisture away as a particle-free vapour. This
provides very precise and fast humidification. The number and wattage of
the lamps depends on the size of humidifier and voltage utilised. When
humidification is called for, heat energy from the lamps is reflected onto
the water in the pan. The infrared radiation breaks the surface tension of
the water, allowing the air flowing across it to evaporate and carry the
moisture away as a particle-free vapour. The process takes less than six
seconds from turning on the bulbs to achieving full capacity, making
infrared humidifiers very responsive. The only time capacity is reduced is
if a bulb fails, but it can be easily and quickly replaced.
Because they do not depend on boiling water for evaporation to occur,
and because there is no loss due to condensation, infrared units typically
provide full rated capacity when operating. But because airflow for an
infrared humidifier comes from the precision air unit through a bypass,
the precision air unit’s airflow must be at the recommended level for the
humidifier to operate at full capacity. Water quality as measured in
micromho (MM) and total dissolved solids (TDS) has a negligible effect
on the performance and effectiveness of infrared humidifiers. Infrared
humidifiers can be used at any micromho level, even where water
conductivity levels are less than 060MM. The minerals in the water are
not evaporated into the air stream in the infrared process. Instead, they are
flushed through the system and either go down the drain or settle out in
the bottom of the pan. Serviceability of infrared humidifiers is simple,
with all components easily accessible for periodic cleaning. The quartz
lamps are located above and away from the water in the pan, minimising
the possibility of corrosion and burnout. The water pan must be cleaned
or changed out periodically because sediment drops out of the water and
scales on the pan. Most users simply keep two or more pans on hand that
can be changed out as necessary and cleaned as maintenance resources
permit.
3.1.5 Steam-to-steam humidifiers

Steam-to-steam humidifiers use a heat exchanger and the heat of treated
steam to create a secondary steam for humidification from untreated water.
The secondary steam is typically at atmospheric pressure, placing increased
importance on equipment location. Maintenance of steam-to-steam
humidifiers is dependent on water quality. Impurities such as calcium,
magnesium and iron can deposit as scale, requiring frequent cleaning.
Response to control is slower than with direct steam because of the time
required to boil the water.
Infra red lamps

Reflector
Dry Air in Moist Air

out
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00Water
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00tank
Solids in water driven down to bottom 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
3.4 Infrared humidifier.
3.1.6 Electronic steam humidifiers (electrode)

Electronic steam humidifiers are used when a source of steam is not
available. Electricity and water create steam at atmospheric pressure.
Electrode-type units pass electrical current through water to provide
proportional output. Use with pure demineralised, de-ionised or distilled
water alone will generally not provide sufficient conductivity for electrode
units. Water quality affects the operation and maintenance of electrode-
type humidifiers. Use with hard water requires more frequent cleaning,
and pure softened water can shorten electrode life. Microprocessor-based
diagnostics assist with troubleshooting. Electrode units are easily adaptable
to different control signals and offer full modulated output. However, the
need to boil the water means control will not compare with direct-injection
units.
3.1.7 Electronic steam humidifiers (ionic bed)

Ionic bed electronic humidifiers typically use immersed resistance heating
elements to boil water. Since current does not pass through water,
conductivity is not a concern. Therefore, ionic bed technology makes the
humidifier versatile enough to accommodate various water qualities. These

units work by using ionic bed cartridges containing a fibrous media to
attract solids from water as its temperature rises, minimising the build-up
of solids inside the humidifier. Water quality does not affect operation,
and maintenance typically consists of simply replacing the cartridges. Ionic
bed humidifiers are adaptable to different control signals and offer full
modulated output. Control is however exercised by the need to boil the
water.
3.2 Evaporative pan

The evaporative approach to humidification uses an evaporative pad with
air blowing across it. Typically, hot water is run over the pad and evaporated
as the air travels through it. The warmer the water, the more effective the
process is, using the energy in the water to aid the process. The evaporator
pad may be pressed out (not wrung out) in lukewarm water. Depending on
the level of scaling the pad must be replaced once or twice per season.
This approach is commonly seen in residential applications and is an
inexpensive method of humidification. However, it generally does not
provide the precision, cleanliness or speed-of-response required by data-
centre operations. This is recommended only as an alternative to self-
contained steam generating unit humidifiers for small load commercial or
institutional applications. This type of humidification is used in small
laboratories. Water in a glass pan absorbed by a wick evaporates providing
humidity.
Evaporative pan humidification can increase dry-bulb temperature as
measured on the psychrometric chart. This unwanted temperature change
may occur as air is forced across the warmed water in the pan. The increase
in DB can cause damaging results in process applications and increase the
need for humidity control. The psychrometric chart helps illustrate that
evaporative pan humidification is not a constant DB process.
Maintenance of evaporative pan humidification systems demands regular
cleaning of the heating coils and pan, which are subject to ‘liming up’.
The use of chemical additives added either automatically or manually to
the water in the pan can reduce this problem by as much as half. Response
to control with the evaporative pan method is slow due to the time required
for evaporation to take place before humidified air can be circulated. Output
is determined by water temperature and surface area. Evaporative pan
humidifiers can sustain bacteria colonies in the reservoir and distribute
them throughout the humidified space. High water temperatures, water
treatment, and regular cleaning and flushing of the humidifier help to
minimise the problem, however.
I remember the days when we were pouring water on floor during dry
and hot summer days. The water used to evaporate, and we were getting
good working. This system had a problem of lint accumulation, and keeping
the working area clean was very difficult. Sometimes, the people used to
slip on the wet floor. In case any material fell on floor, everything was to
be thrown as waste because of staining. There are different styles in
evaporative pan humidifiers:
Drum style. A pipe brings water directly to a reservoir (a pan) attached
to the furnace. The level of water in the pan is controlled by a float valve.
The wick is typically a foam pad mounted on a drum and attached to a
small motor. Hot air enters the drum at one end and is forced to leave
through the sides of the drum. When the hygrostat calls for humidity, the
motor is turned on causing the drum to rotate slowly through the pan of
water and preventing the foam pad from drying out. Advantages include
low cost and inexpensive maintenance. The disadvantages are requirement
for frequent inspections of cleanliness and pad condition, water evaporation
even when humidification is not required and mould growth in the pan
full of water.
Disc wheel style. Very similar in design to the drum style humidifiers,
this type of furnace humidifier replaces the foam drum with a number of
plastic discs. The discs look slightly like traditional gramophone records
with small grooves on both sides. This allows for a very large evaporative
surface area, without requiring a great deal of space. Unlike the drum
style humidifiers, the disc wheel does not need replacing. Advantages
include low maintenance, no replacement parts necessary, high output due
to large evaporative surface area, can be installed in hard water situations
and maintains efficiency throughout lifespan. The disadvantages are higher
price and water evaporation even when humidification is not required.
Flow-through style (also known as ‘biscuit style’ or many other, similar
variant names). A pipe brings water directly to an electrically controlled
valve at the top of the humidifier. Air passes through an aluminium ‘biscuit’
(often called a pad; using the term ‘biscuit’ to emphasise the solid rather
than foamy form) which is conceptually similar to a piece of extremely
coarse steel wool. The biscuit has a coating of a matte ceramic, resulting
in an extremely large surface area within a small space. When the hygrostat
calls for humidity, the valve is opened and causes a spray of water onto
the biscuit. Hot air is passed through the biscuit, causing the water to
evaporate from the pad and be carried into the building. Advantages include
reduced maintenance (new biscuit only when clogged with dust or mineral
deposits), lack of a pan of potentially stagnant water to serve as a breeding
ground for mould as with a drum-style humidifier, no incidental
humidification caused by a constantly-replenished pan of water in a high
velocity air stream, reduced requirement for expensive air filters and
replacement of the biscuit only when it becomes clogged with dust or
mineral deposits. Disadvantages are higher purchase price, manufacturer
and model-specific replacement biscuits versus the relatively generic drum-
style pads and the requirement for a drain provision.
3.5 Flow-through-type humidifier.
Fan-forced humidifiers. The most common humidifier, an ‘evaporative’

or ‘wick humidifier’, consists of just a few basic parts: a reservoir, wick
and fan. These units usually have a wicking device that absorbs water
from a reservoir and a motorised fan that blows air through the water soaked
wick to distribute moisture into the air through evaporation. Reservoirs
are common to all humidifiers and come in different shapes and sizes. The
reservoir is a containing tank of water filled prior to operation, and provides
the water for the moisture output. The wick is a filter that absorbs water
from the reservoir. Evaporation of water from the wick is dependent on
relative humidity. A room with low humidity will have a higher evaporation
rate compared to a room with high humidity. Therefore, this type of
humidifier is self-regulating: As the humidity of the room increases, the
water vapour output naturally decreases. These wicks regularly need
cleaning and replacement to get effective results. The fan is adjacent to
the wick and blows air onto the wick, thus aiding in the evaporation of the
water within the wick.
Atmospheric forced draft evaporator. Where the quantity of wastewater
is small and difficult to treat, atmospheric forced draft evaporator is the
ideal choice. Various models from 100 to 5000 litres per day capacities
are standard. Advantages and features are low capital cost, ease of operation
and maintenance, no addition of chemicals, very small quantity of sludge
and can handle difficult to treat wastewaters.
Working principle: Atmospheric evaporator consists of feed pump,
evaporator tank with electrical or diesel heater, circulation pump, blower,
mixing tube, mist eliminator and humid air outlet. The wastewater from
the wastewater tank is pumped by the feed pump to the evaporator tank.
Electric or diesel heater heats the effluent in the evaporator tank. The hot
effluent is pumped into the mixing tube, through which air is blown from
atmosphere by the blower. The air and wastewater are thoroughly mixed
in the mixing tube and passes to the evaporator tank, before getting out
through the mist eliminator and humid air outlet. Electrical controls limits
the operation of feed pump, circulation pump and blower depends on the
levels in the evaporator tank and wastewater tank. Control system with
automatic on/off, safety shut off and switch gears with control panel are
provided with the system.
Blower
Mist eliminator
Humid air
Mixing outlet
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
tube
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Circulation pump
0 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Inlet pump Electrical
heater
0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Evaporator tank
000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Low level switch Drain valve
for heater off
Water tank
3.6 Atmospheric-forced draft evaporator.
Low temperature vacuum evaporator. The low temperature vacuum

evaporator vaporizes water at lower temperature around 40°C than normal
100°C due to vacuum. Hence vacuum evaporators are useful for recovery
of heat sensitive chemicals such as cyanide plating baths, recovery of
chemicals sensitive to air oxidation such as cyanide plating bath and
Stannous tin bath recovery of solutions containing volatile components.
The low temperature vacuum evaporator mainly consists of an
evaporator tank 2, evaporator heat exchanger 4, process water circulation
pump 3, refrigerant compressor 8, condenser heat exchanger 7, distillate

tank 11, vacuum producing venture 13, and distillate circulating pump 12.
The feed water enters the evaporator tank 2, and the feed water is circulated
by the pump 3 to evaporator heat exchanger 4, where the feed water is
heated by high pressure refrigerant from the refrigerant compressor 8. The
hot water flashed as water vapour into the evaporator tank at the top. This
water vapour passes through the mist eliminator 16 and the condenser
heat exchanger 7. The refrigerant from the evaporator heat exchanger
passes through air cooler and expansion valve and becomes cool liquid.
The cool refrigerant cools the hot water vapour to distillate. The distillate
is collected in the distillate tank. The distillate is circulated by the distillate
circulation pump through a venture, which produces vacuum in the
evaporator tank. The vacuum produced by the venturi in the evaporation
tank causes process water boils between 40 and 50°C. The concentrated
process water from the evaporator tank and the distillate from the distillate
tank are automatically drained by the electrical controls. All necessary
controls and switch gears are part of the system. Advantages and features
of this system are independent of solution heating requirements, less or
no air pollution, can handle heat sensitive compounds and carbonates do
not build up scales as with other evaporators.
00000000000
10
9
7
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
16 16
0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
2
13
1 000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
11
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
15 14
6
5
12 4
3
3.7 Low temperature vacuum evaporator.

Mechanical vapour recompression and multiple effect evaporator. 3R

Technology India offers MVR (Mechanical Vapour Recompression) and
Multiple Effect Evaporators for large volumes and energy economy, which
is energy efficient, since the latent heat of vaporisation is fully utilised
through vapour recompression and condensation. Typical layout of a MVR
Evaporator is shown in figure.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Mist eliminator
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Compressor
00000000000000
00000000000000 Feed
Heat
exchanger
Distillate
Circulation
pump
Concentrate
3.8 Multiple effect evaporator.
Working principle: The evaporated vapour flows through the mist

eliminator to the suction of the compressor. The vapour is pressurised in
the compressor and becomes super heated. The higher temperature
compressed vapour flows to the shell side of the heat exchanger. The
compressed vapour condenses by leaving its latent heat to the liquid film
circulated by the circulation pump on the tube side. Multiple effect
evaporators are designed to improve the energy economy of the evaporation
process. The basic principle is to use the heat given up by condensation in
one effect to provide heat for another effect. The vapour from the separator
of the first effect enters the falling film heat exchanger of the second effect,
while live steam heats in the falling film heat exchanger of the first effect.
The steam and cooling water rates for the double effect unit are
approximately 50% of those required for a single effect unit. Unit up to
nine effects can be built depends on flow rate and recovery economics.
Typical flow rates for multiple effect range from 3000 to 50000 LPH. The
major advantage of MVR and Multiple Effect Evaporators is the energy
economy. Typical MVR energy requirement is 0.05–0.15 kWh per kg of
water evaporated. The energy economy of multiple effect evaporators
depends on the number of effects and it vary from 220 kcal of thermal
energy per 1 kg water evaporation for a Triple Effect Evaporator to 120
kcal for a six effect evaporator. As the operating cost of MVR and Multiple
Effect Evaporators is low, large flow system favour its application in all
sectors of industry and also desalination of sea and brackish water.
Ultrasonic humidifiers. Ultrasonic humidifiers use a multiple of
piezoelectric transducers (physically similar in size to a nickel) that are
mounted under a pan of water. A metal diaphragm vibrating at an ultrasonic
frequency creates water droplets that exit the humidifier in the form of a
cool fog. The transducers vibrate 1.65 million times per second, causing
a mushroom-shaped water finger to form off producing micro droplets
0.52 cubic micron similar to steam. The droplet size remains constant
regardless of the life of the transducer. Heat used to change water to vapour
is absorbed from the surrounding air. High frequency oscillations are
created by a membrane contacting the water. These oscillations produce a
micro-fine water mist which is blown into the room by a small fan where
it evaporates immediately. The ultrasonic system, with its high-frequency
vibrations, destroys most bacteria and viruses. Although silent, Ultrasonic
Humidifiers should be cleaned regularly to avoid bacterial contamination
which may be projected into the air. In case of visible lime scale deposits
the nebuliser must be cleaned with a brush which is normally included
with the unit. The water tank can easily be cleaned of mineral deposits by
means of regular household decalcifying agents.
3.9 Ultrasonic humidifier.

Ultrasonic humidifiers get high marks for energy efficiency, but they
require mineral-free water for trouble-free operation. The cost and
maintenance of the water treatment system plus the cost of the humidifier
itself can often negate potential energy savings. Additionally, humidifier
placement is very critical to proper operation.
3.3 Water spray humidifiers

Circulating discs pull water up from a water filled pan and a motorised
fan blows air over these discs to distribute moisture into the air through
evaporation. They are referred to as air washers because the water in the
discs traps some airborne particles in the water reservoir. This type is
recommended for industrial applications where evaporative cooling is
required. It is typically employed in textile mills in the hot regions during
summer time. When properly designed and installed, humidification
systems offer great benefits for the safe operation of machinery and
equipment, the optimisation of employee comfort and large potential
savings in heating and cooling costs.
Drossopher system has a jet of water with atmospheric pressure of about
7 to 8 striking against a steel plunger breaking into fine water droplets.
This cools air around the water jet. This is installed overhead, and water
is allowed to flow down gradually over the loom. The requirement of high
pressure piping system, collection of return water, overhead mounting of
the humidifier making it difficult to clean and maintain are the main
drawbacks of this system. As new and simple systems are available, this
system has almost become obsolete.
The water spray process can create potential temperature control
problems. In order to become water vapour or humidity, water requires
approximately 1000 Btu per pound to vaporize. This heat must be drawn
from the air, where it will hopefully vaporize. If not enough heat is available
quickly enough, the water remains a liquid. This unvapourised water can
result in over humidification, and the water can ‘plate out’ on surfaces,
creating a sanitation hazard. Water spray contains virtually none of the
heat of vaporisation required to increase the RH of the air to desired
conditions. For this reason, water spray humidification is a virtually
constant enthalpy process.
Response of water spray humidifiers to control is slow due to the need
for evaporation to take place before humidified air can be circulated. On/
off control of output means imprecise response to system demand and
continual danger of saturation. Water spray systems can distribute large
amounts of bacteria, and un-evaporated water discharge can collect in ducts,
around drains and drip pans, and on eliminator plates, encouraging the
growth of algae and bacteria. Corrosion is another ongoing problem with

water spray humidification. Scale and sediment can collect on nozzles,
ductwork, eliminator plates, etc., leading to corrosion and high maintenance
costs.
3.3.1 Impeller humidifier (cool mist humidifier)

A rotating disc flings water at a diffuser, which breaks the water into fine
droplets that float into the air. This is used as a localised humidification
unit, especially above the mixing bins where stack mixing is followed.
This type of humidifier has a problem that dust in the air gets choked at
the edges and the water gets accumulated and big drops start falling. Hence
periodic cleaning with a hard brush fitted to a long bamboo stick is
practiced.
3.10 Impeller humidifiers.
3.3.2 Water atomisation with compressed air

Compressed air attains high velocity as it expands and this energy is utilised
to atomise water. There are two systems in pneumatic atomisers, viz., high
pressure system and low pressure system. The high pressure system
employs air at 2–3 kg cm -2.
Water may be introduced into the atomiser by vacuum created by using
compressed air as an ejector or it may also be supplied to the atomiser at
the same or at a slightly higher pressure than air pressure. The capacity
varies from 2.5 to 7 l h -1. The low pressure system employs air at about 0.5
kg cm -2 and water is also supplied at low pressure.
The water atomisation with compressed air is one of the cheapest
methods adopted. Although it has the disadvantage of absence of ventilation
3.11 Water atomisation with compressed air.
or air movement, it is being used in a number of small installations and

old textile units. Also it is used for increasing humidity in a localised area.
Its low cost, ease in installation and absence of any structure to house it
are the factors in its favour. Now mobile units are also available.
Compressed air
Pneumatic
atomizer
Float control Gauge glass

valve
water in
Water tank
Drain
3.12 Compressed air humidification.

3.3.3 The nozzle-free, horizontal airflow fogger

Nozzle free horizontal airflow foggers have unique design that simplifies
principal moving parts to one motor and its integral fan. Water or other
fluids are fed into the specialised hub of fan blade assembly where it is
subdivided and channelled into passage ways running the length of each
blade.
As liquid exits, it is atomised into ultra-fine fog particles. Aquafog is
an example of this type of units. Unlike other fogging systems which may
require permanent plumbing installation, high pressure pumps, complicated
filtration, and constant maintenance of clogged nozzles, Aquafog’s
streamlined one motor/one blade design produces and disperses fog using
a single nozzle-free blade assembly.
3.13 Nozzle-free horizontal airflow fogger.
3.3.4 Centrifugal disc humidifier

In this type of system, water is spinned around a disc and thrown away by
centrifugal force meets a circular comb that breaks the water into fine
3.14 Disc humidifier.

particles, which are carried away by air flow by the fan behind the rotating
disc. Because of the air circulation there is a good atomisation and
humidification. The commercially available humidifiers atomize 20–25 l
h-1water with about 1700–3500 m3 h -1 air circulation. This type is also
called as L-type centrifugal humidifier, throw lot of water in the form of
coarse water particles and hence its utility is getting reduced. It is not
used where sophisticated machines are working.
New methods are being developed world over with an intention to get
smallest particles of moisture to have effective humidification and to have
lower maintenance cost. In this chapter, we just glanced some of the
systems. In the next chapter, let us study in detail the systems normally
used in textile mills.
4
Air handling units in textile industry
4.1 Introduction
Willies Carrier designed spray-type air conditioner (air washer) for his
textile mill that became the basis for the modern air handling units used in
textile industry. Carrier used air washers extensively for cooling and
dehumidification in many industrial applications. Over a time, this air
conditioning approach became less popular in offices and commercial
places, but is still very popular in textile industry as in addition to
conditioning a supply air stream, air washers are capable of cleaning the
supply air stream with low air-side pressure drop and minimum
maintenance.
4.1 Air washer designed by Willies Carrier.
41
Chilled
Air Washer spray nozzles water
supply Mist
Pre-filter eliminator
Air entry
Fan
Conditioned air
Chilled water return and condensation
4.2 Components of an air washer plant.
Air-washer plants are big centralised units which use water spray from
a bank of nozzles on air moving with a force. The water spray not only
adds humidity, but also cleans the air from dust by making them wet and
heavy, which fall down afterwards. A set of eliminators prevent the
movement of water droplets and the dust particles along with the humidified
air. Hence the production area gets humidified clean air.
Functions of an air washer:
● Cool the air
● Humidify the air
● Dehumidify the air
● Clean the air of particles
● Hyper ionise the air
Figure 4.2 illustrates the major components in an air washer air-handling
unit. Chilled water is sprayed directly into a pre-filtered supply air stream.
The chilled water absorbs heat from the air and condenses moisture from
the air when the supply water temperature is below the entering air dew-
point temperature. The water spray nozzles can be arranged in co-flow or
counter-flow with the air stream. Also, an extended media-fill material
can be used to increase the surface area of water in contact with the supply
air stream. A downstream mist eliminator may be needed depending on
Air handling units in textile industry 43
the face velocity of air through the unit as well as the characteristics of the
water spray droplets.
Water sprays in an air washer configuration have the ability to filter air
with an efficiency of 95% for particles larger than 5 microns. Although
many micro-organisms are much smaller (around 1 micron), most micro-
organisms tend to agglomerate to form ‘macro particles’ with aggregate
sizes greater than their mono-disperse sizes. These micro-organisms can
be effectively scrubbed from a contaminant-laden air stream by an air
washer.
00 00 00 00
Chilled water
return Chilled water supply
00 00 00 00
Unconditioned
00 00 Conditioned
00 00 00 00
air in Fan air out
Final filter
Condensate drain
Pre-filter
Plate-finned cooling coils
4.3 Traditional central station air-handling unit.
In contrast to the air washer, Fig. 4.3 shows the major components in a
traditional central station air-handling unit using a plate-finned chilled
water cooling coil. In this arrangement, the water is supplied to a multi-
row cooling coil and does not come into direct contact with the supply air
stream. The chilled water cools the coil surface which in turn cools and
dehumidifies the supply air stream. Moisture from the supply air condenses
onto the coil surface and drains by gravity to a pan located beneath the
coil. Pre- and final filters are needed for particulate control. Although
pre-filters are generally located at upstream of coils, designers may locate
the final filters at either upstream or downstream of the cooling coil.
Air washers, as they are big in size, are normally a centralised system.
Central humidification plants are of masonry type, the components of the
plant are housed inside a civil room with brick wall and RCC slabs, and
usually are located adjacent to the production department at strategic
locations based on the nature of the truss for the feasibility of lay out of
overhead ducting with minimum length of travel and based on the ease of
connecting the underground trenches with minimum bends. Normally,
modern air washer plant components have unique features contributing
towards energy saving, ease of maintenance and long life, such as multiple
fans with direct drive, PVC diffusers, PVC air washer components with
galvanised MS/SS hardware. Filters of GI/SS and control dampers of
powder-coated sheet metal type/aerofoil aluminium extruded type. Spray
systems are designed and fitted with nozzles to produce a maximum of
90–95% saturation efficiency. The mills need to provide information on
size of the department (volume to be controlled, the installed heat
generating units like motors, machines, men employed, type of roof, false
ceiling, machinery load, light load, RH required, maximum and minimum
outside conditions, dry and wet bulb temperatures in summer and winter,
lay out of the machinery showing the proposed location of the plants, so
as to design a plant appropriate to the production facility.
Processes used in conditioning air from one state to another state vary
widely depending on factors like the volume and qualities of the air to be
conditioned, the temperature and humidity to which the air must be
conditioned and whether a portion of the conditioned air will be re-
circulated or 100% outside air will be used. Additionally, the qualities
desired in the conditioned air vary. In some instances only the temperature
of the air is important whereas in other instances the humidity of the air is
more important.
The various components of air handling units in textile industry include
centrifugal fans or axial flow fans, high pressure blowers, heavy duty
exhaust fans, air volume dampers, input air filters, mist eliminators, water
sump, spray nozzle bank, condensers, chillers, heat exchangers, steam
heaters, cooling coils, ducting, air distribution baffles or louvers, supply
air diffusers and grilles, return air grilles, split grilles, etc.
Spray air washers using spray water as the medium for adiabatic cooling
of air (by direct evaporation of water into the air stream thereby reducing
the air’s dry-bulb temperature and raising its humidity) are extensively
used in humidification systems for textile mills, due to the following
advantages:
● Significant saving in initial capital and energy costs with evaporative
cooling systems, compared to air-conditioning systems.
● Reduced power demand with reduction in electrical maximum
demand charges.
● Improved air quality due to air cleaning properties of spray water.
● Flexibility to use chilled water in air washer instead of normal
temperature water, when outside air is exceptionally hot and humid.
● Humidification system deploying water as cooling medium is
environment friendly.
Spray air washers, generally used in humidification plants, consist of a
chamber containing multiple banks of spray headers with spray nozzles, a
tank for collecting spray water as it falls and an ‘eliminator section’ with
PVC blades having 3 or 4 bends for removing droplets of water from the
air after passing through the curtain of spray water, before discharging to
the air ducts for distribution to production area. Air velocity, water spray
density, spray pressure and other design criteria are optimised by each
manufacturer, depending on the air-washer dimensions and spray header/
nozzle sizes and configuration and eliminator design which are developed
for different applications. Earlier designs of air washers were based on
low air velocity, up to 3 m s-1 (600 fpm). Some manufacturers have now
developed high velocity air washers operating at 6 m/s (1200 fpm) and
even up to 9 m s-1 (1800 fpm) air velocities which make the unit compact
and facilitate shipment in pre-fabricated and assembled condition.
However, high velocity air-washer designs require special eliminator design
and construction; and due to the additional pressure drop, the supply fans
are to be selected at a higher static pressure.
Resistance to air flow through the air washer varies with the type and
number of inlet baffles, eliminator design, number of spray banks, air
velocity, other components such as heating coil if any, dampers, etc. The
total pressure drop can vary between 15 mm and 30 mm w. g depending
on the overall size, air velocity, spray header and eliminator design.
Pre-fabricated air washer units with sheet metal casing and FRP-lined
MS tank and other internal components in assembled condition are
available in small and medium capacities up to 170000 m h-1 . (100000
CFM). For large capacity air washers, casing may be constructed in
masonry and water tank in RCC and components including spray system,
eliminators, spray pumps, supply and return fans, dampers, rotary return
air filters and water filters are assembled at site.
4.2 Supplying air to air washer plants

The supply air dampers or louvers regulate the amount of air fed to the air
washer plant. The dampers are made with light sheet metal which is rust
proof. They can be opened or closed as shown in Fig. 4.4. It can be either
operated manually or connected to a control unit which monitors its
opening.
Separate set of dampers are installed so as to facilitate either taking
only out side, or re-circulating the inside air. Some times a combination of
out side air and inside air shall be made.
The louvers are made with light sheet metal or PVC. The size of louvers
depends on the size of the windows or outlets. We can install either one
set of louvers for one window or multiple sets, so that a part of air movement
can be controlled.
0 0 0 0 0 000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000 0 0 0
00 00 00 00 Frame
0000
00 00 00 00
0000
00 00 00 00 Louvers
0000
00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 Handle
00 0 0 0
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 000 000 000
0000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 00 00 00 00
000
Damper Open Dampers Close
4.4 Supply air dampers.
Variable air volume (VAV) air-handling systems are equipped with

routine configurations and control applications that are regularly taken
for granted. For example, a single damper actuator often mechanically
links and controls the outdoor and return air dampers of an airside
economiser. Even if multiple actuators are used, they are often connected
to the same output from an electronic controller and still work in tandem.
Furthermore, when multiple actuators are controlled from different outputs,
the control sequence is generally written so the outdoor air damper opens
while the return damper closes at an equal rate. These control methods are
traditional, proven, and comfortable; but they do not necessarily represent
the best way of controlling.
About 50 years ago HVAC systems were constant-volume and variable-
temperature systems. Fan sheaves were needed to be adjusted, and
balancing dampers were set so that the constant-speed fan could maintain
a constant volume of air flowing at all times. Any variation in system
resistance affected the amount of airflow in the system. Many papers were
written and research was conducted to determine the best way of sizing
and selecting damper characteristics so that the pressure drop in the mixing-
box section of the AHU remained constant as the system went from
minimum outdoor air to 100% outdoor air.
ASHRAE research determined that in a simple, draw-through, single-
fan application, parallel-blade dampers for both the outdoor and return
air, when modulated in equal increments but in opposite directions from

return air to outdoor air, provided the most consistent system pressure
drop at all positions of the two dampers.
Opposed-blade dampers exhibited almost four times the pressure drop
with both dampers throttled 50% versus one damper opened 100% and the
other damper closed. Researchers concluded that parallel-blade outdoor
and return air dampers, modulated together, provide the most linear
response for constant-flow systems. Note that this example is for HVAC
systems with no return fan and almost equal pressure drop in the outdoor
and return air paths. To open both dampers 100%, when equal parts of
outdoor air and return air are required is not a complex control algorithm.
It merely requires sequencing the dampers.
Filters or strainers are installed in the supply air line to prevent unwanted
materials like leaf bits, fibres and dust particles coming along with air,
which might spoil the equipment and chock the air path. Normally, nylon
or polypropylene mesh is used in case of re-circulation of air, and wire
mesh is used for out side air inlets. The size of mesh shall depend on the
place of their installation. The mesh used for fresh air is made with sturdy
metal wires, and the openings are also bigger with areas of over 1 square
inch. The purpose of this mesh is to restrict the direct entry of large-sized
floating particles in out side air like leaves, papers bits and polythene
pieces. It also protects the plant from birds.
The air from the production area is taken from specially designed
underground trenches. Specially designed grills are provided to prevent
heavy materials like bobbins, cones, lumps of cotton, paper pieces, etc.,
from going in the trench.
Grills
Floor
Return air trench
4.5 Grilles.
In the return air ducts, meshes of different sizes are used in tandem.
The first set of mesh shall be coarser preventing heavy particles and lumps
of fibrous dust entering the plant, where as the subsequent meshes restrict
the flow of small dust particles and micro dusts.
Return air
trench
4.6 Return air trench.
Floor grilles are the exhaust grilles fitted at different locations over the
trench. The spent air along with floating fibre passes through this grille
into the trench. The grilles should be painted with enamel paint. It is
essential to specify aluminium with a baked enamel factory finish for
grilles, registers and diffusers and not to allow field painting or flat paint
finishes.
Tim Carter suggests installing grill covers on the wall that has operating
louvers to control the flow of return air depending on the situation.
Out side air

damper
Eliminators
Spray nozzles
Fan
To
supply
ducts
Wire mesh
Dampers
Sump
Internal air
recirculation
Coarse Medium
mesh mesh Fine mesh
4.7 Typical air washer plant.
In the return air system, contaminated air is returned to the AC, located
outside of the room, through openings under the machines. Solids are
removed by filtration and/or water sprayed into the air stream. An important
part to be noted is majority of the solids in the room are carried upward by
the heat generated by the machines, only about 30–40% of the total fall
out is captured by this system. However, by placing the supply air diffusers
in the top and return air suctions in the bottom and maintaining the quantity
of air extraction balancing with the air inflow can reduce the problem of
the solids going up.
In order to keep the shed, the upper part of the machines and floor lint
free, a device usually described as ‘travelling cleaner’, move along several
machines, periodically blowing solids away from those parts and
vacuuming off another 25–30% of the total. These travelling cleaners blow
the air on the parts of the machine and make the accumulated fluff to
become loose, and the air sucks them. The sucked dust is collected in a
bag and air is let out from the pores in the filter cloth by which the bag is
made of. The remainder of the lint and dust is moved by air turbulence all
over the room and clings to the machines, the ducts, the light fixtures, the
ceiling and the walls. Its removal has to be performed by hand.
4.8 Travelling cleaner.
4.3 Air filter construction and cleaning system

The air fed to the air handling units should be filtered to have maximum
efficiency. The function of these filters is to remove lint, dust, oil in some
cases and other debris before they get into the water in the air washer
units. There are a number of design factors that determine the CFM and
air changes per hour (ACH). The most important factor is the selection
and placement of filters within the system. Once the filter media is selected,
the placement of the filters, both in terms of filter order and spacing within
the system, must be considered as both contribute to the level of CFM that
a unit can produce. There is no way to define the correct design of an air
purification system, but evaluating the way in which airflow is created
and restricted by the filter media is one way to better understand the ACH
and the efficiency that can be achieved with the unit. The presence of pre-
filters within air purification systems is critical to protecting the efficiency

of the system. By removing larger particles from the air before the air is
cycled through the HEPA or HAPA filter media, higher airflow levels can
be maintained for longer periods of time. Common dust concentrations
exposed to filters in ventilation and air-condition systems are 0.45–1.0
mg m-3 air in rural and suburban districts, 1.0–1.8 mg m-3 air in metropolitan
districts and 1.8–3.5 mg m-3 air in industrial districts.
Ventilation filters may be classified and characterized after separation
efficiency i.e. ability to retain standard dust, blacking efficiency i.e.
capability to retain atmospheric dust, particle separation efficiency i.e.
capability to retain particles at fixed sizes, dust accumulation capacity
i.e. capability to keep standard dust before the pressure drop extend a
certain value and airflow resistance and static pressure drop of the filters.
Filters can be grouped as air washers and dry filters. In air washers, the
air is filtered by the water jets, where as in dry filters, a porous medium
like felt, cloth, cellulose, glass, silk, etc. without adhesive liquid is used
in which the air passes. The filtering may be by stationary filters or rotary
filters with automatic cleaning. The Stationary filters are either plain
perforated sheets or zigzag sheets. Some of these units have moving paper
media, while others have semi permanent synthetic media. These are
replaced depending on the usage. Automatic rotary air filters have a large
rotating drum, made of perforated steel sheet and fitted with suitable filter
media to arrest fluff and are fitted with drive mechanism and geared motor
and necessary suction nozzles connected to a flexible suction hose for
automatic cleaning and removal of the dust and fluff with centrifugal type
suction fan into a waste collection unit.
The performance of different filter media is normally as follows:
● Flat panel type (disposable filters). Air velocity 0.1–1.0 m s -1 ,
resistance 25–250 N m-2, efficiency 20–35%
● Continuous roll (self cleaning filters). Air velocity 2.5 m s-1, resistance
30–175 N m-2, efficiency 25%
● Bag filters. Efficiency 40–90%
● HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filters. Efficiency 99.97%
for 0.3 micron particles and larger
● ULPA (Ultra Low Penetrating Air) filters. Efficiency 99.9997 for
0.12 micron particles or larger
● Viscous filters panel type (cloth with viscous fluid coating: washable
or disposable). Plates about 500 × 500 mm, air velocity 1.5–2.5 m
s-1, resistance 20–150 N m-2
● Viscous filters (Continuous roll - continuously moving, self cleaning).
Air velocity 2.5 m s-1, resistance 30–175 N m-2
● Electrostatic precipitators. Cleaned automatically, air velocity

1.5–2.5 m s-1, resistance negligible, efficiency 30–40%
● Absolute. Dry panel with special coating: disposable or self cleaning,
air velocity 2.5 m s -1, resistance 250–625 N m-2
Automatic cleaning is preferred since the extent of generation of dust
and fibre fly varies and pressure drop in the filter is to be kept within the
design limit to prevent reduction of outgoing air flow and also save energy
consumed by the blower. Any reduction in outgoing return air flow is to
be prevented to avoid build up of fluff and fibre fly since these will
contaminate and spoil the yarn produced.
HEPA filtration technology which is recommended for cleaning air to
make it safe for breathing was designed during World War II by the Atomic
Energy Commission to remove and capture radioactive dust particles in
order to protect the human respiratory system. HEPA filters are rated to
remove up to 99.97% of all particles 0.3 microns in size or larger, which
encompasses most non-viral airborne particles. HEPA is an acronym for
High Efficiency Particulate Air. Basically, HEPA is a type of filter that
can trap a large amount of very small particles that other vacuum cleaners
would simply re-circulate back into the air. There are a couple of different
categories of HEPA filters that can make understanding the abilities of filter
confusing. HEPA filter media has important efficiency properties that are
critical to successful air purification solutions. Not only is the filter media
efficient at cleaning the air that passes through the filter, but it is designed
in such a way that as particles are captured on the surface of the filter the
cleaning efficiency of the filter actually increases before eventually
decreasing as the filter becomes filled with particulates. There is also a new
type of filter media called high airflow particulate arresting (HAPATM)
that further improves on HEPA technology and can help systems achieve
increased air circulation. Like its HAPA is also rated to remove up to 99.97%
of all particles 0.3 microns in size or larger. This filter media is constructed
of a totally synthetic melt blown fibre material that is more durable than
traditional HEPA filters. It has also shown greater depth loading capacity
than HEPA-rated filter material, which means that more particles can collect
on the filter surface before the efficiency of the filter begins to decrease.
Most importantly, HAPA is less restrictive to airflow than HEPA, which
means that systems utilising HAPA filter media are capable of achieving
higher CFM output than systems utilising HEPA filtration.
Some textile air washer systems are designed with temperature and
humidity controls to automatically blend outside air with the in-plant air
appropriate to the needs of the particular textile process being run in the
plant. The mixture of air enters the actual washing section of the air washer
unit after passing through solid cartridge type filters.
Filters are classified as follows by European Standards:

1. Basic filters: Basic filters in general are produced by using synthetic
fibres. They are efficient for particles greater than 4–5 mm and where
air speed more than 2.5 m s -1 . The pressure drop starts at
approximately 50 Pa and final pressure drop approximately 150 Pa.
Table 4.1 European standard filter class EU1 to EU4 – basic filters
Class Effect Applications
EU1 Protects against insects and Window units, heat exchangers,

fibres. air heaters and fibre filters
Limited effect against larger in textile industry
pollen (<70%)
Ineffective against smoke and
blacking particles
EU2 Effective against larger pollen Heating and cooling units in
(>85%) and larger atmospheric dust. electrical transformers, garages,
Limited effect against dust and industrial halls offices in
blacking particles industry
EU3 Effective against larger pollen Heating and cooling units in
(>85%) and larger atmospheric dust. electrical transformers, garages,
Limited effect against dust and industrial halls, offices in industry
blacking particles
EU4 Limited effect against dust and In addition to EU3 kitchens and
blacking particles spray paint work shops
2. Fine filters: In general the fine filters are produced in glass fibres. They
are efficient for particles bigger than 0.1 mm and air speed higher than
2–3 m s-1. The pressure drop starts at approximately 50–100 Pa, and
reaches final pressure drop reaches approximately 200–250 Pa.
Table 4.2 European standard filter class EU 5 to EU 9 – fine filter
Class Effect Applications
EU5 Effective against pollen and Churches, sport halls,

finer atmospheric dust, consider- department stores, schools,
able effect against smoke. hotels, food stores
No effect against tobacco smoke
EU6 As EU5 As EU5
EU7 Effective against pollen and As EU6 and food industry,
blacking dust laboratories, theatres, hospital
rooms, data rooms
EU8 Very effective against particles Operating theatres, production
and blacking. rooms for fine optics and
Very effective against microbes. electronics. Hospital
Effective against tobacco smoke. examination rooms.
EU9 As EU8 As EU8
3. Micro filters: In general produced in glass fibres in combination with

separators of paper, plastic or aluminium, efficient for particles
greater than 0.01 mm, air speed higher than 0.5–1.0 m s -1, start
pressure drop approximately 250 Pa, final pressure drop according
life span and economy. EU 10 to EU 14 is the classes available.
4.3.1 Stationary air filters

The initial filters used in the return air duct were just a flat wire mesh,
which got replaced by nylon and polypropylene. As the volume of air
required to be circulated was more and the air was dustier in cotton textile
mills, there was a problem of frequent chocking up of the filters. The
zigzag meshes were developed to provide more surface area for the air
being filtered. Although, this reduced the frequency of cleaning, still the
problems of improper cleaning, and progressive reduction of filtering were
there. The development of rotary air filters, which are now very common
in all modern plants ensures continuous cleaning of mesh, and always
expose clean mesh for the air entering. This has improved the efficiency
of air washer plants significantly.
The flat stationary filters, which are also termed as static filters, are used
where the quantity of air moved is less. It can be seen in unit humidifiers
installed above the machines near the roof, trenches of the return air, opening
provided to suck outside air in windows, etc. Apart from frequent chocking
up of the mesh surface, the frequent cleaning makes the mesh weak. The
problem of mesh tearing off was very high with flat stationary meshes. The
zigzag surface made the mesh surface strong.
For effective cleaning of the stationary screens, it is necessary to switch
of the plant. If the plant is switched off, the accumulated dust can be
removed easily or else the force of suction makes the dust to cling on the
surface. Stopping the plant and then entering the return air ducts to clean
takes more time and is not affordable when the production is going.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Flat screen
Zigzag screen
0000000000000000000000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0
0000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000
4.9 Stationary filter screens.
4.3.2 Rotary air filters

In the rotary filters, the filter area gets cleaned on a continuous basis and
hence has the best efficiency. The principle adopted is similar to the
condensers used in blow room for distribution of cotton to hopper feeders.
The dusty air is sucked by a fan. The air on its way hits the rotary drum,
which is a perforated cage, covered with a filter cloth. The air is sucked
from the inside of the cage and taken out by the side. The filter cloth
allows only clean air to pass through the rotary drum. The fibrous dust
collected on the filter cloth is taken out after pressing. A semi-circular
damper prevents the fibrous dust from sticking to the rotary drum by
obstructing the air movement. By this the dust becomes loose. They are
pressed by a pressing roller and collected separately. The clean surface of
the drum is always getting exposed to the fresh dusty air being sucked.
Therefore, the air which is let out of the filter is always clean and is uniform.
As there in requirement of manual cleaning like we have with stationary
filters, the consistency is obtained in the air quality.
Pressing roll
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Dusty air inlet00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

00 00 00 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Perforated drum
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Clean
00 00 00 00 0 0 0air0 0 0 out
0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 000000000000000000000000000000000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Damper
Extracted dust
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
4.10 Rotary air filter.
4.3.3 Conditioning the return air

Ronald J. Yaeger and Gary D. Wolf (U.S. Patent 140760 dated 25th
April 1995) developed a method and apparatus for conditioning the
temperature and humidity of un-recycled ambient air without reheating. It
provides a method and apparatus for conditioning the temperature and the
humidity of un-recycled ambient air to a desired temperature and humidity
by overcooling one part of the ambient air and bypassing another part of
the ambient air and recombining the two parts to create air at the desired
temperature and humidity. The apparatus comprises a cooling coil with
variable cooling capacity and humidifier in parallel with a bypass duct. A
portion of the incoming 100% outside air stream is routed through the
cooling coil and humidifier and the remainder of the outside air is routed
through the bypass duct. The cooled stream and the bypass stream then
combine downstream of the exits of the cooling coil and bypass duct such
that the combined air is within the conditioned window.
4.3.4 Local dust collectors

These are small mobile units for collecting dust from the production units,
where dust liberation is high because of the nature of the product being
worked on particular machines. A small perforated drum is kept vertical,
and an exhaust fan is fitted at the top. The dust liberated is collected on
the surface of the drum, and the air is let off in the same work area. This
type of units is used normally in reeling section, cutting section in garment
industry where fleece cloth is in process, warping, etc. The dust collected
on the surface of the drum is cleaned manually at fixed intervals by stopping
the fan.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00000000000000000000000000000 Air out
00000000000 00 000000000000000000000000 0 0000000

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 Fan
Dust
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Perforated
drum
00000000000000000000 Floor
4.11 Local dust collectors.
A number of commercial units are available, not only for use in

textiles but also for different industries and organisations. The filtration
capacity depends on the filter media. United States Patent 4183224
relates to a method and apparatus for precise temperature and humidity
control within a confined or determined chamber, which involves
determining a desired condition in a controlled space. The essence of

the concept is to provide humidity control by the addition of moisture
at all operating conditions and, in effect, never having to control
dehumidification. In addition, the method for heating or cooling to
insure that the heating or cooling does not affect the humidity, but that
humidity is added after all the desired temperature relationships are
achieved, which enables the system to eliminate control into the
dehumidification mode. Further, the process includes a higher air flow
rate than normally utilised, all of which improves the precision of the
humidification and temperature control process.
4.3.5 Negative ionizers

High density negative ionizer takes over where normal perforated filters
cannot filter all micro particles. They operate by electronically generating
a powerful stream of negative ions by around 70 trillion per second in
intermittent pulses which ‘wash’ the air at a rate of nearly 100 ft. per
minute.
Air ions are molecules that have lost or gained an electron. Ions are
present in normal air but are ‘stripped’ out when an air is subject to filtration
and conditioning. They are produced by radioactive emission or by
phenomenon called ‘corona discharge’ where a high voltage is applied to
sharp point. All air ionisation systems work by flooding the atmosphere
with positive and negative ion, when ionized air comes in contact with a
charge surface; the charge surface attracts ions of the opposite polarity.
As a result the static electricity that has built up on products, equipment
and surface is neutralised. Typically, air is very insulative with a resistive
exceeding 10E15 ohms per meter. By increasing the numbers of ions in
the air it is possible to lower the resistivity of the air to 10E11 ohms per
meter, there by making the air more conductive. Conductive air can
neutralise the static charge on every surface that it contents. The field
from the charged surface attracts ions of the opposite polarity until the
charged on the surface is neutralized. The static neutralizer is portable
and uses a small fan to produce airflow. High voltages generated out of
the supply line voltage are applied to stainless steel ion emitter points.
These points produce intense alternating polarities, ionising the air instantly
in the fan airflow. The static eliminator–neutralizer is designed for use
when handling sensitive electronic components where electrostatic
discharge is a problem. The unit can also used where static electricity
causes problems such as; attraction of drift to product, misalignment of
small parts due to electrostatic ‘jumping’ and undesirable adhesion of
plastic films due to electrostatic charge.
4.4 Type of fans used

A fan is typically a mechanical device that causes a movement of air, vapour
and other gases in a given system. The fans are fixed on wall in between the
air inlet and the spray nozzles. The air is blown on the water spray, which
then hits the eliminators and passes into the distribution ducts. Diffusers are
used to spread the humidified air uniformly in the work area.
For effecting the air flow, the fan develops a total pressure difference
over the inlet and outlet air streams; the total pressure rise comprises two
components, viz. (a) static pressure which depends on the blade profile,
number of blades, pitch, hub shape, etc. i.e., aerodynamic characteristics
of the fan impeller and (b) dynamic pressure which develops due to velocity
or kinetic energy imparted to the air stream. The fan static pressure is
fully available to the user, but some of the fan velocity pressure is inevitably
lost, although this loss appears as part of the system pressure drop.
There are two types: axial flow fans and centrifugal fans used for
blowing air into the ducts. In centrifugal fans, air is let through an inlet
pipe to the centre or eye of the impeller, which it flows to a discharge
pipe. In an axial-flow fan, with the runner and guide vanes in a cylindrical
housing, air passes through the runner without changing its distance from
the axis of rotation. Following are some of the terms used in fans.
● Aerofoil: Airfoil also spelled as aerofoil, is a shaped surface, such as
an airplane wing, tail, or propeller blade that produces lift and drag
when moved through the air. An aerofoil produces a lifting force
that acts at right angles to the air stream and a dragging force that
acts in the same direction as the air stream.
● Lift: If an aerofoil is to fulfil the desired function, it must experience
a lift force, as well as, a drag force when in motion. The lift force
arises because the speed at which the displaced air moves over the
top of the airfoil and over the top of the attached boundary layer is
greater than the speed at which it moves over the bottom. The pressure
acting on the airfoil from below is, therefore, greater than the pressure
from above. The design of the airfoil, nevertheless, has a critical
effect on the magnitude of the lift force.
● Drag: A fluid stream exerts a drag force (FD) on any obstacle placed
in its path, and the same force arises if the object (aerofoil) moves
and the fluid is stationary. How large it is and how it may be reduced
are questions of obvious importance to designers who want to be
certain that the structures will not collapse in the face of winds. It is
conventional to describe drag forces in terms of a dimensionless
quantity called the drag coefficient, defined irrespective of the shape
of the body.
● Selection of fan: Factors like cost optimisation, power rating and

noise levels govern the selection of a fan suitable for a given
application. Various combinations are possible to meet any given
duty or operating requirements for best performance, lesser noise,
power and cost characteristics. Once the volume of airflow and the
static pressure of the system are known, it is possible to specify a
fan. To select a fan one must consider the parameters like total airflow
required, total operating pressure and fan installation space.
Other considerations such as noise, reliability and operating
environment should also be brought to bear on fan choice.
4.4.1 Axial flow fans

Axial flow fans, as the name indicate draws the air and blows forward,
which moves in the axis of the fan. There would be no centrifugal effect
on the airflow generated. Guides or stator vanes serve to smoothen/
straighten the airflow and improve efficiency. In general, an axial-flow
fan is suitable for a larger flow rate with a relatively small pressure gain
and a centrifugal fan for comparatively smaller flow rate and a large
pressure rise.
They are used to supply fresh air, to suck air from return air trenches, to
suck air from rotary filters, to exhaust air out etc. Depending on the purpose
and the quantity of air handled the size and materials of the fan are decided.
4.12 Axial flow fan.
In a typical axial fan, the effective progress of the air is straight through
the impeller at a constant distance from the axis. The primary component
of blade force on the air is directed axially from inlet to outlet and thus
provides the pressure rise by a process that may be called direct blade
action. The blade force necessarily has an additional component in the
tangential direction, providing the reaction to the driving torque: this sets
the air spinning about the axis independently of its forward motion. The
air delivering capacity of axial flow fans ranges from 100 to 500000 cubic
feet per minute (3 to 14000 cubic meters per minute). Impellers usually
have blades with cross sections matching those of an aerofoil. As compared
to curved sheet blades, aerofoils can apply greater force to the air, thereby
increasing maximum pressure and can maintain better efficiency over a
wider range of volumetric flow. Also by increasing the thickness and
curvature of the inner sections, the blades can be made stiffer; this limits
flutter and allows the impellers to be run at higher speeds.
Normally high efficiency axial flow fans, with aluminium impellers,
adjustable pitch aluminium blades with direct drive totally enclosed
motors are selected to deliver the design supply air quantity against the
required static pressure, after considering pressure drop in fresh air
damper, air washer internals, washer–dampers, supply air ducting, and
supply air diffusers with volume control dampers. Design static pressure
for supply air fan selection can vary from 40 mm to 55 mm w.g depending
on the air washer length, spray headers and eliminators design, other
internal components including heating coils, if any, design air velocity
etc. Return air fans are sized to re-circulate up to 95% of design supply
air quantity for each department, by considering the design static pressure
required to overcome pressure drop in the return air floor grilles, masonry
return air trench, rotary drum type return air filters, return air dampers,
etc. Since the pressure drop in rotary drum filters when dirty can be as
high as 30 mm w.g, the return air fan selection in mill humidification
applications should account for up to 25 mm w.g. pressure drop in air
filters and the return air fan selection and motor kilowatt should cater to
the required return air flow rate against a total static pressure of 50–55
mm w.g. after considering pressure drop in the floor grilles and return
air trench.
Factors like cost optimisation, power rating and noise levels govern the
selection of a fan suitable for a given application. Various combinations
are possible to meet any given duty or operating requirements for best
performance, lesser noise, power and cost characteristics. Once the volume
of airflow and the static pressure of the system are know, it is possible to
specify a fan selection is that any given fan can only deliver one flow at
one pressure in a given system. To select a fan, one must consider the
following parameters:
The axial flow fans are conventionally designed with impellers made
of aluminium or mild steel. The grey area is the inconsistency in proper
aerofoil selection and dimensional stability of the metallic impellers. This
leads to high power consumption and high noise levels with lesser
efficiency. The leading fan manufacturers in the world have been looking
at FRP axial flow fans for higher energy efficiency. The improved design
of FRP fan is aimed at higher lift to drag ratio and thereby increasing the
overall efficiency. The new and improved aerodynamic fan designing,

composite development, structural design combined with latest
manufacturing process are also expected to result in consistent quality
and higher productivity. Studies done by G. Srikanth, Sangeeta Nangia
and Atul Mittal for the project on ‘Development of Energy Efficient FRP
Axial-flow Fans’, launched by the Advanced Composites Mission of
TIFAC, showed a significant savings in power by using FRP fans.
Advantages of axial flow FRP fans

The FRP fans offer certain critical advantages like optimal aerodynamic
design of fan impellers to provide higher efficiency for any specific
application, reduction in overall weight of the fan, thereby extending the
life of mechanical drive systems, requires lower drive motor rating and
light duty bearing system, low power consumption resulting in appreciable
energy savings. FRP fans fabricated by compression moulding/resin
transfer moulding technique would have uniform dimensions and consistent
quality and lower flow noise and mechanical noise levels compared to the
conventional metallic fans.
Table 4.3 FRP fan test results versus conventional fans with aluminium and steel
impellers
S. Type of FRP fan Flow rate Total pressure Shaft power

No. M3 sec-1 (mm of water (kW)
gauge)
1. Cooling tower fan 240.47 8.48 23.24

2. Textile mill humidifier fan 19.04 34.83 —
3. Mine ventilation fan 48.60–81.00 92.83 89.63
4. Radiator cooling fan for
railway diesel locomotives 49.76–60.21 88.56–102.98 74.95–78.60
5. Air-heat exchanger fan 91.43–96.94 8.26–8.56 10.1–10.17
S. Type of FRP fan FRP fan Efficiency FRP fan

No. efficiency improvement energy
as certified by over savings over
user agencies conventional conventional
fan fan
1. Cooling tower fan 86.06% — —

2. Textile mill humidifier fan 78.01% 24.58% Superior
3. Mine ventilation fan 59.40% 8.22% 21.96%
4. Radiator cooling fan for
railway diesel locomotives 65.67–70.24% 2.33–9.62% 1.86–4.60%
5. Air-heat exchanger fan 74.01–80.04% 20.79–21.09% 28.96–34.93%
4.4.2 Centrifugal humidifiers

In certain industrial and commercial environments, centrifugal humidifiers
are used. In such devices, water is propelled outwardly by a rapidly rotating
plate or other body to impinge on a surface where it is broken up into
small droplets that are entrained in a stream of air and then discharged to
the surroundings. Although the discharged air has a higher moisture
content, the size of the droplets produced on the impingement surface is
generally not sufficiently fine to be readily absorbed by the air. Instead,
such humidifiers tend to produce a mist-like discharge. Not only does this
result in a less than optimum overall humidity level, it also tends to create
water build up on the surfaces of walls, equipment, furniture and so forth
in the vicinity of the humidifier. More than merely an inconvenience, this
promotes the growth of moulds and other micro-organisms that can pose
health risks to workers in the area. Centrifugal humidifiers also have a
tendency to become clogged with dust and other particles when they are
used in industrial environments such as textile mills.
4.13 Centrifugal blower.
Hashem, Feisal [United States Patent 6601778] in 2001developed a

centrifugal humidifier having a rotable body for propelling water outwardly
on to an impingement surface that brake up the propelled water into droplets
which are then entrained in a stream of air and discharged to the
surroundings, wherein the impingement surface has a multiplicity of saw-
tooth ridges oriented with the more gradually inclined sides facing toward
the direction from which the water is propelled by the rotatable body which
promotes breaking up the water into finer droplets.
Because of the saw-tooth profile, the water tends to hit and bounce
repeatedly on the first sides of successive ridges which promote breaking
up the water into finer droplets that are readily absorbed by the stream of
air. The centrifugal humidifier, therefore, produce a fog-like discharge,

rather than the mist-like discharge. This greatly reduces the problem of
wetting nearby surfaces, and also greatly increases the throughput the
efficiency. This invention is claimed to eliminate or reduce the need for
filters or similar moisture eliminators which are commonly used in other
centrifugal humidifiers to reduce wetting. The saw-tooth ridge impingement
surface also resists build-up of dust and other particles that can clog other
centrifugal humidifiers.
4.14 Hashem Feisal centrifugal humidifier.
4.5 Gravity louver damper

Gravity louver damper also known as auto shutter is an arrangement
provided at the delivery side of the axial fan and remain open when the
fan is switched on and remain closed when the fan is switched off. This
allows using less number of fans in a multiple fan system design without
short circuit. Further when a motor trips and the fan is not able to run, the
gravity louver damper closes and the short circuit is prevented.
4.6 Eliminators
After the air passes through the spray section of the washer unit, it passes
through mist eliminator blades that function to remove condensed moisture.
These eliminator blades are constructed of stainless steel in newer units,
and galvanised metal in older ones.
Air supplied to the production area should have moisture in the form
of atomised vapour, so that it could be absorbed easily by the fibres.
The air should not come with water droplets, as they are heavy, and
cannot be absorbed easily by the fibres. These droplets, if comes,
deposit on the material and make it wet and stick them on the machine
parts, walls, stresses etc. The water droplets lead to rusting of machine
parts. Eliminators arrest the droplets of water from moving along with
the air carrying atomised water vapours. The eliminators normally get
chocked with moist lint as the moist air hits the eliminator. It is very
essential to clean the eliminators frequently. The eliminators should
be designed in such a way that it is easy to open and clean. In olden
days, removing of eliminator blades was a laborious job taking more
than a day to open and re-assemble. Now modular type eliminator boxes
are available. We can remove one module and fix another in its place.
Hence, there is no need of stopping the plant for cleaning the
eliminators.
Fan is working. Louvers are open Fan is stopped. Louvers closed
4.15 Gravity louvers.
There are different types of eliminators available in the market with

different shapes made of PVC, or sheet metals like aluminium, galvanized
iron, etc., which are non-corrosive and non-rusting. Sheets in the form of
W, V are arranged in such a way that the air has to hit, bend and move.
The mesh pad eliminators are made by knitting stainless steel wires, which
has a very high efficiency of 99% removal of liquid droplets 3 microns
and larger. ACS, the introducers of mesh type eliminators, provides
different types of eliminators.
After the mist eliminator section, some washer units are designed with
steam re-heat coils to temper the cooled air to suit a particular textile
process.
Air volume dampers are provided for controlling the air input, and to
divert air. By this we can either take air from the inside of the department
or from outside.
Knitted wire mesh mist eliminators
ACS mesh pad mist eliminators
ACS chevron vane mist eliminators
ACS mesh vane assembly mist eliminators
W Type
V Type
4.16 Different types of eliminators.

4.7 Water spray

4.7.1 Spray nozzle sets
The nozzles are the unit which atomise the water particles and help them
mix with flowing air. The efficiency of humidification unit greatly depends
on the fineness of the water particles in the spray. Normally, two sets of
nozzles installed one opposite to other shall be used in air washer plants
for textile mills. The nozzles spray water against each other so that the
incoming air must pass through a wall of water 2 or 3 ft. thick. This does
the following three things to the air:
● Washes and cleans the air
● Saturates it with moisture
● Controls the temperature of the air
Spray sets is an assembly (bank) of two horizontal Header pipes on
which number of vertical branch pipes/riser pipes are fitted. The spray
nozzles are fitted on to the riser pipes. The spray header is connected to
the delivery of the pump. The pipes are evenly distributed in turn to
distribute nozzles to create a uniform mist.
The spray nozzle headers are connected to a re-circulating pump that
continually picks up water from the air washer sump and pushes it through
the nozzles. The capacity of this re-circulating pump ranges from 250 to
1200 gallons per minute. The main chilled water pump located at the chilled
water sump continually supplies chilled water to each individual air washer
sump. Overflow and gravity take the chilled water back to the main
refrigeration machine and chilled water sump. Capacities of air washer
sump pans range from 600 to 2500 gallons. Spray nozzle systems typically
use either high pressure water (1000 to 3000 psi) or a combination of
compressed air and water (30 to 70 psi air) forced through a machined
nozzle.
Older textile plants control in plant air temperature by regulating the
temperature of the chilled water at the refrigeration machine. They control
humidity by the use of water and compressed air atomizers located in the
overheads of the department requiring humidity. Some newer designs have
automatic controls in each washer that automatically adjust the temperature
of air washer sump water by letting more or less chilled water in. Automatic
control valves are connected to the temperature and humidity sensing devices.
This means that the amount of chilled water makeup can vary from one
washer to another in a plant, but this variation is not large enough to disrupt
adequate recirculation of treatment chemical being fed to the main chilled
water sump. Air washer units have lint screens located across the front of
the sump in addition to the chilled water sump screens and filters.
The spray nozzle selection is a very important aspect in the air washer
plant. There are number of varieties of nozzles designed for different
purposes. The nozzles might be hydraulic pressured or compressed air.
The nozzles might be flat spray nozzles, full cone spray nozzles, hollow
cone spray nozzle, special cone spray nozzle, solid stream jet nozzle,
special solid stream jet nozzle, etc. Droplet size in a given spray may vary
from sub-microns to thousands of microns.
4.17 Spray nozzle bank.
As the representative of droplet size, Sauter mean diameter are normally

used in catalogue charts, which is a droplet size of spray generated at
standard pressure for each nozzle and measured at the point that is most
practical distance from nozzle orifice. There are many opinions on the
classification of spray droplet sizes. ‘The Mist Engineers’ have classified
the size droplets as shown in the figure below.
Flat spray nozzle Hollow cone spray nozzle
Full cone spray nozzle Solid stream jet nozzle
4.18 Different type of nozzles.

Single spray bank air washer is not normally selected for mill
humidification due to its lower saturation efficiency. Double bank opposed
spray type with GI header and stand pipe assembly and gun-metal/plastic
spray nozzles are often used in air washers for mill humidification, since
with this configuration it is possible to achieve 95% saturation efficiency
with spray density of 3 gpm ft-2 and air velocity not exceeding 3 m s-1. The
degree of saturation depends on the contact efficiency between air and
water. A low velocity air flow is more conducive to higher saturation
efficiency. However, manufacturers of high velocity air washers have now
optimised their system for obtaining high saturation efficiency up to 95%
with higher spray density.
Spray droplet size
10µ 100µm 300µm 1000µm

1µm
Ultra-fine atomization
Free atomization
Semi-fine atomization
Semi-coarse
atomization
Coarse
atomization
Dry Fine Fine Light Rain Rain ~Squall

Fog Mist Drizzle
4.19 Size of droplets.
Droplet size in a given spray may vary from sub-microns to thousands

of microns.
As the representative of droplet size, Sauter mean diameter is used in
catalogue charts, which is a droplet size of spray generated at standard
pressure for each nozzle and measured at the point that is most practical
distance from nozzle orifice. The droplet size plays an important role in
evaporative distance. The droplet sizes will vary depending on the pressure
variations and or maintenance of the system. When the spray nozzles are
new and set up correctly, droplet sizes will range from 523 to 65,450 cubic
microns. Both ultrasonic and steam humidifiers provide droplet sizes with
volumes of approximately 0.52 cubic microns. High pressure spray nozzles

(1000 to 3000 psi) have droplet volumes of approximately 1,767 cubic
microns. Evaporative distances vary depending on field conditions:
entering air temperature and relative humidity, air velocity, air volume,
humidifier pulse rate, etc.
Droplet size plays a key role in achieving full evaporation. The smaller
the droplet size the faster evaporation occurs. In ducted or AHU
applications, large droplets may not evaporate and can collect on coils or
inside of the ductwork. The spray nozzle’s non-evaporated droplets will
go to drain and therefore relative humidity set-points may not be achieved.
Field experience reveals that 25–50% of spray nozzle water may go to
drain.
4.7.2 Atomiser for humidification plants

Atomiser is a revolutionary product aimed at saving the precious energy
hitherto wasted in the humidification plants. The concept of large number
of small nozzles used in the air washer plants is sought to be changed
drastically by introducing the revolutionary concept of atomizer. These
atomizers change all the equations of humidification plants with respect
to number of nozzles used; horsepower of the water pump and redefine
them so as to conserve the precious energy. The problem of energy being
lost as frictional losses in the small nozzles has been effectively addressed.
This is how the atomisers compare with the existing (conventional) nozzles.
● Number of atomizer required per plant is limited to 6–20 numbers
depending upon the size and condition of the plant.
● No replacement is required for atomisers which is otherwise the case
with existing (conventional) small nozzles. Replacement is required
due to choking as well as breakage during each cleaning time.
● No periodic maintenance required. It means savings in manpower
and spare nozzles.
● Reduced frictional losses save energy (15–40% saving can be
achieved depending upon the actual plant conditions).
Atomizer Atomizer
4.20 Atomizer.
Compressed Air/Dry Fog

Pneumatic Spray Nozzle
(AKIJet®)
Compressed Air/Conventional
Pneumatic Spray Nozzle
Blower/Pneumatic Spray Nozzle
Centrifugal Humidifier
Ultrasonic Humidifier
4.23 Spray droplet size by various humidifiers.

Dry fog condition: Maximum droplet diameter 50 microns or less and

mean droplet diameter 10 microns or less. Energy cost for dry fog
humidification is only 20% of that of steam humidification as shown in
the figure below.
Energy cost for

Dry Fog humidification
is only 1/5 of that for
steam humidification.
Steam Humidifier Dry Fog Humidifier
4.24 Energy cost comparison. (Comparison of electric power

consumption in humidifying 1 kilogram of water in 1 hour)
4.8 Water supply
4.8.1 Quality of water

Quality of water is very important for getting the effective results fro
humidification plants. Water should not be acidic as it can corrode the
metal parts. The pH value should be with in the range 7.5–8.5. Water if
hard develops scales inside the pipes and chocks the nozzles. Total hardness
should be preferably above 100 mg l-1 and within 250 mg l-1. De-mineralised
water used in boilers should not be used in air washers as this may lead to
corrosion. Moderate hardness helps to build a thin protective coating which
reduces harmful effects of chlorides in coater. Because of evaporation of
water drops, minerals tend to concentrate during re-circulation. Hence, it
is necessary to bleed some water from the air washer tank and also do
periodic cleaning to prevent growth of algae.
4.8.2 Filtering the water

The textile mill environment is filled with fibrous material, and loose fibres
can be seen floating in the air which settle on walls, open water in tanks,
roof, etc. The water fed to the air washer plant if contaminated with fibres
choke up the nozzles, and the force of spray reduces. The water shall not
atomise, but big drops shall just fall down. The air will not get the required
atoms of water. Therefore, the water fed to the humidification plant should
be free from fibres and floating materials. Hence, filtering water using
either stationary strainers or rotary filters is practiced.
The purpose of the washer lint screens is to prevent fouling of the
centrifugal spray pump. There are generally two banks of screens provided
so that one can be left in place while the other is cleaned. The size of wire
mesh in these duct work is sometimes designed into a unit to allow for
simple heating of the air without washing. Large fans or blowers takes the
air from the end of the washer unit and force it out through the plant duct
work. The metal of construction is an important factor to be considered
when recommending water treatment for textile air conditioner systems.
On newer air washer units, areas that are regularly in contact with water
are constructed of stainless steel, except for piping. Screens will vary from
1/4 to 1/8 in. mesh. Construction in new units is stainless steel, while old
plants may be galvanized wire or copper. Some old washers have a small-
scale drum filter inside the washer sump. The purpose of this filter is
primarily to filter out lint during winter operation when some air washers
operate autonomously without chilled water makeup.
In plants where refrigeration is not required during winter months, these
washer units may operate autonomously, continually re-circulating water
from the sump up through the spray nozzles. When refrigeration machines
are operating, air washer units are supplied with 40–50°F chilled water
from the system’s main chilled water sump. This sump is usually a large
concrete structure containing from a few hundred gallons up to 50000
gallons of chilled water. The total capacity of the chilled water system can
vary between a few thousand gallons of water and over 100000 gallons of
water. Water in the chilled water system some time increases. When this
occurs, the level in the sump necessarily rises until it hits the limit switch.
Excess chilled water then flows to the cooling tower system as makeup.
This procedure conserves both water and energy since it avoids wasting
excess chilled water and increases the efficiency of the condenser unit.
Chilled water sumps also contain some type of filter for suspended solids
removal. These filters may be a simple wire mesh screen on a moving
drum and a water spray device to remove suspended matter from the screen.
Many potential fouling problems in the air washer systems can be avoided
by removing suspended solids in the chilled water sump in this manner.
There are some air washer units, particularly in synthetic plants, that
do not use chilled water for the washing process. They continually re-
circulate the same water through the spray nozzles, except for a small
amount of makeup and blow down. Permanent cartridge type metal filters
both before and after the washing section are used to help keep the unit
clean. These cartridge filters must be regularly steam cleaned. The
eliminator sections of these washers are followed by steam reheat coils

and chilled water coils to adequately control temperature and humidity.
4.25 Rotary water filter.
4.9 Supply air distribution

Textile plants are generally served by uniform air distribution through sheet-
metal ducts run above the false ceiling in respective departments and taking
care in the design to direct supply air through suitably positioned outlets
to motor-alleys and other points of concentrated heat loads. Plant duct
work is either galvanized metal or aluminium. Some plants have the air
conditioning duct work cast into the concrete structure of the building
under the floor.
In the ‘weave direct’ (loomsphere) system of humidification for a
weaving shed, a separate air washer unit with independent supply fan and
ducting system with branch ducts coming down to a level of approximately
1.2 m above the warp sheet of respective looms for directing the humidified
air to the warp sheets are used to attain the desired high relative humidity
condition of 78–80% at the warp sheet level of the looms. A separate air
washer unit with separate supply fan and separate supply air ducting
running above the false ceiling and ceiling diffusers at the false ceiling
level are adopted to maintain around 65% RH condition in the room itself.
4.9.1 Ducts and duct tape

The distribution of air uniformly or as required in the work area can be
done by designing the duct dimensions suitably, and joining them with
suitable duct tapes. The ducts carry the humidified air from the plant and
a common masonry plenum and run generally above the false ceiling. They
are fabricated at site with 20/22/24 gauge GI sheets and MS angles. They
are generally supported from the roof purlins. The diffusers are fitted on
the ducting which distribute the air uniformly, with out directly blowing
on the materials or creating turbulence.
Duct tape is a cloth tape coated with a poly-ethylene resin on one side
and very sticky rubber-based adhesive on the other. Unlike other tapes,
the fabric backing gives duct tape strength yet allows it to be easily torn.
Duct tape is also very malleable and can adhere to a wide variety of
surfaces. While it was primarily designed for use in air ducts and similar
applications, consumers have found a broad range of uses for this popular
product. It can be used for a number of household repair jobs, as a fastener
instead of screws or nails, and in car maintenance. ‘Appendix: Duct Tapes’
explains in detail the evolution and uses of duct tapes.
Berryhill, Robert A. in 1974 developed a piping arrangement for an air
washer which enabled the air washer to maintain constant dewpoint of air
passing from the leaving side of the air washer. Chilled water is sprayed
from a first manifold and is used to cool air to a required wet bulb
temperature. The air is then passed through subsequent manifolds having
spray nozzles which further humidify the air until the air reaches a required
dewpoint temperature in a substantially saturated state.
4.9.2 Diffusers
The distribution of air uniformly in the working area is done by diffusers.
The diffusers are specially designed depending on the type of production
unit viz, spinning, weaving, knitting, etc.
Air grilles are also used distribute the humidified air at various locations.
They are of single deflection and double deflection type. They are available
in GI/SS and extruded aluminium construction.
Diffuser
4.26 Diffuser. 4.27 Air grilles.
An apparatus for preventing the accumulation of moisture condensation

on an air conditioning supply grill of a concentric diffuser in an air
conditioning system having a return air duct was developed by William G.
Suggs (US Patent No 595247 issued on 19 th Aug 1997). This apparatus

comprises one or more anti-sweat heater attached to air conditioning supply
grill with one or more humidistat positioned within return air duct at least
one relay and electrical wiring connecting each of humidistat to at least
one of anti-sweat relays so that when one of humidistat senses an increased
level of humidity in return air duct, one of relays may allow current to
flow through anti-sweat heaters for warming of air conditioning supply
grill and prevention of the accumulation of moisture condensation thereon.
Air diffuser FKP-SAD plastic air diffuser

FKP-RAD air diffuser
Round air diffuser Jet diffuser Square air diffuser
Ball spout FK-OSSI stainless steel air

Swirl air diffuser
intake
Ceiling diffuser
Air intake
Air grille
Linear grille
Air louver
4.28 Different types of diffusers.

4.10 Roto-spray units

Roto-spray systems are similar in principle to the packaged air washer
units, but are thought to be more efficient. These systems are housed in a
cylindrical housing slightly larger than the supply duct work, and are
generally located on the roof of the textile plant. They have stationary
spray nozzles and rotating eliminator blades that look like the compressor
stages in a gas turbine engine. There is very little water in these units, and
they are somewhat more difficult to treat from a water treatment standpoint
because the same amount of dirt is concentrated in much less water. They
are also not as accessible as a conventional air washer system because the
access doors or manholes are bolted shut during operation. Roto-spray
systems can be found on the same chilled water system as air washer units.
4.11 Chilling plants or cooling towers

Chilling plants cool the water to a very low temperature, which when
circulated, absorbs temperature from the air and cools it. In the same time
it condenses the vapours in the air and dehumidifies it. Cooling towers are
primarily used to cool water in air conditioning systems. They are also
used in process industries to cool materials. There are two types of cooling
towers: open and closed. In an open tower, the water to be chilled is open
to the atmosphere and is cooled by evaporation as it cascades down through
a structured packing material (called ‘fill’) designed to increase the surface
area of falling water films, thereby increasing the evaporation rate. Induced-
draft towers use a suction fan to pull air up through the fill (counter-flow)
or across the fill (cross-flow).
4.29 Chilling plant.

There are two types of cooling towers: open and closed. In an open
tower, the water to be chilled is open to the atmosphere and is cooled by
evaporation as it cascades down through a structured packing material
(called ‘fill’) designed to increase the surface area of falling water films,
thereby increasing the evaporation rate. Induced-draft towers use a suction
fan to pull air up through the fill (counter-flow) or across the fill (cross-
flow). The warm water returning from the chillers is pumped to the top of
the tower and distributed by spray nozzles over the ‘fill’. The purpose of
the fill is to expose as much of the water’s surface as possible. As the
water drops through the fill, fresh air from outside the cooling tower is
forced through the tower. The water, cooled by partial evaporation, then
falls into a basin at the bottom and is circulated back to the chiller to start
the process all over again. Most of today’s cooling towers are made using
the same basic components like a pump to bring the water to the top of the
tower, spray nozzles to distribute the water over the fill, a fan to move
outside air through the tower, the fill to expose the water surface to the air
stream and a basin to capture and store the cooled water. Other components
are also used in cooling towers such as float valves, filters, strainers, etc.,
but these are the basics.
4.30 Coil-type evaporator.
4.31 Fin-type evaporator.

A single cooling tower can be used to supply chilled water to one or

several chillers. For each chiller served by the cooling tower, there is a
‘cell’ in the tower. Each cell is independent and has its own fan, fill and
basin. Each cell has an access door or panel for entry into the basin. In
some older cooling towers, the access opening is under the water level of
the basin which requires the basin to be drained before entry. This is not
a problem with the vast majority of cooling towers in service today.
Hot water
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Cold water
00000000000000000000000000
4.32 Induced draft counter flow tower.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Hot water
000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000 00
Fill 0
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0000000000000000000000000000 Cold water
4.33 Induced draft counter flow tower with Fill.
Cooling towers come in four main types: (a) Induced draft counter flow
cooling towers, (b) Forced draft counter flow cooling towers, (c) Induced
draft cross flow cooling towers and (d) Forced draft cross flow cooling
towers. In induced draft cooling towers, the fan is mounted at the top of
the tower and is used to ‘pull’ air through the tower. In forced draft cooling
towers, the fan is mounted on the side of the tower and is used to ‘push’
air through the tower. In counter flow cooling towers, the air enters at the
bottom of the tower and travels up in the opposite direction of the water
stream. In cross flow cooling towers, the air enters the side of the tower
and travels perpendicularly to the water stream. The induced draft counter
flow cooling tower is probably the most common. Cooling towers come in
all sizes from as small as a minivan to as large as a three story building
covering the area of a football field.
Hot water
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
distribution
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Louver
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00Fill00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00Fill00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sump Cold water
4.34 Induced draft, double flow, cross flow tower.
Hot water
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
distribution
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
000000000000000000000 Louver
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00Fill00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 0000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sump Cold water
4.35 Induced draft, single flow cross flow tower.

Open evaporative cooling towers with induced-draft airflow through

fill. Several factors can contribute to cooling tower efficiency, including
proper sizing of the tower, the age of the tower, using more effective fill
materials, using variable frequency drive fan motors and replacing old
spray nozzles. The outside air that is drawn into the tower is contaminated
with pollutants, dust, pollen, exhaust byproducts, insects and whatever
else is suspended in it. As the water falls through the air stream, it captures
these contaminants and carries them into the basin. This water, in turn, is
delivered to the chiller. As the cooling water is heated in the chiller by
absorbing heat from the refrigerant, the contaminants precipitate out of
the water and adhere to the chiller tube walls, reducing the efficiency of
the chiller. The result of all this is increased energy and maintenance costs.
Heavier contaminants will tend to settle to the bottom of the cooling tower
basin creating ‘dead’ areas. These dead areas form a shield between the
basin surface and corrosion-preventing chemicals that are added to the
water. This leads to under-deposit corrosion of the metal surfaces. Once
corrosion begins, blisters form which release oxide particles which add
more suspended solids to the condenser water stream. In addition, mud,
dirt and debris in the basin provide an ideal environment for
microbiological organisms, some of which secrete an acidic solution that
can contribute to additional corrosion. Some of these micro-organisms
represent a health risk to maintenance personnel, and if released from the
tower in the form of aerosols present a risk to the general public. Suspended
solid accumulation can be minimised by the use of a side stream filter,
often referred to as a sand filter. While these filters can remove some of
the suspended solids, they do nothing about the settled debris in the basin.
It is therefore very necessary to keep the cooling tower as clean as possible
as well as to perform maintenance on the tower at regular intervals.
4.36 Open tower with forced-draft airflow.

Counter-flow towers tend to be the most compact. This is because the

upward flowing air stream is in contact with the entire cross-section of
water from top to bottom as it falls through the fill. Less space is needed
because of their increased thermal efficiency and lack of the warm water
distribution plenum needed by cross-flow towers. Their disadvantage,
however, is the increased fan power resulting from air flowing directly
against, rather than across, the falling water. Although bulkier, cross-flow
towers consume less power and usually have a lower capital cost as well.
Forced-draft cooling towers use a bottom-mounted centrifugal blower
to push air through the fill, as shown in Figure 4.36. Centrifugal blowers
are inherently quieter than the propeller-type fans of induced-flow towers,
and by locating the blower beneath the unit, fan and motor noise is baffled,
further reducing the noise of operation. Maintenance access is easier
because all moving parts are located at the tower base. Corrosion is reduced
because the blower handles dry, ambient air unlike the fans of induced-
flow towers, which must handle moisture-laden air. The major disadvantage
of forced-draft towers is that they consume about twice the power of
induced-flow towers for the same cooling capacity.
Cooling towers in textile plants are fairly standard, ranging from various
types of old wooden field erected towers to modern metal package units.
The cooling plant sizes vary from 300 to 2700 tons or higher per machine,
depending on the size of the plant. Some cooling systems are designed
with several package towers connected parallel to all of the refrigeration
machines. In other cases, each refrigeration machine condenser unit is
piped separately to its own cooling tower. The tonnage and number of air
conditioning systems operating in a single plant depend on the combination
of textile processes being accomplished and production capacity of the
plant. Many textile processes require year-round refrigeration for proper
temperature and humidity control, and these plants operate cooling towers
12 months of the year. Other plants vary cooling tower operations from
six to eight months per year depending on the climate conditions of the
plant. New textile plants are being designed with as few chilled water
systems as is practical to maximise efficiency and reduce maintenance. In
older plants, air conditioning systems were added on a piecemeal basis,
resulting in several small systems in the same plant. It is important to
know the number and location of the various cooling towers and chilled
water systems and their interconnections so that appropriate chemical feed
points can be selected for proper water treatment. For example, several
refrigeration machines, each with its own individual cooling tower system,
can be operated on a single large chilled water system; or each refrigeration
machine can have its own individual chilled water circuit. These various
combinations of equipment make feeding chemicals difficult and expensive
in older plants since so many chemical feed points are necessary. Chilled
water systems are piped around the average textile plant for use in air
washers, process heat exchangers, and small office air conditioning units.
By far, the largest user of chilled water is the air washer unit. A small
textile plant may have only one refrigeration machine, one chilled water
system, and one air washer unit. Most textile chilled water systems have
high level float switches on the chilled water sump. This switch controls
a solenoid valve on interconnecting piping between the chilled water system
and the cooling tower water circuit. During summer operation, when the
chilled water is dehumidifying plant air, the volume of new textile plants
are being designed with as few chilled water systems as is practical to
maximize efficiency and reduce maintenance.
As plants get larger, more and more air washers are found. The average
plant with 1200–2400 tons of air conditioning capacity may have six to
eight air washers producing fairly low velocity air. Or the same plant may
have two to four high velocity air washer units. In plants where refrigeration
is not required during winter months, these washer units may operate
autonomously, continually re-circulating water from the sump up through
the spray nozzles. When refrigeration machines are operating, air washer
units are supplied with 40–50°F chilled water from the system’s main
chilled water sump. This sump is usually a large concrete structure
containing from a few hundred gallons up to 50000 gallons of chilled
water. The total capacity of the chilled water system can vary between a
few thousand gallons of water and over 100000 gallons of water. Some
times, water increases in the chilled water system. When this occurs, the
level in the sump necessarily rises until it hits the limit switch. Excess
chilled water then flows to the cooling tower system as makeup. This
procedure conserves both water and energy since it avoids wasting excess
chilled water and increases the efficiency of the condenser unit.
Chilled water sumps also contain some type of filter for suspended solids
removal. These filters may be a simple wire mesh screen on a moving
drum and a water spray device to remove suspended matter from the screen.
Many potential fouling problems in the air washer systems can be avoided
by removing suspended solids in the chilled water sump in this manner.
Most textile plants use compressed air for controls, water atomizers, and
other uses. Therefore, they need to deal with the problem of supplying
cooling water to the air compressor heads, oil coolers and after coolers.
The cooling water may come from the main cooling tower system in larger
plants where there are several air conditioning units, or there may be a
separate small tower provided for these units. Over the years small textile
plants have used once-through cooling water, but this practice is declining
due to economics and discharge limitations. A few plants that are set up
for once-through cooling water on air compressor systems conserve this

water by sending it to one of the cooling towers during summer operation
as makeup. If the cooling tower is not run during the winter months, this
water again becomes once-through. When air compressor cooling water is
utilized as makeup for a cooling tower system, a second sump float level
control in the cooling tower sump controls the makeup from the air
compressor units to avoid disturbing tower water concentrations and
treatment chemical residuals. This second float is set at a higher level
than the main makeup water valve so that it operates first when makeup is
required. Water that is not needed when this float closes moves vertically
a few feet from the float valve and then out a vented overflow line to
waste.
Swamp coolers: In very dry climates, ‘swamp coolers’ are popular for
improving comfort during hot weather. The evaporative cooler is a device
that draws outside air through a wet pad. The sensible heat of the incoming
air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The total heat
(sensible heat plus latent heat) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of
the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the
evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough,
the results can be quite comfortable. These coolers cost less and are
mechanically simple to understand and maintain.
Absorptive refrigeration: There is a process called absorptive
refrigeration which uses heat to produce cooling. In one instance, a three-
stage absorptive cooler first dehumidifies the air with a spray of salt-water
or brine. The brine osmotically absorbs water vapour from the air. The
second stage sprays water in the air, cooling the air by evaporation. Finally,
to control the humidity, the air passes through another brine spray. The
brine is re-concentrated by distillation. The system is used in some hospitals
because, with filtering, a sufficiently hot regenerative distillation removes
airborne organisms. Some buildings use gas turbines to generate electricity.
The exhausts of these are hot enough to drive an absorptive chiller that
produces cold water. The cold water is then run through radiators in air
ducts for hydronic cooling. The dual use of the energy, both to generate
electricity and cooling, makes this technology attractive when regional
utility and fuel prices are right. Producing heat, power, and cooling in one
system is known as trigeneration.
Moriguchi, TetsuoYamaoka, Akira developed a (United States Patent
6718790 dated 13th April 2004) cooling device which is constructed by a
water impermeable member defining a water passage, the water
impermeable member being provided with a vapour permeable member
which is permeable to water vapour and impermeable to water, and has
the form of a mesh and made of a material having water repellency. The
cooling device has a long-life operation while preventing wear-out of the

vapour permeable member. Further, optimally setting the size of an opening
of the mesh member enables to securely dissipate water vapour outside of
the cooling device through the vapour permeable member while efficiently
suppressing water leak.
10
18
27 17
26 11
19
15
12
13 16
14
4.37 Cooling device.
The cooling device includes a sheet-like vapour permeable member that

is impermeable to water but permeable to water vapour, a supply channel
for allowing water to pass by utilizing a capillary phenomenon, and an
impermeable member in the form of a plate or a sheet made of a material
impermeable to any fluid and having heat conductivity. The impermeable
member is arranged on the side of an object to be cooled as opposed to the
vapour permeable member with the water passage. The cooling device is
constructed in such a manner that water supplied to the water passage
evaporates by heat exchange with water coming from the side where the
object is located and that the water vapour is discharged outside of the
cooling device through the vapour permeable member. The vapour
permeable member is incorporated with a permeable membrane that has
been developed and applied mostly in the fields of textile industries. Such
a moisture permeable membrane is obtained by adhering a thin film formed
with a multitude of micropores each having a size generally corresponding
to one twenty-thousandth of water droplet or one thousand times as large
as water vapour molecule onto a base cloth so as to provide the resultant
permeable membrane with mechanical strength. This permeable membrane
utilizes a dimensional difference between gas molecule and liquid molecule
acquired moisture permeability with use of such a physiochemical property

that moisture is absorbed on a high-moisturized side with use of
hygroscopicity inherent to a polyurethane film while water vapour is
discharged on a low-moisturised side.
However, in the cooling device incorporated with the aforementioned
moisture permeable membrane, contact of the membrane with water for
an extended period wears out the membrane, which hinders long-time use
of such a membrane.
4.12 Temperature and humidity monitoring

The air after passing through the air washer and eliminator is sensed for
the temperature. Depending on the requirement of the department the air
can be either cooled or heated. Normally for cooling chilled water is added
to the air washer, where as for heating, the radiators or infra red heaters
are provided after the eliminators. The temperature of out side and inside
air are considered for making a decision for mixing the proportion of return
air with the out side air. The return air is first filtered and then fed to air
washer or thrown out to the atmosphere.
Supply air ducts 0000 000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

AIR
Eliminator
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Heater
Air
00000000000 Wall
washer
00 00 00 00000 00000 00000 00000

00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 00000 00000 00000
Fresh air
damper Filter Return air ducts
Return air Air left to atmosphere

damper
4.38 Centralised air conditioner.
The humidity is monitored by increasing or decreasing the water pressure

in the air washer and by judicially combining return air with outside air
depending on the humidity conditions. Now various sensors are available,
which monitor the opening and closing of the dampers and the water
pressures to maintain the required humidity and temperature.
5
Humidification requirements in
manmade-fibre plants
5.1 Introduction
The manmade fibres include a variety of polymers, normally extruded
through a spinneret, drawn and wound on spools; texturising is done if needed
for thermoplastic filaments. Some of the manmade fibres are hygroscopic in
nature and their properties are influenced with absorption of water, whereas
majority are not affected by moisture. However, the hydrophobic fibres are
prone to generation of static charges in process. Therefore, in manmade fibre
manufacturing process from spinning to weaving also requires air conditioning
with close tolerance, temperature and humidity.
Manufacturing in manmade fibre spinning can be divided into various
sections like quench box, take-up area, draw twisting area and textile area.
In addition to the above manufacturing areas, the other rooms like inverter
room, textile lab, instrumentation lab, etc., also require air conditioning.
5.2 Quench box

The most critical air conditioning requirement in the manufacturing process
of man-made fibre is the quench box. Molten polymer gets quenched and
solidified as a fine filament yarn in the quench box. Hence the quality of
air cleanliness; quantity, velocity across the quench screens; temperature,
humidity and static pressure inside the quench box are all critical for good
quality of the finished product and productivity.
Normally, each extruder line has four quench stations. Each quench
station requires 650–1000 cmh (400–600 cfm) in case of polyester and
900–1400 cmh (600–850 cfm) in case of nylon, to maintain an air velocity
of 0.4–0.6 m s-1 and 0.6–1.0 m s-1 across the quench screen respectively.
87
The air quantity and velocity are indicative numbers and vary according
to the process design and contour of the quench screens. The temperature
of quench air varies from 16 to 21°C and RH 65 ±5%. The quench air
directly impinges on the hot molten polymer and hence should be absolutely
clean for production of high quality yarn; hence pre-filters, fine filters
and HEPA filters are used in the supply air stream before the air enters the
quench box.
Normally 100% fresh air is used in a quench air system. Recirculation
in certain applications is considered if the ambient air temperature is high
and no contamination of air is observed. Outside air is first passed through
a coarse filter and then through a normal-water air washer. Air surrounding
the factory is expected to have high levels of ‘monomer’, hence an air
washer cleaning system is provided before conditioning the air as monomer
gets dissolved in water. The air washer also helps to increase the humidity
level particularly during the winter season. Air is then allowed to pass
through a set of cooling coils, hot water coils and a humidifier section. In
a quench system, the fan is kept before the cooling coil section, heating
coil section, etc.; and the system is a blow-through design against the
normal draw-through design used in standard air conditioning. The fan
power requirement for quench air is quite high compared to a normal air
conditioning system due to the high static pressure requirement; it is
therefore advisable to have the heat of fan motor picked up by the air
stream before entering the cooling coil. The filtration arrangement
comprising microvee (fine) EU-9 and HEPA (superfine) EU-11/EU-12
filters is provided after the air conditioning sections. The air is then taken
through a special duct manufactured out of 6 mm MS sheet of welded
construction so as to withstand high pressure. To maintain high cleanliness
level of the supply air, the MS duct is sand-blasted from inside and painted
with epoxy paint before installation. The MS duct is insulated outside
with 75 mm thick expanded polystyrene or equivalent material. The main
quench supply air duct runs alongside the series of quench stations,
normally below the quench boxes. Each quench box station is connected
through a feeder duct with a damper for flow control. The quench supply
air fan motor is provided with a variable frequency drive (VFD). With
varying fan speed, a quench system is maintained at constant pressure in
the quench box irrespective of pressure losses across the filters or due to
closing down of any particular quench station. During the 1970s when
VFDs were expensive, static pressure control was achieved through a
variable inlet guide vane controlled by pneumatic actuators. These actuators
were used to adjust the blower inlet guide vane based on the signal received
from the static pressure sensor located in the common supply air duct.
Even though many control methods are followed, the most common ones
are as follows:
Humidification requirements in manmade-fibre plants 89
● chilled-water-coil leaving dew point temperature controlling chilled

water flow, with a 3-way mixing valve
● supply air temperature controlling hot water flow with a 3-way valve
● supply air relative humidity controlling steam humidifier valve
● static pressure sensor located at the end of quench duct controlling
VFD of supply air blower motor.
The high-pressure quench air system needs a service corridor around
the air washer for pressure equalisation to open the air handling units
(AHU) doors for maintenance of the air handling system.
Machine air-conditioning is required in filament spinning. The quench
air outlet (Fig. 5.1) produces a laminar air flow with which maximum
product quality is achieved in the spun-bond process. Luwa guarantees a
speed variation of maximum ±0.05 m s-1 in the range of 0.3–0.7 m s -1 with
minimum pressure loss. Luwa offers a comprehensive system including
extraction, depending on requirements.
5.1 Quench air outlet for filament spinning by Luwa.
5.3 Take-up area

A take-up room comes below the quench room floor. Take-up room air
conditioning is a re-circulated air conditioning system. Temperature and
humidity in a take-up area is also quite critical. The table below shows
various conditions for polyester and nylon 6.
Table 5.1 Conditions for spinning Nylon and Polyester
Polyester Nylon 6
Temperature 21–23°C 18–21°C

Relative humidity 55–65% 45–55%
Room pressure Positive Positive
Cleanliness of air Down to 5 microns Down to 5 microns
Fresh air Normal Normal
The take-up air distribution system is operated through special perforated

registers at the ceiling level. Return air is collected at floor level through
masonry floor trenches which are insulated from inside and treated outside
by water proofing. The provision of special grilles for supply at the ceiling
and floor return grilles enables, close to unidirectional flow, from top to
bottom along the direction of filament movement to maintain the
temperature and humidity conditions of air at the take-up point.
Aspirating-type supply air diffusers are not used in the take-up area.
Special heavy duty floor grilles are used for return air to take care of
machinery movement over grilles. Masonry return air ducts are terminated
in a corner of the take-up room from where sheet metal ducts are used to
connect the return air back to the air handling system. The pressure
differential between a quench air system and take-up room is maintained
in such a way that quench air is at a marginally higher pressure compared
to take-up so that air flow from quench air to take-up along the flow
direction of filament is maintained.
Return air gets sucked through an axial flow return air fan and pumped
to a return air plenum which has provision for 100% exhaust of return
air or recirculation, based on ambient air conditions. Return air goes
through an air washer, cooling coil, heating coil and humidifier before
the supply air fan discharges it into a supply air plenum for filtration.
Clean conditioned supply air is then allowed through GSS air ducting
for distribution to the take-up room. The operating pressure of a take-up
fan will be around 50 mm. The most common control schemes followed
are:
● chilled-water-coil leaving dew-point temperature controlling chilled
water flow with a 3-way mixing valve,
● room air temperature controlling hot water flow with a 3-way valve,
● room relative humidity controlling steam humidifier valve, and
● ambient air wet-bulb controlling energy enthalpy scheme, closing/
opening of exhaust dampers and fresh air dampers.
The control element mentioned under ambient air wet bulb controlling
is for an energy enthalpy cycle. Whenever ambient air total enthalpy is
lower than return air enthalpy, 100% outside air is used for air conditioning
in order to save energy. For this purpose, ambient wet-bulb temperature is
measured, and whenever the ambient wet-bulb falls below the desired
setting, an electric actuator opens the exhaust damper and allows all the
return air to exhaust out. Simultaneously, the fresh air damper gets opened,
and the damper connecting the return air to the mixing chamber is closed
thereby allowing 100% outside air circulation.
5.4 Draw twist area

Draw twist air conditioning load is quite high due to the heaters fitted in
the machine. Draw twist air conditioning does not fall under the critical
category. A simple air conditioning system without any sophisticated
controls is normally provided. Here also the energy saving enthalpy scheme
taking 100% fresh air is used whenever ambient conditions are favourable.
In draw twist, the yarn is heat set, elongated and twisted to give further
strength to the yarn. The conditions required for draw twisting are
(1) temperature of 25–27°C and (2) RH up to 65% with cleanliness down
to 5 microns.
5.5 Textile area

The textile area is where the yarn gets twisted through a ply twister, cable
twister and sent as a finished product to tyre cord industries; or sometimes
woven through textile machinery. Air conditioning is not very critical for
the textile area machinery or process. A few major manufacturers initially
installed an evaporative cooling air washer for the textile area but
subsequently converted this to air conditioning, basically to enhance human
comfort. The sensible load in the textile area is quite high due to high
equipment load. Manufacturers who converted to an air conditioning system
from an air washer ventilation system observed substantial quality
improvement in the final product and also good productivity improvement
after air conditioning. The floor area for textile machinery is quite large;
and with very high equipment load, the air conditioning load is also quite
high, which made these manufacturers to go in for ventilation in the initial
start-up stages. The temperature requirement for textile area ranges from 22
to 25°C and RH of 55 to 70%. Air distribution is effected from the ceiling
and return air gets collected through masonry floor ducts and floor grilles.
5.2 TexFog for synthetic twisting area developed by Luwa.
Since for synthetic textile manufacturing a high degree of humidity is

crucial for hygienically perfect conditions, the air humidification must be

optimal. Luwa developed a high-performance humidifying system TexFog
(Fig. 5.2), which uses only fresh water and does not require a water tank.
Using TexFog is claimed to be perfectly safe from a hygiene point of view
and fulfils the German hygiene regulation VDI 6022. As per Luwa it
requires up to five times less energy than a conventional air washer and
also allows a super saturation of the air.
5.6 Other areas
5.6.1 Inverter room air conditioning

A large number of process machines in the man-made fibre industry require
variable speed drive and a large number of inverter drives are used for
motors driving rotary valves, extruder metering pumps, quench fans, finish
applicators and tow collectors. These inverters are generally located in a
common panel at two to three locations. Inverters dissipate a lot of heat
during operation and need good ventilation or air conditioning for very
reliable performance. Hence, inverter rooms are normally air conditioned,
maintaining a temperature of around 23–25°C and RH not exceeding 60%.
A standard air conditioning system with AHU fitted with chilled water
coil is used for inverter room air conditioning. Being a high sensible-load
application, the system requires a higher dehumidified cfm compared to
normal applications. No sophisticated controls are required for the inverter
room air conditioning system.
5.6.2 Textile and instrumentation labs

Textile and instrumentation lab temperature requirement is 22–25°C and
RH of around 55%. While the temperature and humidity tolerance
bandwidth is large for the instrumentation lab, the textile lab tolerance is
very minimal. Even though both air conditioning systems use standard
AHUs, the control scheme for a textile lab is quite elaborate with a 3-way
mixing valve for chilled water coil, 2-way valve for hot water coil,
dehumidifier, etc. An instrumentation lab normally has a cooling coil
controlled by a 3-way mixing valve. Both the systems are re-circulated
type and the AHUs are located in a separate room adjacent to the lab area.
5.6.3 Refrigeration plant

The refrigeration requirements for all the processes are combined and a
‘centralised refrigeration plant’ to take care of all the individual
requirements. Normally a separate utility building adjacent to the

manufacturing area houses the refrigeration plant along with other utilities
like air compressors, boilers, generators, UPS, etc.
The refrigeration requirement for a nylon plant is comparatively high
compared to a PSY plant. The refrigeration requirement for PSF is 125–
170 ton/metric ton, where as for nylon it is 600–650 ton/metric ton per
day. The above refrigeration load estimates will vary depending on the
location of the plant (city weather conditions), design of quench chamber,
fresh air or re-circulated air for quench or other areas, take-up room size
machinery and volume and whether textile facility is included in the overall
facility or not.
In the 60s and early 70s when centrifugal chillers were not common, a
battery of water-cooled reciprocating chillers used to serve the refrigeration
requirement. Since the process and inside room temperature requirement
between quench, take up and other areas are different, refrigeration plants
were grouped to operate at two levels of chilled water leaving condition
viz. 5°C and 7.5°C to make the system energy efficient. After the
development of centrifugal chillers, gradually most of the plants replaced
both reciprocating and low energy centrifugal chillers with energy-efficient
centrifugals of 0.65 kW TR -1 . The scene changed from a battery of
reciprocating chillers of 100/120 TR capacity, to a few energy efficient
centrifugal chillers of 600/800 TR. This change gave a substantial energy
benefit to the man-made fibre industry. During the same period, a few
organisations went in for captive power plants with diesel generating sets
or a gas turbine. These organisations installed absorption chillers and
produced refrigeration through the cogeneration route. The chilled water
produced in the refrigeration plant is pumped to various air conditioning
systems through constant speed centrifugal pumps. Since the plant room
is located away from the manufacturing area, where air washers are located,
extensive chilled water piping is common for this industry. All utility piping
used to get clubbed and laid on pipe racks from the utility area to the
manufacturing area.
The air conditioning scheme normally used is a system with a normal-
water air washer and a closed circuit chilled water coil. In the initial period
of evolution of this industry, a chilled water air washer was extensively
used for cooling and dehumidifying instead of a chilled water coil plus air
washer to save cost. The piping system used to be slightly different for
chilled water air washer application. Chilled water pumps located in the
plant room would supply chilled water to the make-up of the air washer
through a 2-way control valve. The amount of chilled water allowed into
the air washer is based on the process load requirement of the specific air
washer. The overflow water from the air washer would then be collected
into a common piping header by a gravity flow arrangement up to the

plant room. The return piping from the air washer being gravity return,
proper care (over-sizing) had to be done. The chilled water being exposed
to the air stream normally picked up impurities like dust particles,
monomers, etc.; and these used to settle down in the chiller. For
maintenance, chillers for such applications usually had a drain provision
between baffle plates. The open gravity return system had a lot of operating
problems such as overflow of hot well during shutdown, collection of
impurities in the circulation water, clogging of piping, etc. Hence, new
plants which came up during the late 70s avoided chilled-water air washers
and had a closed-circuit cooling coil with a separate normal-water air
washer.
5.6.4 Texturising
The extremely high energy requirements in false twisting on the one hand,
and the homogeneous temperature and humidity needs in the bobbin creel
area on the other, create a need for targeted machine air-conditioning
(Fig 5.3). The air is guided directly to the bobbins via low-induction slide
vane outlets. A simultaneously controlled extraction of the heat produced
by the process guarantees optimal running of the machine.
5.3 Luwa machine air conditioning.

6
Humidification requirements in
nonwoven plants
6.1 Processes in nonwoven plant

The nonwovens are produced by mechanically entangling a fine web of
fibres either by water jet, air jet or punching by needles. The nonwovens
production is not as simple as we talk. As the fibres are not bonded fully,
while in manufacturing, are affected greatly by static charges. Normally a
number of webs produced from different carding machines are laid one
above the other and then passed through the jets or needle punches. A
slight variation in humidity can cause the webs to jump up or break, which
greatly affects the web density. Uneven GSM is one of the major problems
being faced by the nonwoven manufacturers. Uneven humidity not only
affects the web density, i.e., GSM, but also the web thickness. This poses
the problem of uneven height of pads when equal number of pads are
counted and filled in bags. The uneven heights bring a suspicion among
the customers about the number of pads and the quality of pads.
6.1 Lap preparation.
The carding process is difficult, especially when bleached cottons are
95
processed for producing absorbent cotton pads, balls or buds. As the

cotton loses its natural wax in the bleaching process, lubrication properties
are lost and fibres become sticky. Higher moisture makes the cotton lumpy,
whereas a lower humidity results in lapping on cylinder and doffers. It is
very difficult to get a good working on cards, even with a low doffer
speed of 7–10 rpm. The lapping on cylinders, doffers and flats are so
high that there are frequent breakdowns. Because of this reason, a number
of absorbent cotton manufacturers prefer having old and obsolete carding
machines rather than latest high speed machines. However, if they can
provide correct humidity and temperature, it is possible to get a good
working with least break downs, and the advantage of latest carding
machines can be taken.
In water-entangling system of nonwoven manufacturing, after water jets,
the web is dried using hot air driers. The nonwoven web needs to be monitored
with uniform moisture. This demands a controlled temperature and humidity
in the web former, pad cutting, ball making, bud making and packing areas.
Cotton-bud making requires highly sophisticated cards and auto-leveler
draw frame. As the hank of sliver is very fine (approx. Ne 10), high
sophistication is required in temperature and humidity. These cards and
draw frames normally do not work continuously because of their high
productivity compared to bud-making machines. This type of stopping
and restarting the machines also create problem in maintaining humidity
and temperature at pre-determined levels.
As the hot-air drier makes the complete department hot, it is needed to
exhaust the hot air by providing hoods above the drying area coupled with
exhaust fans. Similarly the steam escaped out from bleaching kiers needs
to be guided out of the room as it increases humidity in adjacent opening
and baling machines. There is a need to have suitable exhaust system to
prevent steam entering the processes of lap preparation, etc.
Apart from the need of good working, maintaining a germ-free
atmosphere is essential as normally the absorbent cotton nonwovens are
used for cosmetic and medical purposes. The water sumps needs periodic
cleaning and anti microbial treatment. We cannot just use normal soft
water, which we use in spinning and weaving plants. Periodic checking
of water inlet and humidified air entry points for the presence of micro-
organisms is practiced. All doors shall be insect proof and shall be held
closed with spring pressure.
6.2 Air distribution needs in nonwoven industry

Air distribution plays a major role in a nonwoven production unit. In order
to guarantee the quality of the product to be manufactured, very specific
Humidification requirements in nonwoven plants 97
pre-requisites must be fulfilled. In particular in the preparation phase and

when the nonwoven is formed, the following points are important:
● Consistently high humidity of the material for optimal processing
● Conditioned air, correctly dosaged, at the critical production positions
on the machine
● Air humidity level that is still hygienically safe
● Efficient cleaning of the air, taking into account the maximum
workplace concentration stabilising, and bonding that need constant
conditioning
Luwa has developed modular construction of the TAC® system for air
engineering processes in a nonwoven manufacturing plant designed
considering the characteristics of the various production machines. Since
in a nonwoven manufacture a high degree of humidity is crucial for
hygienically perfect conditions, the air humidification must be optimal.
TexFog (Fig. 6.2) designed for this purposes uses only fresh water and
does not require a water tank. Therefore this is safe from a hygiene point
of view which fulfills the German hygiene regulation VDI 6022. It is low-
energy consuming and claimed to operate with five times less energy
compared to a conventional air washer and also allows a super saturation
of the air.
6.2 TexFog: hygienic and energy-saving humidification.
FlowMaster
The FlowMaster displacement air outlet (Fig. 6.3) is suitable for local
conditioning (spot air-conditioning) in manufacturing halls with an irregular
local heat load distribution. It is a displacement air outlet distributing the
supply air at a low speed near the floor, with little induction and turbulence.
The air which has been heated up by machines and humans is removed
through the extraction openings from the room or directly as machine
extract air.
6.3 FlowMaster.
6.3 Material air-conditioning and spot

air-conditioning
For nonwoven plants, two types of air-conditioning, spot air-conditioning
and material air-conditioning, is required. With spot air-conditioning,
maintaining the required air parameters is guaranteed in work zones. With
material air-conditioning, it is ensured that the material to be processed is
surrounded by air in an optimal condition at every step of the process. In
other process steps, as in bonding and converting, comfort air-conditioning
is the most important aspect.
In case of opening-bleached cottons after drying, wet cotton openers
are used. The cotton opened is dried in hot air driers and then goes for
further opening. In that position maintaining humidity is very critical.
Normally, moisture sensors are used to predict the moisture in the dried
cotton, and dry fog humidification is used. The spot humidifiers are fixed
inside the hoppers. The uniformity in moisture content is very essential in
the laps to get uniform bulkiness of the pads and correct height in the
bags. Therefore material humidification with precision is very essential.
6.4 Cleaning of the air

A multi-level filter technology with at least one first automatic filter step
is required, depending on the waste or contaminants present. Depending
on the process, separate air filters are required. For example, where cotton
nonwovens are produced, the raw cotton is first processed in regular
blow room with 4–6 cleaning points, like a normal coarse count spinning
mill. The material is then fed to a series of cards through chutes. The
dusty air is to be removed and filtered in blow room as well as in carding.
This requires heavy duty filters. To avoid contamination of dust, the pre-
opening units are normally housed in a separate building. The opened
cotton is the fed to a cake-making machine, where cotton is combined
Humidification requirements in nonwoven plants 99
with water and pressed with press foot in a perforated stainless steel
drum. After bleaching and drying, the cotton is made into bales, which
are used for further processing of preparation of lap. In the bleached
blow room and carding, the concentration is on opening and not on cleaning.
Here we need not extract the dust as done in pre-opening. Air is extracted
from the blow room and carding, and then filtered and reused.
Automatic panel filter for exhaust air containing dust and fibres with
cleaning nozzles are available, which needs only minimal space. Luwa
provides a cleaning robot (Fig. 6.4) having a variable number of nozzles
and the variable speed depending on the dust content.
6.4 Cleaning robot. 6.5 Multidrum-VAC by Luwa.
Multidrum-VAC (Fig. 6.5) is a simple automatic filter unit suitable for

applications with a smaller air volume. This has number of filters of drum
shape with different porosity, so that wastes are segregated and sent for
recirculation.
6.5 Recycling and disposal of wastes

Fibres recycling with waste separators are used for retrieving good fibres
from bleach carding and bleach-blow room area.
6.6 Rotary pre-filter by Luwa. 6.7 Compacting unit.

Rotary pre-filters (Fig. 6.6) are used in pre-blow room and carding to
extract dirty non-reusable dust. The wastes collected on drums are sucked
by a compacting unit (Fig. 6.7), where they are pressed into small bales
for despatch.
6.6 Compact Filter Unit (CFU)

The compact, stand-alone-type of filters (Fig. 6.8) are used to collect
non-usable clean short fibres. They are collected and disposed for paper-
making industry.
6.8 Compact filter unit (CFU).

7
Concept of total air control
7.1 Introduction
TAC® is the modern total concept given by Luwa for processing traditional
textiles such as in spinning, weaving and knitting mills. It comprises
solutions for all air-engineering processes, including regulating, controlling
and services. Total air control (TAC) covers air treatment in entire
production facilities, specific areas and immediate machine environments,
machine and plant cleaning, appropriate disposal of collected particles
and fibers as well as a control system and various after sales services.
The impact of climate control on the interplay of people, machines and
materials is unquestioned. Without a satisfactory indoor climate, industrial
production is unlikely to be entirely successful. Regardless of how extreme
the outside climate is the TAC aims at providing required humidity and
temperature, and sufficient clean air circulation. Customised air is the
concept of TAC which is tailor-made for the process. Optimum air quality
and custom solutions for each production process decisively affect
productivity and product quality.
The plants are designed by studying the process in detail. Intimate
knowledge of the production processes is very essential for the
humidification-plant designers. The engineers should routinely work
closely with production experts who contribute their knowledge of their
specifications and the intricacies of production processes. The production
experts and their process know-how interface with humidification
specialists directly, build in the process a solid bridge between air-treatment
technology and process know-how. The competence centres of the
humidification-plant manufacturers provide instant access, anywhere in
the world, to the extensive industry and process know-how. This factor
alone is of immeasurable benefit to customers in all project phases, from
101
initial consulting and conceptualising, planning and execution, to

coordination, installation and certification, etc. It also includes customer
training and after sales services. The Plant manufacturers take care of
planning and execution through qualification, validation and servicing.
Design-build concept saves resources and valuable time. Further electronic
controls to monitor the temperature, humidity, air flow, are very essential,
and they are integrated part of the solutions. Training the technicians to
monitor the plant is also a part of the package of TAC. Modular total
solution for all air control processes, TAC®, comprises of air treatment,
air conduction, cleaning, waste handling, controls and services.
Now a number of other companies are also working towards giving
complete solution.
TAC® offers increased productivity through:
● tailor-made solutions adapted to any production machine
● stable climate in the work zones
● efficient dust removal
● thorough machine cleaning
● robust extraction and disposal systems
● unique regulating and controlling with branch-specific software
● precise and dust-insensitive transmitters
● worldwide service organisation.
Reduction of operating costs is achieved through:
● air conducting concepts with reduced air and water requirements

● customer-specific plant engineering
● application of energy-efficient components
● appropriate regulating and controlling.
Air in the right place is a very specific pre-requisite that must be fulfilled
in order that the quality of the product to be processed is guaranteed with
consistent climate, precisely regulated supply of treated air, optimally
placed exhaust air openings in the floor, efficient cleaning of the machines
and reliable controlling and regulating of temperature and humidity. In
order to achieve even temperature and humidity and at the same to avoid
fibre fly and dust development, the air flow—in particular the supply and
removal of the air plus the cleaning—plays a crucial role. According to
the manufacturing process, a room, machine or combination air-
conditioning system is to be foreseen.
7.2 Different individual solutions

Different individual solutions for air flow and air-conditioning for different
manufacturing processes in a textile mill by Luwa are, for instance,
Concept of total air control 103
● Baffle plate air outlet (Fig. 7.1) for ring spinning

● RotorSphere air outlet for rotor spinning
● LOOMSPHERE ® air outlet for weaving machines
● AirBell air outlet for knitting mills.
7.1 Baffle plate air outlet for ring spinning.
RotorSphere air outlet systems (Fig. 7.2) are specially designed for
rotor spinning. The logic considered is that compared to the ring spinning
process, rotor spinning is basically a closed process. This requires less
air and can be run with a smaller air-conditioning plant. So investment is
kept at a low level. In addition there are savings with the fan and pump
performance as well as water consumption. In addition, with RotorSphere
a much improved homogeneity of the micro-climate is achieved along the
rotors and the feed cans situated between them. RotorSphere also ensures
a good working atmosphere for the workers.
7.2 RotorSphere air outlet for rotor spinning.
Since ring spinning, friction spinning and air jet spinning is an open
process, a room air-conditioning system is to be foreseen. To keep the
number of thread breakages low—thus increasing productivity—the air
above the machine must be distributed optimally. In the work zone, i.e.,
the drafting system, there must be a pre-dominance of vertical air
movements so that the humidity can reach the yarn optimally and the dust
produced is pushed downwards. There, the dust is taken up by the exhaust
air system and removed from the spinning hall.
The patented air outlet LOOMSPHERE® (Fig. 7.3), developed by Luwa,

allows direct air conditioning of the weaving machines at the warp sheet,
with out demanding for the maintenance of 85% humidity all over the
shed. This new concept is the main feature of the air-conditioning concept
for weaving mills. It guarantees the desired conditions regarding humidity
and temperature on the warp.
7.3 LOOMSPHERE® air outlet for weaving machines.
Since in a nonwoven manufacture, a high degree of humidity is crucial

for hygienically perfect conditions, the air humidification must be optimal.
For this, Luwa offers the high-performance humidifying system, TexFog
(Fig. 7.4), which only uses fresh water and does not require a water tank.
Using TexFog is perfectly safe from a hygiene point of view and fulfils
the German hygiene regulation VDI 6022. It requires up to five times less
energy than a conventional air washer and also allows a super saturation
of the air. For nonwoven plants, we distinguish between two types of air-
conditioning: spot air-conditioning and material air-conditioning. With spot
air-conditioning, maintaining the required air parameters is guaranteed in
work zones. With material air-conditioning, it is ensured that the material
to be processed is surrounded by air in an optimal condition at every
process step. In other process steps, as in bonding and converting, comfort
air-conditioning is the most important aspect.
7.4 TexFog: hygienic and energy-saving humidification for

nonwoven plants.
7.3 Cleaning and disposal of air

The FlowMaster displacement air outlet (Fig. 7.5) is suitable for local
conditioning (spot air-conditioning) in manufacturing halls with an irregular
local heat load distribution. FlowMaster is a displacement air outlet which
distributes the supply air at a low speed near the floor, with little induction
and turbulence. The air which has been heated up by machines and humans
rises and is removed via the extraction openings from the room or directly
as machine extract air.
7.5 FlowMaster displacement air outlet.
Regulation and reduction of fibre fly and dust are important for the
quality of the products to be processed. High-performance travelling
cleaners and room air changes counteract these problems. In production
fringe areas—near creels, transport systems, casings or interim storage—
additional cleaning measures are necessary. Vacuum cleaning plants are
very common in textile mills. Ceiling cleaner CIRCULAIRE®, developed
by Luwa, considerably reduces cleaning work and increase the production
time. Collecting waste from the point of origin on a continuous basis and
compacting them for transporting outside is a very important aspect of
total air control.
7.6 Travelling cleaner STC on ring spinning machines.

The travelling cleaner (Fig. 7.6) is an important part of an efficient air-

conditioning concept.
7.7 Travelling cleaner LTC with LOOMSPHERE® air outlet

in a weaving mill.
7.3.1 Automatic panel filter (APF): cleaning robot with

variable cleaning for individual applications
A multi-level filter technology with at least one first automatic filter step
is required, depending on the waste or contaminants present. Luwa offers
an automatic panel filter for exhaust air containing dust and fibres, which
needs only minimal space. Thanks to the high filtering degree, the
requirements of the international norms for residue dust amounts (MAC
values) are fulfilled. The filter medium is automatically cleaned by means
of a nozzle belt. Having a variable number of nozzles and the variable
speed of the robot, depending on the dust content, is a new feature.
7.8 Cleaning robot.

7.3.2 MULTIDRUM-VAC® – compact and powerful

The simpler automatic filter unit MULTIDRUM-VAC ® (Fig. 7.9) is suitable
for applications with a smaller air volume. As pioneers for efficient and
environmental friendly recycling or disposal concepts, Luwa offers a wide
range of products for extracting and compacting dust, fibres and dirt
particles. Fibre recycling is carried out with waste separator, and the
usable fibres are recycled directly to the production unit after extraction.
Non-usable waste is separated out with the automatic rotary pre-filter
unit. The wide product and system range comprises individual products
right through to fully automatic plants.
7.9 Multidrum VAC. 7.10 Good fibre recycling with

waste separator WSB.
7.11 Rotary pre-filter unit RPF for elimination of non-reusable

waste.
Compact stand-alone filter units are operational and maintenance

friendly; they are used for collecting clean short lint from the blow room
and carding after bleaching.
7.12 Compact filter unit.
7.4 Controls
7.4.1 Transmitters
Luwa offers a range of transmitters (Fig. 7.13) especially developed for
the textile industry. They are fast-reacting, precise and have particularly
high-performance temperature and humidity sensors.
7.13 Control units.
The speed and precision of the sensors help to ensure that the air
conditions are always in an optimal range. The permanent and precise
registering of temperature and humidity values as well as of pressures
therefore allow energy-optimised permanent operation.
DigiControl has an important task within our total concept. DigiControl
is the automatic system for regulating and controlling, monitoring and
optimising of all air engineering processes. It consists of harmonised
hardware and software. DigiControl records, registers and stores all
relevant data.
7.5 After-sales service: trouble-free operation

After-sales service is very important to ensure that the plants perform to
optical efficiency. Whatever may be the quality and reliability of equipment
unless it is handled properly by trained personnel it cannot perform. The
manufacturer can improve his design only by getting proper feedback
from the users, for which he needs to have continuous interaction. The
concept of after-sales service addresses both the requirements, i.e., training
the people to handle the equipments properly and to understand the problems
and requirements. Hence in the concept of total air control servicing by
the manufacturer takes an important role. Regular maintenance contributes
considerably to a reduction in operating costs. Expert checking of the
plant and adjustment of the set values guarantees irreproachable, trouble-
free operation and lengthens a plant’s life. The service contract includes
regular checks of the plants regarding condition, function, operating costs
and safety. Maintenance and function-relevant cleaning ensure the machine
is always ready for operation. As per the contract, the manufacturer carry
out maintenance tasks, breakdown remedying, conversion, tele-service
and repair work, training and instruction of the operating staff as per the
requirements. Also the manufacturers make their know-how available for
optimising and advising about existing plants from other manufacturers.
The main focus is on operating safety and reduction of operating costs.
8
Localised humidification control
8.1 Need for localised humidification control

The conditioned air supplied by a humidification or air-conditioning plant
is through diffusers, which is intended to spread the air uniformly in the
working area. The return air trenches suck the air, and hence the air shall
be moving from the diffusers to return air trenches. But our purpose of
humidifying the department is to help the running material to absorb the
humidity from the air supplied. It is more important for the working
materials to get exposed to the humidity rather than the complete
department. The human beings working in the production area require a
humidity range of 45–60% for comfortable working; where as the working
material depending on the process requires different humidity and
temperature levels. Sometimes we need to dehumidify to get the right
results. Hence, it shall be useful if one can develop systems to provide
humidity or dehumidify at the spot where the material is worked upon.
Spot humidifiers are one such development.
Energy costs continue to climb while, at the same time, utilities are
frequently unable to provide all of the electricity that industry needs.
When these circumstances are combined with the urgent need to control
capital expenses, the case for spot cooling becomes very strong. For many
industries and companies, in a wide variety of applications, spot coolers
(Fig. 8.1) are the answer to controlling both energy use and capital
expenses.
Spot cooling is a method of cooling overheated areas within a larger
area, as opposed to providing general cooling by means of a remote
centrally controlled air-conditioning system. In operation, spot cooling is
an extremely efficient means of cooling people, processes, and equipment
because it directs a localised stream of cool air exactly where it is needed.
110
Localised humidification control 111
Cooling Air
Exhaust
Air Duct
Filter
Air Intake
(Evoporator) Air Intake
(Condenser)
Condensate
Container
8.1 Spot coolers.
The concept of spot cooling is not a new idea, but the use of spot coolers
to accomplish localised cooling within work environments and equipment
rooms is a recent development. Room air or ambient air is drawn in through
the evaporator intake in front. The air is cooled as it passes over the
evaporator coils and leaves through the cool air discharge. The condenser
intake on the side of the unit draws in air to cool the condenser coils. This
warm air is then discharged out of the condenser exhaust on top.
8.2 Use of heating lamps

In a number of cases, we need to keep a small area in the production
department either dry or more humid depending on the nature of the material
being processes. This cannot be done by central plants. The use of small-
room humidifiers or fogging fans, the heating lamps along with suitable
partitioning shall be useful. The classical examples are the use of heating
lamps above the creel of draw frames, combers and speed frames during
rainy season, use of heating lamp on the warp sheet of a loom while weaving
cotton PVA doubled yarns for loops in super soft terry towel making,
conditioning chambers, etc.
While installing heating lamps, it is necessary to understand the purpose
and adjust the distance between the lamp and the machine, to get the best
results. If the lamps are very near, the metal parts of the machine also
become hot, this is not desired. The heat from the lamp should not get
wasted by radiation. Hence, use of reflectors in the back is suggested to
get maximum benefit. As the bulbs shall be very hot, it can break if comes
in contact with water droplets. The reflector also protects the bulb from
the water droplets falling from the top.
8.2 Heating lamps.
Reflector
Bulb
8.3 Infra-red heating lamp.
8.3 Subsystem humidification

Subsystem humidification of air conditioning instead of a block system
helps improvement of loom efficiency, the comfort and the hygienic
conditions within the weaving room and reduction of the energy needed
for conditioning of the air in the weaving room. These goals are obtained
by precisely controlling the moisture content of the yarn being fed into
each loom by removing solids and heat generated by the weaving process
at their source, and by improving the handling of the air in the weaving
room. One may understand that warp yarns after sizing usually are dried
by the hot air cylinders in slashers to 5–6% moisture. But during stops,
part of the yarn is over dried to 1–2% moisture. Most warp yarn breaks are
concentrated in these parts. Filling yarn moisture falls within the 3–7% range,
depending mainly on the spinning technology employed. Sometimes yarn
conditioning prior to weaving is required. Yarn exposure to the room air
during the weaving process is as short as 15 min. or less. The weaving process
would run best with a very high room humidity level in the range 85–95%,
but operator comfort imposes a limit, usually of 60–65%. Room temperature
is normally kept within the range 24–26°C. Therefore, the concept of localised
humidification is beneficial. Recently two companies (LUWA-Bahnson and
LTG Air Engineering) introduced systems projecting cool nearly saturated
air from about 1500 mm over the shed on the yarn. Better loom performance
has been reported. Similarly, trials done by SITRA (Patent No 174964 dated
2 Jul 1990) at Coimbatore indicated that inducing humidifies air at the creel
of ring frame instead of humidifying the entire room is economical and gives
equally good results.
LOOMSPHERE ® is a localised humidity unit developed by Luwa, is
placed as close as possible above the warp, producing a low-turbulence air
flow. This system has two essential advantages. There is no room air
because of the laminar air flow, and the air which flows slowly guarantees
that there is sufficient humidity on the warp. The warm outlet air is collected
directly under the weaving machine, together with dust and fibre fly, and
is removed. This direct air-conditioning in combination with a reduced air
volume for the room is the ideal TAC® combi air-conditioning. The TAC®
combi air-conditioning is claimed to offer a high degree of efficiency and
comfort with low investment and subsequent low running costs.
8.4 LOOMSPHERE humidification.
System developed by Shofner U.S. Pat. Nos. 5676177 & 5910598; Chern
U.S. Pat. No. 4,966,017 and Vignoni U.S. Pat. No. 5,275,350 has following
subsystems performing a definite task separately. The adequate moisture
required by the yarn to perform best in the loom is metered exactly and
directly on the yarn. Thereby, yarn breakage is reduced and weaving room
air humidity can be lowered, thereby improving human comfort. Lint and
dust generated by the weaving process are removed at their source. Air
contamination is lowered, thereby improving hygienic conditions and
reducing air filtration requirements and making travelling cleaners
unnecessary. Heat generated by the weaving process is partly removed by
water-cooling the lubricating oil of the weaving machine, thereby reducing
the weaving room heat load. Large peripherally located air conditioning units
are replaced by smaller units, distributed over or under the roof of the room,
each serving the area of 4–24 looms. Due to subsystems, filtration and cooling
requirements are greatly reduced. Air humidification is not needed. The fan
and coil conditioning system is best suited for this application. Subsystems
are operated on each loom separately, thereby increasing production
flexibility. Loom efficiency is increased as yarn breaks are lowered to less
than half. Conditioned air will be projected on the aisles of work place.
Room air will be collected for recycling at a higher level. Thereby
turbulences, usually produced by ascending warm air, are prevented. Under
floor air, ducts are no longer necessary. Due to subsystems, less air will
have to be turned over. Due to decentralisation of AC units, said air will be
transported over shorter distances. Thereby, substantial amounts of energy
are saved. As lesser air ducts are needed, the investment costs are reduced.
By elimination of underground ducts and openings in the floor, replacement
or rearrangement of weaving machines is made easier.
8.4 AirBell air outlet

AirBell air outlet for knitting mills, developed by Luwa, is another example
of localised humidification. This is used for air-conditioning of circular
knitting machines. AirBell has the effect that the air flow above the machine
forms a sort of bell. Fly and dust are eliminated directly with the outlet air
and cannot move to other circular knitting machines. With this, the work area
is freed from fly and dust and fault frequency is reduced by up to 50%.
8.5 AirBell.
8.5 Exhausting air

Providing ducts and exhaust fans to collect the dry or humidified air from
selected parts of the machine also helps in providing the clean work area
to the material in process and preventing disturbance to adjacent processes.
The air suction units like Pneumafil provided in ring frames, speed frames,
draw frames, carding, etc., not only concentrates on preventing the dust
flying out, but also guides the air movement. The conditioned air fed to
the production department through the diffusers at the top spreads all over,
where as our intention is that it should interact with the material being
processed. As the return air system is sucking air from the department, the
conditioned air is also sucked out wasting all our efforts for conditioning.
The system of extracting air from the machines directs the wind flow
towards the machines and the material in process.
8.6 FlowMaster by Luwa.
The FlowMaster (Fig. 8.6) displacement air outlet developed by Luwa

is an example for local conditioning in manufacturing halls with an irregular
local heat load distribution. FlowMaster is a displacement air outlet which
distributes the supply air at a low speed near the floor, with little induction
and turbulence. The air which has been heated up by machines and humans
rises and is removed via the extraction openings from the room or directly
as machine extraction air.
In sizing, for drying the sized yarns either steam-heated cylinders or
infra-red lights are used. While drying, the moisture in the yarn evaporates
and forms a column surrounding the yarn. This reduces the drying
efficiency. Therefore, it is needed to continuously remove the humid air
from the point of drying. Hoods are provided on the top of the drying
surface and the air is exhausted by using exhaust fans. If this is not done,
it is not only reducing the drying efficiency of the drying units, but allows
the humid air escape freely in the work area, which moves up and after
reaching the roof the water condenses and falls as big drops all over. These
drops shall be very big and if fall on the dried size beam create havoc by
developing stickiness. Therefore, even though one says control of humidity
is not needed for sizing, monitoring and exhausting of the hot humid air is
very essential.
8.7 Collection of dusty air from machines.
Hot air out let in slashers
Drying
cylinders
8.8 Hot air hoods.
Some mills have exhaust fans on the walls. These are provided to throw
out hot air from the working area. Where humidification is required and
provided by various means, the exhaust fans tend to throw the humidified
air out. Therefore, it does more harm than good. It is always advisable to
provide suitable ducting and collect the hot air from the point of generation
and guide them out by installing exhaust fans at suitable location.
Humidity Duct
Exhaust fan throwing
humidified air out
8.9 Wrong positioning of exhaust fans.
8.6 Machine air-conditioning

In machines where the speeds are very high like texturizing, ring frames,
etc., the generation of heat is very high. Further the ballooning throws out
the moisture from the fibres in process. Therefore a specialised treatment
of air and humidity is required at those points, where as in the creel, as the
materials are almost stationary, they tend to absorb more moisture. The
treatment needed for creel is therefore to be different compared to actual
spinning area.
8.10 Machine air-conditioning.
The extremely high energy requirements in false twisting on one hand,

and the homogeneous temperature and humidity needs in the bobbin creel
area on the other, create a need for targeted machine air-conditioning. The
air is guided directly to the bobbins via low-induction slide vane outlets.
A simultaneously controlled extraction of the heat produced by the process
guarantees optimal running of the machine.
8.7 Super soft terry towels weaving

Towels have the basic objective of absorbing moisture from the body. More
the absorbency, the towel is called as of superior quality. Normal methods
used to make the towels soft are using lower twists in the pile yarn, using
softeners while dyeing, having a higher loop height, etc. One of the recent
methods is to use the pile yarn made by doubling cotton with a water-
soluble filament. Once the towel is washed, the water-soluble filament
dissolves, and the pile yarn shall be almost of zero twist, giving a super
soft feel and maximum absorbency. Normally, a PVA filament, for e.g.
Solvoran is used.
The production of such towels poses a peculiar problem. The PVA needs
a highly dry weather to avoid partial dissolving of PVA films while weaving,
where as the ground beam made up of 100% cotton requires a very high
humidity of 85% and above. We need to heat the pile beam area with heating
lamps, where as ground beam needs to be humidified using mist
humidifiers. This is a classic example of localised humidification control.
Pile beam
consisting of
Jacquard cotton PVA
double yarn
Pile needs dry Heating
weather lamps
Ground
Reed
Terry towel
Mist
fan
Take up roller
Ground beam 100%
cotton needs RH
>85%
8.11 Terry Loom manufacturing super-soft towel with PVA cotton-doubled yarns.
Localised humidity controls are as important as centralised controls.

The Total Air Control concept given by Luwa has number of units those
are basically localised units designed specifically for the purpose.
8.8 Yarn-conditioning plants

Humidification needs are not only for getting a good working during
production, but also to ensure that the material is made suitable for further
working. During spinning and winding, the yarn package runs at a very
high speed, because of which the moisture in the yarn is thrown out. The
normal moisture in ring spun cops and cone winding shall be around
4.5–5.0%. To have a good working in warping or knitting, the yarn should
have moisture of above 7%. The commercial moisture regain considered
for overseas market is 8.5%, where as in the mills, it is very difficult to get
that moisture content. To get the advantage of moisture content, people
started keeping high humidity in winding section by installing mist
humidifiers. This resulted in the rusting of machine parts, but the moisture
in the cone did not increase. The cones remained dry as the cones were put
in polythene bags immediately after doffing to avoid handling stains. Then
the system of keeping cones in a humidified room for 24 h was started,
which only added the space problem, but the cones did not absorb moisture
as they were tightly built to have higher yarn content on cones and to have
higher container capacity to reduce transportation costs. The yarns made for
hosiery is normally waxed, which also is a hindrance for the yarn to absorb
moisture. By keeping cones in a humidified room for a long time gave higher
moisture content in the outer surface of cones, but not uniformly inside the
cone. Some even tried subjecting cones to direct steam at different pressures.
The imbedded air in between the fibres and yarns had no place to come out,
which was also a hindrance to moisture absorption. There used to be a
condensation of water droplets at the surface of cones and in the polythene
bags, but the moisture was not entering the core of the yarn. It increased the
problems rather than reducing. The yarn conditioning plants and auto claves
were designed to give moisture to the yarn by force.
The cones are kept in an enclosed chamber, which shall first be made
vacuum by a vacuum pump. By this, the trapped air between fibres and
yarns are taken out. Afterwards live steam would be allowed to enter the
chamber. As the air has been removed, the water molecules can enter the
cavity in the fibres, and the absorption of moisture becomes more effective.
8.12 Yarn-conditioning machine.

8.9 Static elimination

Static charges develop because of the friction between either fibres or
between fibres and the machine parts. The humidification makes the air
conductive and reduces the static charges. However, the generation of static
charges shall not be uniform through out the production area. Therefore, it
shall be advantageous to attack the places of static generation and eliminate
the charges rather than increasing humidity through out the working area.
Various devices are available for arresting static charges; out of them air
ionizers have a direct link to air handling.
8.13 Static eliminators.
Air ions are molecules that have lost or gained an electron. Ions are
present in normal air but are ‘stripped’ out when an air is subject to filtration
and conditioning. They are produced by radioactive emission or by a
phenomenon called ‘corona discharge’ where a high voltage is applied to
sharp point. All air ionisation systems work by flooding the atmosphere
with positive and negative ion, when ionised air comes in contact with a
charge surface; the charge surface attracts ions of the opposite polarity. As
a result the static electricity that has built up on products, equipment and
surface is neutralised. Typically, air is highly insulative with a resistive
exceeding 10E15 ohms m-1. By increasing the numbers of ions in the air it
is possible to lower the resistance of the air to 10E11 ohms m -1, there by
making the air more conductive. Conductive air can neutralise the static
charge on every surface that it contents. The field from the charged surface
attracts ions of the opposite polarity until the charged on the surface is
neutralised. Different types of air ionisers are available with built-in blowers
which can be installed very near to the source of static charges.
9
Maintenance of humidity
9.1 Understanding the calculations

Not only the use of right instrument but also the way it is used affects the
music. The role of instrumentalist is equally important as the instrument
itself. Similar is the case with air-handling systems. Proper use of the plant
and maintaining it are very important to get the best results. It must be
noted that one cannot go on changing or updating a humidification plant
in any industry as it costs heavy and in a number of times, complete shutting
down of the factory might be essential. Hence it is not viable.
Meeting ventilation and comfort requirements in multiple-space air
handling systems are challenging. The factory and building heating and
cooling loads are not static; therefore systems need to be flexible to respond
to the continually changing outdoor conditions and occupant activities.
To optimise comfort and minimise energy usage, the HVAC control system
must also be dynamic. An effective way to assure that the comfort, working
and ventilation needs for all areas of the factory are met is to continuously
monitor system operation. The system must adjust control parameters as
necessary to meet the needs for each specific operating condition. This
type of system level control can accomplish objectives while keeping
operating energy costs in check. The key to optimising a system is
communicating controls on the HVAC equipment.
The heating of the spray water or the air prior to the air washer creates
a condition that allows the air passing to the plant to hold a higher level
of moisture. The amount of moisture that is required for the plant use will
dictate the degree that the air or spray water will need to be heated. In
dealing with the problems of maintaining constant inside air conditions
one has to take note of the variations in outside air conditions and also the
heat generated in the working area. This needs many time consuming and
tedious calculations. One might have to use psychrometric chart that
121
graphically represents the interrelation of air temperature and moisture

content and is a basic design tool for building engineers and designers.
Psychrometric charts are an aid to understand the properties of air. The
science of air-water interactions is called psychrometrics, which is the
measurement of thermodynamic properties in moist air. As a problem-
solving tool, psychrometrics excel in showing how changes in heating,
cooling, humidification, and dehumidification can affect the properties of
moist air. Psychrometric data is needed to solve various problems and
processes relating to air distribution. Most complex problems relating to
heating, cooling and humidification are combinations of relatively simple
problems. The psychrometric chart illustrates these processes in graphic
form, showing how changes affect the properties of moist air. The
psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic
properties which impact moist air. It consists of eight major components,
which are as follows:
1. Humidity ratio values are plotted vertically along the right-hand
margin, beginning with 0 at the bottom and extending to 0.03 at the
top. Absolute humidity can be indicated by several parameters,
including pressure and dew point temperature.
2. Enthalpy, or total heat, is plotted with oblique lines, at intervals of 5
Btu lb-1 of dry air, extending from upper left to lower right.
3. Dry-bulb temperature lines are plotted vertically at 1°F intervals. The
readings are given in x-axis. In some charts kinetic energy of air
molecules is plotted in x axis.
4. Wet-bulb temperature lines are indicated obliquely and fall almost
parallel to enthalpy lines. They are shown at 1°F intervals.
5. Relative humidity lines curve across the chart from left to right at
intervals of 10%. They begin at the bottom at 10% and end at the top
with the saturation curve (100%).
6. Volume lines indicating cubic feet per pound of dry air are plotted at
intervals of 0.5 cubic foot.
7. Two-phase region includes a narrow, cross-hatched area to the left
of the saturation region indicating a mixture of condensed water in
equilibrium.
8. The protractor at the upper left of the chart contains two scales. One
is for the ratio of enthalpy difference. The other is for a ratio of
sensible heat to the total heat. The protractor establishes the angle of
a line on the chart along which a process will follow.
A study of these charts help in measuring and determining the properties
of both outside and inside air. It also helps in establishing the conditions
of air that will be most suitable and comfortable in a given situation. The
Maintenance of humidity 123
charts are created for different atmospheric pressures. With the

development of online sensors that study the level of temperature and
humidity and send signals for monitoring the plant to get the correct
temperature and humidity, the need for the textile technologists to
understand the principles and operations of humidification and air condition
is not felt. However, when there is a breakdown, the technicians become
helpless and try various means without understanding the basics and land
into more troubles. It is therefore necessary to have some basic concepts
on the design and operation of air handling units.
9.1 A psychrometric chart.
The atmosphere is a mixture of air, mostly oxygen and nitrogen, and

water vapour. Psychrometric is the study of moist air and the change of air
conditions. The Mollier diagram graphically represents the interrelation
of air temperature and moisture content and is a basic design tool for
building engineers and designers. Humidity ratio is the ratio of mass of
water to mass of dry air in the sample. Since temperature is energy and
absolute humidity is a mass measurement, it is evident that temperature
and absolute humidity are completely independent quantities.
The most common changes of air conditions are:
● Heating of air
● Mixing of air
● Cooling and dehumidifying of air
● Humidifying by adding steam or water
9.2 A Mollier diagram.
9.1.1 Heating of air

The process of heating of air can be expressed in the Mollier diagram as:
tB
A
dH
tA
Heating of air moves the air condition from A to B along a constant

specific humidity x-axis. The supplied heat dH can be read in the diagram
as shown.
The heating process of air expressed can also be expressed in the
psychrometric chart as:
9.1.2 Mixing of air of different conditions

When mixing air of a condition A and air of a condition C, the mixing
point will be on the straight line in point B. The position of point B depends
on air volume A and air volume C.
When mixing air of a condition A and air of a condition C, the mixing

point will be on the straight line in point B. The position of point B depends
on air volume A and air volume C.
The heat balance for the mix can be expressed as:

QA h A + QC hC = (QA + QC) hB (1)
Where Q = volume of the air and h = heat of the air. The moisture balance
for the mix can be expressed as:
QA X A + QC XC = (QA + QC) XB (2)
Where X = water content in the air
When hot air is mixed with cold air, the result may be fog. When the
mixing point is below the saturation line, parts of the moisture in the air
condensates as small droplets floating in the air. The fog process can be
expressed in the Mollier diagram as:
9.1.3 Cooling and dehumidifying air

With a cold surface in the air, the air may be cooled and even dehumidified.
If the temperature on the cooling surface is higher than the dew point
temperature t DP, the air cools along the constant specific humidity x-axis.
The cooling process of air can be expressed in the Mollier diagram as:
If the temperature on the cold surface is lower than the dew point temperature
tDP, then the air cools in the direction of a point C as shown here.
Vapour in the air condensates on the surface, and the amount of water
condensate will be XA–XB.
9.1.4 Humidifying, adding steam or water

If water is added to air without any heat supply, the air condition will
change adiabatic along a constant enthalpy line h. The dry temperature of
the air will decrease as shown in the Mollier diagram here. If steam is
added to the air, the air condition will change along a constant dh/dx line
as shown.
9.1.5 Humidifying air by adding water

If water is added to air without any heat supply, the air condition will
change adiabatic along a constant enthalpy line h. The dry temperature of
the air will decrease as shown in the Mollier diagram above.
The added water can be expressed as:

mw = v ñ (XC – XA) (3)
Where m w = mass of added water (kg s -1), v = volume flow of air
(m s-1), ñ = density of air vary with temperature, 1.293 kg m-3 at 20°C (kg
3
m-3) and X = specific humidity of air (kg kg-1 ). If the water added is at the
same temperature as the air, the change in enthalpy is zero.
9.1.6 Humidifying air by adding steam

If steam is added to the air, the air condition will change along a constant
dh/dx line for steam as shown above. When adding saturated steam at
atmospheric pressure, the constant line dh/dx = 2502 kJ kg -1 (the
evaporation heat of water at atmospheric pressure). When adding saturated
steam at atmospheric pressure, the temperature rise is very small—in
general less than 1°C. For practical purposes, the process of adding
saturated steam at atmospheric pressure approximates the horizontal
temperature line. The water vapour added can be calculated using (3).The
enthalpy added is found using the Mollier diagram.
9.1.7 Calculation of humidification heat load and supply

air quantity
Cooling capacity for a typical textile air conditioning system is provided
by a standard carrier or refrigeration machine; sizes run from 300 to 1200
tons or higher per machine, depending on the size of the plant. Total plant
tonnage will run from 300 tons in a very small plant to 15000 to 18000
tons or higher for a very large textile plant. In large plants, the total tonnage
may be designed with a single cooling tower circuit and a single chilled
water system; but in most cases, there will be several smaller systems
operating independently. The tonnage and number of air conditioning
systems operating in a single plant depend on the combination of textile
processes being accomplished and production capacity of the plant. The
room sensible heat load calculations are worked out as the sum total of
heat dissipation from the machines’ operating kilowatt load in various
departments, lighting load, solar heat gain through insulated roof,
occupancy load and heat gain from supply air fan motors. Temperature of
humidified air leaving the air washer based on outside dry bulb and wet
bulb temperatures and design saturation efficiency is calculated as follows
and plotted on the psychrometric chart.
(Entry air DBT – Entry air WBT )

Leaving air temperature = (4)
× % of saturated efficiency
The line of supply air temperature rise in the department due to heat
gains is plotted horizontally, starting from the point of ‘leaving air
temperature condition’ after humidification in air washer, till it reaches
the design relative humidity line for the corresponding department.
The required supply air quantity is calculated as follows:
Supply air quantity

=
(
Room sensible heat BTU h -1 ) (5)
in CFM
(1.08× temperature raise of humidified air in °F)
During winter, when the out side temperature is lower than inside
temperature, there shall be a loss of heat, which can be calculated as
Ht = (Ar×Ur + Aw×Uw + Awi×Uwi)(Ti-To) (6)
Where Ht is the transmission loss in kcal h-1, A is the area of surface in
2
m , U is the overall heat transmission coefficient for winter condition in
kcal h-1 × m2 × °C. Ti is the dry bulb temperature in °C and To is the outside
dry bulb temperature in °C. The suffixes r, w and wi represent roof, walls
and windows.
Considerable amount of heat is generated while the production is going
on because of the running machinery, electrical installations and the people
working. The net heat gain is calculated by using the formula: Hn = Hi –
Ht, where Hn is the net heat gain, Hi is the inside heat and Ht is the heat
loss.
Production machines are driven by electric motors. Electrical power
consumed by motors is converted into mechanical energy which is
transmitted to the production machine through a shaft connecting them
together. The electricity consumed finally results in generation of heat.
Hm, the heat load generated by machines is given as the sum of heat from
the motors (H 1) and the heat from the production machines (H2). The Hm
is calculated by the formula Hm = (PR – fL860)/n where PR is the rated
capacity of motor in kW, fL is Load Factor, i.e., ratio of actual load of
motor to the rated capacity and n is the efficiency of motor at actual load.
Normally H 1 is about 15–20% of the heat load from machines.
Most of the textile machines are equipped with pneumatic systems to
keep the material clean or to collect the materials back for reprocessing.
The power consumed by the pneumatic system is also converted into heat
and adds to the heat load. Heat load due to this pneumatic system is
calculated by equation H a = PR × fL860, where Ha is the heat load of
pneumatic system in kcal h-1, PR is the kilowatt of motor driving the fan
for pneumatic system and fL is the load factor of the motor. This heat load
can be avoided from the total heat by discharging it out without allowing
it to get mixed with the conditioned air. It may be done by either overhead
ducts or underground ducts with forced suction.
There shall be infiltration of heat because of various openings in the

building. The heat carried away by infiltration is calculated by equation
Hinf = M (Ho – Hi), where Hinf is the rate of heat loss by infiltration, M is
the mass of infiltering air in kilogram per hour, and Ho and Hi represent
the enthalpy of the outside air and inside air.
The threshold level (R) of air change equivalent to balance the heat
loss and heat gain to maintain uniform temperature is worked out by the
formula R = Hn/M (Ho – Hi), where M is the mass of air in the department.
9.1.8 Air changes per hour

The air movement in the form of infiltration and exhilaration from the
building influences the relationship between temperature and relative
humidity. Number of air changes per hour is decided by the dividing the
product of 60 min. and total CFM of the fans and the total volume of air
in cubic feet to be conditioned.
Number of air changes Airflow of air in cubic feet per min (CFM ) × 60 min (7)
=
per hour (ACH) Cubic footage of area ( L×W×H )
The equation Q = 3.39 H/(TD 1 – TW2 – 1.3) gives the capacity of the
humidification plants, where Q is the air circulation rate in m3 h-1, H is the
heat load in kcal h-1, TD 1 is the psychrometrically available dry bulb
temperature in the department in °C and TW2 is the wet bulb temperature
of out side air in °C. The relation between TD1 and TW2 is fixed by the RH
to be maintained. Therefore, the Q is dependent only on the heat load. If
heat load is reduced by any means, the required capacity of the plant reduces
with out affecting the desired RH. Smaller the plant size lower would be
the capital cost as well as running cost. If some means are provided to
avoid incidence of direct radiation from sun to roof, heat due to sun effect
shall be nil. This can be done by false roof over the main roof, i.e., double
sheeting with a small gab of 3–6 in. Another method is to spray water on
the roof to eliminate the rise in surface temperature. In this case, the heat
instead coming to the department from roof, shall be going out from the
department.
9.2 Operation and problems associated with air

washer systems
There are fundamental differences between summer and winter operations
of textile air washer systems. A basic understanding of these differences
is necessary in order to fully comprehend the treatment problem presented.
Dehumidification occurs when the water that is spraying from the nozzles
is cooler than the wet bulb temperatures of the incoming air. In this case,
the incoming air is moist and contains a higher level of moisture than the
plant requires. By spraying this air with colder water, the incoming air is
cooled down. This cooling process also removes moisture from the
incoming air. Dehumidification usually occurs during the hotter humid
months of the late spring, summer and very early autumn. During the period
of time that the air washer acts as a dehumidifier, the air washer will take
on the water that has been stripped from the air. This effect causes the
dissolved solids level in the air washer to drop. It also creates a surplus of
water in the air washer system that is removed from the air washer through
the system overflow. As the solids level in an air washer drops, the Langelier
index will also drop. The index is used to indicate the tendency of the
system water to be either scale forming or corrosive. During the period of
time that the air washer acts as a humidifier, the water in the system will
tend to cycle up and establish a positive Langelier index. This is scale
forming and is treated as such. During the humidification process, the
water can become lower in solids and dissolved contaminants than the
system make up water, this causes the water to have a lower Langelier
index and become corrosive. At this point, the chemical treatment program
will need to be changed to protect the system from the potential corrosion
that could occur at this time. The chemical treatment of an air washer
must be looked at as two systems operating in one piece of equipment
during different times of the year.
9.2.1 Summer operation

Considerable amount of heat is generated from electricity used for driving
the electric motors and providing lighting, the mechanical friction of the
machine parts, heat generated by the people working, etc, which all added
to the already higher temperature in the air entering in the department.
Because of the direct radiation received from the sun, the surface on the
top of the roof goes much higher than the atmospheric dry bulb temperature.
Hence the temperature exceeds the maximum permissible limits. During
summer, most textile air washer systems dehumidify plant air. The
condensation from this dehumidification process drops into the air washer
sump and enters the chilled water system. It may add condensation in
quantities equal to or greater than the volume of the entire chilled water
system. There will be no raw water makeup to the chilled water system;
instead, overflow from the chilled water sump goes either to the sewer or
to the cooling tower through a solenoid valve. Condensation of this
magnitude directly affects the parameters to be considered for proper water
treatment. For example, a textile plant with 30 ppm total hardness in raw
water may find chilled water hardness on a hot day to be 5–6 ppm or
lower. The pH will generally drop to 6.5–7.0, and alkalinity will similarly
drop. Dissolved solids tend to stay the same or to increase slightly
depending upon the degree of process contamination.
9.2.2 Winter operation

During winter, the dry bulb temperature inside the department shall be
higher than that of the outside. Therefore, winter operation of air washer
systems is just the reverse of that of summer operations. Humidification
of plant air generally takes place, and the air washer evaporates water just
like a cooling tower in summer. Air washer sumps are each equipped with
a float-controlled makeup line so that they can be operated independently
during this humidification time of the year. During this time, each washer
is allowed to dry, after which high pressure water or steam easily removes
them. Physical inspection of the air washer unit during operation is the
only way to determine the effectiveness of the chemical treatment program,
and the point at which a shutdown for cleaning will be required.
During winter, when heat losses from the mill buildings are more than
the internal heat loads, heat from external source is needed to maintain
the required temperature. The heat losses under equilibrium conditions
can be divided into the transmission losses through walls, windows and
roof and the losses due to infiltration of outside cold air which leaks in
through various openings of the building. Both sensible heat and latent
heat are required to raise the temperature to required level. When starting
from cold, substantial additional heat and moisture are required to raise
the temperature, the rate of which depends on the heat capacity of the
building structure and material content in the department and the time in
which the heating is to be achieved.
In a building, there shall be several openings such as cracks or crevices
in the roof and dampers, broken glass panes, open doors, exhaust fan
openings, etc. The main doors are frequently kept open for the movement
of materials and men. Through one or more such openings cold air enters
the department and warm air leaves out carrying heat from department.
9.2.3 Problems encountered in air washer operations
9.2.3.1 Microbiological growth

Air washers provide an ideal environment for the growth of micro-
organisms because of the process contaminants and soluble oils that feed
them. Most deposits from air washer units contain dirt and debris from the
process involved, corrosion products, and some crystalline particulate
matter. The most important part of the deposit is the microbial growth or
slime masses. These are the most difficult to measure. They result in the
very sticky slime that combines with the dirt and debris, corrosion products,
and crystalline matter to form hard encrusted deposits above the water
level and thick slimy masses below the water on metal surfaces inside the
washer. When microbial growths combine with process contamination,
the resulting deposit in some cases is like a separate organic chemical that
is almost impossible to remove. Controlling the growth of micro-organisms
in a chilled water or air washer system is the key to an effective treatment
program. Micro-organism growth can cause odours, carryover by blocking
air passages, encrustation, and corrosion under deposits. In addition, they
can cause air washer sump screens to plug, which results in overflow of
solids into the sump re-circulating pump and the subsequent plugging of
spray nozzles and into the fan. Deposits occur inside the fan shroud,
disturbing air flow. The resulting solids get carried through the fan deposit
in the duct work. In extreme cases, deposits develop on the fan blade itself,
unbalancing the fan so that it must be shut down and cleaned.
9.2.3.2 Oil
Lubricating oils (oily smoke) that are atomised into the air steam due to
heat generated from high speed machinery operations can foul the system.
The build-up of lint in the system will also cause system fouling. Oil and
other materials picked up from the plant air can be tremendous nutrients
to feed micro-organism growth. Even though pre-removal of oil may be
accomplished with the filters, some oil will be present in the washer and
will cause sticky surfaces and increased microbiological growth, and will
generally increase the fouling tendency of the unit. Additionally, if certain
amines are used in the microbicide program, oil can be coagulated in the
washers and chilled water sump to form an extremely sticky slime that
will quickly collect fibres and other suspended solids. These problems
can be controlled by using an oil emulsifier to pull the oil into the water
and then allow it to be removed with the bleed or overflow, and by low
level foaming of the sump water. This foaming will float the lint and allow
it to be removed with the bleed or the overflow. If left untreated, the oil in
a system can film out and build up to a point that the system is forced to
shut down. It can form jelly-like build ups on the eliminator sections of
the air washer which will stop air and moisture flow.
9.2.3.3 Foam
This problem is generally caused by the chemicals being added for
treatment, but may be the result of impurities being cleaned from plant air
or of high solids in the washer water. Severe foam can overflow the sump
pan of the washer onto the floor, spreading slime and dirt, and producing
hazardous walking conditions. It can also be sucked out of the eliminator
section of the washer.
9.2.3.4 Carryover of solids

Carryover of solids is caused by micro-organism growth on eliminator
blades which disrupts air flow and allows solids to pass into plant duct
work, and by foaming which also sends solids from the washer sump into
the plant. Extremely high levels of dissolved solids in the washer sump
water can also result in carryover. These solids can cause a variety of
problems in the plant, from spotting of product to disrupting the
temperature and humidity controls. Their worst damage is done in the plant
duct work. Most textile plant duct work contains a mat of lint and fibre on
its inside surfaces. This mat builds up over a period of time and is removed
on a regular basis. When this mat becomes wet with solids from the washer,
it becomes encrusted with the dirt and salts that are present in the washer
water. Severe corrosion results, particularly if the ducts are aluminium
and one of the treatment chemicals in the water is phosphate.
9.2.3.5 Corrosion
Corrosion potential is most severe in textile air washer and chilled water
systems during summer operation as the water in the systems de-
concentrates. Chiller tube sheets and heads are the most vulnerable areas
for corrosion. Idle chilled water lines in winter are also vulnerable if they
are left full of water. Lint, dirt, fibre, oil, and microbiological deposits
from the air washers cause most of the corrosion problems on the chiller
tube sheets. They combine in some cases to totally slime areas of the tube
sheet. Severe pitting occurs underneath deposits of this nature. Corrosion
in any metallic system is controlled by the passivation of the metallic
surfaces that come into contact with the water. Carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide and other corrosive gasses scrubbed from the air stream can cause
serious problems when dissolved in the water. They form dilute mild acids
which will readily attack the unprotected metallic surfaces of the system.
Nozzle loss is very characteristic of this condition. To correct this condition,
corrosion inhibitors are used which lay down a thin monomolecular coating
on the metal surface, while increasing the pH of the system to a level that
is close to 9.0. This neutralises the dilute acids, puts a protective coating
on the metal surface, and retards the rapid growth of bacteria in the system.
Corrosion is characteristic of conditions during the period when the air
washer acts as a dehumidifier. At this point, the water that is washed from
the air will dilute the natural buffers that are found in the water, and allow
the pH of the system to slowly drop. The result is corrosion and the perfect
conditions for bacteria growth. It is normally recommended to clean both
the tube sheet and the heads thoroughly and to coat them with several
coats of suitable epoxy paint. There is little corrosion potential inside the
air washer units themselves, except for the mild steel or galvanised piping
and any other mild steel structures present. Except for the insides of piping,
the best preventive measure for corrosion remains to be a good coating of
paint.
9.2.3.6 Encrustation
This is the name given to a deposit when it occurs above the water level
in a dry area of an air passage in an air-washer unit. This is a very difficult
deposit to remove. Neither strong acids nor caustic seem to be effective as
cleaning agents. In some cases, a chisel is the only way to remove these
deposits. These deposits are composed of lint, dirt and debris, fibre and
process contamination. They are held together by the organic slime from
the microbiological growth. When a deposit of this nature dries out, it
adheres to air washer surfaces like epoxy glue.
9.2.3.7 Odours
Most odours in textile plant’s air washer systems result from the chemicals
used in treating the system. For example, chlorine compounds,
polychlorophenates, and some organic sulphur compounds, used to kill
bacteria, result in severe odour problems in plant air. Odour problems in
air-washer systems generally do not result from gases inside the textile
plant. Most of these gases are dealt with using some form of smoke
abatement.
9.2.3.8 Biological control

An air washer puts air out for people to breath, which must be clean and
free of odours. This eliminates many of the biocides as the sulphur-based
carbamates for use in this type of system. To control build-up of slime use
of rapid oxidisers with low odour levels as bromine and hydrogen peroxide
is used in conjunction with a cationic or nonionic biocide. Usually this
includes the use of one of the polyquat biocides or glutaraldehyde. The
biocides should be fed twice each week in a shock-type basis, with the
oxidisers being fed continuously or as a shock weekly, based on the
conditions of the system and the oxidiser being used.
9.3 Efficient use of humidification plants

It is not only the installation of plant, but the operation of the plant to get
the best performance is very important. The performance includes providing
the required temperature and humidity within the time limit at the lowest
possible cost. The humidifiers consume huge power in a textile mill.
Therefore, proper usage of humidification plants is very essential. By
monitoring suitably the air and water, it is possible to get the required
conditions, where as to get it at the lowest cost is important. The power
consumption is one of the major factors. The survey done by SITRA on
energy effectiveness reveals the following.
● By running HP (humidification plant) scientifically, production can
be improved. Concentrating at the spray dwell time of humidified
air in the spray chamber can improve the HP performance which
gives a boost in output yarn produced.
● Usage of high efficiency FRP fans instead of MS or aluminium blades
consume less power for the given air output.
● Spot capacitor at the motor terminals inside HP premises is more
important and this aspect is often neglected in many mills.
● The use of false ceiling suppresses the heat entering the premises
from the top. Ventilating the roof or the attic by force like the lateral
high volume low pressure exhaust fans or by self-propelled roof
extractors, can bring down the room temperature by 5ºC.
● Generally the roof heating by solar radiation causes 50% of the heat
load in any premises. Insulation of false ceiling can avoid the same.
If the roof of HP is concreted, SITRA suggests of covering the open
terrace in patches with the standard asbestos sheet at a height of say
2 ft (0.609 m) above the terrace. This can be done above HP chamber,
MCC, compressor house and wherever open terrace on RCC
(reinforced cement concrete) roof. This is meant to avoid the solar
heat load. The secondary insulation, i.e., under deck insulation, the
attic fan helps to remove the stale hot air under ceiling and insulate
false ceiling from solar heat load. This method of attic ventilation
and cross ventilation inside premises is low-cost energy saving type
compared to high-cost cooling of equipments and premises.
Following are some of the common humidification design features for

energy-saving:
Loomsphere (Weave-Direct). This system of loom humidification

provides high RH required at warp sheet level only and results in overall
reduction of total humidified supply air quantity by almost 25%, thereby
achieving significant saving in energy cost.
Return air system. Return air trenches designed with minimum corners
and bends and given a smooth finish reduce air-resistance. Rotary return
air drum filters with effective suction fan for continuous fluff removal
will help to keep the return air filters clean and reduce air resistance, thereby
reducing power consumption of return air fan motor.
Under-deck insulation. Generally, industrial roofing is of asbestos
cement sheets or metal sheets (GI/Aluminium) and under-deck insulation
with minimum 50 mm thick resin bonded glass wool of 32 kg m -3 density
is necessary to reduce the heat gain through the roof and minimise the
attic temperature rise within the false ceiling.
Drive motors for textile machinery. Since the connected textile
machinery loads are very high, only high efficiency drive-motors should
be selected to reduce the heat gain and the heat load, thereby reducing the
supply air quantities to the departments being humidified thus minimising
supply fan motors’ power consumption.
Use of PVC air inlet louvers and eliminators. With PVC blades and
moderate air velocity (not exceeding 600 fpm for low velocity air washer
system and not exceeding 1200 fpm for high velocity air washer system)
are desirable to reduce the air resistance in the air washer with consequent
reduction in design static pressure for supply air fan selection so as to
reduce fan motor power consumption.
Use of variable speed drive. Invertor control on air washer water
circulation-cum-spray pumps, helps to achieve power saving on part load
operations. However, variable speed drive for fan motors is generally not
adopted since any reduction in air flow can slow down the removal of
fluff and other waste materials and contaminate the department causing
quality deterioration of the yarns/fabrics inside.
Higher saturation efficiency of air washer. Saturation efficiency is
defined as the ratio (Entering air DB – Leaving air DB):(Entering air DB
– Entering air WB). Improving the saturation efficiency reduces the
temperature of air leaving the air washer thereby increasing the ÄT
(temperature rise of saturated air due to heat pick up in the department)
for a specific heat load and relative humidity condition in the department
with consequent reduction in required supply air quantity and fan motor
power consumption.
Good design and maintenance of air filters. This helps to minimize
fluff carry over into the air washer unit, proper spray density in air washers,
and proper sizing and cleanliness of spray nozzles to improve water
distribution also helps improve saturation efficiency of an air washer for

reducing supply air flow-rate and bring down energy cost.
Use of digital controls in conjunction with electronic temperature and
humidity sensors in humidification plants for getting feedback of
temperature and relative humidity conditions in each department of the
mill, and processing of such information by digital controller for automatic
control of the position of outside air exhaust air, return air and by-pass air
dampers’ positions will maintain stable inside condition in the departments
with added benefit of power saving at part load conditions.
9.3.1 Efficiency rating (SEER)

Some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. The
efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the SEER (Seasonal Energy
Efficiency Ratio). The SEER rating is calculated by dividing the total
number of BTUs (British Thermal Units) of heat removed from the air by
the total amount of energy required by the air conditioner in watt-hours.
The higher the ratio, the more energy efficient the air conditioner is. On a
power basis, the SEER ratio relates the cooling power of the air conditioner
(in BTU per hour) to the electrical power consumption (in Watts). SEER
is very similar to the “coefficient of performance” commonly used in
thermodynamics, except COP is a unit-less parameter. (To convert SEER
to COP, multiply by 0.293 or (1055/3600). In theory, a SEER of 13 is
equivalent to a COP of 3.8. This means that 3.8 units of heat energy are
pumped per unit of work energy.)
9.3.2 Work practices

In a number of cases, especially in winter and rainy seasons, it is seen that
steam is used for heating the department although there is enough amount
of heat to maintain the desired level of temperature and humidity inside
the departments and no special efforts are necessary to fresh air from
outside. The following factors are normally seen as responsible to the
failure of reducing the steam for heating.
1. Recommended measures are not fully implemented. One of the
important actions taken are closing the dampers on fresh air port and
exhaust port. These dampers, though closed, allow lot of fresh air in
or exhaust hot air out through the crevices between the blades of the
dampers. To stop leakages, it is suggested to cover these dampers
with tarpaulin curtain or PVC curtain. However, due to many practical
problems, this is not implemented.
2. Disagreement to work in the departments at low temperatures is
another factor for high steam demand. Higher the dry bulb
temperature higher will be the heat losses and higher heat and
moisture requirement. It is therefore desirable to work in the
department at as low temperature as possible with the required level
of RH. It should be noted that RH is more important for good working
rather than the temperature.
3. Use of steam for the department has become a tradition in some cases
and is difficult to change that mid set. It is difficult to break a belief
that department does not work smoothly without steam during winter.
9.4 Keeping AHUs clean

Keeping the air handling units clean is very important for getting the best
performance. Some of the average run textile mills are equipped with non-
automatic dust filtration and humidification plants. The dust-laden air is
discharged into dust chambers and filter rooms. The dust and fly are not
removed completely from the air which is humidified and re-circulated.
Workers in these mills are exposed to the risk of breathing air polluted
with dust and fly and contracting respiratory ailments, byssinosis (lung
disease), chronic bronchitis, etc. Unfortunately, the management’s of these
textile mills are more concerned with the maintenance of the required
atmospheric conditions of temperature and humidity rather than the
reduction of dust and fly in the departmental air and maintenance of clean
and hygienic environments for the workers.
Air is cleaned by an air washer when particulate matter impinges on the
wetted surfaces of the eliminator blades. Air is also cleaned, when the
sprayed water generates enough ionisation to neutralise the charges on
the particles in the service area so that they can be dropped out into the
sump as they are drawn through the air washer. The cleaning of the air
will remove lint, oils, and other airborne particles from the air. This builds
up the level of the solids in the water which must be removed either from
over flow or bleed. Chemical treatment can improve particle removal and
prevent nozzle clogging from excessive solids build up.
As the water droplets are broken up at the nozzles, ionisation occurs.
This places a charge on the water droplet which allows it to attract charged
particles that are in the air. This will allow the removal of any of the airborne
solids from the air. It can also cause the build up of charges in the air that
exits the air washer. These charges can cause static electricity to build in
the air, which can cause textile processing problems if not neutralised by
an antistatic treatment program.
Air washer systems should be inspected regularly to insure that wetted
components are free of dirt, scale, oil, debris and microbiological fouling.
Preventative maintenance and the use of chemical treatment programme

can virtually eliminate the problems that are caused by these contaminants,
which reduce excessive working hours for cleaning up the unit and down
time. The suggested method is cleaning the air washer thoroughly including
the removal of all solids and bacterial growth. Then draining and flushing
the system to remove solids from isolated areas. Next is to charge the
system with the proper treatment products based on the time of year and
atmospheric conditions. Finally, the system must be tested regularly to
maintain the proper levels of products in the system during the different
operating conditions.
9.4.1 Maintenance of filters

Filter performance is very important for effective operation of air handling
units. This is evaluated by different criteria. It is desirable that filters, or
filter media, be characterised by low penetration across the filter of
contaminants to be filtered. At the same time, there should be a relatively
low-pressure drop, or resistance, across the filter.
A depth media filter is a deep, relatively uniform density media, i.e.,
a system in which the solidity of the depth media remains constant
throughout its thickness. If the percent solidity of the depth media is
sufficiently high, relatively large particles will tend to collect in only
the upstream portions of the media, tending to load on the front end of
the media, and not penetrate very deeply. Those that occlude the air
passage ways are termed retained solids, i.e., retention of solids within
the filter media. Penetration, often expressed as a percentage, is defined
as: Pen = C/Cδ, where C is the particle concentration on exit through
the filter and Cδ is the particle concentration before entry through the
filter. Filter efficiency is defined as: 100% minus penetration. Because
it is desirable for effective filters to maintain values as low as possible
for both penetration and pressure drop across the filter, they are rated
according to value termed alpha (α), which is the slope of penetration
versus pressure drop across the filter. Steeper slopes or higher alpha
values are indicative of better filter performance. Alpha is expressed
according to the following formula: α = 100 log (C/Cδ) ΔP, where, ΔP is
the pressure drop across the filter.
A filter will have reached its lifetime, when a limiting pressure drop
across the filter media is reached. For any specific application, the limiting
pressure drop will be the point at which the filter needs replacement, as
set forth in specifications applicable to the system, or through regulatory
requirements.
9.4.2 Cleaning coils

Cooling coils inside AHUs function in a dark cool environment and with
copious condensation in over humid atmosphere provide a moist garden
for the propagation of mold and other micro-organisms. These organisms
multiply to huge concentrations creating a hidden bio-film of mold deep
inside the HVAC system. These microbial contaminants travel from the
coil through the air stream. Drain pans below the cooling coils are equally
affected. Dust and debris which pass through inefficient filters or bypass
poorly installed filters combine with the microbial contaminants forming
a black sludge that helps choke the coil between fins cutting down air
quantity supplied by the blower due to increase in pressure drop across
the coil.
Chemical cleaning, although can prevent the problem to some extent,
cannot be carried out every day or every month because of the extensive
and messy procedure involved in the cleaning process. However, formation
of mold and collection of dust and dirt goes on as long as the AHU keeps
operating. Most maintenance people will resort to chemical cleaning once
or twice a year and usually the work is entrusted to sub-contractors who
employ poor labour that does not mind being exposed to chemicals required
for the task. The AHU must be shut down for several hours for the cleaning
work to be effectively completed and after start up, traces of the chemical
are carried by the air stream into human-occupied spaces.
For many years the design and manufacture of air handling units has
been neglected, as it was considered a very simple product best left to
sheet metal duct work fabricators. Very often galvanised sheet construction
was downgraded to mild steel and rust was a common problem with the
‘insides’ of the unit and the debris that would collect inside the coil. With
a framework of extruded aluminium, double-skin insulated panels and
stainless steel drain pans, AHU design and construction has progressed to
a point when only specialist manufacturers are now involved. But the
physical location of these units, with adequate service space all around is
still limited by the constraints of space. Under such circumstances,
maintenance staff can hardly be blamed if coils have not been cleaned and
drain pans never touched after installation.
Recently, there have been significant strides in the development of UVC
light production sources, those penetrate the outer structure of the cell
and alter the DNA molecule. This prevents replication, causing cell death.
Germicidal effectiveness of UVC is directly related to the dose applied,
and the dosage is the integral product of time and intensity. A high intensity
for a short period of time and low intensity for a long period of time are
nearly reciprocal and are equal in killing power; therefore, the energy
required to destroy micro-organisms is given as microwatt-seconds (or
micro-joules) per square centimetre. Independent testing performed by

Rapid Precision Testing Laboratories, Cordova, Tenn. has shown that when
compared to the older generation of UVC lamps, high-output UVC emitters
specifically designed for HVAC use only 1.75 times the electrical power
yet produce 2.5–6 times the output at temperatures ranging from 32 to
90°F. Produce over five times the output at conditions most often found in
HVAC systems. Produce a wider band width for more killing power at a
broader spectrum. Provide a significant increase in output per inch (arc
length) of tube (foot-print) as well as an increase in tube life, meaning
that fewer tubes can be used for a longer period of time. Significant life-
cycle cost reductions over conventional designs are the end result.
A typical dirty cooling coil A clean coil after installation of UVC lamps
9.3 Cleaning coil using UYC lamps.
Scientific research has concluded that maximum germicidal

effectiveness occurs at about 265 nm. There are no low-pressure, mercury
vapour UVC devices currently available that produce this optimum spectral
line. However, some high-output emitters can deliver a broader band of
total output (250 to 260 nm), so in addition to the benefit of increased
output, they are closer to the optimum wave length, thus further enhancing
available effectiveness.
Finned cooling coils and air-cooled condensers comprise two major heat
exchangers in all room air conditioners, most packaged and split air
conditioners as well as most packaged chillers used in central plant AC
systems. Keeping such finned heat exchangers in prime condition without
any substantial loss of heat exchange capacity is the responsibility of the
company that maintains the AC. Performance of finned cooling coil surfaces
is largely dependent on two factors: maintaining the design airflow across
the coil surface and keeping the finned surface clean and corrosion free.
Vaniklin-WB, a chemical cleaner invented by Mr. Yashwant Jhaveri for
cleaning of air conditioner coils, is first diluted with water in the required
proportion specified by the manufacturer, and then liberally sprayed over

the coil surface using a hand sprayer, of the type commonly used at home
for green plants, or a larger foot-operated spray pump, in case of large air
handling units. If the coil surface can be conveniently accessed from both,
the air entering and leaving sides then the chemical spraying should be
carried out from both sides so as to reach deep inside the coil fins. After
about 10 min. (will vary depending on how dirty the coil is) of spraying,
rinse the coil with fresh water till the foam goes away or till the chemical
is washed off. Small room air conditioner coils can be thoroughly cleaned
by immersing the entire AC (after disconnecting and removing the fan
motor, control panel and the electrics) in a tank containing the diluted
chemical, provided the AC can be brought to a workshop for general
overhaul and painting. A noticeable increase in air quantity after cleaning
was observed.
Air washers are periodically shut down and washed out manually to
help control the severe fouling and deposition problems. The frequency
of shutdown and washout depends on the type of textile process and the
severity of the problem. It may be done every week in some plants, while
in other plants 5–6 weeks intervals between washouts may be standard. In
some cases where fouling potential is minimal, washers operate 3 or more
months between washouts. Most textile plants do this maintenance during
scheduled shutdown periods. The actual cleaning is difficult while the
unit is in operation, except for daily screen cleaning. Some deposits will
not come off wet.
9.4.3 Duct cleaning

Cleaning both return air ducts and supply air ducts are very important.
The air ducts can accumulate deposits of floating micro dust and fibres,
construction dirt, dust, smoke, insects and other air borne pollutants and
can become an ideal breeding ground for mold spores, mildew, pollen,
bacterial colonies and other health-threatening micro-organisms. Higher
humidity allows moisture to mix with dust in the system that breeds
microbial contamination. Condensate drain pans and other system
components often become contaminated with microbial slime, which in
extreme cases has led to very serious levels of contamination such as
legionella (Legionnaire’s disease).
Mold, fungi, dust, slime, all need to be reduced or eliminated from air
conveyance systems to promote acceptable indoor air quality. A clean,
well-maintained system works better and lasts longer. Good filtration of
the outside air and the return air is essential to keep clean air entering the
air handling unit. Housekeeping is also important to prevent the mold from
spawning in areas other than the air handling system.
Most ductwork is concealed above false ceilings and is out of sight,

and not given attention. The method adopted to clean them is normally
‘source removal’ which involves the physical removal of contaminants
from inside the ducts. To achieve proper cleaning, the duct work must be
put under a vacuum, after which the contaminants are dislodged from the
inner walls of the duct work using high pressure compressed air. The portable
power vacuum unit is the single most important piece of equipment required.
It should be portable, lightweight and have a small ‘footprint’ so that it can
be easily loaded and unloaded from transport vehicles, moved up or down
narrow stairways and fit into small places. The blower inside the unit should
be capable of delivering 1800–2500 cfm for light work and 6000 cfm or
more for large projects. The static head, which is a measure of the vacuum
unit’s ability to overcome the internal static resistance from filters and
external static resistance of the ductwork should be a minimum of 100–150
mm. Vacuum units should have three progressive filtration stages to ensure
that the air is almost perfectly clean before discharge into the air conditioned
space. The first-stage coarse pre-filter should be cleanable and reusable.
The second-stage intermediate filter should be 65–85% efficiency to capture
most of the remaining visible contaminants. The final-stage HEPA filter
will have a minimum efficiency of 99.97% at 0.3 microns.
The National Air Duct Cleaners Association of USA suggests the duct
cleaning procedure as follows:
● Phase I. The air-handling unit is shut down and will remain off
through the entire cleaning process. A negative pressure machine,
equipped with a HEPA filter, is attached to the ductwork. The interior
of the air handling unit blower section and ductwork is vacuumed
with a backpack vacuum cleaner, equipped with a HEPA filter. It is
necessary to install access doors in the ductwork and in air handling
units to facilitate the cleaning and eventual fogging of the biocide.
Without HEPA filtration, the mold spores would pass through the
vacuum and go back into the duct, or the space served by the duct.
The use of the negative pressure machine will allow the capture of
airborne particles created by the vacuuming process. This initial
vacuum phase is to remove debris, dust, and dirt from the system
and to expose the maximum surface area of the mold growths, so
that the biocide can be most effective.
● Phase II. The coils and drain pans are cleaned with a non-acidic,
biodegradable cleaner. Portable pressure washers and a wet-vac are
used to clean into the depth of the coil, and to remove any excess
water. Un-clog pan tabs are installed in the drain pan to prevent sludge
from returning. Filters are also changed at this time.
● Phase III. All grills in the ductwork and the air handling units are
sealed with plastic and tape. This sealing allows the biocide fog to
fill the unit and the duct, and to remain there while it kills the mold.
On larger duct systems, the fogging machine will be placed into the
duct, through the access doors, to assure that the entire length of
duct is treated. Throughout the fogging process, all workers will wear
breathing masks, goggles and gloves. During the fogging, and for 24
h thereafter, the area served by the system must be kept off limits to
everyone. These 24 h is for the biocide to kill the mold and dry out.
Once dry, the residue of the biocide consists of non-volatile
compounds, and is harmless.
● Phase IV. With the grills still sealed, the negative pressure machine
is attached to the ductwork. By now dead mold particles are dislodged
from the duct. This is done with either rotary brushes, or compressed
air-driven skipper balls. The dislodged particles are vacuumed up
with backpack vacuums, equipped with HEPA filters. The particles
that become airborne due to the vacuuming process are drawn into
the negative air machine, which is also equipped with a HEPA filter.
The removal of the dead particles is crucial, as they will tend to give
off an ammonia vapour as a by-product of the chemical reaction that
occurs when the mold is killed.
● Phase IV-A (optional). Using the access doors to gain entry, the
interior of the ductwork will be painted with a fungicidal, protective
coating, which is EPA registered paint, custom designed for air
conveyance systems. Once applied, it dries to a white, elastic finish
that will allow for movement without splitting. This coating will
prevent microbial growth, and will not support bacteria. The
fungicidal ingredient, which is EPA registered will assure cleaner
air for occupants.
● Phase V. The access doors are closed, the plastic and tape are removed
from the grills and the air handler. Each grill is cleaned or vacuumed
as necessary, and the air-handling unit is vacuumed. The system can
at this time be returned to service. Used plastic, tape, and any debris
are cleaned up from the work area.
Site preparations before starting the work

● Duct cleaning should be scheduled during periods when the area is
unoccupied to prevent exposure to loosened particles of dust and dirt.
● The duct layout drawing should be studied so that the routing, size
and number of bends, dampers, etc., is clearly understood. In case a
drawing is not available, a sketch showing the routing and size should
be prepared.
● If the duct is very long, an inspection door should be provided in the

main duct, if not already provided.
● In case of long ducts having a number of branches, cleaning should
be done by isolating a section at a time.
● Place dust protection covers on furnishings, work stations etc to
prevent damage.
(a) Duct before cleaning. (b) Same duct after cleaning.
(c) A portable vacuum unit with HEPA filters for (d) A portable air compressor to operate the
‘source remove’ of dust and debris from ducts. forward and reverse motion brushes for
dislodging debris from walls of ducts.
(e) Brushes for inserting inside the ducts with extension rods (Top). Hole outer for duct holes used
connect vacuum unit (Bottom).
9.4 Air distribution duct cleaning.

9.4.4 Cleaning the supply water sump

Cleaning of the sump water at regular intervals is very important, as it is
normally contaminated with micro-organisms. Amplification of micro-
organisms can be controlled either by the use of traditional chemical
biocides such as chlorine or to use dissolved ozone, a powerful biocide
capable of destroying bacteria and viruses as well as oxidising many organic
and inorganic compounds. It is also a de-scaling agent. Owing to its high
oxidation potential; ozone offers to purify the air-stream indirectly by
spraying ozone-sanitised fresh water into the air stream rather than
introducing gaseous ozone directly into the air. Concentrations of dissolved
ozone in the liquid phase can be controlled to yield efficacious micro-
organism control while keeping the ozone concentration in the supply air-
stream below threshold limits of 0.1 ppm.
A complete equipment survey, line diagram, and a thorough
understanding of equipment operation are necessary to recommend
effective water treatment programs for air washer and chilled water systems.
Treatment problems must be categorised relative to their severity. In most
cases, treatment problems will be present specifically to operating
conditions in the plant. The selection of an effective microbicide and
dispersant is generally the best place to start in developing a water treatment
program for air washers and chilled water systems. Choose one that will
kill the organisms that pre-dominate in particular system, one that will
minimise foaming, one that is stable at the temperatures of the chilled
water in the system, and one that will not coagulate or precipitate with
other solids or oils in the system water. Feed rates for the selected
microbicide must be below the threshold at which odour problems begin.
In some cases, it is desirable to feed microbicide continuously at low levels
rather than slug dosages at high levels. The dispersant selected should be
able to handle primarily microbiological deposits, but in systems with heavy
oil concentrations, a strong oil dispersant may be appropriate. The oil
dispersant should not foam excessively or present odour problems.
Generally, anti-foam for use in this type of environment should be an
emulsifiable product stable to any temperature to be encountered in the
chilled water system, free of odour-causing materials; effective for the pH
range found in the system and has been evaluated and found to be effective
in combating the type of foam encountered.
Periodic slug feeding of the anti-foam in small dosages normally control
foam in chilled water and air-washer systems. Because of the differences
between textile mill plants selection of a corrosion inhibitor for air washer
and chilled water systems is not easy. The most important part of controlling
corrosion is keeping the system clean. Molybdate, zinc, and phosphates
are among the materials used for corrosion control in textile systems.
Application technology for each of these materials should be considered

in relation to the operating parameters of the washer or chilled water system
to be treated. Scale control is not a factor, except in the cooling tower
system. This is because of the tremendous dilution of chilled water during
summer operation and the fact that there are no heat transfer surfaces for
the concentrated air washer water during winter operation.
9.4.5 Quality of water

Soft water provides for easier maintenance of a humidifier. When hard
water is evaporated, the mineral residue consists of a hard scale which
normally requires some drastic treatment (such as chipping or acid) for its
removal. When soft water is used, the residue is commonly called soft and
can usually be removed by flushing the unit with water or going over the
surface with a brush. It should be remembered that softening water does
not reduce the total amount of minerals present; ion exchange softening
merely converts the calcium and magnesium minerals to sodium minerals.
Many humidifiers today automatically accomplish periodic flushing with
fresh soft water to keep the mineral concentration down, and the unit
operating satisfactorily.
Use of dispersants. The proper use of dispersants and biological control
agents allows the system water to remain cleaner. This improves the
atomisation at the nozzles which creates a finer droplet and a more uniform
spray pattern. This is in part due to reduction in the surface tension of the
water itself, coupled with the control and the removal of the potential
system foulants. Because reduced surface tension allows the spray nozzles
to break up water into a finer spray, the increased water surface thus
exposed to the air stream promotes higher evaporation of the air stream.
This finer spray pattern also assists the air washer in scrubbing the air
more efficiently, which eliminates more airborne particles. The lower
surface tension or ‘wetter’ water also keeps the circulating system clean
and prolongs operational time between clean-ups.
Control of scale. Scale is controlled in the air washer system by using
a blend of dispersants and scale modifiers. These products distort the
crystalline structure of the scale and suspend the scale in the water which
can be removed through the bleed. This improves the operation of the heat
exchange potential of the system, maintains a cleaner spray nozzle and
stops down time from scale build up. The scaling potential for an air washer
occurs when the system is humidifying the air. Humidification allows the
air washer to act similar to a cooling tower, where the water cycles up the
solids in the water and eventually creates a scaling condition. At this time,
the system can be treated very much like a cooling tower in both the areas
of biological control and scale prevention.
A modification of the pan-type humidifier uses wicks to increase the
surface of water exposed to the air and thus increase the evaporation rate.
The wicks in such humidifiers are particularly susceptible to clogging due
to scale. When this occurs, the wicks must be replaced. When soft water
is used, however, the mineral deposit can be re-dissolved by soaking the
wicks in fresh soft water. There is also another type of humidifier that
physically sprays a fine mist of water into the air. If minerals are present
in the water, they settle out of the air as a fine powder. Depending on the
mineral concentration, the amount of water evaporated, and the use of the
humidified air, a wide variety of problems may be encountered.
9.5 Monitoring humidity

A number of monitoring units are developed to constantly measure and
understand the temperature and humidity. The disk charts and the
temperature and humidity charts show the history of temperature and/or
humidity as reported by a host (sensor).
The charts support both Fahrenheit and Celsius when viewing
temperature trends. The charts also give you the option to use several
different display modes, time frames and chart types.
The motion tracking page shows when motion was detected by the
motion sensor and includes a chart showing motion activity.
9.5 Motion tracking (v2.71+).
Humidity sensors are gaining more significance in diverse areas of

measurement and control technology. Manufacturers are not only
improving the accuracy and long-term drift of their sensors, they are
improving their durability for use in different environments, and
simultaneously reducing the component size and the price.
9.5.1 Calibrating
Calibrating relative humidity instruments accurately and efficiently is a
daunting challenge, as the need for humidity monitoring and control
proliferates. As a critical environmental factor, the accurate measurement
of relative humidity is rapidly becoming a quality and regulatory concern
in various applications. In response, many companies are scrutinising their
humidity calibration methods to ensure adherence to required standards.
Along the way, many are finding that their processes are inefficient,
incomplete or incapable of providing reliable results. Others remain
unaware of the effectiveness of their processes and may be surprised that
the high accuracy they expected may not exist.
Many secondary relative humidity sensors, which are based on electronics
and conductivity, claim of accuracies ranging from ±1 to 4% RH. This
performance is impressive compared to the state of the industry 3 decades
ago when horse hair hygrometers at ±10% RH were the norm. However,
their calibration systems are not clear. All secondary RH sensors are
dependent on accuracy in calibration in order to deliver specified
performance. While the best RH sensor may claim an intrinsic accuracy of
±1%, calibration errors can render them useless. All secondary RH sensors
require calibration to a higher standard, not only during production, but
also as part of ongoing maintenance to correct for drift. The element of time
to the measurement of humidity is an extremely important factor in accurate
calibrations. Good calibration cannot save a bad sensor, but improper
calibration will cause an otherwise excellent system to produce erroneous
and potentially damaging results. Ms. Veriteq Work developed calibration
units by producing a time-based record of temperature and relative humidity
that can be graphically displayed on a computer. The advantage of such a
record is that it details the level of thermal and RH stability during calibration
and, if multiple units are tested, may also indicate the homogeneity of the
test chamber. Thus, data loggers make it easy to determine when, or if, a
steady state has been achieved. Conversely, they also make it obvious when
a calibration has been performed hastily or in unacceptable conditions.
The RH is more difficult to measure than most water-related or
atmospheric properties such as temperature, pressure, flow, volume, mass
or level. The complexity begins with the broad range of moisture conditions
RH sensors must operate in. For example, a sensor rated to measure 1–
90% RH from -40 to 70°C, must perform in humidity conditions ranging
from 1000 parts per billion to 200,000,000 parts per billion. The dynamic
range this represents is 200,000:1, a figure that would challenge the
linearity of most sensors. RH is also a temperature-dependent variable. Its
value can change significantly with even slight variations in temperature
and without any change in water content. For example, a 1°C variance in
temperature at 20°C and 50 % RH can introduce an error of ±3% RH, an

enormous variance in a calibration process. At 90% RH, even a 0.2°C
variance will result in a ±1% RH error. These temperature effects highlight
the importance of thermal stability, a condition that is often difficult to
achieve in a calibration environment. The most significant calibration
challenge is that RH testing must be carried out in air, which is not reliable
and uniform. RH sensors measure only the water in the immediate layer of
gas contacting the surface of the sensor, a fact that emphasises the need
for stable and homogenous environmental conditions. Air is a poor thermal
conductor and the temperature at any given point can be affected by thermal
currents and temperature gradients that make such conditions not only
difficult to achieve, but also time-consuming.
All secondary RH sensors are non-linear devices with temperature
dependencies. Most hygrometric sensors work by changing their electrical
properties with variations in humidity and temperature. Because of this
non-linearity and temperature dependency, it is necessary to validate sensor
operation at multiple RH and temperature points, ideally covering the range
of the intended application. This requirement is not only difficult to achieve
without expensive equipment but is also time-consuming. Unless
questioned or challenged, many flawed humidity calibration processes may
remain unchanged indefinitely. To avoid this, companies need to conduct
periodic reviews of existing equipment and procedures and to look further
at the effects and results of their calibration processes. The following
questions will prove helpful in carrying out these reviews:
Reference standards. Whether the standards used are NIST-traceable?
Have they been validated? Do the standards have an uncertainty sufficiently
low to justify the final calibration accuracy claimed? Have all the elements
of uncertainty been considered in determining the reference standard’s
accuracy statement?
Procedures. Have the procedures been validated? Do they clearly specify
adequate times to allow for thermal and humidity stability? Are there
provisions to ensure uniformity of the chamber environment? Are multiple
relative humidity and temperature calibration points tested? Are the
procedures written, followed and periodically reviewed?
Instruments and sensors. Are the calibrated instruments trusted by those
who use and rely on them? Do they need calibration more often than
expected? Are the as-found calibration conditions frequently out-of-
specifications? Do the instruments require significant adjustments for each
calibration? Are the instruments or sensing devices reasonably
interchangeable or are there ‘unexplained’ differences?
Products and processes. Are there recurring problems with product
quality or efficiency that relate to temperature or humidity sensitivity?
9.5.2 CO2 sensors

CO2 sensors can be used in a variety of ways to bring more ventilation air
into a building or room when the CO2 level rises either above a fixed set
point or above a maximum differential over the outdoor CO2 level. The
typical approach is to set a minimum airflow set point for average or
minimal occupancy and override the minimum set point as the CO2 level
increases. This increase in airflow over requirements of the thermostat
usually requires reheat to compensate for more supply air than is necessary
to satisfy the thermostat. There might be enough outdoor air in the building,
but is to be properly distributed throughout the envelope. This is done by
activating the fan in a parallel-fan box that serves the room when a CO2
sensor in the space indicates an under-ventilated condition. The parallel
fan acts as a transfer fan, moving additional unmitigated air into the
overpopulated space. If adding the transfer air does not reduce the CO2
level in the space, the minimum primary airflow to the space can be
increased.
However, before introducing more primary air to a given space, the
first step should be to introduce transfer air from less occupied areas into
the space, because this air has already been treated and can be used for
dilution of contaminants with a minimal energy penalty.
9.5.3 Temperature and humidity control in a confined

area
Adrian O. Bartley, III, William E developed a method (Ref US Patent
4183224) and apparatus for precise temperature and humidity control
within a confined or determined chamber. The method involves determining
a desired condition in a controlled space. The essence of the concept is to
provide humidity control by the addition of moisture at all operating
conditions and, in effect, never having to control dehumidification. The
system is claimed to be much more controllable than previous approaches,
which as a result achieves energy conservation. In addition, the method
for heating or cooling does not affect the humidity and humidity is added
after all the desired temperature relationships are achieved, which enables
the system to eliminate control into the dehumidification mode. The process
includes a higher air flow rate than normally utilised, and is claimed to
improve the precision of the humidification and temperature control
process. The apparatus to achieve the invention is arranged in a neat
configuration to achieve better mixing of steam humidification with dry
heated air, the positioning of the apparatus to achieve the desired air flow
characteristics through the room, and more uniformity with substantial
elimination of temperature variations by lights, or people entering or
leaving. The apparatus includes structure to cool the conditioned air without
stripping moisture. The system is more energy conservative because only
a small percentage of makeup air is added to a large quantity of circulated
air with the makeup in effect controlling the temperature and humidity of
the circulated air.
Arima, M.; Hara, E.H.; Katzberg, J.D in Communications, Power, and
Computing Conference IEEE in May 1995 described a HVAC system
controller which employs a control algorithm using either fuzzy logic
reasoning or rough set theory. The controller deduces the appropriate
control outputs from sensor readings. The system controls temperature
and humidity at the reference point by adjusting the flow of hot water into
a heating coil for heating operation and the flow of chilled air through an
air duct for cooling operation. To control humidity, the controller turns on
and off a humidifier.
Programmable controller PLC has taken the microprocessor as a
foundation, and has taken industry control device, i.e., the computer
technology, the automatic control technology and the communication
technological development. It has a simple structure, the convenient
programming, reliable higher merit which is now widely used in the
commercial run and in automatic controls. Statistics have indicated that
programmable controller in the industrial automation installations applies
most one kind of equipment. PLC is in the black-white control logic
foundation, with the 3C technology (Computer, Control, and
Communication) unifies, and unceasingly develops perfectly. At present
from the small scale single plane sequential control, it has developed
including situation and so on process control, position control all controls
domain. PLC has become an integral part of almost all machines where
process monitoring is essential.
9.6 Problems of not getting required conditions

In spite of having good air handling systems in place, we might at time get
an unsatisfactory result. The reasons are many.
● Someone holds the doors open for extended periods of time, or during
system startup after a power failure or system shutdown.
● The basic design configuration of the HVAC apparatus did not feature
inherent RH control or even positive control during abnormal or upset
conditions.
● The rooms at the ends of the duct runs have no air flow. Speeding up
the fan to overcome the additional static friction from the first air
outlet to the last air outlet would be less expensive than replacing
the ductwork with larger ductwork, but would cause additional fan
noise in the rooms closest to the fan rooms.
● Added additional machines in the space available increased the load

on AHU.
Careful design can prevent under or oversised equipment, which can
shorten equipment life or create uncomfortable conditions. Oversised
cooling systems can result in poor dehumidification; although the system
lowers the temperature quickly, it does not run long enough to dehumidify
the area. There are several important design principles that are essential.
The heating and cooling loads for each room are to be calculated using an
approved method, determining the amount of both sensible and latent
cooling needed on the hottest summer day and heating required on the
coolest winter day. It should consider the amount of solar gain through
windows, heat transmitted through walls heat exchanged through air
leaking into the building, etc. The sensible heat is more important than the
absolute heat. The ratio of sensible to total load is called the sensible heat
ratio. Dehumidification is accomplished by the latent capacity of the
equipment. In well-insulated buildings, latent load tends to make up a
larger portion of total capacity than it does in poor insulated buildings.
Since equipment is designed for a pre-determined sensible heat ratio,
designers are often faced with difficulty finding equipment that meets their
design calculations. The designers will select equipment that matches or
slightly exceeds the design latent load and allow slight under sizing of the
sensible capacity. In this manner, good dehumidification can take place
and provide sufficient cooling comfort. After load calculations and
equipment selection, the designer should focus on duct design. The best
duct system will be sealed with approved sealing materials (typically mastic
or aluminium tape) to limit air leakage, duct length and the number of
bends will be minimised, and ducts will be installed within the conditioned
envelope of the home. Return grille sizes and locations are important along
with correct type and number of supply diffusers to ensure proper air
circulation. Some programmable thermostats will start the compressor prior
to the air handler fan operation, thus allowing the coils to start
dehumidifying early in the cooling cycle. Two speed compressors allow
the air conditioner to operate at higher efficiency and lower energy costs
during most of the cooling days. Other technologies are available that will
reduce humidity levels in very energy-efficient homes during periods when
air conditioning is not needed, such as energy recovery ventilators (ERV),
and dehumidifiers. ERVs are similar to heat recovery ventilators (HRVs)
which preheat incoming ventilation air with outgoing conditioned air. ERVs
take the efficiency a step higher by recovering latent and sensible energy
from the air stream. Commercial cooling systems often have desiccant
systems to dehumidify the conditioning air. Desiccants are materials that
attract moisture and can be dried or regenerated by adding heat supplied

by natural gas, waste heat, or the sun.
9.7 Basic humidity control preparation
9.7.1 Fresh air unit

Fresh air units control room pressure and amount of fresh air more
accurately according to operation and even with variation on air balance
by room pressure sensor. They could be designed to treat outdoor air to
become neutral air (air, which has the same temperature and humidity as
the room). Therefore, variations from outdoor conditions do not affect
much.
9.6 Fresh air unit.
9.7.2 Air distribution

Good air-distribution contributes to good humidity control and avoids dead
spot. The designer should consider location of supply and return air where
the supply air could have low air temperature and high relative humidity
at the air diffuser. Heat loss and heat gain estimates are part of a design
procedure that flows from system selection decisions, the actual load
calculations, to equipment selection procedures, to placement and selection
of air distribution hardware, to duct routing and airway sizing. Load
calculations affect every aspect of the system design procedure. The
calculations must be as accurate as possible.
● Equipment capacity that matches the size of the applied heating and
cooling loads will deliver comfort, efficiency and reliability over the
entire range of operating conditions.
● Heating and cooling loads determine the total air delivery requirement
(blower CFM) and the air flow requirement for each room (room
CFM). This airflow information is then used to select supply air

outlets and to size the duct runs.
● Load information also is used to estimate purchased energy
requirements and to estimate annual operating cost. In this regard,
the energy and operating cost estimates will only be as accurate as
the load estimate.
In humidity control, the designer should be aware of the followings:
(1) most cooling coil does not perform accurately as specified, (2) there
are always leaks in the air-handling unit and air duct, (3) apparatus dew
point does not stay as specified, (4) airflow does not stay as specified,
(5) calculation could be wrong and (6) assumptions could be wrong.
Therefore, a good humidity control design should be more full-proof
than conventional comfort air conditioning. Previously, designer who has
such awareness will apply over-cooling and reheat system. Though the
system could safeguard the designer and provide the required result, but
it is an energy eater.
9.8 Guidelines to select supply outlets and return

grilles
Supply outlets (grilles and registers) should be of the appropriate style and
size for the application and be in an appropriate location for the application.
● Supply outlets should not produce objectionable noise. Design guides
and manufacturers’ information establish limits for face velocity.
● Supply outlets should provide the appropriate throw for the installed
location. Floor outlets should throw the supply air to the ceiling;
ceiling outlets should throw to the wall, etc. Size depends on product
performance, the supply CFM value and the face velocity limitation.
● Supply air should not be blown directly into the occupied zone.
● Floor outlets that blow air straight up the exposed wall are best for
cold-climate heating; and if properly selected, adequate for cooling.
● Ceiling outlets are best for cooling, but will not warm slab or exposed
floors during the winter.
● The relation between supply CFM, throw, face velocity and drop is
established by manufacturer performance data. Performance is very
sensitive to size and devices that appear to be generally similar can
have substantially different performance characteristics.
● A low resistance return path should be provided for every room that
receives supply air—a wall opening with no door, a transfer grille or
a ducted return. Door undercuts are not acceptable.
● Return grilles shall be the correct size for the grille flow rate. Filter
grilles have a lower face velocity than plain grilles.
● The location of the return grille does not affect room air patterns
which are controlled by the supply outlets and will not have a
significant affect on pockets of stagnate air. Low returns do ‘pull’
warm air down to the floor and high returns do not ‘pull’ cool air up
into the occupied zone.
9.9 Guidelines to size the duct runs

The resistance (inches water gauge of static pressure) of the longest
circulation path (longest supply run plus longest return run) shall be
compatible with the performance of the blower that is supplied with the
heating–cooling equipment. Airway sizes that are compatible with the
blower performance shall be increased if airflow velocity creates a potential
noise problem. All systems shall have adequate provision for balancing
airflow. The length of the longest circulation path and the available static
pressure determine the friction rate used for airway sizing. The length of
the circulation path includes the straight runs and the equivalent length of
the fittings along the path. One fitting can add from 5 ft. (1.5 m) to more
than 60 ft. (18.2 m) to the length of the path. External static pressure is
determined from the equipment manufacturer’s blower performance data,
preferably for medium-speed operation. The available static pressure equals
the external static pressure minus the pressure drop through all the air-
side devices in the circulation path. Refer to blower table footnotes and
manufacturer pressure drop data for devices that were not in place when
blower performance was laboratory-tested by the equipment manufacturer.
Accessory or after-market filters (or any device) that produce a substantial
increase in system resistance shall not be installed if the blower cannot
accommodate the increased resistance by speed change. An arbitrary
increase in system resistance may cause low airflow to rooms, a high
temperature rise across a furnace heat exchanger, or low suction pressure
at the cooling coil. The room heat loss and heat gain estimate and the
heating and cooling factors determine the design value for room airflow.
Airway size is determined by sectional flow rate and the design friction
rate value. The friction chart or duct slide rule used for airway sizing shall
be technically correct for the type of duct material. Airway velocities shall
not exceed specified design limits. Branch (run out) ducts shall be equipped
with a hand damper (for balancing).
9.10 Power consumption

The humidification and air control in textile industry contributes for nearly
15% of the power consumed. Number of trials is being made to reduce the
power consumption as the power cost is increasing and is next only to the
raw material cost. Selection of a suitable plant and having systems to
operate a part without affecting the working is considered as very important.
There are many factors that are to be considered when calculating total
power consumption. When comparing evaporative humidification to
electric steam humidification, major operating cost differences are easily
noted. When comparing ultrasonic humidification to spray nozzle
humidification in ducted or AHU applications, the operating costs can be
similar. Spray nozzle systems may use less electricity but in most cases
are less efficient in evaporation. The spray nozzle humidifiers may operate
longer in order to get the same amount of evaporation as ultrasonic
humidifiers. Also, the un-evaporated water from spray nozzles will go to
drain. (This is treated water—RO/DI—and has cost associated with its
production.)
There are often claims that some humidification systems require
significantly less energy to operate than others. While some energy savings
between different types of humidifiers exist, large differences in overall
facility energy consumption many times do not materialise. Often times,
when two different humidification systems are compared, only the energy
required to operate the humidifiers is considered. This is not the entire
picture. Different humidification systems affect the entire HVAC system
energy usage differently. Bryce Dvorak discussed the power consumption
issues as follows.
9.10.1 The two schools of humidification

The two types of humidification familiar are isothermal and adiabatic.
With isothermal humidification, steam is injected into an air-handling unit
or directly into the space to be humidified. Water can be boiled with electric
resistance, natural gas, or some other heat source to make steam. In
adiabatic method water is atomised into very small droplets.
This can be done by forcing pressurised water through very tiny nozzles
(high pressure humidification) or by vibrating a pan of water at very high
frequencies (ultrasonic humidification). The droplets are then injected into
the air-handling unit or directly into the space that is to be humidified.
The atomised water droplets are then evaporated into the air to increase
the relative humidity.
9.10.2 Evaporation
Many companies are advertising that the adiabatic humidification
technologies are extraordinary energy savers. The fact is, when strictly
comparing only the humidifier; an isothermal (boiling) unit will always
use more energy than an adiabatic (evaporating) unit of equal capacity.

But the energy implications are significantly more complex than this. The
small droplets of water introduced by an adiabatic humidification system
are not evaporated into the air for free. The water droplets absorb heat
from the air to evaporate. We have all experienced heat absorption from
evaporation. When we sweat, the moisture on our skin evaporates absorbing
heat from our body to keep us cool, just as the water droplets absorb heat
from the air during adiabatic humidification. Pound for pound, evaporating
water droplets requires nearly as much energy input as boiling.
9.7 Pressurised water jets.
9.10.3 Energy impacts

Adiabatic humidification can offer an advantage if humidification is
required at the same time that cooling is needed. Some type of cooling is
needed most of the year for many air-handling systems. This type of
humidification will provide a free cooling effect along with the
humidifying. However, during the heating season adiabatic humidification
can result in increased space-heating energy. More heat may be required
to maintain the desired space temperature. Isothermal humidification, on
the other hand, does not significantly affect the temperature of the
surrounding air.
There may be several reasons to choose one type of humidification over
the other, including energy usage. Every system should be considered case-
by-case to determine what is right for your application. When analysing
the energy consumption of a humidification system, it is important to look
at the whole picture. Focusing just on the humidifiers can lead to some
misleading results.
9.10.4 Normal practices to reduce power consumption

The developments done to reduce power consumption include the fan
blades made by light materials, reducing the resistance to the movement
of air by selection of proper dampers and providing continually clean

surface of filters to the air, ensuring that the water is atomised to the thinnest
possible, the path of air in the ducts are smooth, the ducts are always kept
clean, the return air grills are not allowed to get chocked, preventing
leakages of humidified air, ensuring that heat generated by the machines
are properly utilised and disposed, etc.
9.11 Ionisation of air using chemicals

Fluff generation in spinning section is very common, which not only leads
to health problems for the workers but also creates working problems and
mars efficiency. Fluff accumulation increases yarn imperfection by 30–
40% and objectionable faults by 30–80%. It also increases the invisible
loss and sweeping wastes eventually reducing the profitability. The fluff
increases breakages in ring frames and fly frames reducing the production,
increasing the soft wastes and further liberation of fly. Spun-in fluff
increases the breaks in winding, warping, weaving and knitting operations
resulting in reduced efficiency, increased hard wastes, defective fabric
and increased costs. Fifty percent of the breakages in winding are attributed
to spun in fluff and loose fluff in the department. High fly liberation reduces
the concentration and stamina of the people working apart from leading to
lung diseases.
One of the reasons for the liberation of dust is the drying up of cotton
while being processed in the machines because of the speed, forced air
movement, heat generation by moving parts and so on. While cotton in
the mixing before feeding to blow room has 7–7.5% moisture, the card
sliver has only 3–4% while coming out of the machine. Similar is the case
with all the machines. Cotton with low moisture develops positive charges
while moving or while getting rubbed with other fibres. These positive
charges lead for further fly liberation.
The automobile pollution and the generator exhausts contain very fine
black dust. They remain at very low level during dry winter season due to
fog and get sucked by the humidification plants and enter the production
area. The air washer fails to restrict them as the particles are very small in
size. Once they enter the production area, they settle on the material and
leave their mark.
One of the systems followed from a long time is to spray lubricating
and hygroscopic materials like cotton spray oil or antistatic chemicals on
the cotton mixing and allowing the mixing to get conditioned for 8–24 h,
depending on the type of spray used and the humidity conditions maintained
in the department. However, in recent years, after the development of Bale
Pluckers, where the bales are directly fed to blow room, the concept of
mixing cotton in bins and spraying lubricants has become redundant. We

need some other system to provide moisture to the cotton and reduce the
generation of positive charges.
TEECHNOL, a specialty chemical developed by Texcell, Mumbai, is
added to the water in humidification plant rather than spraying on cotton
mixing. The air washer plant atomises TEECHNOL along with water and
liberates wet ions into the existing air stream, which are carried as positively
charged and negatively charged water clusters. Brownian movement holds
the charged particles in suspension. They travel through the enclosed
environment and move by magnetic attraction to oppositely charged surface
to immediately neutralise static charge as they develop. It also agglomerates
the fine dust into bigger particle, which can be removed by filtration. For
a tank of 10,000 Litre capacities, 7 kgs (15.4 lbs) of TEECHNOL is used
on the first day, and reduced on the subsequent days to 2–3 kgs (4.4–6.6
lbs). The exact quantity, however, depends on the fibres, the humidity
conditions, the count spun and the speed of the machines working. The
controlled studies by using TEECHNOL have shown the following results
for Ne 31s carded.
Before After
Ends down (%) 1.65 0.51
Clearer waste/5 h 900 gms 550 gms
Winding efficiency (%) 77.00 84.30
Winding production (lbs) 846.5 1000.8
Clearer cuts per 100KM 64.6 48.4
Yarn breaks per 100KM 68.6 38.5
Hard waste (%) 1.45 1.14
Yarn (U%) 16.3 15.57
Thin per 100 KM 700 554
Thick per 100 KM 204 90
Neps per 100 KM 1112 980
Total imperfections 2016 1624
10
Auxiliary units to make humidification units
effective
10.1 Building design to have effective control of

humidity
The design of building has a very important role in helping maintaining the
temperature and humidity not only at required level but also at the optimum
costs, mainly the power consumption. Heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning (HVAC systems) contribute for significant power cost in
textile industry. The use of high performance HVAC equipment can result
in considerable energy, emissions and cost savings (10 to 40%), but if the
building is not supporting, there shall be losses due to leakages, interference
of out side environments, etc. Whole building design coupled with an
‘extended comfort zone’ can produce much greater savings (40–70%). In
addition, high-performance HVAC can provide increased user thermal
comfort, and contribute to improved indoor environmental quality (IEQ).
Positive room pressure is crucial since infiltration will bring in humidity.
Therefore, the designer should analyse air balance on fresh air, exhaust
air and leakage so that room pressure will be positive during anytime of
operation.
The power required for the supply, pumping and exhaust system of the
humidification plant of a spinning department depends on many factors.
The most important factors are power of motors driving machinery, lighting
and heating load, number of people inside, temperature gradient, and
relative humidity. The usual procedure is to train the back-propagation
neural network (BPN) with the available data and, once it is trained, BPN
will be used for inferring. Some of the other investigators have used
different neural network architectures. S. Rajasekaran, R. Prakasam, S.
Dhandapani, and Vasanthakalyani David developed a method of prediction
162
Auxiliary units to make humidification units effective 163
of humidification power in textile-spinning mills using functional and neural

networks. In this general methodology to build and work with functional
network (FN), an alternative to neural network paradigm is given. This
functional network architecture is claimed to be successfully applied to
predict power required for the humidification plants.
SITRA studies indicate that humidification system accounts for about
15% of the total energy consumption in a mill. The humidification plants
are to be judiciously operated based on the outside conditions in different
seasons. In multi-fan system, the non-working supply fan should be isolated
to avoid recirculation of air inside the supply plant room. The pneumafil
air must be collected in a separate duct and a positive exhaust must be
provided for the same to avoid backpressure in the pneumafil system. The
capacity of the exhaust and pumping system should be 80% and 45% of
the supply system respectively to avoid excess energy consumption.
Interconnection of plants is to be avoided for better performance. Provision
of rotary filters for exhaust systems, V-type filters for supply system, PVC
clamp-on type water nozzles, attic area (space between roof and false
ceiling) ventilation, proper design of ducts and grilles, separate energy
meter for plants are some of the other measures for conservation of energy.
The problems observed are over-designed humidification plants, non-
compliance of maintenance plan and lack of training for the operatives.
10.1.1 False ceiling

False ceiling is an additional roofing made of fire-proof, non-conducting
material to restrict direct exposure to the out side temperature and humidity.
This roof is non-load bearing, and hence no equipment can be installed on
this. Light sheets of asbestos or similar material is supported by frame
work of inverted ‘T’ angles, hanged by support of thin rods fitted to purlins.
10.1 False ceiling.

The false ceiling designing is a very important aspect of humidity

control. The false ceiling greatly reduces the volume to be controlled
resulting in huge savings in humidification costs, which is up to 30%.
10.2 Placement of false ceilings.
The false ceiling needs proper closing of gaps to avoid fluff and micro-
dust entering and accumulating in the attic area. The fluff and dust
accumulation in the attic area is a major threat for textile mills as it is
vulnerable for fire accidents. Even though proper care is taken to ensure
no electrical installations are above the false ceiling, there are incidences
of fires because of the very high temperature in attic area, as there is no
circulation of air. It is therefore suggested to have wider ‘T’ angles to hold
the false ceiling sheets to give full support to the sheets and no air gap is
left out.
False ceiling sheets
T Angles
10.3 Fixing false ceiling.
10.1.2 Insulation of ducts

Insulation of ducts is important to avoid loss or gain of heat of heat during
transmission. The attic space generally have high temperature in the
afternoons between 50–60°C where as the duct carrying the humidified
air shall be around 25–28°C. The ducts are therefore insulated with either
mineral wool or glass wool. Insulation is also required to be provided
over the false ceiling/under the roof to arrest the roof heat entering into
the department which in turn reduces the humidification plant capacity.

Following are the guidelines as per Section 15880 of San Diego State
University, which can be followed by all.
1. Ductwork carrying unheated or tempered air (less than 80°F) shall
be uninsulated.
2. Concealed warm air duct should have 1 in. thick fiberglass blanket-
type insulation.
3. Exposed warm air ductwork should have 1 in. thick fiberglass semi-
rigid board-type insulation with suitable external surface for finish
application. Leave ductwork un-insulated only when serving the room
in which it is located.
4. Insulate supply ducts as noted above for warm air ductwork, with
the addition of vapour barrier jackets with properly specified materials
and installation.
5. Insulation, jackets, facings, adhesives, coatings and accessories shall
be fire hazard rated in accordance with the requirements of UL 723
and shall have a maximum flame spread of 25 maximum fuel
contributed and smoke developed rating of 50. Flame-proofing
treatments subject to deterioration due to moisture or humidity are
not acceptable. All materials shall be UL listed.
Some mills have adopted the concrete load bearing beams as
humidification ducts. In this case no additional insulation is required.
Roof
Load bearing
columns working
as humidity ducts
Pillars
10.4 Load bearing columns/ducts.
10.1.3 Roof maintenance and humidity control

The radiation from the roof top is great. A number of methods are followed
depending on the situation. Some provide two layers of roof sheet with a
gap of around 3–6 in. between them. This prevents direct radiation of
outside temperature to the working area. It helps in all the seasons like
summer, rains and winter. The principle used is similar to a vacuum flask,
but here is no vacuum between the two layers of roof sheets.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
10.5 Air gap between two layers of roof sheet.
During hot summer, one of the methods to eliminate the rise in surface
temperature due to sun effect is to spray water on the roof. The water
temperature goes down due to evaporative cooling and the water reduces
the surface temperature of roof by contact. Theoretically, the surface
temperature goes down as low as the wet bulb temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere. This drop in surface temperature down to wet
bulb temperature means that the surface temperature is reduced below the
dry bulb temperature inside the department. Therefore, instead of heat
flowing into the department through the roof it would be going out from
the department.
The heat transfer coefficient of the roof is generally higher when heat
is flowing upwards as compared to the heat going down through the roof
from outside to inside the shed. With roof cooling as the heat flows outside,
it results in higher heat transfer coefficient for the roof, which is
advantageous and provides a comfortable working condition.
For spraying water on the roof mills, install roof coolers on the top of
the roof. They are simple garden sprinklers, which rotate due to the pressure
of the water being sprayed. It wets the roof and insulates the working area
from high outside temperature.
The roof cooling using sprinklers is a crude method and there is no
control on the water sprayed. It cannot spray uniformly on all the places.
Further the spray often gets disturbed because of choking in the nozzles
as a result of floating fibers getting contaminated.
Painting roof-top. Use of proper paint on the roof can reduce the
radiation loss. M. R. Vidhyaprakash, Chief Executive of Excel CoolCoat,
says that up to 60% cost of humidification could be saved by painting the
roof with Excel CoolCoat as it reflects 90% of surface heat back to
atmosphere where as the surface of roofing remains comfortable to touch
even in peak summer afternoons. For buildings with existing humidification
Roof Garden sprinkler
10.6 Roof coolers.
plant and false ceiling, an attractive 15% savings can be achieved in

maintaining RH in the area of running humidification pump. This system
is being used in textile mills also. More the sunshine more will be the
difference in temperature. The temperature was recorded 8 months from
the date of coating, proving the life. Improved working condition and
improved labour efficiency noted considerably. Temperatures recorded
around 2.30 pm. (ambient temperature: 39ºC). The roof was of asbestos.
The temperature indicated is the exact temperature of asbestos roof sheets
recorded with the aid of laser-guided infrared non-contact thermometer.
Table 10.1 Effect of painting roofs
Uncoated Coated
Fº Cº Fº Cº
Recording no.1 132 56 107 42
Recording no.2 129 54 105 41
Recording no.3 132 56 105 41
Roof extractors. An axial fan assembly located at the truss level hanging
from the roof purlins is known as a roof extractor. They could exhaust
large amount of the heat/smoke accumulating at roof level by displacing
large quantity of hot air and thereby inducing large quantity of fresh air
through windows/ventilators in a factory. They are ideally suited in
foundries, press shops, forge shops, heat treatment shops and large size
factories.
0000000
Cowl
Skirt A.C. sheet of roof

Duct
Roof closing sheet
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Fan
Elevation
0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Support 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Leak proof weld mesh
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Plan
10.7 Roof extractor.
10.1.4 Enclosing humidification plants

Enclosing of the humidification plants installed outside the main building
enhances humidifier application flexibility. Fully insulated enclosures
operate in temperatures from –40ºF to +122°F and offer supplemental
heating and cooling systems that maintain required operation conditions.
For example, DRI-STEEM humidifier company offer outdoor enclosures
for use with GTS (gas-to-steam), LTS (liquid-to-steam), STS (steam-to-
steam) and VAPORSTREAM (electric) humidifiers.
Enclosures can be installed on the ground or on the roof. Outdoor
enclosures are ideal for facilities that have limited interior space. Factory
constructed and assembled enclosures are available. The outdoor enclosure
is normally shipped complete with humidifier pre-installed and tested,
ready to easily connect to gas, water, steam or electricity. Testing has proven
that the outdoor enclosure provides reliable operation under extreme
conditions. The enclosures should nave easy access for service. Steal
enclosure doors are used to provide full access to all internal components.
The doors feature stainless steel hinges and latches operable from both
the exterior and interior of the unit.
The enclosing protects in both cold and hot climates. To ensure complete
safety and operation in all climates, the outdoor enclosure has supplemental
heating and cooling systems that automatically maintain required operation

conditions. DRI-STEEM humidifiers housed in outdoor enclosures operate
properly at temperatures ranging from –40°F to 122°F (–4.4°C to 50°C).
The enclosure is constructed of heavy-duty galvanised steel and is fully
insulated. Gaskets on doors ensure a tight seal.
10.1.5 Vapour barrier

Humidity vapour could penetrate through the wall, ceiling and floor by
different in vapour pressure. This is influenced more by the difference in
vapour pressures between outside and inside. Therefore, effective vapour
barrier should be part of wall, ceiling and floor. Simple material like
aluminium foil is an excellent vapour barrier but one should be cared to
seal the joint between the sheets. Water-proof paint is also a good vapour
barrier. Cold room panel is both thermal and vapour insulation and
convenient for retrofit work.
10.1.6 Vapour retarders

The fundamental purpose of a roof assembly is to keep water from entering
a building through the roof. Low-slope roof assemblies, when properly
designed and constructed, perform this function well. However, moist air
within a building can enter a roof assembly and condense into water. The
climate in which a building is located significantly will affect the type,
direction of flow and degree of moisture migration and vapour drive that
will occur into and out of a building.
Vapour drive from a building’s interior to exterior is likely to be strongest
when the exterior temperature and relative humidity are low and the interior
temperature and relative humidity are high. These conditions will occur
most often during winter months in cold climate regions. Warmer interior
air exerts a higher vapour pressure than cooler outside air. Roof assemblies
create a barrier between these areas of differing vapour pressures. If a
roof assembly is not sufficiently insulated, warm, moist air will rise into
the roof assembly and may cool to its dew-point temperature, causing
condensation.
There are three primary methods used to prevent moisture from
accumulating in low-slope roof assemblies: use of vapor retarders,
ventilation of interior space and self-drying roof assembly design. For
vapour retarders to perform, the temperature at vapour retarders’ level
must be warmer than the dew-point temperature. To ensure that sufficient
insulation must be provided and installed above the vapor retarder, Joan
P. Crowe of NRCA technical services explains a graphical method of
designing the vapour retarders and the insulation considering the R values.
Dew-point temperature can be determined by using a simplified version

of the ASHRAE psychrometric chart.
Table 10.2 Psychrometric chart
RH% Design dry bulb (interior) temperature in °F

32 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
100 32 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
90 30 33 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97
80 27 30 34 39 44 49 54 58 64 68 73 78 83 88 93
70 24 27 31 36 40 45 50 55 60 64 69 74 79 84 88
60 20 24 28 32 36 41 46 51 55 60 65 69 74 79 83
50 16 20 24 28 33 36 41 46 50 55 60 64 69 73 78
40 12 15 18 23 27 31 35 40 45 49 53 58 62 67 71
30 8 10 14 16 21 25 29 33 37 42 46 50 54 59 62
20 6 7 8 9 13 16 20 24 28 31 35 40 43 48 52
10 4 4 5 5 6 8 9 10 13 17 20 24 27 30 34
Along the top of the table, locate the design dry bulb (interior)
temperature column, and the relative humidity row along the left side of
the table. The dew-point temperature is at the intersection of the design
dry bulb temperature column and relative humidity row. Finally, locate
the dew-point temperature value on the temperature gradient line. If the
dew-point temperature falls within the insulation that is placed above the
vapor retarder, condensation should not occur on the bottom side of the
vapor retarder. If it falls below the insulation, additional insulation is
required.
10.1.7 Curtains
The required temperature and humidity is different from section to section
in a textile mill, and the out side temperature and humidity shall be seldom
same as the required levels in the production departments. It is therefore
practiced to insulate the plant and buildings. However, doors are needed
for movement of materials and men. The doors when open can allow the
humidified air to go out or allow outside air to infiltrate creating a
disturbance in the working. The use of door closers is not very convenient
considering the frequency of material and men movement, and the visibility
requirement. Use of curtains can solve the problem to some extent. Two
types of curtains are popular, viz. split polyurethane curtains and air
curtains.
Split polyurethane curtains although cannot prevent infiltration can
restrict the speed of infiltration and reduce the impact to some extent. It is
very cheap and easy to install and hence is popular and used widely.
10.8 Split polyurethane curtain.
Air curtain. An air curtain is a fan-powered device used for separating

two spaces from each other. This is intended to help keep outside air out
and avoid cold draught by mixing in warm air from the air curtain.
The most common configuration for air curtains is a downward facing
fan mounted over an opening. Normally, this opening is an entrance to a
building or a section in a humidity-sensitive production plant. Airflow
through a door depends on wind forces, temperature differences and
pressure differences. The fan must be powerful enough to generate a jet
that can reach the floor. Air curtains can be used to save energy by reducing
Wall
Velocity control
louvers
Wall
Humidity
Exterior dust / sensitive
insects / different production
atmosphere area
Entry
10.9 Air curtain.

the energy transfer between two spaces, although a closed and well-sealed
physical door is much more effective. A combination can also be utilised:
when the door is opened air curtain turns on, minimising air flow from
inside to outside and vice versa.
Air curtain creates an invisible barrier of high velocity air to separate
different environments. Air enters the unit through the intake. It is then
compressed by scrolled fan housings and forced through a nozzle which
is directed at the open doorway. The system utilises centrifugal fans
mounted on direct driven, dual-shafted motors. The result is a uniform air
screen across the opening with enough force to stop winds up to 25 mph.
It is important to note that when there is an in-draft caused by an exhaust
system in the building (negative pressure), the performance of any air door
will be heavily affected.
10.1.8 Windowless constructions

The old mills normally had the window area as much as 25% of the wall
area, and also large north-light roofing in the top. This was mainly due to
take as much advantage as possible of natural light. The present trend is
to reduce the window area to as much low as possible or to have windowless
constructions. The following are the main reasons.
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient for 3 mm thick glass window is
5.37 kcal h-1 m2 °C and for 6 mm thick glass 5.03 kcal h-1 m2 °C, where
as for a brick wall of 45 cm thick, it is as low as 1.17 kcal h-1 m2 °C.
Heat transmission is thus reduced by about 75% by avoiding window
area and having a brick wall. The cost of providing artificial light is
comparatively very less compared to the cost of cooling/heating the
air.
2. Too much window area gives too vivid a view of the outside to the
operating personnel and causes distraction of them.
3. Workers usually keep the windows open which allows lot of outside
air to come in. In a department with out windows, it is easy to control
the ambient conditions.
4. Window panes get broken while opening and closing, and need
maintenance. If broken windows are not repaired, conditions around
the broken window are affected due to outside window.
10.1.9 Under ground return air duct for motors and

pneumafils
The heat load of motors is normally 15–20% of the total machine load. If
a way could be found to discharge the heat generated by motors outside
the conditioned space, it would result in significant reduction in heat load

and also the operating costs of humidification. Under ground return ducts
is recommended for this.
Motor
enclosure
Ring frame
Return air trench
10.10 Under ground return air duct for motors.
The driving motor of each ring frame is enclosed and openings are
provided in the bottom so that the air can be drawn out through return air
ducts. This prevents the heat from getting discharged into the department.
This concentrated release of hot air is of great advantage, as the maximum
heat load in a spinning mill is coming from ring frame motors. The
exhaustion of hot air also helps keeping the motors cool and reduces power
consumption. The air circulated to cool electrical winding inside the motor
is discharged at great velocity. This high velocity air creates lot of
turbulence and keeps the fluff, etc., floating into atmosphere. Isolation of
motors helps keeping the atmosphere clean. Similarly providing
underground ducts to exhaust pneumafil air shall help in reducing the heat
load of the department, directs humidified air to the point of spinning at
each spindle, reduces dust level in the department.
11
Air-conditioning units
11.1 History of air conditioning

The term ‘air conditioning’ commonly refers to the cooling and
dehumidification of indoor air for thermal comfort. In a broader sense, the
term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation or disinfection
that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner is an appliance, system
or mechanism designed to extract heat from an area, typically using a
refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation. Glenn Elert refers
an air conditioner as a mechanical system for controlling temperature (by
providing cool air), humidity (by providing dry air) and ventilation (by
providing fresh air). It is a combined process that performs many functions
simultaneously. It conditions the air, transports it, and introduces it to the
space being conditioned. It provides heating and cooling from its central
plant or rooftop units. It also controls and maintains the temperature,
humidity, air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and pressure
differential in a space within pre-determined limits for the comfort and
health of the occupants of the conditioned space or for the purpose of
product processing. An air conditioning, or HVAC&R, system is composed
of components and equipment arranged in sequence to condition the air,
to transport it to the conditioned space, and to control the indoor
environmental parameters of a specific space within required limits. Most
air conditioning systems perform the following functions:
● Provide the cooling and heating energy required
● Condition the supply air, that is, heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify,
clean and purify, and attenuate any objectionable noise produced by
the HVAC&R equipment.
● Distribute the conditioned air, containing sufficient outdoor air, to
the conditioned space.
● Control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters such as
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, air movement, sound level, and
174
Air-conditioning units 175
pressure differential between the conditioned space and surroundings

within pre-determined limits
The first air conditioning probably started with early man when he moved
inside a cool, dark cave to escape the summer heat and to protect self
from the winter cold. Humans have continually searched for ways to keep
cool in the summer. The ancient Egyptians circulated aqueduct water
throughout the walls of houses which cooled them. As this was a luxury
due to water usage being expensive only the wealthiest could afford it. An
earlier form of air conditioning was invented in Persia (Iran) thousands of
years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind
and passed it through water and blew the cooled air into the building. The
buildings had their own cisterns and wind towers cooling buildings during
the hot season. Cisterns were generally large outdoor pools which collected
the rain water; wind towers used windows to catch the wind and internal
vanes directed the air flow down in to the building over the cistern tanks
and out through a down wind cooling tower. The cistern of water evaporated
which in turn cooled the air within the building. As early as the times of
the ancient Egyptians, Romans and Greeks, wet fabric mats were hung in
the windows and doorways of dwellings to cool the indoor environment.
Wind blowing through the mats evaporated the water thereby cooling the
air entering the building. The same technique was later used in the royal
palaces of India. Today, we find the benefits of air conditioning to be
much more than personal comfort—it is necessary for improving
productivity in the workplace, making possible good medical/health service
and preserving fresh and frozen foods.
In 1820, British scientist Michael Faraday discovered that compressing
and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was
allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used
compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his
patients in his hospital. He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine
to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralised
air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked
and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-
making machine. His hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when
his chief financial banker died; Gorrie did not get the money he needed to
develop the machine. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855 and the idea of
air conditioning faded away for 50 years.
One of the first uses of air conditioning for personal comfort was in 1902
when the New York Stock Exchange’s new building was equipped with a
central cooling as well as heating system. Alfred Wolff, an engineer from
Hoboken, New Jersey, who is considered the forerunner in the quest to cool
a working environment, helped design the new system, transferring this
budding technology from textile mills to commercial buildings. Later in

1902, the first modern, electrical air conditioning was invented by Willis
Havilland Carrier (1876–1950). His invention differed from Wolff’s in that
it controlled not only temperature, but also humidity for improved
manufacturing process control for a printing plant in Brooklyn, New York.
This specifically helped to provide low heat and humidity for consistent
paper dimensions and ink alignment. In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte,
North Carolina was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his southern
textile mill. Cramer coined the term ‘air conditioning’ and used it in a patent
claim he filed that year as an alternative to ‘water conditioning’, then a
well-known process for making textiles easier to work. He combined
moisture with ventilation to actually ‘condition’ and to change the air in the
factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier
adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of the company he founded
in 1907, the Carrier air conditioning company of America. Later, Carrier’s
technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and the
Carrier Engineering Company, now called Carrier (a division of United
Technologies Corporation), was formed in 1915 to meet the new demand.
Later still, air conditioning use was expanded to improve comfort in homes
and automobiles. Residential sales didn’t take off until the 1950’s. The Royal
Victoria Hospital, Belfast, Northern Ireland, is a landmark building in
building engineering services (built in 1906) and lays claim to being the
first ‘Air conditioned building in the world’.
Air conditioning—or manufactured air, as it was first called—was
originally considered to be simply controlling humidity. Textile mills had
a higher production rate if the inside humidity could be managed. Then
temperature control was added and circulated air with controlled humidity
and a constant temperature.
The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable
gases like ammonia, methyl chloride, and propane which could result in
fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first
chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The refrigerant was much safer
for humans but was later found to be harmful to the atmosphere’s ozone
layer. ‘Freon’ is a trade name of Dupont for any Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),
Hydrogenated CFC (HCFC), or Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant, the
name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-
11, R-12, R-22, R-134). The blend most used in direct-expansion comfort
cooling is an HCFC known as R-22. It is to be phased out for use in new
equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-11 and R-12
are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being
the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems.
Several non-ozone depleting refrigerants have been developed as
alternatives, including R-410A, known by the brand name ‘Puron’.
Innovation in air-conditioning technologies continue, with much recent

emphasis placed on energy efficiency and for improving indoor air quality.
As an alternative to high global warming refrigerants, such as R-134a in
cars and R-22, R-410a in residential air conditioning, natural alternatives
like CO 2 (R-744) have been proposed.
11.2 Application of air conditioning

Air conditioning systems vary considerably in size and derive their energy
from many different sources. Popularity of residential air conditioners has
increased dramatically with the advent of central air, a strategy that utilises
the ducting in a home for both heating and cooling. Commercial air
conditioners have changed a lot in the past few years as energy costs rise
and power sources change and improve. The use of natural gas-powered
industrial chillers has grown considerably, and they are used for commercial
air conditioning in many applications. Air conditioning applications are
broadly divided into two applications: comfort and process.
11.2.1 Comfort applications

These applications aim to provide an indoor environment that remains
relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in
external weather conditions or in internal heat loads. Some claim that
comfort air conditioning increases worker productivity but is disputed;
one counter argument being that apparent increases in productivity can be
explained as resulting from workers perceiving that their employer shows
an interest in their welfare. Comfort air conditioning makes deep plan
buildings feasible. Without air conditioning, buildings must be built
narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces receive sufficient fresh
air. Air conditioning also allows building to be taller since wind speed
increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical
for very tall buildings. The various sectors of the economy using comfort
air conditioning systems are as follows:
1. The commercial sector includes office buildings, supermarkets,
department stores, shopping centres, restaurants and others. Many
high-rise office buildings use complicated air-conditioning systems
to satisfy multiple-tenant requirements. In light commercial buildings,
the air conditioning system serves the conditioned space of only a
single zone or comparatively smaller area. For shopping malls and
restaurants, air conditioning is necessary to attract customers.
2. The institutional sector includes applications such as schools,
colleges, universities, libraries, museums, indoor stadiums, cinemas,
theatres, concert halls and recreation centres. For example, one of

the large indoor stadiums, the Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana,
can seat 78,000 people.
3. The residential and lodging sector consists of hotels, motels,
apartment houses and private homes. Many systems serving the
lodging industry and apartment houses are operated continuously,
on a 24-h, 7-days-a-week schedule.
4. The health care sector encompasses hospitals, nursing homes and
convalescent care facilities. Special air filters are generally used in
hospitals to remove bacteria and particulates of sub-micrometer size
from areas such as operating rooms, nurseries, and intensive care
units. The relative humidity in a general clinical area is often
maintained at a minimum of 30% in winter.
5. The transportation sector includes aircraft, automobiles, railroad
cars, buses and cruising ships. Passengers increasingly demand ease
and environmental comfort, especially for long distance travel.
Modern airplanes flying at high altitudes may require a pressure
differential of about 5 psi between the cabin and the outside
atmosphere.
11.2.2 Process applications

These applications aim to provide an indoor environment to suit a process
being carried out that remains relatively constant despite changes in
external weather conditions or in internal heat loads. Although often in
the comfort range, it is the process that determines conditions not human
preference. Process applications include:
1. In textile mills proper control of humidity increases the strength of
the yarn and fabric during processing. For many textile manufacturing
processes, too high a value for the space RH% can cause problems
in the spinning process. On the other hand, a lower RH% may induce
static electricity that is harmful for the production processes.
2. Clean rooms. Many electronic products require clean rooms for
manufacturing such things as integrated circuits, since their quality
is adversely affected by airborne particles. RH% control is also needed
to prevent corrosion and condensation and to eliminate static
electricity. Temperature control maintains materials and instruments
at stable condition and is also required for workers who wear dust-
free garments. For example, a class 100 clean room in an electronic
factory requires a temperature of 72 ± 2°F (22.2 ± 1.1°C), a RH% at
45 ± 5%, and a count of dust not to exceed 100 particles/ft3 (3531
particles/m3).
3. Precision manufacturers always need precise temperature control

during production of precision instruments, tools and equipment.
Bausch and Lomb successfully constructed a constant-temperature
control room of 68 ± 0.1°F (20 ± 0.56°C) to produce light grating
products in the 1950s.
4. Pharmaceutical products require temperature, humidity, and air
cleanliness control. If the temperature or humidity crosses certain
limits, there are chances of deterioration of the products. High-
efficiency air filters must be installed for most of the areas in
pharmaceutical factories to prevent contamination.
5. Ware houses. Modern refrigerated warehouses not only store
commodities in coolers at temperatures of 27–32°F (-2.8 to 0°C) and
frozen foods at -10 to -20°F (-23 to -29°C), but also provide RH
control for perishable foods between 90% and 100%. Refrigerated
storage is used to prevent deterioration. Temperature control can be
performed by refrigeration systems, but the simultaneous control of
both temperature and RH in the space can only be performed by
process air-conditioning systems.
6. Hospital operating theatres in which air is filtered to high levels to
reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient
dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range,
some specialist procedures such as open heart surgery require low
temperatures (about 18°C, 64°F) and others such as neonatal relatively
high temperatures (about 28°C, 82°F).
7. Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals
normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms at which
conditions mirror spring all year can cause them to reproduce year
round.
8. Aircraft air conditioning. Although nominally aimed at providing
comfort for passengers and cooling of equipment, aircraft air
conditioning presents a special process because of the low air pressure
outside the aircraft.
In both comfort and process applications the objective is not only to control
temperature but other factors including humidity, air movement and air
quality.
11.3 Different types of air conditioners
11.3.1 Dehumidifiers
Some air conditioning units dry the air without cooling and are classed as
dehumidifiers. They work like normal air conditioning units except that
they contain a heat exchanger which is placed between the intake and
exhaust. To achieve a comfort level in tropical humid areas they contain
convection fans, but only consume about 1/3 of the electricity.
Dehumidifiers are also preferred by people who do not like the draft created
by air coolers. Dehumidifiers are discussed in detail in Chapter 13.
11.3.2 Individual room air-conditioning systems

Individual room or simply individual air conditioning systems employ a
single, self-contained room air conditioner, a packaged terminal, a
separated indoor–outdoor split unit, or a heat pump. A heat pump extracts
heat from a heat source and rejects heat to air or water at a higher
temperature for heating. Unlike other systems, these systems normally use
a totally independent unit or units in each room. Individual air conditioning
systems can be classified into two categories: (1) room air conditioner
(window-mounted) and (2) packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC),
installed in a sleeve through the outside wall. An evaporator fan pressurises
and supplies the conditioned air to the space. In tube-and-fin coil, the
refrigerant evaporates, expands directly inside the tubes, and absorbs the
heat energy from the ambient air during the cooling season; it is called a
direct expansion (DX) coil. When the hot refrigerant releases heat energy
to the conditioned space during the heating season, it acts as a heat pump.
An air filter removes airborne particulates. A compressor compresses the
refrigerant from a lower evaporating pressure to a higher condensing
pressure. A condenser liquefies refrigerant from hot gas to liquid and rejects
heat through a coil and a condenser fan. A temperature control system
senses the space air temperature (sensor) and starts or stops the compressor
to control its cooling and heating capacity through a thermostat. The
difference between a room air conditioner and a room heat pump, and a
packaged terminal air conditioner and a packaged terminal heat pump, is
that a four-way reversing valve is added to all room heat pumps. Sometimes
room air conditioners are separated into two split units: an outdoor
condensing unit with compressor and condenser, and an indoor air handler
in order to have the air handler in a more advantageous location and to
reduce the compressor noise indoors. Individual air-conditioning systems
are characterised by the use of a DX coil for a single room. This is simple
and direct way of cooling the air. Most of the individual systems do not
employ connecting ductwork. Outdoor air is introduced through an opening
or through a small air damper. Individual systems are usually used only
for the perimeter zone of the building.
11.3.3 Evaporative-cooling air-conditioning systems

Evaporative-cooling air conditioning systems use the cooling effect of the
evaporation of liquid water to cool an air stream directly or indirectly. It
could be a factory-assembled packaged unit or a field-built system. When
an evaporative cooler provides only a portion of the cooling effect, then it
becomes a component of a central hydronic or a packaged unit system. An
evaporative-cooling system consists of an intake chamber, filter(s), supply
fan, direct-contact or indirect-contact heat exchanger, exhaust fan, water
sprays, re-circulating water pump, and water sump. Evaporative-cooling
systems are characterised by low energy use compared with refrigeration
cooling. They produce cool and humid air and are widely used.
11.3.4 Refrigeration air conditioning

Refrigeration air conditioning equipment is used to reduce the humidity
of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold evaporator coil
condenses heater vapour from the processed air, much like a cold drink
will condensate water on the outside of the glass, sending the water to
drain and removing water vapour from the cooled source which in return
lowers the relative humidity. In the vapour compression refrigeration cycle
heat is transferred from a lower temperature source to a higher temperature
heat sink. Heat naturally flows in the opposite direction this is due to the
second law of thermodynamics; work is required to move heat from cold
to hot. A freezer works in much the same way; it moves heat out the interior
into the room in which it stands. A compressor driven by a motor creates
the most common refrigeration cycle. Evaporation occurs when the heat
is absorbed and condensation occurs when heat is realised, air conditioners
are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two
compartments, and also they actively pump a refrigerant around. The
refrigerant is pumped into the low pressure compartment, where, despite
the low temperature, the low pressure causes the refrigerant to evaporate
into vapour, which takes the heat with it. In the second compartment the
refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange
coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from
the cooled area. The heat exchanger in the condenser section is cooled
most often by a fan blowing outside air though it, but in some cases it is
possible to cool it by other means like water for on some ships.
11.3.5 Desiccant-based air conditioning systems

A desiccant-based air conditioning system is a system in which latent
cooling is performed by desiccant dehumidification and sensible cooling
by evaporative cooling or refrigeration. Thus, a considerable part of

expensive vapour compression refrigeration is replaced by inexpensive
evaporative cooling. A desiccant-based air conditioning system is
usually a hybrid system of dehumidification, evaporative cooling,
refrigeration, and regeneration of desiccant. In this system there are
two airstreams: a process air stream and a regenerative air stream.
Process air can be all outdoor air or a mixture of outdoor and re-
circulating air. Process air is also conditioned air supplied directly to
the conditioned space or enclosed manufacturing process, or to the air-
handling unit (AHU), packaged unit (PU), or terminal for further
treatment. Regenerative air stream is a high-temperature air stream used
to reactivate the desiccant. A desiccant-based air conditioned system
consists of the following components: rotary desiccant dehumidifiers,
heat pipe heat exchangers, direct or indirect evaporative coolers, DX
coils and vapour compression unit or water cooling coils and chillers,
fans, pumps, filters, controls, ducts and piping.
11.3.6 Thermal storage air-conditioning systems

In a thermal storage air-conditioning system or simply thermal storage
system, the electricity-driven refrigeration compressors are operated during
off-peak hours. Stored chilled water or stored ice in tanks is used to provide
cooling in buildings during peak hours when high electric demand charges
and electric energy rates are in effect. A thermal storage system reduces
high electric demand for HVAC&R and partially or fully shifts the high
electric energy rates from peak hours to off-peak hours. A thermal storage
air-conditioning system is always a central air-conditioning system using
chilled water as the cooling medium. In addition to the air, water, and
refrigeration control systems, there are chilled-water tanks or ice storage
tanks, storage circulating pumps, and controls.
11.3.7 Clean-room air conditioning systems

Clean-room or clean-space air conditioning systems serve spaces where
there is a need for critical control of particulates, temperature, relative
humidity, ventilation, noise, vibration and space pressurisation. In this the
quality of indoor environmental control directly affects the quality of the
products produced in the clean space. It consists of a re-circulating air
unit and a makeup air unit both include dampers, pre-filters, coils, fans,
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, ductwork, piping work,
pumps, refrigeration systems, and related controls except for a humidifier
in the makeup unit.
11.3.8 Space conditioning air-conditioning systems

Space conditioning air-conditioning systems are also called space air-
conditioning systems. They have cooling, dehumidification, heating and
filtration performed predominately by fan coils, water-source heat pumps,
or other devices within or above the conditioned space, or very near it. A
fan coil consists of a small fan and a coil. A water-source heat pump usually
consists of a fan, a finned coil to condition the air, and a water coil to
reject heat to a water loop during cooling, or to extract heat from the same
water loop during heating. Single or multiple fan coils are always used to
serve a single conditioned room. Usually, a small console water-source
heat pump is used for each control zone in the perimeter zone of a building,
and a large water-source heat pump may serve several rooms with ducts in
the core of the building. Space air-conditioning systems normally have
only short supply ducts within the conditioned space, and there are no
return ducts except the large core water-source heat pumps. The pressure
drop required for the recirculation of conditioned space air is often equal
to or less than 0.6 in. water column (WC) (150 Pa). Most of the energy
needed to transport return and re-circulating air is saved in a space air-
conditioning system, compared to a unitary packaged or a central hydronic
air-conditioning system. Space air-conditioning systems are usually
employed with a dedicated (separate) outdoor ventilation air system to
provide outdoor air for the occupants in the conditioned space. Space air-
conditioning systems often have comparatively higher noise level and need
more periodic maintenance inside the conditioned space.
11.3.9 Unitary packaged air conditioning systems

Unitary packaged air-conditioning systems can be called, in brief, packaged
air-conditioning systems or packaged systems. These systems employ either
a single, self-contained packaged unit or two split units. A single packaged
unit contains fans, filters, DX coils, compressors, condensers and other
accessories. In the split system, the indoor air handler comprises controls
and the air system, containing mainly fans, filters, and DX coils; and the
outdoor condensing unit is the refrigeration system, composed of
compressors and condensers. Rooftop packaged systems are most widely
used. Packaged air-conditioning systems can be used to serve either a single
room or multiple rooms. A supply duct is often installed for the distribution
of conditioned air, and a DX coil is used to cool it. Other components can
be added to these systems for operation of a heat pump system; i.e., a
centralised system is used to reject heat during the cooling season and to
condense heat for heating during the heating season. Sometimes perimeter
baseboard heaters or unit heaters are added as a part of a unitary packaged
system to provide heating required in the perimeter zone. Packaged air

conditioning systems that employ large unitary packaged units are central
systems by nature because of the centralised air distributing ductwork or
centralised heat rejection systems. Packaged air conditioning systems are
characterised by the use of integrated, factory-assembled, and ready-to-
use packaged units as the primary equipment as well as DX coils for
cooling, compared to chilled water in central hydronic air-conditioning
systems. Modern large rooftop packaged units have many complicated
components and controls which can perform similar functions to the central
hydronic systems in many applications.
11.3.10 Central hydronic air conditioning systems

Central hydronic air conditioning systems are also called central air
conditioning systems. In a central hydronic air conditioning system, air is
cooled or heated by coils filled with chilled or hot water distributed from
a central cooling or heating plant. It is mostly applied to large-area buildings
with many zones of conditioned space or to separate buildings. Water has
a far greater heat capacity than air. The following is a comparison of these
two media for carrying heat energy at 68°F (20°C):
Air Water
Specific heat (Btu/lb • °F) 0.243 1.0
Density at 68°F (lb ft-3 ) 0.075 62.4
Heat capacity of fluid at 68°F (Btu ft-3 • °F) 0.018 62.4
The heat capacity per cubic foot (meter) of water is 3466 times greater
than that of air. Transporting heating and cooling energy from a central
plant to remote air-handling units in fan rooms is far more efficient using
water than conditioned air in a large air conditioning project. However,
an additional water system lowers the evaporating temperature of the
refrigerating system and makes a small- or medium-size project more
complicated and expensive.
11.3.11 Air system

An air system is sometimes called the air-handling system. The function
of an air system is to condition, transport, distribute the conditioned air,
re-circulating the air and to control the indoor environment according to
requirements. The major components of an air system are the air-handling
units, supply/return ductwork, fan-powered boxes, space diffusion devices,
and exhaust systems. An air-handling unit (AHU) usually consists of supply
fan(s), filter(s), a cooling coil, a heating coil, a mixing box and other
accessories. It is the primary equipment of the air system. An AHU
conditions the outdoor/re-circulating air, supplies the conditioned air to

the conditioned space, and extracts the returned air from the space through
ductwork and space diffusion devices. A fan-powered variable-air-volume
(VAV) box, often abbreviated as fan-powered box, employs a small fan
with or without a heating coil. It draws the return air from the ceiling
plenum, mixes it with the conditioned air from the AHU, and supplies to
the conditioned space. Space diffusion devices include slot diffusers
mounted in the suspended ceiling; their purpose is to distribute the
conditioned air evenly over the entire space according to requirements.
The return air enters the ceiling plenum through many scattered return
slots. Exhaust systems have exhaust fan(s) and ductwork to exhaust air
from the lavatories, mechanical rooms, and electrical rooms.
11.3.12 Water system

The water system includes chilled and hot water systems, chilled and hot
water pumps, condenser water system, and condenser water pumps. The
purpose of the water system is (1) to transport chilled water and hot water
from the central plant to the air-handling units, fan-coil units, and fan-
powered boxes and (2) to transport the condenser water from the cooling
tower, well water, or other sources to the condenser inside the central plant.
11.4 Design for air conditioning system

Designing an air conditioning plant needs more concentration as the system
design determines the basic characteristics. After an air conditioning system
is constructed according to the design, it is difficult and expensive to change
the design concept.
Engineering responsibilities. The normal procedure in a design
includes initiation of a construction project by owner or developer,
selection of design team, setting of the design criteria and indoor
environmental parameters, selection of conceptual alternatives for
systems and subsystems; preparation of schematic layouts of HVAC&R,
preparation of contract documents, working drawings, specifications,
materials and construction methods, commissioning guidelines, review
of shop drawings and commissioning schedule, operating and
maintenance manuals, monitoring, supervision, and inspection of
construction, supervision of commissioning: testing and balancing;
functional performance tests, modification of drawings to the as-built
condition and the finalisation of the operation and maintenance manual.
It is necessary for the designer to select among the available alternatives
for optimum comfort, economics, energy conservation, noise, safety,
flexibility, reliability, convenience and maintainability. Experience,
education, and judgment all enter into the selection process. Factors
requiring input from both the architect and the mechanical engineer
include shape and the orientation of the building, thermal characteristics
of the building envelope, especially the type and size of the windows
and the construction of external walls and roofs, location of the ductwork
and piping to avoid interference with each other, or with other trades,
layout of the diffusers and supply and return grilles, minimum clearance
provided between the structural members and the suspended ceiling for
the installation of ductwork and piping and location and size of the rooms
for central plant, fan rooms, duct and pipe shafts.
If the architect makes a decision that is thermally unsound, the HVAC&R
engineer must offset the additional loads by increasing the HVAC&R
system capacity to reduce the energy consumption. HVAC&R and other
building services must coordinate utilisation of daylight and the type of
artificial light to be installed, the layout of diffusers, grilles, return inlets,
and light fitting in the suspended ceiling, integration with fire alarm and
smoke control systems, electric power and plumbing requirements for the
HVAC&R equipment and lighting for equipment rooms and coordination
of the layout of the ductwork, piping, electric cables, etc.
The use of safety factors allows for the unpredictable in-design,
installation, and operation. An HVAC&R system should not be over
designed by using a greater safety factor than is actually required. The
initial cost of an over designed HVAC&R system is always higher, and it
is energy-inefficient. When an HVAC&R system design is under pressure
to reduce the initial cost, some avenues to be considered are selecting an
optimum safety factor, minimising redundancy, conducting a detailed
economic analysis for the selection of a better alternative, calculating the
space load, the capacity of the system, and the equipment requirements
more precisely and adopting optimum diversity factors based on actual
experience data observed from similar buildings.
11.4.1 Raw materials

Air conditioners are made of different types of metal. Frequently, plastic
and other non-traditional materials are used to reduce weight and cost.
Copper or aluminium tubing, critical ingredients in many air conditioner
components, provide superior thermal properties and a positive influence
on system efficiency. Various components in an air conditioner will differ
with the application, but usually they are comprised of stainless steel and
other corrosion-resistant metals. Self-contained units that house the
refrigeration system will usually be encased in sheet metal that is protected
from environmental conditions by a paint or powder coating. The working
fluid, the fluid that circulates through the air-conditioning system, is
typically a liquid with strong thermodynamic characteristics like Freon,

hydrocarbons, ammonia or water.
Refrigeration cycle. In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers
heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat
sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most
common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same
way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior into the room in which it
stands. The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to
drive a compressor. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment
(the evaporator coil), where the low pressure and low temperature cause
the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapour, taking heat with it. In the other
compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and
forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing into a liquid,
rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.
This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law PV = nRT, where P
is pressure, V is volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature,
and n is the number of moles of gas (1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 molecules).
Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity
of the air. The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil
condenses water vapour from the processed air, sending the water to a
drain and removing water vapour from the cooled space which lowers the
RH. In food retailing establishments’ large open chiller cabinets act as
highly effective air dehumidifying units. Some air conditioning units dry
the air without cooling it. They work like a normal air conditioner, except
that a heat exchanger is placed between the intake and exhaust. In
combination with convection fans they achieve a similar level of comfort
as an air cooler in humid tropical climates, but only consume about 1/3 of
the electricity.
11.4.2 Design
All air conditioners have four basic components: a pump, an evaporator,
a condenser, and an expansion valve. All have a working fluid and an
opposing fluid medium as well. Two air conditioners may look entirely
dissimilar in size, shape, and configuration, yet both function in basically
the same way. Most air conditioners derive their power from an electrically
driven motor and pump combination to circulate the refrigerant fluid. Some
natural gas-driven chillers couple the pump with a gas engine in order to
give off significantly more torque.
As the working fluid or refrigerant circulates through the air-
conditioning system at high pressure via the pump enter an evaporator
and changes into a gas state, taking heat from the opposing fluid medium
and operating just like a heat exchanger. The working fluid then moves to
the condenser and gives off heat to the atmosphere by condensing back
into a liquid. After passing through an expansion valve, the working fluid
returns to a low pressure state. When the cooling medium passes near the
evaporator, heat is drawn to the evaporator. This process effectively cools
the opposing medium, providing localised cooling where needed. Early
air conditioners used Freon as the working fluid, but because of the
hazardous effects Freon has on the environment, it has been phased out.
Recent designs have met strict challenges to improve the efficiency of a
unit, while using an inferior substitute for Freon.
11.4.3 The manufacturing process

Creating encasement parts from galvanised sheet metal and structural
steel. Most air conditioners have raw material in the form of structural
steel shapes and sheet steel. As the sheet metal is processed into fabrication
cells or work cells, it is cut, formed, punched, drilled, sheared, and/or
bent into a useful shape or form. The encasements or wrappers, the metal
that envelopes outdoor units, is made of galvanised sheet metal to provide
protection against corrosion. Galvanised sheet metal is also used to form
the bottom pan, face plates, and various support brackets throughout an
air conditioner. This sheet metal is sheared on a shear press in a fabrication
cell soon after arriving from storage or inventory. Structural steel shapes
are cut and mitered on a band saw to form useful brackets and supports.
Punch pressing the sheet metal forms. From the shear press, the sheet
metal is loaded on a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) punch press.
The punch press has the option of receiving its computer programme from
a drafting CAD/CAM (computer-aided drafting/computer-aided
manufacturing) program or from an independently written CNC program.
The CAD/CAM program will transform a drafted or modeled part on the
computer into a file that can be read by the punch press, telling it where
to punch holes in the sheet metal. Dies and other punching instruments
are stored in the machine and mechanically brought to the punching arm,
where it can be used to drive through the sheet. The NC (Numerically
Controlled) press brakes bend the sheet into its final form, using a computer
file to program itself. Different bending dies are used for different shapes
and configurations and may be changed for each component.
Some brackets, fins, and sheet components are outsourced to other
facilities or companies to produce large quantities. They are brought to the
assembly plant only when needed for assembly. Many of the brackets are
produced on a hydraulic or mechanical press, where brackets of different
shapes and configurations can be produced from a coiled sheet and unrolled
continuously into the machine. High volumes of parts can be produced
because the press can often produce a complex shape with one hit.
Cleaning the parts. It is essential that all parts are clean and free of
dirt, oil, grease and lubricants before they are powder coated. Various
cleaning methods are used to accomplish this necessary task. Large solution
tanks filled with a cleaning solvent agitate and knock off the oil when
parts are submersed. Spray wash systems use pressurised cleaning solutions
to knock off dirt and grease. Vapour degreasing, suspending the parts above
a harsh cleansing vapour, uses an acid solution and will leave the parts
free of petroleum products. For additional corrosion protection, many parts
will be primed in a phosphate primer bath before entering a drying oven
to prepare them for the application of the powder coating.
Powder coating. Before brackets, pans, and wrappers are assembled
together, they are fed through a powder coating operation. The powder
coating system sprays a paint-like dry powder onto the parts as they are
fed through a booth on an overhead conveyor. This can be done by robotic
sprayers that are programmed where to spray as each part feeds through
the booth on the conveyor. The parts are statically charged to attract the
powder to adhere to deep crevices and bends within each part. The powder-
coated parts are then fed through an oven, usually with the same conveyor
system, where the powder is permanently baked onto the metal. The process
takes less than 10 min.
Bending the tubing for the condenser and evaporator. The condenser
and evaporator both act as a heat exchanger in air-conditioning systems
and are made of copper or aluminium tubing bent around in coil form to
maximise the distance through which the working fluid travels. The
opposing fluid, or cooling fluid, passes around the tubes as the working
fluid draws away its heat in the evaporator. This is accomplished by taking
many small diameter copper tubes bent in the same shape and anchoring
them with guide rods and aluminium plates. The working fluid or refrigerant
flows through the copper tubes and the opposing fluid flows around them
in between the aluminium plates. The tubes will often end up with hairpin
bends performed by NC benders, using the same principle as the NC press
brake. Each bend is identical to the next. The benders use previously
straightened tubing to bend around a fixed die with a mandrel fed through
the inner diameter to keep it from collapsing during the bend. The mandrel
is raked back through the inside of the tube when the bend has been
accomplished.
Tubing supplied to the manufacturer in a coil form goes through a un-
coiler and straightener before being fed through the bender. Some tubing
will be cut into desired lengths on an abrasive saw that will cut several
small tubes in one stroke. The aluminium plates are punched out on a
punch press and formed on a mechanical press to place divots or waves in
the plate. These waves maximise the thermodynamic heat transfer between
the working fluid and the opposing medium. When the copper tubes are
finished in the bending cell, they are transported by automatic guided

vehicle (AGV) to the assembly cell, where they are stacked on the guide
rods and fed through the plates or fins.
Joining the copper tubing with the aluminium plates. A major part of
the assembly is the joining of the copper tubing with the aluminium plates.
This assembly becomes the evaporator and is accomplished by taking the
stacked copper tubing in their hairpin configuration and mechanically
fusing them to the aluminium plates. The fusing occurs by taking a bullet
or mandrel and feeding it through the copper tubing to expand it and push
it against the inner part of the hole of the plate. This provides a thrifty, yet
useful bond between the tubing and plate, allowing for heat transfer.
The condenser is manufactured in a similar manner, except that the
opposing medium is usually air, which cools off the copper or aluminium
condenser coils without the plates. They are held by brackets which support
the coiled tubing, and are connected to the evaporator with fittings or
couplings. The condenser is usually just one tube that may be bent around
in a number of hairpin bends. The expansion valve, a complete component
normally outsourced, is installed in the piping after the condenser. It allows
the pressure of the working fluid to decrease and re-enter the pump.
Installing the pump. The pump is normally a purchased unit. Designed
to increase system pressure and circulate the working fluid, the pump is
connected with fittings to the system and anchored in place by support
brackets and a base. It is bolted together with the other structural members
of the air conditioner and covered by the wrapper or sheet metal
encasement. The encasement is either riveted or bolted together to provide
adequate protection for the inner components.
11.4.4 Quality control

Quality of the individual components is always checked at various stages
of the manufacturing process. Outsourced parts must pass an incoming
dimensional inspection from a quality assurance representative before being
approved for use in the final product. Usually, each fabrication cell will
have a quality control plan to verify dimensional integrity of each part.
The unit will undergo a performance test when assembly is complete to
assure the customer that each unit operates efficiently.
11.4.5 Design of the control system

Controlling and maintaining the indoor environmental parameters within
pre-determined limits depends mainly on adequate equipment capacity and
the quality of the control system. Energy can be saved when the systems
are operated at part load with the equipment’s capacity following the system
load accurately by means of capacity control. Modern air conditioning

control systems for the air and water systems and for the central plant
consist of electronic sensors, microprocessor-operated and controlled
modules that can analyse and perform calculations from both digital and
analogue input signals. Control systems using digital signals compatible
with the microprocessor are called direct digital control (DDC) systems.
Outputs from the control modules often actuate dampers, valves, and relays
by means of pneumatic actuators in large buildings and by means of electric
actuators for small projects. Thermostats control the operation of HVAC
systems, turning on the heating or cooling systems to bring the building to
the set temperature. Typically the heating and cooling systems have separate
control systems (even though they may share a thermostat) so that the
temperature is only controlled ‘one way’.
There are rapid changes in HVAC&R controls from conventional systems
to energy management systems, to DDC with microprocessor intelligence,
and then to open-protocol BACnet, etc. The designers need to keep a pace
with the developments. It was normal that many designers preferred to
prepare a conceptual design and a sequence of operations and then to ask
the representative of the control manufacturer to design the control system.
Only about one-third of the designers designed the control system themselves
and asked the representative of the control manufacturer to comment on it.
Designer should be able to prepare the sequence of operations and select
the best-fit control sequences for the controllers from a variety of the
manufacturers that offer equipment in the HVAC&R field. The designer
may not be a specialist in the details of construction or of wiring diagrams
of controllers or DDC modules, but he or she should be quite clear about
the function and sequence of the desired operation, as well as the criteria
for the sensors, controllers, DDC modules, and controlled devices.
If the HVAC&R system designer does not perform these duties personally,
preparation of a systems operation and maintenance manual with clear
instructions would be difficult. It would also be difficult for the operator
to understand the designer’s intention and to operate the HVAC&R system
satisfactorily.
Drawings. The layout of an HVAC&R system and the locations and
dimensions of its equipment, instruments, ducts, pipes, etc., are best shown
and illustrated by drawings. HVAC&R drawings consist of mainly the
following:
● Floor plans. System layout including plant room, fan rooms,
mechanical room, ductwork, and pipelines are illustrated on floor
plans. Each floor has at least one floor plan. HVAC&R floor plans
are always drawn over the same floor plan of the architectural
drawing.
● Detail drawings. These drawings show the details of a certain section

of an HVAC&R system, or the detail of the installation of certain
equipment, or the connection between equipment and ductwork or
pipeline. Standard details are often used to save time.
● Sections and elevations. Sectional drawings are helpful to show the
inner part of a section of a system, a piece of equipment, or a device.
They are especially useful for places such as the plant room, fan
room, and mechanical room where lots of equipment, ductwork, and
pipelines are found. Elevations often show clearly the relationship
between the HVAC&R components and the building structure.
● Piping diagram. This diagram shows the piping layout of the water
system(s) and the flow of water from the central plant to the HVAC&R
equipment on each floor.
● Air duct diagram. This diagram illustrates the air duct layout as well
as the airflow from the air-handling unit or packaged unit to the
conditioned spaces on each floor through space diffusion devices.
● Control diagrams.
Specifications. Detailed descriptions of equipment, instruments, ductwork,
and pipelines, as well as performances, operating characteristics, and
control sequences are better defined in specifications. Specifications
usually consist of the legal contract between the owner and the contractor,
installer, or vendor, and the technical specifications that specify in detail
the equipment and material to be used and how they are installed.
Codes and standards. Codes are generally mandatory state or city laws
or regulations that force the designer to create the design without violating
human safety and welfare. State and city codes concerning structural
integrity, electrical safety, fire protection, and prevention of explosion of
pressure vessels must be followed. Standards describe consistent methods
of testing, specify confirmed design guidelines, and recommend standard
practices. Conformance to standards is usually voluntary.
Air conditioner manufacturers face the challenge of improving efficiency
and lowering costs. Because of the environmental concerns, working fluids
now consist typically of ammonia or water. New research is under way to
design new working fluids and better system components to keep up with
rapidly expanding markets and applications. The competitiveness of the
industry should remain strong, driving more innovations in manufacturing
and design.
11.5 Central air conditioning

Central air conditioning, commonly referred to as central air (US) or air-
con (UK), is an air-conditioning system which uses ducts to distribute
cooled and/or dehumidified air to more than one room, or uses pipes to
distribute chilled water to heat exchangers in more than one room, and
which is not plugged into a standard electrical outlet. With a split system,
the condenser and compressor are located in an outdoor unit; the evaporator
is mounted in the air handling unit. With a package system, all components
are located in a single outdoor unit that may be located on the ground or
roof.
Central air conditioning performs like a regular air conditioner but has
several added benefits. When the air handling unit turns on, room air is
drawn in from various parts of the house through return-air ducts. This air
is pulled through a filter where airborne particles such as dust and lint are
removed. Sophisticated filters may remove microscopic pollutants as well.
The filtered air is routed to air supply ductwork that carries it back to
rooms. Whenever the air conditioner is running, this cycle repeats
continually. Because the central air conditioning unit is located outside
the main building, it offers a lower level of noise indoors than a free-
standing air conditioning unit.
11.6 Health implications

Poorly maintained air-conditioning systems (especially large, centralised
systems) can occasionally promote the growth and spread of micro-
organisms, such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent
responsible for Legionnaire’s disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes.
Conversely, air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling,
disinfection, etc.) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic
atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where an
appropriate atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. Air
conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma.
In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly.
Although many people superstitiously believe that air conditioning is
unconditionally dangerous for one’s health, especially in areas where air
conditioning is not common, this belief is unsupported by fact; properly
maintained air-conditioning systems do not cause or promote illness. As
with heating systems, the advantages of air conditioning generally far
outweigh the disadvantages.
Conditions favourable to the growth of micro-organisms are sometimes
found in mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning systems. BP Ager
and JA Tickner suggested preventive measures such as inclusion of the
cleaning of water reservoirs and inspection of filters. Biocidal water
treatment is a possible additional control measure to minimize growth of
micro-organisms in cooling towers.
12
Air pollution control in textile industry
12.1 Introduction
The textile industry is known for pollution problems, which must be
resolved. The textile industry is not a single entity but encompasses a range
of industrial units which use a variety of natural and synthetic fibres to
produce various fabrics. The industry is very complex in nature as far as
varieties of products, process and raw materials are concerned. During
production, the cloth has to pass though various processes and chemical
operations like sizing, de-sizing, scouring, mercerising, bleaching, dying,
printing and finishing. A number of dyes and auxiliary chemicals are used
to impart desired quality in the fabrics. The wastewater of the industry is
highly alkaline in nature and contains high concentration or BOD, COD,
TDS and alkalinity. It can cause environmental problems unless it is
properly treated before disposal.
The industry also generates air pollution. Processing of fibres prior to
and during spinning and weaving generates dust, lint, etc., which degrades
working environment in the industry. Dust may cause respiratory diseases
in workers. A chronic lung disease, byssinosis is commonly observed
among workers exposed to cotton, flax and hemp dust. Besides this, there
are a number of process operations including spinning weaving that
produce noise to the tune of 90 dB (A).
● The industry specific standards for textile industries have been
evolved and notified in India under the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 which are to be compiled by the unit. The industries are
being persuaded to install necessary pollution control measures. In
order to assist the industries and regulatory agencies, a comprehensive
industry documents had been published by CPCB.
● CETP: For small industries operating in clusters, the scheme
‘Common effluent treatment plant’ (CETP) is being enforced. Such
scheme is already operational in number of industrial areas including
194
Air pollution control in textile industry 195
Pali (Rajasthan), Jetpur (Gujarat), Mathura (U.P.), etc. Under the

scheme, grant up to 50% of the cost of the CETP is provided by
State and Central Government.
Eco Mark Scheme. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has
developed criteria for eco-labeling of textile materials and the same is
being executed by BIS.
12.2 Source of air pollution

Smoke, odour and dust are the main pollutants responsible for air pollution.
The major air pollution problem occurs during the finishing stages, where
various processes are employed for coating the fabrics. Coating materials
include lubricating oils, plasticisers, paints and water-repellent chemicals;
essentially, organic (usually hydrocarbon) compounds such as oils, waxes
or solvents. After the coatings are applied, the coated fabrics are cured by
heating in ovens, dryers, tenter frames, etc. This results in the vaporisation
of the organic compounds into high molecular weight volatile organic
(usually hydrocarbon) compounds (VOCs), which take the form of visible
smoke and invisible but objectionable odour. In terms of actual emissions,
the industry must also deal with larger particles, principally lint.
Smoke is basically made up of tiny solid or liquid particles of VOCs
less than one micron in size that are suspended in the gaseous discharge.
When the smoke/gas mix goes up the stack, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) measures the density or opacity of the emission using an
official transparent template, and labels the opacity as ranging from 0 to
100%. The more opaque the smoke, the more visible it is. Opacity of smoke
is actually related to the quantity, rather than the weight, of particles present
in the gas. For a given particle size and stack diameter, percentage of
opacity is a function of the grain loading or weight of particles, measured
as grains per cubic foot (1 lb = 7000 grains).
The problem with odour is that it isn’t practically measurable. It is a
sensation originated by interaction between molecules of hydrocarbons
and nerve fibres in the human olfactory membranes. The human nose can
differentiate between 4000 different odours. The odours associated with
textile plant emissions are usually caused by hydrocarbons with molecular
weight less than 200, and fewer than 15 carbon molecules. These odorous
molecules attach themselves to the particles of smoke and can be carried
great distances from their point of origin. When air pollution equipment
has abated the smoke, the odour molecules have no vehicle to carry them.
That is why the installation of smoke abatement equipment sometimes
solves the odour problem, too. Now relatively inexpensive equipments
are also available to address the problem directly.
12.3 Air pollution control

Selection of an air pollution control (APC) system should involve several
orderly steps including analysis of chemicals involved, evaluation of
existing exhaust system, consideration of exhaust stream pre cooling,
consideration, comparison and selection of optimum APC equipment.
Analysis of chemicals helps in deciding the VOCs to be abated.
12.3.1 Analysis of existing exhaust system

It is important to evaluate the mechanical parameters of the existing exhaust
system to be sure it will properly complement the new APC equipment.
These are some major considerations:
1. In order to keep smoke out of the working area, pressure inside the
heating equipment should be negative. Investigate all openings in
the body of the equipment and eliminate those that are not necessary
for the process.
2. Exhaust gas volume should be adequate to absorb moisture
evaporated from the textiles and also to bring the total VOC content
below 25% of lower explosive limit.
3. Exhaust system ductwork from heating equipment to cooling section
of the APC requires special attention. The ductwork should be of
solid steel construction, welded and tested for gas and liquid tightness.
The welded seams should be located at the top of the duct.
4. It is important to prevent condensation of VOCs in the exhaust system,
and subsequent dripping of condensate back into the oven. Velocity
in the duct should be sufficient to keep the droplets moving; gas
temperature should remain high until the gas enters the cooling
section of the APC system; and the ductwork should be kept as short
as possible. It is suggested to insulate the entire run of exhaust system
ductwork.
5. If the heating equipment has several gas-collection zones with separate
exhaust blowers, ductwork design should incorporate a manifold and
provisions for pressure adjustment to ensure adequate exhaust from
each zone. A separate ‘zero pressure’ point, located between discharge
of the zone blower and the manifold, will prevent the central blower
from influencing exhaust rates from individual zones.
12.3.2 Consideration of exhaust stream pre-cooling

For the APC system to capture VOCs, the vapours are to be condensed,
therefore cooling the air stream is the first step. The efficiency of the
cooling/condensation process depends on the boiling temperatures of the
specific VOCs, their concentration in the exhaust gas, and operating

temperature of the APC device. The operating temperature of the APC
cooling section should be selected to ensure effective condensation while
minimizing capital and operating costs of the cooling system. In textile
applications, most VOCs condense at the saturation temperature of the
exhaust stream, which usually ranges between 110°F and 160°F.
Sometimes, as in a textile printing operation with paint based on a low
molecular weight VOC, it is necessary to reduce gas temperature to 100°F
or below to achieve reasonable efficiency of condensation.
12.3.3 Cooling equipment

Cooling can be accomplished indirectly with fin and tube heat exchangers, or
directly by injecting cooling liquid in the pre scrubbing section of an APC
system. The appropriate cooling design should be selected on an individual
basis, taking into consideration the composition of the exhaust, amount of
solids and the plant’s operating experience with similar systems. Tubular heat
exchangers are rarely used because of the difficulty of cleaning if tubes become
clogged. An evaporative cooling system provides effective cooling with
minimum maintenance, simply by spraying cooling water into the exhaust
gas. This method, however, produces water droplets contaminated by lint and
oil, consequently adding to total inlet loading of the system.
12.3.4 Fibre filter

A fibre filter typically consists of glass or polyester fibres from 5 to 10
microns in diameter, packed between flat or cylindrical screens. Particles
of condensed VOCs are collected on the surface of the fibres by inertial
impaction, direct interception and Brownian movement or diffusion.
Removal efficiency of fibre filter rises with density and thickness of the
fibre bed, but the pressure drop through the bed and probability of plugging
also rise The fibre filter, or fibre bed mist eliminator, is seldom
recommended for textile industry applications, because the high
flammability of VOCs and dry lint in the gas stream usually precludes the
use of dry filtration devices. There are other disadvantages as well. Fibre
filter usage is limited to rare applications where the product of VOC
condensation is free-flowing oil, and no waxes or lint are present.
12.3.5 Wet scrubber

Like fibre filters, wet scrubber utilise impaction, interception and diffusion
as collection techniques. The important difference is that the filtering role
is performed by a scrubbing liquid rather than fibres, removing the potential

for fire or explosion. The scrubbing liquid is usually water, which is sprayed
as droplets which become targets for precipitated particles and absorbed
gases. The droplets are larger than the particles, and become heavier and
heavier as they collect impinged particles, so they are relatively easy to
remove. In textile applications, simple wet scrubbers are successfully used
to remove lint and other solids above about 5 microns in size, but not for
VOC smoke abatement.
12.3.6 High energy venturi scrubber

Condensed VOC droplets are typically smaller than one micron. To collect
them from the exhaust gas stream, the optimum target droplets must be in
the range of 10–15 microns in size; much smaller than the drops generated
in the simple wet scrubber. To generate these tiny droplets in the quantities
required for efficient scrubbing, a substantial amount of electric energy is
required. The most common wet scrubber for sub-micronic particle removal
is the high energy venturi scrubber (HEVS). The HVES is essentially a
gas-atomising device relying on sheering and impaction forces to break
water into an evenly distributed cloud of very fine droplets at high density.
The density raises the probability of collisions between sub micronic
droplets of condensed VOCs and the larger (but still tiny) droplets of
recycling liquid. The droplets are produced in the venturi throat of the
scrubber, where velocity of the moving gas can be as high as 400 ft.
(121.9 m) per second. This is about eight times higher than the velocity of
the exhaust gas in the duct, resulting in high pressure losses and high
energy requirements for operating the system.
12.3.7 Packed bed scrubber

Wet scrubbers are more successful in applications where the basic problems
are odour and relatively large particles of lint and other solids, rather than
smoke. To provide odour removal in textile operations, basic, acidic or
oxidising agents are added to the recycling liquid. Successful removal
agents include potassium permanganate, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine
dioxide, ozone and dichromate. In order to provide intimate contact
between scrubbing liquid and odour producing gas, packed bed scrubbers
are employed. The packed bed utilises specially shaped plastic or ceramic
elements which are highly permeable to gas flow. However, the
conventional packed bed presents its own problem. Solid particles which
are not soluble in water like lint will clog conventional packing. For textile
odour remediation, two specialised scrubbers can be used:
● In a multi-rod deck scrubber, gas and scrubbing liquid compete

for space between solid tubular structures. The result is highly
turbulent intermixing, with little chance of clogging.
● In a multi-channel scrubber, channels are continually created by
interaction of gas, scrubbing liquid and the packing of solid glass or
ceramic spheres (marbles). The scrubbing action removes not only
absorbed gas, but also solid particles trapped in the scrubbing liquid;
the rotating marbles are highly resistant to clogging.
In these scrubbers, efficiency of removal of particles above 2 microns is
better than 90%, and substantial odour reduction is accomplished through
the mass transfer capability of the rods or marbles flooded with scrubbing
liquid.
12.3.8 Optimised scrubber/quencher

Where the problem is basically odour-producing vapours and larger solid
particles like lint, a preferred treatment is a low pressure-drop scrubbing
system combined with a quencher for pre-cooling the gas stream, and
arrangements for separating out pollutants from the scrubbing liquid. One
such system utilises a venturi-rod design with open type spray nozzle. In
a typical situation, gas at 300–400°F enters the scrubber/quencher where
it’s cooled to full saturation temperature while particles of lint are trapped
in the scrubbing liquid. VOCs condense in the quencher to become sub-
micronic droplets of oil. These droplets, together with larger droplets of
scrubbing liquid mixed with solid particles, must be separated from the
gas stream.
12.3.9 Selecting a separator

Separation is required for all particle collection systems, whether designed
for sub-micronic or larger particles, or both. In selecting the separation
method for a textile plant APC system, gravity-based settling chambers
are immediately ruled out, as they are seldom effective with particles under
50 microns, and almost all the polluting particles emitted by textile finishing
processes fall into this range. Cyclonic separators are suitable for larger
particles and scrubbing liquid. However, the inlet velocity required for
separating particles under 5 microns often results in excessive energy
consumption and wear on the equipment. Since tiny particles usually
respond well to electrical forces, electrostatic precipitation is particularly
effective in removing sub-micronic particles. For instance, electrical force
exerted on an electrically charged particle of 0.1 micron can be more than
a million times the force of gravity on that particle. So where the
hydrocarbon aerosol droplets of VOCs are concerned, electrostatic

separation often follows the scrubber stage in an APC system for textile
plant exhaust gas. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) offer high capture
efficiency of sub-micronic particulate by using electrical forces to remove
suspended particles from the gas stream. Because an ESP uses electricity
only to charge particles in a passive air stream, it requires much less energy
than a Venturi scrubber. Three steps are involved in electrostatic
precipitation: charging, collection and removal. In all cases, a corona
discharge electrically charges the suspended particles, which are collected
on electrodes. Removal strategies vary.
12.3.9.1 Dry electrostatic precipitators

In a dry precipitator, the electrodes are periodically washed off to remove
accumulated particles for disposal. Despite that washing, dry ESPs are
prone to particle build-up on the walls of the collection chamber. The build-
up acts as insulation, reducing the overall efficiency of the equipment.
Dry ESPs can be used alone for removal of free flowing particulates, but
must be combined with scrubbers or similar equipment to capture VOCs.
12.3.9.2 Wet electrostatic precipitators

In a wet electrostatic precipitator (wet ESP) a liquid, usually water,
continuously washes particle build-up off the collection surface. The wet
ESP is widely used for applications where the gas to be treated is hot, has
a high moisture content and contains sticky particles or sub-micronic
particles that can’t be treated by other methods—typical textile industry
conditions. In most cases the gas is pre-treated in a scrubber. The wet ESP
follows to complete particulate removal with a high level of efficiency. In
a conventional ‘up-flow’ wet ESP, the gas stream flows co-current to the
water. This requires frequent cleaning because bottom water sprays are
not completely effective in reaching the top of the chamber where sub-
micronic particles accumulate. The ‘down flow’ wet ESP overcomes these
problems, but does require mist elimination following treatment.
Proctor & Gamble has created a self-cleaning electrostatic air filtration
system that rivals a HEPA filter in efficiency, but which has substantially
lower power requirements, produces only minimal back pressure, and can
be used for applications where HEPA filters cannot. This air filtration
technology has gone through two proof-of-concept stages. In the first, a
single nozzle was shown to remove as much as 99% of the particulate
from the air stream. In the second, an array of nozzles was tested, which
allowed P&G researchers to devise a method whereby a multi-nozzle
system uses the same voltage as does a single nozzle system. This electro-
statically charged spray technology rivals HEPA filters in its ability to

remove particulates from the air, but uses substantially less power to move
the air through the filtering droplets, and produces only minimal back
pressure on the air stream. One advantage of using a charged non-aqueous
liquid as the filtering medium is that the liquid is continuously cleaned to
maintain efficiency. While designed for home use, the technology can scale
up to large heating, ventilation, air-conditioning and refrigeration (HVAC)
systems or down to personal respirators, and encompasses both the
hardware and the specialised fluid that it uses.
12.3.9.3 Water-cooled jacketed wet ESP for sub-micronic sizes

This is a modification on the wet ESP design that is well-suited for removal
of sub-micronic particles. The jacketed, water chilled vertical-tube wet
ESP increases removal efficiency and reduces operating costs and
maintenance, by harnessing temperature differential to create particle
movement perpendicular to the direction of the gas flow. The design
combines a quencher to cool the gas stream with an up-flow, vertical tube
wet ESP. It integrates variables of velocity, particle size and temperature
to maximise removal of sub-micronic particles. The hot, contaminated inlet
stream is cooled from 300 to 140°F in a quencher. Then a low-energy
scrubber removes particles larger than 2 microns. The pre-treated gas
stream passes into a multitude of tubes containing ionizing electrodes.
Each electrode has a number of sharp points which give off the corona
discharge that mobilises the particles. When the particles are charged to
the point of saturation, they migrate toward the walls of the collecting
tubes. Within the double-walled, water cooled collection chamber several
processes take place which greatly increase the effectiveness of the device.
1. Thermophoresis (heat transmission). Inside the collection chamber,
cold water is circulated in a closed-loop system. When gas
temperatures on opposite sides of a particle are different, the gas
molecules on the warmer side have a higher kinetic energy than the
molecules on the cooler side. The hot, active gas molecules will strike
the surface of the particle with more force propelling the particle
toward the cooler temperature zone. This process is called as
thermophoresis. Particle velocity depends on the temperature
gradient, the relative thermal conductivities of the gas and the particle,
and the density and viscosity of the gas. Thermal forces for particles
of 0.1 micron can be 100 times greater than those for particles of one
micron.
2. Diffusiophoresis (diffusion transmission) occurs when the partial
vapour pressure of water in a carrier gas is greater than the water
vapour pressure at the surface of the water droplets in a scrubbing

liquid. In the condensing WESP, water vapour will condense onto
the water droplets, creating a bulk motion of gas and entrained
particles toward the droplets. Because the droplets are larger than
the particles, they are more easily removed by either electrical or
mechanical means; diffusiophoresis can improve the efficiency
of collecting fine particles, when compared to a conventional wet
ESP.
3. Condensing action. In the Croll-Reynolds brand of water-cooled
jacketed wet ESP Condensing WESP, charged particles, both liquid
droplets and solids, are subject to electrical forces in addition to
thermophoresis and diffusiophoresis. They migrate toward the
positive (grounded) wall of the collection tubes. The interior of the
tubes is cooled by circulating water, and the cool tube surface
condenses the water vapour.
This process deposits a wet film on the collection surface which tends to
flush particles down the wall and out of the system. The wet film also
discourages sticking of oils and waxes, and reduces the need for system
shutdown for cleaning. By condensing water vapour from the contaminated
gas, the Condensing WESP design can cut external water needs by 30%
compared with conventional wet ESPs. The continuous presence of
condensate also reduces corrosion.
Corona power in condensing WESP. Corona power of an electrostatic
precipitator is the product of the operating voltage and the operating corona
current. The efficiency of a wet ESP is directly proportional to its corona
power. In operation, corona power is limited by internal sparking between
ionizing and collecting electrodes. Since efficiency is directly proportional
to the electrical power conveyed to the moving gas, each time a precipitator
sparks, the voltage and consequently the particulate collection efficiency
is reduced.
For a given equipment design, gas flow condition and particle
concentration, sparking rate is a function of gas-to-liquid ratio of entrained
liquids, quality of the wet ESP components, and the appropriate selection
of high-voltage power supply components to match wet ESP geometry
and the physical and chemical nature of the suspended particles.
Consequently, the power level and efficiency of a wet ESP can be
dramatically increased by proper design of its automatic voltage control
system. The industry in general seems satisfied with 40% conduction—
the ability to deliver 40% of available power to the gas. But with proper
selection of the transformer rectifier, automatic voltage control and
automatic current-limiting power systems can be designed to deliver over
86% conduction, the maximum theoretically possible.
12.4 Use of UV disinfestations

Ultraviolet light is part of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy generated
by the sun. The full spectrum includes, in order of increasing energy, radio
waves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays and cosmic
rays. Most sources of light generate some UV. For air disinfection, UV is
generated by electric lamps that resemble ordinary fluorescent lamps.
Germicidal UV is of a specific type (253.7 nm wavelength) known to kill
airborne germs that transmit infections from person to person within work
area. This is aimed at the upper room air so that only airborne microbes
are directly exposed. Room occupants are exposed only to low levels of
reflected UV-levels below that known to cause eye irritation. Germicidal
UV has been used safely and effectively in hospitals, clinics and
laboratories for more than 60 years. UV does not prevent transmission of
infections (e.g. colds) by direct person to person contact.
UV exposure can be very harmful, or harmless, depending on the type
of UV, the type of exposure, the duration of exposure, and individual
differences in response to UV. There are three types of UV:
UV-C. Also known as ‘shortwave’ UV, includes germicidal (253.7 nm
wavelength) UV used for air disinfection. Unintentional overexposure
causes transient redness and eye irritation, but does not cause skin cancer
or cataracts.
UV-B. A small, but dangerous part of sunlight. Most solar UV-B is
absorbed by the diminishing atmospheric ozone layer. Prolonged exposure
is responsible for some type of skin cancer, skin aging, and cataracts
(clouding of the lens of the eye).
UV-A. Long-wave UV, also known as ‘black-light’, the major type of
UV in sunlight, responsible for skin tanning, generally not harmful, used
in medicine to treat certain skin disorders.
UV air cleaners and ultraviolet water purifiers utilise germicidal UV
(UVC) light to enhance the quality of life and well-being through creating
a better and healthier indoor environment. The UV disinfection systems,
commercial and residential UV air cleaners, literally sterilize micro-
organisms. UVC reduces or eliminates germs such as mold, viruses,
bacteria, fungi and mold spores from the indoor air of homes, offices and
commercial buildings, ensuring a higher indoor air quality.
Studies done by North Carolina Department of Environment, Health
and Natural Resources on the air washer portion of a textile air handing
system indicated that ultra violet (UV) light, which destroys all micro-
organisms (algae, bacteria—including Legionnaires disease, bacteria,
fungi, molds, virus), adds nothing to the water, does not alter the pH or
cause scaling or other deposits, and requires no special handling or
processing. The UV unit can be utilised on both cooling tower and air
washers without extensive installation. Further as there is reduction in

operation and maintenance cost, no discharge of toxic chemicals, and no
extensive maintenance to keep the UV unit operating efficiently, a short
payback period and substantial savings are possible.
12.5 An integrated approach for the textile industry

The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. Some
companies have creatively implemented pollution prevention techniques
that improve efficiency and increase profits while at the same time
minimising environmental impacts. This can be done in many ways such
as reducing material inputs, re-engineering processes to reuse by-products,
improving management practices, and employing substitution of toxic
chemicals.
Croll Reynolds air pollution control systems. Westfield developed
condenser WESP, which is designed for controlling the pollutions,
specifically for textile industry. The powerful combination of liquid
scrubbing, thermo-phoretic and diffusiophoresis effects and high-voltage
electrostatic precipitation in a condensing water chilled jacketed wet ESP
is an effective method of submicron particle removal. In the textile industry,
a condensing WESP can help obtaining zero opacity, satisfying state and
federal regulations for textile exhaust. The wet ESP is also an excellent
candidate for operation as part of an energy-efficient, low-maintenance
integrated system. By combining a condensing WESP with a relatively
inexpensive, low-energy scrubber which acts as the air distribution device
and odour abatement section, large and small particles are effectively
removed from textile-plant exhaust.
Table 12.1 Selection of best available control technology for textile
industry applications
Process conditions Wet Scrubber Dry Fibre

requirements ESP ESP filter
Captures particles under one yes yes yes yes
micron
Handles moist gas yes yes no no
High efficiency for submicron yes no yes no
particles with low energy
consumption
Particles collected in liquid yes yes no no
Recommended for flammable yes yes no no
chemicals
What to look for in an advanced wet ESP system for textile plant air
pollution control:
● Wide-spaced electrodes or large-diameter tubes allowing operation

at 40000 volts or higher.
● Rigid ionising electrodes that ensure system maintainability and
increase longevity.
● Continuous cleaning action by liquid film on the walls of collecting
electrodes to prevent accumulation of stick oils and waxes, ensuring
high removal efficiency with minimum maintenance.
● High-voltage system with solid-state controls capable of delivering
maximum available electric power to the exhaust gas.
● Pre-scrubbing section located in the bottom section of the wet ESP
to minimise physical size and capital expense for the APC system.
13
Dehumidification
13.1 Introduction
As providing humidity to the required level is important for getting good
working, ensuring that humidity does not cross the specified limits is also
important. When the humidity is more than requirement, we get problems
like lapping of cotton on the drafting rollers in draw frames, speedframes,
ringframes, etc., sagging of webs in cards and combers, dust and trash particles
not getting removed properly in blow room, and so on. A very high humidity
can also cause health problem among the people working. In summer as the
temperature also shall be high, higher humidity causes sweating of the people
making it inconvenient to work. The problem is more in coastel areas where
the humidity is normally on a higher side. There is a need to know the method
of reducing humidity when it is more in order to achieve optimum conditions.
Dehumidifiers come to help in such cases. They are also preferred by people
who do not like the draft created by air coolers.
13.2 Reducing the humidity

Normally, in the land locked areas of hot countries, the requirement is of
increasing the humidity as the out side is normally dry compared to the
humidity required for working. The humidity is increased by spraying water
on the flowing air. Some times the humidity inside becomes more than
required because of excess spray of water and improper ventilation. The
internal RH% will be more compared to outside humidity. In those cases,
out side air is taken in and the humidity is reduced.
In cases where the outside humidity is more, the air washer is stopped
and the departmental air is re-circulated. It can help to some extent, but by
this the temperature in the department increases, and people feel it uneasy
due to lack of fresh air. If the air temperature is high, chilling can bring
down both humidity and temperature. Chilled water spray on hot humid
206
Dehumidification 207
air attracts the moisture in the air and condenses them, which is collected
by the eliminators and sent down to sump. When the air temperature is
low along with higher humidity, heating the department helps in reducing
the RH%. Different types of dehumidifiers are available, which are used
to reduce humidity and bring it to required level.
13.3 Types of dehumidification

Different methods are followed for dehumidification. If the out side air is
dry and cool, then circulating it without spraying water and letting out the
return air can reduce humidity quickly. However, if the out side is more
humid, then we need to remove the moisture from the air, which is let
inside the department. Drying the air with cooling is required when out
side air is hot and humid. The air is passed over a set of cooling coils,
where the moisture from the air gets condensed on the cooling coils. The
cooled and dehumidified air can then be let into the working area.
Some air conditioning units actually dry the air without cooling air.
They work like normal air conditioning units except that they contain a
heat exchanger which is placed between the intake and exhaust. In some
cases, desiccators are used filled with hygroscopic agents, on which the
humid air is passed. The moisture from air is absorbed by the desiccator.
To achieve a comfort level in tropical humid areas, they contain convection
fans, but only consume about 1/3 of the electricity.
13.3.1 Desiccators type

In this system, the moisture laden air enters through the process inlet and
passes through the desiccant rotor, where the moisture is absorbed by the
desiccant. The dry, dehumidified air is then delivered to conditioned area
13.1 Desiccators-type dehumidifier.

through the process outlet. The rotor then rotates to the reactivation sector
and the moisture is removed from the desiccant rotor, by blowing hot air
through the reactivation outlet to the atmosphere. The hot desiccant rotor
is cooled by a small portion of the process air before rotating back to the
process sector. Thus, the absorption activity is continuous.
13.3.2 Energy-recovery ventilators

An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) is a type of mechanical equipment
that features a heat exchanger combined with a ventilation system for
providing controlled ventilation into a building. This type of equipment
was introduced as ‘air-to-air’ heat exchangers in the colder regions of the
U.S., Canada, Europe, and Scandinavia. In these areas, tightly built modern
houses were developing problems with indoor air quality and excessive
humidity during the winter. The air-to-air heat exchanger brought in fresh
outside air to combat these problems, and preheated it at the same time.
These products are now called heat recovery ventilators or HRVs. ERVs
are available in wall mount or duct-connected models. There are four
main types of heat exchanger cores, viz, cross flow plate cores, counter
flow flat-plate cores, heat pipe core and rotary wheel core.
The efficiency of ERVs refers to the amount of temperature adjustment
of the incoming fresh air that the outgoing stale air can accomplish in the
heat exchanger. In the winter, the outgoing heated stale air will pre-heat
the incoming fresh air to some extent, according to the unit’s efficiency.
The opposite occurs in the summer with the outgoing air pre-cooling the
incoming air. A unit with humidity regulation will remove humidity from
humid summer fresh air and add humidity to the incoming dry winter air
ERVs take the efficiency a step higher by recovering latent and sensible
energy from the air stream. Dehumidification equipment is available for
incorporation into the overall HVAC system and can be controlled by a
programmable thermostat/humidistat. A dehumidifier that incorporates
fresh air exchange is less expensive than an ERV system to install, but
does not offer energy recovery.
13.3.3 Open coil duct heaters

The use of bulky finned tubular heaters earlier greatly restricted airflow,
which led to decreased performance. The bulkiness of the heater created
a lot of weight and added to the overall product size. The life of the heater
was just marginally acceptable. The heater system needed to be made more
efficient in order to support the overall goals of the project. An open coil
duct heater is more compact, lighter and more efficient. It extends life,
improves performance, and lowers cost in the following ways: the heater
reduces obstruction by 50%, which significantly decreases back pressure,

increases drying performance and lowers the strain on the blower. While
the process air temperature was intentionally increased, their efficiency
helped lower the actual circuit temperature by 50%. This multiplies the
heater life and gives their customer a new advantage.
Air Out
Open Coil
Duct
Air In
13.2 Open coil duct heater.
13.3.4 Space heaters

When the humidity is more and the temperature is low, normally which
happens if there is continuous raining outside for a long time, the method
used is to heat the space either by closed steam pipes of by heating lamps.
This shall increase the temperature. At higher temperature, the moisture
holding capacity of air increases, and hence the relative Humidity shall
drop, although absolute humidity shall remain more or less same, excepting
for the reduction due to expansion of air. As normally out let shall not be
there for the air while space heaters are used, the air cannot expand because
of the increase in temperature, instead the pressure of air shall increase.
13.3 Propane space heater. 13.4 Radiant vent free space heater.
13.5 Portable electric space heater. 13.6 Diesel space heater.
The space heating by steam pipes demands installation of a separate steam

boiler, which requires high cost for installation and maintenance. Hence,
this system is followed in big textile mills, where steam is produced on a
regular basis for the processes like sizing, wet processing, etc. The spinning
units which do not require steam normally adopt electrical heaters of coil
type or infra-red lights.
13.7 Infra-red heater.
Infra-red lights have advantage that they can be fitted in localised areas.
The other advantages are as follows:
● Infra-red heater is non-polluting and does not burn, where as steam
boilers normally burn some fuels.
● Heater emits 91.7% of the energy it uses.
● The infra-red heater generates heat instantly, where as incase of
boilers we need to wait for hours together for the pressure to build
up. There is no heat accumulation after it’s turned off where as with
steam pipe, it takes hours to cool down.
● The halogen tubes will reduce the energy bill to half with halogen
FIR radiant energy. More economical and effective compared to
conventional electric heaters.
● There is minimum heat loss with the infra-red heater because warm
air doesn’t rise. Heat is not conveyed by convection, it is transmitted
like sunshine.
● Even if vinyl is put very close to the heater it will not burn or melt.
● All functions can be made remote controlled.
13.3.5 Chilling
When the temperature and humidity, both are high, the method followed
is to cool the air, where in the moisture gets condensed and falls down. As
13.8 Chilling unit.
the air cools, its water holding capacity shall also reduce. Cooling towers
are used to cool water bellow the dew point temperature of atmospheric
air and the chilled water is either circulated in cooling coils or sprayed on
the stream of water in an air washer.
14
Designing heating, ventilating and
air-conditioning (HVAC)
14.1 What is HVAC?

The term HVAC refers to the three disciplines in air management: heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning; and the fourth discipline, controls, which
pervade the entire HVAC field. Controls determine how HVAC systems
operate to meet the design goals of comfort, safety and cost-effective
operation.
Heating can be accomplished by heating the air within a space, or by
heating the work area directly by radiation.
Ventilating maintains an adequate mixture of gases in the air, controls
odours, and removes contaminants from occupied spaces. It can be
accomplished passively through natural ventilation, or actively through
mechanical distribution systems.
Air-conditioning refers to the sensible and latent cooling of air. Sensible
cooling involves the control of air temperature while latent cooling involves
the control of air humidity. Air is cooled by transferring heat between
spaces, such as with a water loop heat pump system, or by rejecting it to
the outside air via air-cooled or water-cooled equipment. Heat can also be
rejected to the ground using geothermal exchange. Cool air is not
comfortable if it is too humid. Air is dehumidified by condensing its
moisture on a cold surface or by removing the moisture through absorption.
In dry climates, humidification may be required for comfort instead of
dehumidification. Evaporative humidification also cools the air. In such
climates it is possible to use radiant cooling systems, similar to the radiant
heating systems.
Controls ensure comfort, provide safe operation of the equipment and
enable judicious use of energy resources. HVAC systems are sized to meet
heating and cooling loads that historically occur only 1–2.5% of the time.
It is the function of the controls to ensure that the systems perform properly,
212
Designing heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) 213
reliably, and efficiently during those conditions that occur 97.5–99% of

the time.
Each HVAC discipline has specific design requirements and also
opportunities for energy savings. However, energy savings in one area
may augment or diminish savings in another. This applies to interactions
between components of an HVAC system, as well as between the system
and the lighting and envelope systems. Therefore, understanding how one
system or subsystem affects another is essential to get the best of the
opportunities for energy savings. This design approach is known as ‘whole
building design’.
14.2 Fundamental of energy and resource-efficient

HVAC design
Consider all aspects of the building simultaneously. Energy-efficient,
climate-responsive construction requires a whole building perspective that
integrates architectural and engineering concerns early in the design
process. For example, the evaluation of a building envelope design must
consider its effect on cooling loads and day lighting. An energy-efficient
building envelope, coupled with a state-of-the-art lighting system and
efficient, properly sized HVAC equipment will cost less to purchase and
operate than a building whose systems are selected in isolation from each
other.
Decide on design goals as early as possible. A building that only meets
energy code requirements will often have a different HVAC system than
one that uses 40% less energy than the code. And the difference is likely
to be not only component size, but also basic system type.
‘Right size’ HVAC systems to ensure efficient operation. Safety factors
for HVAC systems allow for uncertainties in the final design, construction
and use of the building, but should be used reasonably. Greatly oversized
equipment operates less efficiently and costs more than properly sized
equipment. It is unreasonable and expensive to assume a simultaneous
worst-case scenario for all load components (occupancy, lighting, shading
devices, weather) and then to apply the highest safety factors for sizing.
Consider part-load performance when selecting equipment. Part-load
performance of equipment is a critical consideration for HVAC sizing.
Most heating and cooling equipment only operate at their rated efficiency
when fully loaded. However, HVAC systems are sized to meet design
heating and cooling conditions that historically occur only 1–2.5% of the
time. Thus, HVAC systems are intentionally oversized at least 97.5–99%
of the time. In addition, most equipment is further oversized to handle
pick-up loads and to provide a factor of safety. Therefore, systems almost
never operate at full load. In fact, most systems operate at 50% or less of
their capacity.
Shift or shave electric loads during peak demand periods. Many electric
utilities offer lower rates during off-peak periods that typically occur at
night. Whenever possible, design the systems to take advantage of this
situation. For example, energy management systems can shed non-critical
loads at peak periods to prevent short duration electrical demands from
affecting energy bills for the entire year. Or, off-peak thermal ice storage
systems can be designed to run chillers at night to make ice that can be
used for cooling the building during the next afternoon when rates are
higher.
Plan for expansion, but don’t size for it. A change in building use or the
incorporation of new technologies can lead to an increased demand for
cooling. But, it is wasteful to provide excess capacity now as it may never
be used or the equipment could be obsolete by the time it is needed. It is
better to plan equipment and space so that future expansion is possible
like adequate size of mechanical rooms and use of modular equipment.
Commission the HVAC systems. Commercial HVAC systems do not
always work as expected. Problems can be caused by the design of the
HVAC system or because equipment and controls are improperly connected
or installed. A part of commissioning involves testing the HVAC systems
under all aspects of operation, revealing and correcting problems, and
ensuring that everything works as intended. A comprehensive
commissioning program will also ensure that O&M (operations and
maintenance) personnel are properly trained in the functioning of all
systems.
Establish an O&M program. Proper performance and energy-efficient
operation of HVAC systems can only be ensured through a successful
O&M program. The building design team should provide systems that
will perform effectively at the level of maintenance that the owner is able
to provide. In turn, the owner must understand that different components
of the HVAC system will require different degrees of maintenance to
perform properly.
14.2.1 Design recommendations

Consider all aspects of the building simultaneously. The building should
incorporate as many features as possible that reduce heating and cooling
loads, for example:
1. In skin-load dominated structures, employ passive heating or cooling
strategies (e.g. sun control and shading devices, thermal mass).
2. In internal-load dominated structures, include glazing that has a high
cooling index.
3. Specify exterior wall constructions that avoid thermal bridging.
4. Detail the exterior wall constructions with air retarder systems.
5. Incorporate the highest R-value wall and roof construction that is
cost-effective.
6. Design efficient lighting systems.
7. Use daylight dimming controls whenever possible.
8. Specify efficient office equipment.
9. Accept life-cycle horizons of 20–25 years for equipment and 50–75
years for walls and glazing.
Decide on design goals as early as possible. It is important that the design
team knows where it is headed long before the construction documents
phase.
1. Emphasise communication between all members of the design team
throughout the design process.
2. Develop a written ‘Basis of Design’ that conveys to all members of
the project goals for energy efficiency. For example, such a BOD
might highlight the intent to incorporate day lighting and the attendant
use of high-performance glazing, suitable lighting controls and
interior layout depending on the process.
3. Establish a quantitative goal for annual energy consumption and
costs.
4. Clarify goals to meet or exceed the minimum requirements of codes
or regulations during schematic design.
‘Right size’ HVAC systems to ensure efficient operation.
a. Accept the HVAC safety factors and pick-up load allowance stated
in ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 as an upper limit.
b. Apply safety factors to a reasonable baseline. It is unreasonable to
assume only the extremes while designing. Safety factors should be
applied to a baseline that was created using reasonable assumptions.
c. Take advantage of the new generation of dependable computerized
analysis tools, to reduce uncertainty and eliminate excess over sizing.
Hour-by-hour computer simulations can anticipate how building
design and operation affect peak loads. Issues such as diversity, pick-
up requirements, and self-shading due to building geometry can be
quantified. As uncertainties are reduced, over sizing factors can be
reduced or applied to a more realistic baseline.
Consider part-load performance when selecting equipment. Select systems
that can operate efficiently at part-load. For example: Variable volume fan
systems and variable speed drive controls; variable capacity boiler plants
(e.g. step-fired (high/low) boilers, modular boiler plants, modulating flame

boilers); condensing boilers operate more efficiently (95–96%) as the part-
load decreases to the minimum turn-down ratio; variable capacity cooling
plants (e.g. modular chiller plants, multiple compressor equipment, and
variable speed chillers); variable capacity cooling towers (e.g. multiple
cell towers with variable speed or two speed fans, reset controls); Variable
capacity pump systems (e.g. primary/secondary pump loops, variable speed
pump motors); and temperature reset controls for hot water, chilled water,
and supply air.
Shift or shave the load. Investigate the utility company’s rate structure;
negotiate for a favourable rate structure and take advantage of the on-
peak and off-peak rate differences. Use energy management controls
systems to avoid unnecessary peak demand charges (peak shaving and
demand limiting). Explore thermal storage systems (e.g. thermal ice
storage). Examine alternate fuel sources for systems (e.g. district steam
vs. natural gas vs. fuel oil; steam or natural gas chillers; dual fuel boilers).
Plan for right sizing. ‘Right sizing’ means, avoiding systems, which
have more capacity than currently required. This concept extends to
accommodating for planned expansion and not providing excess capacity
today. It includes providing the physical space required for additional
equipment: boilers, chillers, pumps, cooling towers and designing
distribution systems that can easily accept additional equipment, and can
be expanded in future. The result is savings in first cost and operating
cost.
Commission the HVAC systems. ASHRAE Guideline 1 recommends a
comprehensive commissioning protocol for HVAC equipment. However,
there is a demand for more general total building commissioning (TBC)
concepts.
Establish an operations and maintenance program.
1. Specify systems that can be properly maintained by the owner, based
on the owner’s stated resources (see WBDG Functional/Operational).
2. Provide as part of construction, contract system interfaces to allow
personnel to easily monitor and adjust system parameters.
3. Make systems control, operation, and maintenance training part of
the construction contract.
4. Include complete documentation regarding operation and maintenance
of all equipment and controls systems as part of the construction
contract.
5. Establish a written, comprehensive operation and maintenance
program, based on the requirements of the facility, equipment, and
systems installed (see WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices).
14.2.2 Types of HVAC systems

14.2.2.1 Heating systems
1. Boilers are used to generate steam or hot water fired by natural gas,
fuel oil, or coal. The following boilers have combustion efficiencies
between 78% and 86%.
Fire tube steel boilers in which hot gases from the combustion chamber
pass through tubes that are surrounded by water, typically do not exceed
25 million Btu h -1 (MMBtu h-1), but capacities up to 70 MMBtu h-1 are
available.
Water tube steel boilers, which pass hot combustion gases over water-
filled tubes, range from small, low pressure units (e.g. around 10 MMBtu
h-1) to very large, high-pressure units with steam outputs of about 300
MMBtu h -1.
Cast iron boilers are used in small installations (0.35 to10 MMBtu h-1)
where long service life is important. Since these boilers are composed of
pre cast sections, they can be more readily field-assembled than water
tube or fire tube boilers. At similar capacities, cast-iron boilers are more
expensive than fire tube or water tube boilers.
Condensing boilers achieve higher system efficiencies by extracting so
much heat from the flue gases that the moisture in the gas condenses. The
gases that remain can often be vented directly to the outside, simplifying
and reducing the cost of breeching. They are typically fired with natural
gas and operate between 95% and 96% combustion efficiencies. They also
operate more efficiently than non-condensing boilers at part-load.
Condensing boilers are available in capacities between 0.3 and 2 MMBtu h-1,
and can be connected in modular installations.
2. Furnaces can be used for residential and small commercial heating
systems. Furnaces use natural gas, fuel oil, and electricity for the heat
source. Natural gas furnaces are available in condensing and non-
14.1 Geothermal heat pump unit.

condensing models. The cooling can be packaged within the system, or a

cooling coil can be added. When direct expansion systems with coils are
used, the condenser can be part of the package or remote.
3. Heat pumps are devices that add heat to or extract heat from a
conditioned space. Both refrigerators and air conditioners are types of
heat pumps that extract heat from a cooler, conditioned space and reject it
to a warmer space (i.e. the outdoors). Heating can be obtained if this cycle
is reversed: heat is moved from the outdoors to the conditioned space
indoors. Heat pumps are available in two major types: conventional
packaged (air-source) and water-source (conventional or geothermal).
142.2.2 Heating controls

Three controls are explained out of which the first three controls increase
energy efficiency by reducing on/off cycling of boilers, where as the fourth
improves the efficiency during operation.
1. Modulating flame. The heat input to the boiler can be adjusted
continually (modulated) up or down to match the heating load
required. Modulating flame boilers have a minimum turn-down ratio,
below which the boiler cycles off. This ratio is 25% for most boilers,
but some can be turned down to as low as 10%.
2. Step-fired. The heat input to the boiler changes in steps, usually
high/low/off. Compared to steady-state units, the capacity of the boiler
can come closer to the required heating load.
3. Modular boilers. This is assembling of groups of smaller boilers into
modular plants. As the heating load increases, a new boiler enters
on-line, augmenting the capacity of the heating system in a gradual
manner. As the heating load decreases, the boilers are taken off-line
one by one.
4. Oxygen trim systems continuously adjust the amount of combustion
air to achieve high combustion efficiency. They are usually cost-
effective for large boilers that have modulating flame controls.
14.2.2.3 Ventilation systems

Ventilation systems deliver conditioned air to occupied spaces. Depending
on the building type, ventilation air may be comprised of 100% outside
air, such as in a laboratory building, or some mixture of re-circulated
interior air and outside air. In commercial and institutional buildings, there
are a number of different types of systems for delivering this air:
1. Constant air volume (CAV) systems deliver a constant rate of air

while varying the temperature of the supply air. If more than one
zone is served by a CAV system, the supply air is cooled at a central
location to meet the need of the zone with highest demand. The
other zones get overcooled or, if comfort is to be maintained, the air
is reheated at the terminal units. CAV systems with reheat are
inefficient because they expend energy to cool air that will be heated
again. CAV systems with reheat, however, provide superior comfort
in any zone. Constant airflow reduces pockets of “dead” air, and
reheat provides close control of the space temperature.
2. Variable air volume (VAV) systems vary the amount of air supplied
to a zone while holding the supply air temperature constant. This
strategy saves fan energy and uses less reheat than in a CAV system.
VAV systems, however, can have problems assuring uniform space
temperature at low airflow rates. At times, the minimum airflow
required for ventilation or for proper temperature control may be
higher than is required to meet the space load. When this occurs
reheat may be required.
3. Low-flow air diffusers in VAV systems help maintain uniform air
distribution in a space at low airflows. These devices can be passive
or active. Passive low flow diffusers are designed to mix the supply
air with the room air efficiently at low flow. Active diffusers actually
move the outlet vanes of the diffuser to maintain good mixing at low
flow. Active diffusers can also be used as VAV terminal units.
4. Fan-powered VAV terminal units provide a method to improve air
distribution at low load conditions. These units combine the benefits
of a VAV system, by reducing central fan energy and reheat energy,
with the benefits of a CAV system, by maintaining good airflow.
There are two major types, series and parallel: Series fan-powered
units maintain constant airflow to the zone at all times; parallel fan-
powered units allow the airflow to the zone to vary somewhat, but
do not allow the airflow in the zone to drop below a desired level.
Both allow the central fan to throttle down to the minimum airflow
required for ventilation.
5. Raised floor air distribution delivers air low in the space, at low
velocity and relatively high temperature compared to traditional
plenum mounted distribution systems. Delivering air through a series
of adjustable floor-mounted registers permits room air to be stratified
with lower temperatures in the bottom portion of the room where
people are located and high temperatures towards the ceiling. This
system type is attracting increasing interest because it has the potential
to save energy and to provide a high degree of individual comfort
control. These systems have historically used constant-volume air
delivery. Manufacturers are now beginning to offer VAV systems

that are more easily designed, installed, and operated with raised
floor plenum systems.
14.2.2.4 Ventilation system controls

In recent years, ventilation control systems have become more complex
and, if installed and maintained properly, more dependable. Among the
advancements are
1. Direct digital control (DDC) systems using digital-logic controllers
and electrically-operated actuators are replacing traditional pneumatic
controls. Pneumatic systems use analogue-logic controllers and air-
pressure actuators. DDC systems are repeatable and reliable, provide
accurate system responses, and can be monitored from a central
computer station. DDC systems also require less maintenance than
pneumatic systems. However, pneumatic controllers can be less
expensive than electric actuators. Hybrid systems use a combination
of digital logic controllers and pneumatic actuators.
2. CAV systems with controls to reset the supply air temperature at the
cooling coil provide the warmest air possible to the space with the
highest cooling load. This reduces reheat throughout the system.
However, the temperature should be no higher than is necessary to
properly dehumidify the air. Another option to reduce reheat is to
use a bypass system. Bypass systems work like variable volume
systems at the zones, but have constant airflow across the central
fan.
3. VAV systems can now be designed to serve areas with as little as six
tons of cooling loads. Inlet vanes or, better yet, variable speed fans
are used to control air volume. In systems that have supply and return
fans, airflow monitoring stations are used to maintain the balance
between supplies and return airflow.
4. CO2-based control systems control the amount of outside air required
for ventilation. These systems monitor the CO2 in the return air and
modulate the outside air damper to provide only the amount of outside
air required to maintain desired levels. There must be a minimum
amount of outside air even when the spaces are unoccupied.
Alternately, detectors of volatile organic compounds (VOC) can
supplement the CO2 monitoring system.
14.2.2.5 Chillers and condensers

1. Chillers. In large commercial and institutional buildings, devices used
to produce cool water are called chillers. The water is pumped to air
handling units to cool the air. They use either mechanical refrigeration
processes or absorption processes.
Mechanical refrigeration chillers may have one or more compressors.
These compressors can be powered by electric motors, fossil fuel engines,
or turbines. Refrigeration systems achieve variable capacity by bringing
compressors on or off line, by unloading stages within the compressors,
or by varying the speed of the compressor. There are different types of
compressors. Reciprocating compressors are usually found in air-cooled
direct expansion (DX) systems for residential and small commercial
systems with capacities of 10–200 tons. Multiple compressors can be
employed in a single system to match part load conditions. Scroll
compressors are available in 1–15 ton range. Multiple compressors can be
found in water chillers with capacities of 20–500 tons. Scroll compressors
require less maintenance than reciprocating compressors. Rotary screw
compressors are used in chillers with 70–500 tons capacity. Centrifugal
compressors are used in chillers with capacities of 100–7000 tons.
Centrifugal chillers are the most efficient of the large-capacity chillers.
Absorption chillers are heat-operated devices that produce chilled water
via an absorption cycle. Absorption chillers can be direct-fired, using
natural gas or fuel oil, or indirect-fired. Indirect-fired units may use
different sources for heat: hot water or steam from a boiler, steam from
district heating, or waste heat in the form of water, air, or other gas.
Absorption chillers can be single-effect or double-effect, where one or
two vapour generators are used. Double-effect chillers use two generators
sequentially to increase efficiency. Several manufacturers offer absorption
chiller/heater units, which use the heat produced by firing to provide space
heating and service hot water.
14.2 Cooling tower.
Evaporative coolers, also called as swamp coolers, are packaged units

that cool the air by humidifying it and then evaporating the moisture. The
equipment is most effective in dry climates. It can significantly reduce

the peak electric demand when compared to electric chillers.
Typical full-load operating efficiencies for chillers are noted below:
● Small air-cooled electric chillers have 1.1–1.6 kW t-1 (COP of 2.2
to3.2).
● Large and medium-sized air-cooled electric chillers have 0.95–0.85
kW t-1 (COP of 3.7 to 4.1).
● Similar water-cooled electric chillers have 0.8–0.7 kW t-1 (COP of
4.4 to 5.0). Lower values such as 0.6–0.5 kW t-1 chillers (COP of 5.9
to 7.0) may indicate energy efficient equipment, but part-load
performance should also be examined.
● The COP of absorption units is in the range of 0.4–0.6 for single-
effect chillers, and 0.8–1.05 for double-effect chillers.
● Engine-driven chillers attain COP of 1.2–2.0.
2. Condensers are heat exchangers that are required for chillers to reject
heat that has been removed from the conditioned spaces. They can be either
air-cooled or water-cooled. Water-cooled condensers often rely on rooftop
cooling towers for rejecting heat into the environment; however, it is
possible to reject the to the ground or river water.
Air-cooled condensers are offered on smaller, packaged systems
(typically from less than one ton to 120 tons). They are initially less costly
than water-cooled condensers, but do not allow the chiller to operate as
efficiently.
Water-cooled condensers use water that is cooled directly from the
evaporative condenser or indirectly via a cooling tower. The lower
temperature achieved by evaporating water allows chillers to operate more
efficiently.
A waterside economiser consists of controls and a heat exchanger
installed between the cooling tower water loop and the chilled water loop.
When the outdoor air temperature is low and/or the air is very dry, the
temperature of the cooling tower water may be low enough to directly
cool the chilled water loop without use of the chiller, resulting in significant
energy savings.
14.2.2.6 Air-conditioning equipment controls

1. Controls that significantly affect the energy efficiency of chillers
include:
a. Variable speed drives achieve good part-load performance by
matching the motor output to the chiller load, and by cycling off
at a lower fraction of capacity than constant-speed chillers.
b. Multiple compressors achieve a closer match of the load than

single-compressor chillers by sequencing the compressors as
needed.
c. Water temperature reset controls raise the water temperature as
the demand decreases, allowing for more efficient chiller
operation.
2. Strategies that significantly affect the energy efficiency of cooling
towers include the use of variable-speed or multiple-speed fans, Wet-
bulb reset strategies, where the temperature of the cooling water is
adjusted according to the temperature and humidity of outside air
(instead of maintaining it constant) and fans and pumps that use
variable frequency drive (VFD) controls to reduce energy use at part-
load
3. Integrated chiller plant controls use monitoring and computational
strategies to yield the minimum combined energy cost for the chillers,
cooling towers, fans, and pumps. This approach can be significantly
more effective (though more difficult to implement) than optimizing
the operation of each piece of equipment independently.
BUILDING
SUPPLY OUTSIDE AIR
BUILDING
RETURN EXHAUST
14.3 Enthalpy recovery wheel.
14.2.2.7 Heat recovery

Air is blown across copper coils to reject heat from this air-cooled
condenser. This is an important component of many HVAC systems.
Types of heat recovery include:
1. Air-to-air heat exchangers transfer heat or coolness from one air
stream to another. They are usually classified as one of the following:
a. Plate heat exchangers, with 60–75% efficiencies
b. Glycol loop heat exchangers, with 50–70% efficiencies
(including pump energy use)
c. Heat pipe heat exchangers, with efficiencies as high as 80%

2. Desiccant wheels retrieve both sensible and latent heat, with
efficiencies as high as 85%. Desiccant dehumidification of the air is
achieved by inserting a rotating wheel in the air stream that needs to
be dried. The desiccant extracts moisture from the air stream. The
wheel then rotates, exposing the moist part to another air stream
that dries (or regenerates) the desiccant material. Two methods of
regeneration are typical:
a. Energy (Enthalpy) recovery wheels are located in the outside
intake and the exhaust air streams. The exhaust air regenerates
the desiccant.
b. Gas-fired desiccant dehumidification packages are located in the
outside intake air stream or in the entire supply air stream. Outside
air is heated by the gas furnace and is blown over the wheel to
regenerate the desiccant.
3. Other forms of heat exchange include:
a. Indirect evaporative cooling (IDEC) uses water-to-air heat
exchange to pre-cool air.
b. Electric heat recovery chillers receive up to 50% of rejected
heat, usually though split or multiple condensers.
c. Absorption chiller/heaters can use a fraction (typically 50%) of
the heat input for cooling and the rest for heating.
d. Gas-fired, engine driven chillers retrieve much of the heat rejected
(usually 20–50%).
14.2.2.8 Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a process in which electric power is generated at the
facility where the waste heat is recovered to produce service hot water,
process heat, or absorption cooling. Currently, packaged cogeneration
systems between about 60–600 kW are widely available. Extensive research
and marketing efforts are underway for smaller systems (as low as 4 kW).
14.2.2.9 Fuel cells

Fuel cells use chemical processes to generate electricity. The heat generated
by fuel cells can also be recovered, as in cogeneration. Currently, the
minimum size for a fuel cell in building applications is 200 kW. Note that
fuel cells need continuous, full-load operation.
14.2.2.10 Design and analysis tools

Building energy simulations allow the system designer to compare different
HVAC systems and control strategies. These tools vary in their scope and
level of complexity. Some tools analyse individual components of HVAC
systems (e.g. motors) under simplified assumptions regarding the
component use (e.g. annual hours of operation). Other tools simulate entire
buildings, including energy gains/losses through the building envelope,
energy gains from internal loads, and energy used by the HVAC systems
to maintain user-prescribed space conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity,
ventilation rates). The latter tools require expertise and experience to obtain
accurate results due to the detailed input required. Some building
simulation packages have reduced input requirements. The trade-off is
that these tools are typically not as accurate, since the programs use defaults
or assumptions to replace the user inputs. However, simplified tools can
be used early in the design process to investigate the influence of HVAC
system selection on energy efficiency strategies such as day lighting.
14.2.2.11 Under floor air distribution

It covers the systems which make use of the floor void, created by the
access floor, directly as a plenum for the distribution of the conditioned
air. They are classified in the category of UFAD (under floor air
distribution). Liebert Hiross of Italy developed 2 modules Hiross C and
Hiross V, which generate conditioned air to be delivered into the under
floor supply plenum and draw air back through grilles or space into return
under floor plenum thus reducing the need for a false ceiling. This is stated
to be offering up to 10% reduction of floor-to-ceiling height and 5–7% of
building construction costs. This is said to be suitable for both open plans
and cellular offices space and in height-limited space.
14.4 Hiross C: Conditioned air module. 14.5 Hiross V: Variable air flow unit.
Now Softwares are developed for designing the ducts. DSD, developed
by Dynacomp, Inc, is menu-driven and interactively sizes air duct systems
using the static-regain, constant-velocity, or equal-friction methods of
ASHRAE, either independently or together.
DSD includes these features:

● Calculates pressure required at blower and the drop in each section
and path.
● Handles round, rectangular, and oval ducts with variable roughness;
galvanised, fibreglass, or flex duct.
● Allows mixed use of the three sizing methods: static regain for trunks
and main branches, and equal friction for run outs (for example).
● Altitude and humidity corrected.
● Calculates path and section drops as inputs are made; sizes of sections
and settings of dampers may be reviewed and changed so as to balance
the path drops during the design process.
● Prints out losses (in detail) for straight sections and for each fitting,
and prints out a list of duct and fitting requirements.
● Handles exhaust as well as blowing applications.
15
Definitions of terms used in humidification
engineering
There are various technical terms used in humidification and ventilation

systems. These terms might be new to others and fresher might find it
difficult to understand. Effort is made to explain the terms in respective
pages and some of the common terms are listed in this chapter. It might
not cover all the technical terms, as it is impossible or not viable to explain
all in a small book like this.
Absolute humidity of air: Absolute humidity is the actual mass of water
vapour (moisture content) present in a volume of air at standard
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg). It is normally expressed in grams of
water vapour (Gms) per unit volume of air, i.e. Grams/cubic meters of air
or (g/m 3). Warm air is capable of holding more water vapour than cold air.
The atmosphere is saturated when it contains the maximum amount of
water vapour that it can hold at a given temperature.
Absorption air conditioner (Solar): An air conditioner designed to use
a solar heated liquid. Such a system provides space cooling through use of
absorber plates, volatile fluids, heat exchangers, and condensers.
Absorption refrigeration: A cooling system using heated liquid to
activate the chilling process.
Air contaminant types and sources: There are many types of
contaminants in the industrial indoor environment: particulates, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), and inorganic gases. They can be brought in
from outside the building or created in the space.
Air diffuser: It is a device that delivers air into a room to mix with the
room air.
Air distribution systems: The system determines the airflow pattern
by controlling the location at which air is supplied. Supply diffusers are
used to create the location and angle of the air supply. Mixing and
displacement are the two common systems.
227
Air filters: Filters remove dust, smoke, and other particulate air
pollutants from supply air. Some filters include absorbent media, which
remove some gaseous pollutants. Filters must be changed according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations and its use.
Airfoil (wind): A curved surface designed to create aerodynamic lift
forces when air flows around it. It is used in designing the fan blades.
Air heating system: A system for heating air and using as the heat-
transfer medium.
Air-type collector (Solar): A solar collector designed to use air as its
heat-transfer medium.
Air psychrometrics: Air psychrometrics are the study of moist or humid
air and the change in air conditions. Psychrometry is the science of studying
the thermodynamic properties of air and using them to analyse conditions
and processes involving air. A Psychrometer is constructed by means of
two thermometers. One thermometer’s bulb is surrounded with a cotton
wick which is kept moist by dipping the wick in water. This is called a
wet-dry-bulb psychrometer. The relative humidity (RH%) is measured by
reading the two thermometers. Evaporation from the wick surrounding
the wet-bulb cools the thermometer. The lower the RH% in the air, the
more is the evaporation from the wick, and the lower the temperature of
the wet-bulb. The RH% is found from a table.
15.1 Wet and dry bulb hygrometer. 15.2 Whirling hygrometer or sling hygrometer.
Normal wet-dry bulb psychrometers are fixed on a wall or on a pillar

and the table for working out the humidity is displayed nearby. For an
accurate reading, the wet bulb thermometer must have air moving over it.
With a whirling psychrometer (whirling hygrometer), air flow is created
by rotating the two thermometers through the air by hand. With a fan-
ventilated psychrometer, a fan blows air across the two thermometers.
Definitions of terms used in humidification engineering 229
A whirling hygrometer is a portable hygrometer, used for measuring

temperature and humidity at different places. It is taken to different places
and revolved for some time. It determines RH% without reference to charts
as a built-in slide rule calculator correlates wet and dry bulb thermometer
giving direct RH% reading.
The air condition can be determined by using a Psychrometric chart or
a Mollier chart. Common properties used in the charts include dry-bulb
temperature, wet-bulb temperature RH%, humidity ratio, specific volume,
dew point temperature and enthalpy. With two known properties, it is
possible to characterise the air in the intersection of the property lines, the
state-point. With the intersection point located on the chart or diagram,
other air properties can be read directly.
Air supply diffusers and return grilles: These diffusers and grilles
control the air distribution and contribute to the air circulation patterns
and for adequate mixing of the supply air with room air and efficient
removal of air-borne contaminants. A supply air diffuser has adjustable
louvers to control the airflow direction.
Ambient: Undisturbed environmental surroundings, particularly air and
temperature.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere
at any given point, generally measured on a scale based on the pressure of
air at sea level.
Atrium (Solar): An unroofed, partially roofed, or fully roofed courtyard
or room in a dwelling, which allows sunlight to reach adjoining rooms. It
is often used for passive solar heating.
Automatic damper: A device that automatically maintains the flow of
air into a room.
Baffle: A metal plate or other artificial obstruction used to check or
deflect the flow of fluids.
British thermal unit: The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by 1°F under stated conditions of
temperature and pressure. It is a standard unit for measuring quantity of
heat energy, generally abbreviated as BTU.
Barometer: A device used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Calorie: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water by one degree Celsius at atmospheric pressure.
Capacitive humidity sensor: A method using the change in
condensator’s capacity in accordance with the RH. A quick low cost method
with results accurate to ±1% RH over a range of 0–100% RH. The small
size and portability of have made them popular.
Capacity factor (electrical) (measurement): The total kWh of energy
consumed divided by the total KW produced by an electricity-generating
plant generally calculated on an annual basis.
Capacity of the wind (wind) (measurement): The total amount of dirt

and dust particles of a given kind that can be sustained per unit volume of
air by a wind of a given velocity.
Centrifugal force: The inertial force repelling a body away from the
center of the curvature of a curved path along which it is moving, or away
from the axis around which it rotates. This is opposite of centripetal force.
Centripetal force: A force attracting a body toward the center of the
curvature of a curved path along which it is moving, or toward the axis
around which it rotates. This is opposite of centrifugal force.
Condenser: A device used to change a vapour into a liquid. This can
be done either by exposing to air a tube that contains vapour, or by passing
the tube through a water jacket.
Conduction (heat): Heat transfer from direct contact between a hot
body and a cold body.
Controls: Many types of controls and sensors are integrated into the
ventilation system to produce the desired air quality and thermal
environment. Controls like thermostats, humidity sensors, time clocks,
automatic dampers and valves, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
sensors, air pressure sensors and ventilation rate controls maintain the
parameters set by HVAC designers.
Convection (heat): The transfer of heat between one location or surface
and another by the motion of a heat-carrying fluid, or the transfer of heat
within a fluid by movements within.
Convection air cooler: A non-electric cooler that depends on the natural
circulation of air.
Crosswind: Winds blowing crosswise to the direction of the wind stream.
Damper: A movable plate or other device for regulating the air-flow
and burning rate in a stove. It is often located either inside the stove or in
the flue pipe.
Dead air space: An empty area within a building in which the air remains
motionless and acts as insulation. Dead air space may be included in a
solar collector between the absorber plate and the glazing, between glazing,
and in the casing.
Degree day cooling: A measurement used to evaluate the summer
cooling requirements of a location. Each degree that the daily temperature
is above 75ºF (24ºC), is a cooling degree day.
Degree day heating: A measurement used to determine the winter
heating requirements of a location. Each degree that the daily temperature
is below 65ºF (19ºC) is a heating degree day.
Design heat load (heat) (measurement): The total heat loss from a
building during the most severe winter conditions the building is likely to
experience.
Diffused radiation (solar): Indirect, scattered sunlight that casts no

shadow is the opposite of direct radiation.
Dehydration (general): The removal of moisture from a substance.
Density of water vapour: The density of water vapor can be expressed
as: ñw = 0.0022 pw/T (2), Where pw = partial pressure water vapor (Pa, N
m -2 ), ñ w = density water vapor (kg m -3 ) and T = absolute dry bulb
temperature (K).
Table 15.1 The saturation pressure and density of water vapour for a common
temperature range
Temperature Saturation pressure Density
( ° C) (° F) (Pa) (mmHg) (psiA) (in Hg) (kg m -3) (lb ft-3)

0 32 603 4.6 0.09 0.18 0.005 0.3
10 50 1212 9.2 0.18 0.36 0.009 0.59
20 68 2310 17.4 0.33 0.68 0.017 1.08
30 86 4195 31.7 0.61 1.24 0.03 1.9
40 104 7297 55.1 1.06 2.15 0.051 3.2
50 122 12210 92.2 1.8 3.6 0.083 5.19
60 140 19724 149 2.9 5.82 0.13 8.13
70 158 30866 233 4.5 9.11 0.2 12.3
80 176 46925 354 6.8 13.8 0.29 18.2
90 194 69485 525 10.1 20.5 0.42 26.3
100 212 100446 758 14.6 29.6 0.59 36.9
120 248 196849 1486 28.6 58.1 1.1 68.7
140 284 358137 2704 51.9 105.7 1.91 119
160 320 611728 4619 88.7 180.5 3.11 194
180 356 990022 7475 144 292.1 4.8 300
200 392 1529627 11549 222 451.2 7.11 444
Design dry bulb temperature (exterior): This is the winter design

outside dry bulb temperature. The unit of measurement is expressed as °F.
Design dry bulb temperature (interior): This is the design dry bulb
temperature of the inside of the building during winter conditions expressed
as °F.
Dew point (Tdp): Dew point is the temperature at which water vapour
starts to condense out of the air, the temperature at which air becomes
completely saturated. Above this temperature the moisture will stay in the
air. This temperature can be read by following a horizontal line from the
state-point to the saturation line. Dew point is represented along the 100%
relative humidity line in the psychrometric chart.
Dew point mirror: A mirror is slowly cooled until it shows condensation
having reached the dew point. The condensation on the mirror is monitored
and the dew point calculated. This method has a wide operating range and
gives very accurate results.
Direct radiation (solar): Sunlight that has traveled a straight path from
the sun. It is the opposite of diffused radiation.
Displacement systems: These supply the air at floor level at a relatively
low velocity (0.5 m s-1 or less) and at a temperature typically cooler than
the room temperature. The temperature and location of air supply cause
the air to spread out along the floor displacing the room air that rises to
the ceiling. Contaminants rise with the air and are removed at the ceiling
while the supply air fills the occupied space. This system can remove
contaminants from the occupied space more thoroughly than a mixing
system. However, occupants must be below the contaminated air zone. A
displacement system also risks significant vertical air temperature
differences because cool air is supplied at the feet and becomes warmer as
it rises towards the heads of occupants. These temperature differences can
be uncomfortable.
Draft (heat): The flow of air through a kiln, stove, oven, fireplace, producer
gas generator, etc. Draft affects both temperature and rate of combustion.
Dry-bulb temperature (measurement) (Tdb): Dry bulb temperature is
the air temperature measured by a normal thermometer with mercury bulb
directly exposing to air. It is an indicator of heat content and is shown
along the bottom axis of the psychrometric chart. The vertical lines
extending upward from this axis are constant-temperature lines. This
measure of ambient temperature is used in designing passive solar heating
and solar cooling systems.
Effectiveness (heat) (measurement): The ratio of actual heat transfer
in a heat exchanger to the maximum possible heat transfer.
Energy conservation (general): Practices and measures that increase
the efficiency with which energy is used or produced.
Energy consumption (general): The amount of energy consumed in the
form in which it is obtained by the user. This term excludes electrical
generation and distribution losses. It also is called net energy consumption.
Enthalpy (h): This is also called heat content; this is the sum of the
internal energy and the product of the volume times. It is the measure of the
total energy in the air, the energy content per unit air weight (Btu lbda-1) (dry
air). It is read from where the appropriate wet-bulb line crosses the diagonal
scale above the saturation curve. Air with same amount of energy may either
be dry hot air (high sensible heat) or cool moist air (high latent heat).
Evaporative cooling (refrigeration): The exchange of heat from air to
a water spray or wet surface through a reversible thermodynamic process.
Air passing through the water is cooled as the water evaporates. It is a
process in which liquid water is evaporated into air. The liquid absorbs
the heat necessary for the evaporation process from the air; thus, there is
a reduction in air temperature and an increase in the actual water vapour
content of the air. The process can be reversed by condensing the vapour
on a cool surface.
Evaporative cooling index: This gives an indication of the temperature
of the output air, when the cooling is taking place by evaporation. This
depends on the air temperature and relative humidity. When the relative
humidity is more the cooling index also shall be more as shown in the
chart. The current temperature is 78.30°F and the current humidity is 76%.
Your evaporative cooler should put out air that is approx. 76°F
Table 15.2 Evaporative cooling index
% Relative humidity
2 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
75 54 55 57 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
80 57 58 60 62 63 64 66 67 68 69 71 72 73 74 76 76 77
85 61 62 63 65 67 68 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 79 81
Air temperature
90 64 65 67 69 70 72 74 76 77 78 79 81 82 83 84 86
95 67 68 70 72 74 76 78 79 81 82 84 85 87
100 69 71 73 76 78 80 82 83 85 87 88
105 72 74 77 79 81 84 86 88 89
110 75 77 80 83 85 87 90 92
115 78 80 83 86 89 90 94
120 81 83 86 90 93 95
125 83 86 90 93 96
Example: If it’s 95¼°F outside and the humidity is 15%, your

evaporation cooler should put out air that is 72¼°F. Anything cooler than
the grey boxes should be comfortable, warmer will probably is
uncomfortable. Altering RH can also cause temperature to change. For
every pound of moisture evaporated by the air, the heat of vaporization
reduces the sensible heat in the air by about 1,000 Btu.
Exhaust air: This is the air from the room that is exhausted from the
building by the HVAC system.
Exhaust air dampers: The exhaust air damper controls the amount of
air that is exhausted from the building. This damper’s controls are often
connected to outdoor air damper controls to provide a balance of outdoor
air inflow and exhaust air outflow.
Fahrenheit: The temperature scale in which water freezes at 32°F and
boils at 212°F. Temperatures of the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to
equivalent temperatures on the Celsius or Centigrade scale by first
subtracting 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature, then multiplying the result
by 5/9 according to the formula: (F – 32) × 5/9 = C.
Fan characteristics: Fan performance cannot be adequately described
by single values of pressure rise or volume flow. Both quantities are flexible
but have a fixed relationship among them is best defined graphically in
the form of fan characteristic curves. The volume flow rate is plotted along
the base with the fan total pressure as ordinate. The fan characteristic
curves are plotted considering air at 20°C (density 1.2 kg m -3). Hence
density corrections are necessary for predicting a fan’s performance. At a
particular point on the characteristic curve, the fan has maximum efficiency,
called the ‘best efficiency point’. This provides lowest power consumption
for a given duty; operation at this point usually secures the lowest noise
level for that particular fan. However, the fan can also be successfully
operated at other points on the characteristic curve. The region of satisfactory
operation would be defined by the manufacturer as the guaranteed
performance range. Outside this range the performance range may be
uncertain. Part of the characteristic may also be positively forbidden because
operation therein would cause overloading or under loading of the electric
motor fitted or vibration associated with unsteady flow.
Fan efficiency: The fan efficiency is defined as the ration of air power
(output) to shaft power requirement (input). An optimally designed fan
impeller with improved aerodynamics requires less shaft input power for
desired delivery of air volume with total pressure rise as per the system
requirement. With reduced shaft power requirement, there is a
commensurate reduction in energy consumption. Total efficiency = Total
pressure rise (pt) × Volumetric flow-rate (q) shaft power. Thus the fan
efficiency is directly contingent upon selection of fan and the operating
point relevant to the system resistance.
Fan laws: By using dimensional analysis and fluid dynamic equations,
basic fan laws can be derived giving a relationship between airflow, static
pressure, power, speed, density of medium and noise. The fan laws are
useful in predicting the effect on fan performance when certain operating
parameters are changed. The following are three basic fan laws showing
relationship between the speed (N in rpm) of the fan to flow-rate (Q in m 3
s-1 or cfm), change in the total pressure (DP in kg cm-2 or psi) and the shaft
power (P in KW or HP) required for driving the fan:
Q α N,
ΔP α N 2
Po α N 3
Po and ΔP α 1/T ab (Speed and capacity being constant), where Tab is the
absolute temperature of the medium, i.e., air/gas.
Po and ΔP α p (Speed & capacity being constant), where p is the density
of medium.
The noise level for an axial flow fan is directly related to the tip speed
raised to sixth power.
Fan performance: The way fan impellers (blades or rotors) are
designed, the amount of air they are working against increases. The airflow
vs. pressure information for a particular fan is called the fan performance
data. The performance of a fan depends on the size, shape and speed of
the impeller. The fan performance data is essential for selecting fans as
per the desired airflow and system pressure. Most fans are tested using
procedures specified by Air Movement and Control Association
International Inc. (AMCA), IIIinois, USA. The fan under test is mounted
near the outlet of the test rig and air in flow through the rig is varied by the
movable gate assembly situated at the other end of the test rig. The airflow
through the rig is determined by measurement of the pressure differential
and simultaneous readings are taken of the static pressure developed by the
fan, air velocity at the exit side, power consumed by the fan driving motor,
etc.
Fan performance curves: Fan performance curves and data show how
much pressure and airflow a given fan can produce at a given speed. This
data is based on the system resistance (pressure) occurring away from the
fan. Fan performance curves are developed by fan manufactures based on
the testing of a prototype fan fabricated based on the theoretical design.
Global radiation (solar): The combinations of diffused radiation, direct
radiation, and reflected radiation.
Grate (implement) (heat): A frame of metal bars that holds fuel above the
floor of a firebox. It usually is used in boiler, gasifier, fireplace, or stove.
Hair hygrometer: The hair hygrometer uses hairs to measure the
humidity. As the ambient humidity changes, the length of the hairs change
accordingly. This change is indicated as a relative humidity via mechanical
means. Whilst simple to use, hair hygrometers are relatively inaccurate
and quite slow.
Heat capacity (heat) (measurement): The amount of heat required to
raise by one degree the temperature of a unit mass of a substance.
Heat exchanger (heat) (implement): A device, such as a coiled copper
tube immersed in a tank of water which is used to transfer heat from one
fluid to another through a separating wall. A condenser is one type of
heat exchanger.
Heat gain (heat): The increase of heat in a space resulting from direct
radiation and from the heat given off by such other sources as thermal
mass, a stove, a fireplace, humans, or animals.
Heating and cooling units: These units heat and cool the air and also
remove some excess humidity from the supply air through condensation.
Heat index: The feeling of heat depends not only on the actual
temperature, but on the combination of temperature and humidity. The
combination of high temperature and high humidity reduces the body’s
ability to cool itself. The heat index chart gives the equivalent heat we
feel at different RH%. For example, the heat you feel when the actual
temperature is 90°F with a RH of 70% is 106°F.
Table 15.3 Heat index °F (°C)
Temp 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
100(38) 109(43) 114(46) 118(48) 124(51) 136(58)
98(37) 105(41) 109(43) 113(45) 117(47) 123(51) 128(53) 134(57)
96(36) 101(38) 104(40) 108(42) 112(44) 116(47) 121(49) 126(52) 132(56)
94(34) 97(36) 100(38) 103(39) 106(41) 110(43) 114(46) 119(48) 124(51) 129(54) 135(57)
92(33) 94(34) 96(36) 99(37) 101(38) 105(41) 108(42) 112(44) 116(47) 121(49) 126(52) 131(55)
90(32) 91(33) 93(34) 95(35) 97(36) 100(38) 103(39) 106(41) 109(43) 113(45) 117(47) 122(50) 127(53) 132(56)
88(31) 88(31) 89(32) 91(33) 93(34) 95(35) 98(37) 100(38) 103(39) 106(41) 110(43) 113(45) 117(47) 121(49)
86(30) 85(29) 87(31) 88(31) 89(32) 91(33) 93(34) 95(35) 97(36) 100(38) 102(39) 105(41) 108(42) 112(44)
84(29) 83(28) 84(29) 85(29) 86(30) 88(31) 89(32) 90(32) 92(33) 94(34) 96(36) 98(37) 100(38) 103(39)
82(28) 81(27) 82(28) 83(28) 84(29) 84(29) 85(29) 86(30) 88(31) 89(32) 90(32) 91(33) 93(34) 95(35)
80(27) 80(27) 80(27) 81(27) 81(27) 82(28) 82(28) 83(28) 84(29) 84(29) 85(29) 86(30) 86(30) 87(31)
Definitions of terms used in humidification engineering
237
Heat loss (heat): An unwanted decrease in the amount of heat contained

in a space. Heat is usually lost through convection.
Humidifier (general): A mechanical means for increasing the relative
humidity in an enclosed area by injecting water vapour into the air. These
units can be of water spray or steam to add humidity to air. Humidifiers
can be a contamination source if they are not cleaned properly or if they
contain standing water that is not chemically treated.
HVAC system (Heating, ventilating and air conditioning): The HVAC
system brings outdoor air into a building, humidifies or dehumidifies it
and heats or cools to meet the ventilation and thermal comfort needs and
to dilute the contaminants inside the building. A typical HVAC system
consists of a supply air system, a return air system, and an exhaust air
system. It generally also contains heating and cooling units, a humidifier,
air filters, and fans, which treat and move the air. Controls are used to
ensure that the system functions as desired.
HVAC&R: The term HVAC&R is an abbreviation of heating,
ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigerating.
Hygrometer (implement) (measurement) (solar): A device for measuring
the humidity of the air. It is used in designing solar heating and solar
cooling systems.
Hygrograph: A hygrograph can be used to record RH in a room or lab.
Relative humidity lines in the psychrometric chart are curved lines that
move upward to the right. The line representing saturated air where the
RH is 100% is the uppermost curved line in the chart. It is usually expressed
in per cent and abbreviated by ö or RH. A chart marked off into hours and
days is fastened to the rotating drum. The drum is regulated by a timing
device so that the pen tips move horizontally one hour on the chart for
each hour that actually passes. The top pen responds vertically to changes
in temperature. The bottom pen responds to changes in humidity. Therefore
temperature is plotted on the top graph and %RH on the bottom graph of
the chart. To read the two graphs on the chart:
1. The small numbers across the top indicate time. For example;
12=noon, 18=6:00pm, 24=12:00 midnight).
2. Find the desired time and day. Follow the orange curved line down
to its intersection with the %RH or temperature curve and then follow
the orange horizontal line to read the corresponding %RH or
temperature.
A thermo humidograph has the graph in a circular chart instead of a
rectangular chart.
Now electronic instruments are also available to see the temperature
and humidity of a particular area.
15.3 Thermo hygrograph. 15.4 Thermo humidograph.
15.5 Electronic RH and temperature indicator.
Hygroscopic materials (General): Materials capable of absorbing or

giving up moisture.
Jet (auto) (hydro): A nozzle of a specific size that limits the flow of
water to a turbine or the flow of fuel in a carburetor.
Joule (measurement): A unit of energy or work equal to 1 W s-1 or 0.737
foot pounds.
Joule’s law (general) (heat): The law stating that (1) the rate at which
heat is produced by a steady current in any part of an electric circuit is
jointly proportional to the resistance and to the square of the current.
(2) The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature
regardless of volume and pressure.
Kilowatt hour (electrical) (measurement): A unit of power
consumption equal to the amount of power multiplied by the amount of time
the power is used. A 100-watt light bulb burning for 10 hours uses one
kilowatt-hour of power.
Langelier index: This index indicates the corrosivity of water the LSI
(Langelier saturation index). If its value is lower than -0.5, then water is
corrosive, if it’s higher than +0.5 then the water has a high scaling potential,
and it can form deposits in the piping.
Latent heat (heat): Heat that when added to or taken away from a
substance causes or accompanies a phase change for that substance. This
heat does not register on a thermometer, hence its name ‘latent’ or hidden.
It is measured in Btu.
Life-cycle costing (general) (measurement): A method for estimating
the comparative costs of alternative energy or other systems. Life-cycle
costing takes into consideration such long-term costs as energy
consumption, maintenance and repair.
Load (electrical) (measurement): The output of one or several electric
machines or transformers. Load also denotes the Power carried by a
particular circuit.
Mixing chamber: This is the location in which the outdoor air and the
return air are mixed in an air handling unit so that the supply air is relatively
uniform in temperature.
Mixing systems: The airflow pattern causes room air to mix thoroughly
with supply air so that contaminated air is diluted and removed. Air can be
supplied either at the ceiling or at the floor, and it is exhausted at the
ceiling.
Moisture content and humidity ratio (x): Moisture content and
humidity ratio is the amount of water vapour by weight, in the air. The
dry-basis moisture content of air is expressed as the weight of water vapour
per unit weight of dry air. Humidity ratio is indicated along the right-hand
axis in the psychrometric chart.
Mole fraction of water vapour in moist air: The mole fraction of
water vapour expresses the ratio of water molecules in the moist air to total
number of molecules of dry air and water vapour. The mole fraction of water
vapor in moist air can be expressed as xw = nw/(na + nw), where xw = mole
fraction of water vapor, nw = mole of water and na = mole of air.
Night sky radiation (solar): A method of cooling through radiant energy
exchange. Relatively warm surfaces are exposed directly to the colder night
sky to which they radiate the heat they collected during the day.
Ohm’s law (electrical): The law stating that for any circuit the electric
current is proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the
resistance.
Outdoor air dampers: These dampers (slats) open and close to control
the amount of outdoor air entering the building.
Outdoor air intake: This opening, controlled by dampers, allows
outdoor air into the building. It is covered with some type of screen to
prevent debris, small animals, or insects from entering the HVAC system.
Outdoor air intakes should be located high above the ground and away
from known pollution sources, like traffic routes, parking lots, garbage
areas, cooling towers, smoke stacks, etc.
Outdoor exhaust vent: The exhaust air exits from a building through
these vents/grilles. These vents should not be located near to the outdoor
air intakes to prevent the exhausted air from re-entering the building.
This vent often has a screen to prevent entry by small animals and
insects.
Particulates: These include dusts, fibres, smokes, fumes, mists,
Bioaerosols, and all airborne, respirable solid or liquid particles.
Bioaerosols are microbiological particles derived from viruses, fungi,
bacteria, algae, mites, protozoa, insects, plants, humans, etc. There are
many particulate sources: cleaning products, carpets and other surfaces,
construction and renovation debris, paper dust, insulation, equipment,
tobacco smoke, disinfectants, rust, animal droppings, human viruses,
bacteria growing in food, organisms growing in damp areas, pollen, etc.
Pascal’s law (general): The law stating that pressure applied to a
confined fluid at any point is transmitted throughout the fluid in all
directions. The pressure acts upon every part of the confining vessel at
right angles to its interior surfaces, acting equally upon equal areas.
pH (chemistry) (measurement): pH stands for potential hydrogen. It
denotes a measurement of the effective hydrogen ion concentration. On a
scale of 0 to 14: 7 represent neutrality, numbers <7 indicate
increasing acidity, numbers >7 indicate increasing alkalinity of a solution.
Phase (general): The states of existence for a substance, solid, liquid
or gas (vapour).
Polyurethane foam (construction): A very lightweight plastic or other
synthetic insulating material.
Pounds per square inch (measurement): A measurement of gas
pressure. It is commonly abbreviated as psi.
Relative humidity (RH): It is the ratio of the water vapour pressure
(pw), to the vapour pressure of saturated air at the same temperature (pws),
expressed in percentage. It is a relative measure. The moisture-holding
capacity of air increases dramatically with air temperature. In practice RH
indicates the moisture level of the air compared to the air’s moisture-
holding capacity. The air movement in the form of infiltration and
exhilaration from the building influences the relationship between
temperature and relative humidity.
Relative humidity and vapour pressure: Relative humidity can be
expressed as the ratio of the vapour pressure of the air to the saturation
vapour pressure of the air at the actual dry bulb temperature.
Relative humidity by partial pressure ϕ = p w/p ws 100%, where ϕ =
relative humidity (%), pw = vapour pressure (mbar) and pws = saturation
vapour pressure at the actual dry bulb temperature (mbar)
The Table 15.4 below gives the vapour saturation pressure at different
temperatures:
Table 15.4 Vapour saturation pressure at different temperatures
Temperature Saturation vapour Temperature Saturation vapour

pressure pressure
(° C) ( °F) (mbar, millibar, mb) ( ° C) ( °F) (mbar, millibar, mb)
-18 0 1.5 18 65 21
-15 5 1.9 21 70 25
-12 10 2.4 24 75 29.6
-9 15 3 27 80 35
-7 20 3.7 29 85 41
-4 25 4.6 32 90 48.1
-1 30 5.6 35 95 56.2
2 35 6.9 38 100 65.6
4 40 8.4 41 105 76.2
7 45 10.3 43 110 87.8
10 50 12.3 46 115 101.4
13 55 14.8 49 120 116.8
16 60 17.7 52 125 134.2
If the water vapour pressure in the air is 10.3 mbar, the vapour will
saturate when a surface reaches 45°F or 7°C.
Note: The atmospheric pressure of air is 1013 mbar (101.325 kPa, 760
mmHg). The maximum water vapour pressure—the saturation pressure—
is relatively small.
Relative humidity and vapour density: Relative humidity can also be
expressed as the ratio of the vapour density of the air to the saturation
vapour density at the actual dry bulb temperature. Relative humidity by
density: ϕ = ρw / ρws 100%, where ϕ = relative humidity (%), ρw = vapour
density (kg m-3) and ρws = vapour density at saturation at actual dry bulb
temperature (kg m-3 ).
A common unit for vapour density is g m-3. If the actual vapour density at
20°C is 10 g m-3 and the saturation vapour density at this temperature is 17.3 g
m-3, the relative humidity is ϕ = (10 g m-3)/(17.3 g m-3) 100% = 57.8%.
Relative humidity and vapour mass: Relative humidity can also be
expressed as the ratio at actual mass of water vapour in a given air volume
to the mass of water vapour required to saturate at this volume.
Relative humidity can be expressed as: ϕ = mw / mws 100%, where ϕ =
relative humidity (%), mw = mass of water vapour in the given air volume
(kg) and mws = mass of water vapour required to saturate at this volume (kg).
Relative humidity (%RH) is a ratio of how much water vapour is actually
in a volume of air to the quantity of H2O vapour that the air could hold at
a given temperature.
(g H2O vapour m -3 air)/(g H2O m-3 saturated air) × 100%
Percent relative humidity can also be measured as a ratio of the pressure
of water vapour in the air (e) to the pressure of water vapour in saturated
air (e s) at that same temperature, multiplied by 100%. RH = e/es × 100%.
These two methods result in the same value for RH.
Relation between specific and relative humidity of air: Humidity
can be expressed as an absolute, specific or a relative value. If we know
the relative humidity of the moist air and the water vapour density and
density of the air, the specific humidity can be expressed as: x = 0.622 ϕ
ρws / (ρ–ρws) 100%, where x = specific humidity of air vapour mixture
(g/kg), ϕ = relative humidity (%), ρws = density of water vapour (kg m-3)
and ρ = density of the moist or humid air (kg m-3)
Psychrometric tables give the relative humidity in percent considering
the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures. Take the temperature with both
dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers. Find the difference between the two
measurements, and then see where the numbers intersect on the chart below
to get the RH%.
Table 15.5 Psychrometric table °F
Temperature Temperature difference between dry-bulb and wet-bulb Thermometers

on a dry-bulb 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
thermometer Relative humidity %
40 68 60 52 45 37 29 22 15 7
50 74 67 61 55 49 43 38 32 27
60 78 73 68 63 58 53 48 43 39
70 81 77 72 68 64 59 55 51 48
80 83 79 75 72 68 64 61 57 54
90 85 81 78 74 71 68 65 61 58
Table 15.6 Psychrometric table °C
Temperature Temperature difference between dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers

on a dry-bulb 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 7.5
thermometer Relative humidity %
10 82 76 71 65 60 54 49 44 19
15 85 80 75 70 66 61 57 52 31
20 87 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 40
25 88 84 81 77 73 70 66 63 47
30 89 86 82 79 76 73 70 67 52
35 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 56
Resistance value (R-value) (construction) (measurement): A rating of

a substance’s thermal resistance to summer heat gain or winter heat loss.
It is used as a measure of insulation efficiency as it applies to a specific
thickness of a material or construction. It is the mean temperature difference
between two defined surfaces of material or construction that induces heat
flow through a unit area under steady conditions. In English units, it is
expressed as °F•ft²•h/Btu.
Return air: This is the air from the room that is re-circulated into the
mixing chamber by the HVAC system.
Return air damper: The return dampers control the amount of air that
will be re-circulated.
Rock bed cooling system (solar): A passive air-conditioning system
that circulates a building’s air through a bed of rocks that has cooled during
the night or early morning.
Saturation pressure of water vapour: The maximum saturation
pressure of the water vapour in moist air varies with the temperature of
the air vapour mixture and can be expressed as: pws = e(77.3450 + 0.0057 T - 7,235/
T)
/T 8.2, where pws = water vapor saturation pressure (Pa), e = the constant
2.718 and T = temperature of the moist air (K).
Seasonal energy efficiency rating (SEER): The efficiency of air
conditioners is often rated by the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER).
The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner.
The SEER rating is the Btu of cooling output during its normal annual
usage divided by the total electric energy input in Watt hours (Wh) during
the same period. SEER = Btu ÷ Wh.
For example, a 5000 Btu h-1 air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10,
operating for a total of 1000 h during an annual cooling season (i.e., 8 h
per day for 125 days) would provide an annual total cooling output of:
5000 Btu h-1 × 1000 h = 5,000,000 Btu, which, for a SEER of 10, would
be an annual electrical energy usage of 5,000,000 Btu ÷ 10 = 500,000 Wh
and that is equivalent to an average power usage during the cooling season
of 500,000 Wh ÷ 1000 h = 500 W.
SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly

used in thermodynamics and also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER).
The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of
external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole
range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the
geographical location of the SEER test). The COP is different in that it is
a unit-less parameter. Formulas for the approximate conversion between
SEER and EER or COP are given by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company
in California as:
1. SEER = EER ÷ 0.9
2. SEER = COP × 3.792
3. EER = COP × 3.413
From point (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43,
which means that 3.43 units of heat energy are pumped per unit of work
energy. Air conditioner sizes are often given as ‘tons’. Multiplying the
tons of cooling by 12,000 converts it to Btu h -1. A common misconception
is that the SEER rating system also applies to heating systems. However,
SEER ratings only apply to air conditioning.
Sensible heat (heat): That heat, which, when added or subtracted, results
only in a temperature change (as opposed to a chemical or other reaction).
In other words, is ‘sensed’ by human body and can be measured by a
thermometer. It is measured in Btu.
Skylight (solar): A roof opening that is covered with glazing and that
allows sunlight to enter a house or room.
Solar cooling (solar): A solar system used to lower the temperature in
a room or a device.
Solar space heater (solar): A solar heating system that heats fluid on
a black metal surface that is under glazing. The heated fluid may be
circulated during the day and stored at night.
Specific gravity (general): The ratio of the weight of a given volume
of a substance to an equal volume of air or water at a given temperature
and pressure. The specific gravity, which may be measured by a
Hydrometer, indicates the concentration of a substance in a solution.
Specific humidity (humidity ratio): Specific humidity is the ratio
between the actual mass of water vapour present in moist air to the mass
of the dry air. It is normally expressed in kilogram water vapour per
kilogram dry air (SI units). The specific humidity or humidity ratio can be
expressed as: x = mw/ma, where x = specific humidity or humidity ratio
(kgwater/kgair, lbwater/lbdry_air), mw = mass of water vapour (kg, lb) and ma =
mass of dry air (kg, lb).
The humidity ratio can also be expressed with the partial pressure of
water vapour and air: x = 0.62198 p w/(pa - pw), where pw = partial pressure
of water vapour in the moist air (Pa, psi), pa = atmospheric pressure of the
moist air (Pa, psi).
The maximum amount of water vapour in the air is achieved when pw =
pws the saturation pressure of water vapour at the actual temperature.
Formula (2) can be modified to:
xs = 0.62198 p ws/(pa - pws), where xs = specific humidity at saturation
(kgwater/kgair, lbwater/lbdry_air) and pws = saturation pressure of water vapour.
Since the water vapour pressure is small regarding to the atmospheric
pressure, the relation between the humidity ratio and the saturation pressure
is almost linear.
Maximum specific humidity at some common temperatures is given in
the Table 15.7 below.
Table 15.7 Maximum specific humidity
Temperature (°C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Saturation 609.9 870 1225 1701 2333 3130 4234
pressure of water
vapour (Pa)
Specific humidity 0.003767 0.005387 0.007612 0.01062 0.014659 0.019826 0.027125
(kg/kg)
The same can be explained in a graph, which shows dramatic increase

in water holding capacity with increase in temperature.
Specific volume of humid air (v): Specific volume represents the space
occupied by a unit weight of dry air (ft 3 lb-1), and is equal to 1/(air density).
Specific volume is shown along the bottom axis of the psychrometric chart
with constant-volume lines slanting upward to the left.
Specific volume of moist air: Specific volume is defined as the total
volume of humid air per mass unit of dry air. When discussing specific
volume of moist air it is necessary to differentiate between specific volume
of moist air per mass unit of dry air, or specific volume of moist air per
mass unit of dry air and water vapour.
Specific volume of moist air per mass unit of dry air: Specific volume
is defined as the total volume of dry air and water vapour mixture per kg of
dry air (SI units). The specific volume can be expressed as: vda = V/ma (1),
where vda = specific volume of moist air per mass unit of dry air (m3 kg-1),
V = total volume of moist air (m3) and ma = mass of dry air (kg).
When dry air and water vapour with the same temperature occupies the
same volume, the equation for an ideal gas can be applied: pa V = ma Ra T
(2), where pa = partial pressure air (Pa), Ra = 286.9 - the individual gas
constant air (J/kg.K), T = temperature of the moist air (K).
Combining (1) and (2): vda = Ra T/pa (3)
The partial pressure of air can be expressed as: pa = p - pw (3b), where p =
pressure in the humid air (Pa), pw = partial pressure water vapour (Pa).
Combining (3) and (2b): v da = Ra T / (p – pw) (3c)
The ideal gas law can also be applied for the water vapour:
p w V = mw R w T (4)
where pw = partial pressure water vapour (Pa), Rw = 455 - the individual
gas constant water vapour (J/kg.K), T = temperature of the moist air (K).
The mass of water vapour can be expressed with the humidity ratio and
the mass of air:
mw = x m a (5)
where x = specific humidity or humidity ratio (kg/kg)
Combining (4) and (5): pw V = x m a Rw T (6)
Combining (6) with (1): vda = x Rw T/pw (7)
Transforming (7): pw = x Rw T/vda (8)
Combining (8) with (3c): vda = Ra T/(p - (x Rw T/vda)) (9)
Equation (9) can be transformed to express the specific volume of moist
air per unit mass of dry air as:
v da = (1 + x R w/Ra) Ra T/p (10)
Specific volume of moist air per unit mass of dry air and water
vapour: Specific volume is defined as the total volume of dry air and
water vapour mixture per kilogram of dry air and water vapour which can
be expressed as: v = V/ma + mw (11), where v = specific volume of moist
air per mass unit of dry air and water vapour (m3 kg-1).
Combing with eq. (5): v = V/ma (1 + x) (12)
Combining with (1): v = vda/(1 + x) (13)
The specific volume of moist air per unit mass of dry air and water
vapour can be expressed as:
v = (Ra T/p) [(1 + x Rw/Ra)/ (1 + x)] (14)
The specific volume derived as per (14) can be used to express the
density of moist air.
Supply air: This air is a mixture of outdoor air and return air (re-
circulated air) that is treated, conditioned, and supplied to the room by the
HVAC system.
Supply diffusers and return grilles: A mixing or displacement system
is created by the type and location of supply diffusers. There are different
types.
Linear slot diffusers: These long narrow outlets can be either single
or multiple- slot diffusers. They can be placed high on the walls, in the
perimeter of the ceiling, in the interior of the ceiling, on sills, or on the
floor.
Square diffusers: These outlets are generally located in the ceiling and
have angled slats, which direct the airflow.
Personalised/Local diffusers: These systems are designed with one
air supply diffuser for each occupant. The diffusers may be in the floor or
at the desktop (task/ambient) or mounted on the ceiling. Task/ambient
supply diffusers may be freestanding desktop supplies, outlets at the back
of the desk, or diffusers built into the modular furniture. The occupant is
able to adjust the airflow direction and airflow rate to influence temperature
and draught.
Return grilles: These grilles are generally mounted on the walls near
the ceiling or in the ceiling. They are slots that can be enclosed with a
variety of coverings: parabolic louvers, vanes, etc.
Supply and return fans: These fans move air, and their speed may be
used to control the airflow rate.
Temperature (heat) (measurement): The temperature of an object is
described as that which determines the sensation of warmth or coldness
felt from contact with it.
Thermal conductance (heat) (measurement): The amount of heat that
will pass through a given amount of material in a given amount of time,

and with a unit temperature difference maintained between the surfaces of
the material under uniform and steady conditions.
Thermal conduction (heat): Heat transfer by direct contact from one
substance to another of a lower temperature.
Thermometer: A thermometer is an instrument that measures the
temperature of a system in a quantitative way.
15.6 A thermometer.
The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above figure

contains a bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary.
Its rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass scale.
Variable air volume or constant volume: Constant volume (CV) or
variable air volume (VAV) systems are methods of controlling the
temperature, humidity, and flow rate into a room. A CV system supplies a
constant rate of airflow to a space at reasonably high velocity and removes
an equal amount of the air from the space (return air). The temperature
and humidity in the space are changed by varying the temperature and
humidity of the supply air. The high air velocity used in these systems
creates a risk of draught for occupants who are positioned poorly in relation
to the supply diffusers. A VAV system differs in that both the supply airflow
and return airflow rates vary according to the thermal demands in the space.
The minimum airflow is set based on the expected number of occupants in
the space and then varied to create the desired room temperature and
humidity. The supply air is always slightly cooler than the room air.
Vapour pressure: Humidity is a general term used to describe the
quantity of water vapour in a volume of air. The following terms are used
to define and describe the quantity of water vapour in the air.
Vapour pressure (e): This pressure is exerted by vapour molecules on
the liquid and surroundings in a closed container. When referring to the
atmosphere, vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the water vapour
in the air. (Review Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure). Vapour pressure is
usually measured in units of millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) or millibars
of mercury (mb Hg). At saturation vapour pressure (es), the number of
molecules changing from the liquid or solid phase to the vapour phase is
the same as the number changing from the vapour phase to the liquid or
solid phase. The vapour and liquid or solid are in equilibrium; i.e., as
many molecules leave the vapour phase as enter the vapour. The saturation
vapour pressure of water is the pressure exerted by water vapour when it
is in equilibrium with a surface of water or ice at the same temperature as
the vapour. It varies directly with temperature. As warm air can hold more
water vapour than cool air saturation vapour pressure will be higher at
high temperatures.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): These are chemicals that include
hydrogen and carbon and have boiling points between 50 and 250°C. There
are many VOCs, including alcohols, aldehydes, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
hydrocarbons, etc. VOCs can be emitted by carpets, particleboard,
furnishings, office equipment fabrics, cleaning fluids, adhesives, perfumes,
soaps, cosmetics, plastics, dyes, storage areas, and many other sources.
Table15.8 Common sources of VOC
Chemical Source
Acetone Paint, coatings, finishers, pain removers,

thinner, caulking and wet processing
Aliphatic hydrocarbons (octane, Paint adhesive, gasoline, combustion
decane, undecane, hexane, sources, liquid process photocopier, carpet,
isodecane, mixtures, etc.) linoleum, caulking compound
Aromatic hydrocarbons (toulene, Combustion sources, paint, adhesive,
xylenes, ethylbenzane, benzane) gasoline, linoleum, wall coating
Chlorinated solvents (dichloro- Upholstry and carpet cleaner or protector,
methane or methylene chloride, paint, paint removes, lacquers, solvents,
trichloroethane) correction fluid, dry cleaned clothes
n-Butyl acetate Acoustic ceiling tile, linoleum, caulking
compound
Dichlorobenzene Carpet, moth crystals, air fresheners
4-Phenylcyclohexane (4-PC) Carpet, paint
Terpenes (Limonene, α-pinene) Deodorisers, cleaning agents, polishes,
fabrics, fabric softeners, cigarettes
Formaldehyde Unsealed plywood or particle board, urea
formaldehyde foam insulation, fabrics, glues,
carpets, furnishings, carbonless copy paper
In open-plan offices, VOCs are often emitted from furnishings and

building materials through a process called off-gassing. Off-gassing occurs
when a material slowly releases airborne gaseous contaminants contained
within. This process happens over time, but most strongly during the first
year of installation, and in hot, humid conditions. The smell of a new
building or the ‘new car’ smell is the result of off-gassing. Off- gassing
has to be considered in the ventilation strategy in a new building, after
renovations, or when new furnishings are added to a space.
The organic gases found in offices are generally carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and ozone. Carbon dioxide is emitted by occupants; carbon

monoxide is created during incomplete combustion processes and is emitted
by cigarettes, motor vehicles, gas furnaces, etc; in the office, ozone is
generally emitted by some photocopiers and printers (high-voltage
equipment), and by defective lighting equipment. However, most indoor
ozone levels are created by outdoor ozone sources.
Ventilation rate: Ventilation rate is the amount of outdoor air that is
supplied to a room with the return air. This rate supplies good IAQ,
assuming that the air is properly treated within the HVAC system and that
contaminant levels in the space are not unusually high. It is very important
that the proper ventilation rate be provided to a space. The ventilation rate
is typically specified in Litres per second per person and is calculated
based on many factors such as room volume, number of occupants, types
of equipment, contaminant levels, etc.
Ventilation strategies: Different situations in a building require
different types of ventilation. Regular mode ventilation is for the day-to-
day functioning of an occupied building. To save energy, HVAC systems
in some buildings may be operated at a reduced ventilation rate or shut
down during unoccupied hours. The ventilation strategy may also change
when activities generate high levels of contaminants, such as during
renovations. This may involve increasing the ventilation rate, changing
the exhaust system, etc.
Water-Air heat exchanger (heat): A heat exchanger in which fluids
may either be heated or cooled by water or air.
Water bed (solar): Shallow plastic bags that are filled with water and
placed on roofs of homes or buildings. In cooler climates, the bags collect
solar energy during the day, and radiate heat to the building during the
day and radiate this heat to the sky at night, thus cooling the building. In
warmer climates, panels are placed over the bags during the day and
removed at night so the bags can draw off heat from the building and keep
it cool.
Water jacket (auto) (prod): A casing or compartment containing water
that is placed around all or part of a device to keep it cool, as around the
cylinders or cylinder head of an internal combustion engine.
Wet-bulb temperature (Twb): Wet bulb temperature is associated with
the moisture content of the air, which is measured with a thermometer that
has the wet bulb. They are always lower than dry bulb temperatures but
will be identical with 100% relative humidity in the air (the air is at the
saturation line). On the chart, the wet-bulb lines slope a little upward to
the left, and the temperature is read at the saturation line.
Zones: A building or a space is often divided into zones to meet different
heating, cooling, or ventilation requirements throughout a building. A zone
can have different supply air rates and air temperature, thermostat set
points, control strategies, etc. For example, a perimeter zone may require
heating or cooling due the outdoor air temperature and the solar gain,
while a core inner zone may require cooling year-round due to internal
heat gains produced by lights, machines, office equipment and occupants.
Zone heat (heat): A central heating system in which different temperatures
may be maintained in two or more of the areas being heated.
Appendix 1
Some of the commercial humidification plants
Although the principles of various systems are explained, understanding

shall be difficult with out seeing the plants operation and working with
them. Here an attempt is made to introduce different models working and
the claims made by the manufacturers about their equipment. It is
practically impossible to cover all the humidification units available on
earth.
1. Samarth air washers

Axial flow fans have air flow capacity varying from 3000 to 90000 CFM
and static pressure up to 60 mm WG. They are high efficiency fans with
aerofoil shape, and die cast aluminium adjustable angle blades, suitable for
direct drive or ‘V’ belt drive with standard electric motor. Air washer plants
are supplied with different types of eliminators like ‘W’ shape, ‘C’ shape,
Luwa type, 5 bend 6 pass PVC eliminators with corrosion resistance frame
and fixing items in different size and shape to suit any plant with excellent
water retention and minimum pressure drop. Air washer can have single,
Tube axial flow fan Eliminators
253
Spray bank Nozzles
double or triple bank spray system to suit required saturation efficiency.

Nozzles are of non-clog type. High efficiency clamp with PVC/
Polycarbonate body and SS dome and clamps. Stand pipes of PVC/GI
with GI main header pipes and butterfly valves with pot strainer. All air
washers piping are in PVC materials, which are non-corrosive which have
long life. Samarth manufactures Luwa type PVC clamp on nozzles with
SS clamp, all type brass nozzles (Atomizer) suitable in air washer plant.
PVC/AL/GL/Polycarbonate material with louvers type or 1 in. diameter
holes are offered for varied requirement and performance. Corrosion
resistant frame and service door is provided as per requirement.
Axial flow fans have air flow capacity varying from 3000 to 90000
CFM and static pressure up to 60 mm WG. They are high efficiency fans
with aerofoil shape, and die cast aluminium adjustable angle blades,
suitable for direct drive or ‘V’ belt drive with standard electric motor.
Air washer plants are supplied with different types of eliminators like
‘W’ shape, ‘C’ shape, Luwa type, 5 bend 6 pass PVC eliminators with
corrosion resistance frame and fixing items in different size and shape
to suit any plant with excellent water retention and minimum pressure
drop. Air washer can have single, double or triple bank spray system to
suit required saturation efficiency. Nozzles are of non-clog type. High
efficiency clamp with PVC/Polycarbonate body and SS dome and clamps.
Stand pipes of PVC/GI with GI main header pipes and butterfly valves
with pot strainer. All air washers piping are in PVC materials, which are
non-corrosive which have long life. Samarth manufactures Luwa type
PVC clamp on nozzles with SS clamp, all type brass nozzles (Atomizer)
suitable in air washer plant. PVC/AL/GL/Polycarbonate material with
louvers type or 1 in. diameter holes are offered for varied requirement
and performance. Corrosion resistant frame and service door is provided
as per requirement
Some of the commercial humidification plants 255
2. Coolair humidifiers
Coolair supply and fit an extensive range of off-the-shelf and made to
measure humidifiers and dehumidifiers suitable for places like pools,
pharmaceutical production lines, paper mills and pulp stores to suit different
out side conditions.
Coolair humidifier Refrigeration
Refrigeration is designed by understanding requirements of cold-room

and industry’s close-control environment.
Air cooling unit

Custom built package air washer units of
capacities from 3000 CFM to 40000 CFM
are available in various models. The design
incorporates important components like air
filter section and air washer system
including of water pump and water
elimination arrangements available in both
model i.e. spray bank type and cell type.
The unit requires no civil works and
provides facility of being installed within
very short time.
3. Chang Shu Fan Co Ltd (Rtex Marketing

Consultancy Service)
Chang Shu Fan Co. Ltd, a high technology enterprise located in Jiang Su
province is specialized in textile fan. The company has been focusing on
exploring and developing air treating machinery and has produced and
supplied energy saving humidification and dust filter, including turnkey
project of systems. The products cover up to 300 kinds of axial fan,
centrifugal fan, exhausting fan, mist spring fan, textile supplementary fan,
and energy-saving and dust removing unit.
Company has made innovations and applied in the textile industry widely
and made achievements like ASFU Energy Saving Humidification System
jointly developed with Dong Hua University (former China Textile
University), Design Institute of Textile Ministry, Beijing No. 2 Cotton
Mill. This system is praised as a vital innovative in the fields of textile
humidification and considered to be a replacement of older ones due to
30% energy saving annually as well as reaching international standards.
4. Compressed air humidification – by AMCO

The compressed air humidification by AMCO is claimed to control plant
humidity to within ±2% RH. Self-cleaning atomizers eliminate clogging,
Gravity-fed system prevents leaking or dripping. The unit uses tap water
and compressed air and produces ‘fog like’ mist which is easily absorbed
in atmosphere, easy to install, economical to operate with low maintenance
costs.
Operations: The humidity control cabinet, in conjunction with the
remote mounted humidity sensor, continually monitors plant humidity.
The system is automatically activated when the humidity falls below
targeted levels. The controller activates the air control unit, allowing 28
psi of air into the system. This mixes with gravity-fed water in the
atomizer chamber and produces a very fine mist which is absorbed in

the plant’s atmosphere. When desired RH levels are reached, the system
is automatically shut off.
Engineering and installation: All systems are individually engineered
and designed by considering the varied needs. A survey of heat loads,
square and cubic footage, the manufacturing process, etc., determines the
customer’s individual humidification needs. The system is designed and
manufactured to accurately meet the determined requirements. Field trained
technicians will install the systems and familiarize the customers’ personnel
with the various aspects and components. Installation supervisors are
available to provide assistance for customer-installed system. Field service
technicians and in-house staff continue the after-sale support.
System Components:
1. Automatic drain valve: On each cycling of the system allows any
build-up of water or oil in the air line to be automatically vented into
a plant’s atmosphere or drain.
2. Air connection valve: Rugged, solid brass air connector connects
atomizer to clamp tee on air line. Permits atomizer shut-off while
system is in operation.
3. Water connection: 8 × 1/4 in. long plastic tube assembly connects
atomizer to the clamp tee on water line.
4. Silver mist atomizer: Self-cleaning, no clog atomizer is made of
rugged brass construction for long maintenance-free operation.
Produces fine mist spray – quickly absorbed in plant’s atmosphere.
5. Clamp tee: Heavy-duty zinc-plated steel construction with 1/4 in.
brass connection and neoprene washer used to secure air and water
connections to galvanize or PVC pipe.
6. Double ring pipe hanger and stay clamp: Double ring pipe hanger
used to hang system from ceiling, keeping water and air lines in proper
distance from each other. Stay clamp adds rigidity and stability to
system.
7. Air control unit: Controls air to system has rugged construction and
quick air relief for fast and accurate response. Solenoid receives
electrical signal from control cabinet. Complete with air valve,
regulator, filter, gauge, and solenoid valve.
8. Fiberglass water supply tank: Automatically controls water to the
proper level.
9. Humidity controller: Digital controller senses humidity to within
±2%. Automatically controls air control valve based upon humidity
set point.
10. Humidity sensor: Rugged, yet extremely accurate. Humidistat senses
humidity in the dirtiest environments.
5. Large space humidifiers by AMCO
Covers up to 6000 sq ft for most

applications
● 12 V, 24 V, 120 V, 230 V
electrical system
● 24, 36, 72 lbs of water per
hour models available
● Pressure regulator valve
included 1/2 in. water supply
line to tank, 1/2 in. overflow
drain
It is recommended for small areas. The unit is self-contained with self-

cleaning atomizers, humidistat, fibre-glass water tank and atomizers which
are easy to install. The atomizers are of self-cleaning type and will not
clog. It may be suspended from ceiling by use of 4 lengths of 1/4 in. or 3/
8 in. rod, placed on a flat surface or mounted on a column.
Air supply: Minimum 1/4 in. air supply line connected to the 1/4 in. air
regulator under the tank. The air is then reduced to 30 psi by adjusting the
regulator knob on the front of the panel. The atomizers are designed to
operate with 30 psi of air and 14.4 CFM of air.
Water supply: A 1/2 in. pipe coupling is mounted on the right side of
the water tank for the water supply line.
Drain: A 1/2 in. pipe coupling is mounted in the bottom of the tank for
connection of a drain pipe. This is an overflow safety drain.
Electrical supply: 5 in. supply cord is provided with the unit.
Operation: Set humidistat to desired setting. When the unit is on, the
indicator light under the humidistat is on. The water level is properly
maintained by a float valve in the tank.
Dimensions: 20.5 wide × 15 high × 10.5 in. deep
6. Automatic humidifier units F810-2 and F830-4 -

(2 or 4 spray heads) by Paasche Airbrush
Company
These units provide an efficient method of maintaining uniform moisture
in industries like paper, fabric, tobacco, etc., at the same time helping to
reduce the possibility of fire hazards. The water is finely atomized and
quickly absorbed into the room atmosphere. Each automatic spray atomizer
requires 1/2 CFM at 50 psi air pressure for the finest uniform atomization.
Paasche humidifier units present an inexpensive means of reducing the

danger of spontaneous combustion. Proper humidification limits dust
diffusion and grounds static electricity.
Humidifier uses:
● Printing and bindery plants: They are of great value for keeping paper
quality at its best to assure perfect registration when printing.
● Tobacco industries: They require uniform RH control when aging
and curing.
● Textile mills, clothing factories, and warehouses: Fabrics tend to
gradually deteriorate in dry atmosphere. Goods retain their original
luster and sheen when RH is maintained. Dangers from lint and dust
accumulations are greatly minimized with proper humidity.
● Carton manufacturers: Winter conditions can dry out materials used
to make boxes, causing tears and improper folding during
manufacture or damage while in use.
● Dry and dusty factories: Factories which are dry and dusty due to
insufficient humidity are constantly subject to the dangers of
spontaneous combustion. One method of reducing this hazard is with
a uniform, accurate and dependable automatic humidifier unit.
Humidifier units:
● F810-2 automatic
humidifier (2 spray
heads): Capacity of
30000 cu ft, maximum
output of 30 gallons
(227 l) in 24 hours.
● F830-4 automatic
humidifier (4 spray
heads): Capacity of
60000 cu. ft,
maximum output of 60
gallons (454 l) in 24
hours.
7. PAASCHE F800- series automatic humidifier

The F800-series automatic humidifier units automatically dispense gallons
of finely atomized water, providing controlled humidity when the dial on
the humidistat is adjusted to the humidity required. The unit will
automatically start and stop at the humidity setting. When properly

connected to the water and electric systems of the building and to an air
source that supplies constant air pressure (minimum 50 psi) to the F800-
series unit, these units will deliver finely atomized water for extended
periods.
Humidifier installation: Mount humidifier unit in convenient location
using SM-42 Mounting Bracket. Connect air supply to HF-1/4 in. air inlet
valve. Connect water supply to HF-1/4 in. water inlet valve. Open air inlet
valve and water supply valve under air supply valve check for leaks. Tighten
connections if required. Turn humidistat control dial on item #1
counterclockwise to off position before plugging cord into grounded outlet.
Turn U-3178 fluid adjusting knob on back of spray guns to closed position
by turning clockwise – do not over tighten. Set ‘0’ on reference dial to
line up with ‘0’ on fluid adjusting knob and then open adjusting knob to
number 30. Set regulator item #7, located behind gauge #2, at 50 psi
minimum air pressure and 60 psi maximum. Plug units three wire electrical
plug into properly grounded receptacle (115 V, 60 cycles). Turn humidistat
control-dial to ‘on’ position and desired humidity. A ‘click’ sound is heard
when activated. Water flow rate may be adjusted using the U-3178 Fluid
Adjusting Knob on back of each spray gun. Mist should always be absorbed
into the surrounding air without settling out onto the floor under the unit.
Do not aim directly at ceiling, wall, merchandise or machinery. Do not
allow water vapour to condense or leaks to drip onto floor or unit, if this
condition exists, check for water leaks from connections or spray gun
nozzles. In case of insufficient atomization correct by increasing air
pressure and/or decreasing fluid flow. Lower the humidistat setting if RH
is high. Open drain valve on R-75AR Regulator/Condenser item #7
periodically to drain airline moisture buildup.
Guard face and eyes from escaping air and moisture. Do not use
humidifier to create a fog condition as which water may collect on the
unit and produce an electrical hazard.
8. Keystone – Climaduct semi-central units

This is unique self contained unit for complete industrial air conditioning.
It comprises of axial flow fan, one or more centrifugal atomizers, air mixing
chamber with interconnected fresh air and return air dampers to take fresh
air as well as to re circulate departmental air. A set of large area ‘V’ shaped
air filters and fabricated distribution duct with eliminator-type grills. If
required steam heating coils can also be mounted on R.A. damper of the
mixing chambers. Different models with various fan capacities are 12000
CFM, 15000 CFM, 25000 CFM are available.
10. Air washers by Luwa

Luwa’s air washer unit with high speed drop eliminator is suitable for
humidification and operation in connection with refrigeration. All build
in parts are made of non-corrosive materials.
10.1 UNILUWA® - compact air handling unit

The air treatment unit UNILUWA® is the ideal solution where fast installation
is a must and only limited space is available. The unit is supplied as pre
fabricated and hence there is no time loss for the construction and
installation. It is characterized by a self-supporting double panel
construction.
Equipped with the latest TexFog technology, no water tank is required.

Time-consuming, expensive construction is superfluous. Uniluwa is a
stand-alone unit and has been designed for small air volumes and high
specific heat loads. Pre-assembled modules allow for short installation
times. It is manufactured on a self-supporting base with double panel
construction case. It is configured according to VDI 6022 hygienic
requirements and provides air volumes from 20000 to 80000 m³ h-1.
10.2 Luwair P - insulated centralized plant

Luwair P is a modern centralized plant system which has been designed
for medium to large air volumes and high specific heat loads. Designed
specifically to suit individual applications almost any shape variant can
be achieved independent of building structure.
Panels are available in galvanized and stainless steel in various finishes
and colours for internal or external installation. Short installation times
can be achieved through the use of an assembly-friendly supporting system,
and configured according to VDI 6022 hygienic requirements.
10.3 Texpac — centralized plant

The plant is manufactured from 2 mm galvanized steel with a smooth
internal finish. Suitable for medium to large air volumes and specifically
to suit individual applications. Short installation times can be achieved
and systems are re-usable; they can be dismantled and reassembled in a
new location and configured according to VDI 6022 hygienic requirements.
The Luwa Texpac centralized plant system has been designed for return
air streams conveying high quantities of waste at high pressures.
All plants are available in multiple configurations incorporating air
filtration either automatic or static filter banks, heating function either
electric, gas, steam or LPHW, cooling either mechanical or evaporative,
humidification with either high pressure systems or air washers and
controls, either digital or pneumatic.
10.4 Luwa TexFog

A high pressure cold water humidification system developed for installation
within air conditioning plants. A compact pumping station pumps water
via a two stage filter to special nozzles where it nebulizes under high
pressure in aerosol mist and is mixed with air by means of turbulence
elements. Due to this nebulization and intensive air mixing, the greater
part of the water evaporates. A droplet eliminator at the humidifier outlet
ensures that no water is carried over and subsequent ductwork remains
dry. TexFog is a single pass system and sprays cold water at high pressure
directly from the incoming mains supply. The system has integrated filters
and UV disinfection can be added upon request. The system does not store
water and incorporates a control function which purges the system to
prevent stagnation.
Advantages claimed are high degree of humidification and evaporation,

hygienically safe (VDI 6022), no water tank or storage, small amounts of
spray water used, minimum pump power requirement and maintenance
and service friendly. The air washer can be applied either in centralized
air handling systems or, as a stand-alone unit, in a central station of builders
work. The housing stands clear of the ground on a base frame and consists
of stainless steel panels. A pump draws the water directly from the tank.
In case of water filtration or of chilled water operation, an additional
reservoir is used. The air washer is also available, without the stainless
steel housing, for installation within existing central stations.
10.5 Air washer Luwa

The main features are constant and optimum humidification for dew point
operation, variable humidification of the supply air for partial saturation,
possibility of cooling, humidification and dehumidification with chilled
water, housing or other elements which are in contact with humidity are
made of plastics or of stainless steel, energy efficient centrifugal pumps
and atomizer nozzle of plastics. Advantages claimed are modular
construction, corrosion resistant design, high efficiency with small pressure
loss, adjustable humidification performance, high air throughput, low
maintenance design and atomizer nozzle resistant to clogging.
11. Air Washer-Pawc by Abbot Air Systems

Air handling units with large range of fans, designed and manufactured by
Abbott Air Systems have following features:
Air capacity: 6000 to 60000 m3 h-1 in
single unit. Equipped for central air
cooling system installation. Connection
to GI ducts for even distribution of cool
and clean air over a wide area. One or
multiple blowers to increase air capacity.
Modular construction of high air capacity
air washers for easy relocation and reuse.
Efficient reduction of humidity through
evaporation of water by cellulose based
corrugated paper pads with large surface
areas in small units.
12. Air cleaning equipment by Manvi Textile Air

Engineers
Manvi Textile Air Engineers produce various types of air washer plants
that are simple to operate and cost effective. Designed to handle all types
of spinning operations in a cotton textile mill. The spares are readily
available.
13. Air washer by Excel Airtechnique

Mist eliminators: They are available in different
shapes in extruded PVC and offer a low
pressure drop. They precipitate the suspended
water particles and allow only a homogeneous
mixture of air with moisture. Aluminium
fixtures with PVC notch plates in modular
form for quick removal and replacement are
provided.
Spray sets: It is an assembly (bank) of two
horizontal header pipes on which number of
vertical branch pipes/riser pipes are fitted. The spray nozzles are fitted
on to the riser pipes. The spray header is connected to the delivery of the
pump. The pipes are evenly distributed in turn to distribute nozzles to
create a uniform mist.
Air diffusers: They distribute the
humidified air in the department at various
locations. They are available in PVC powder
coated aluminium or stainless steel
construction.
Air grilles: Air grilles also distribute the
humidified air at various locations. They are
of single deflection and double deflection
type. They are available in GI/SS and extruded
aluminium construction.
Floor grilles: Floor grilles are the exhaust
grilles fitted at different locations over the
trench. The spent air along with floating fibre
passes through this grille into the trench.
Ducting: They carry the humidified air
from the plant and a common masonry plenum
and run generally above the false ceiling. They
are fabricated at site with 20/22/24 G GI sheets and MS angles. They are
generally supported from the roof purlins. The diffusers are fitted on the
ducting.
Insulation: In order to prevent the heat transfer from the attic space
(generally between 50–60°C) to the duct carrying the humidified air
(around 25–28°C) the ducts are insulated with mineral wool. Insulation is
also provided over the false ceiling /under the roof to arrest the roof heat
entering into the department which in turn reduces the humidification plant
capacity.
14. Roots air washers

The CELdek air washer’s surface contact material is specifically engineered
for direct evaporative cooling and humidification. Manufactured from
special cellulose paper impregnated with insoluble rot prevention
compounds, it contains stiffening saturates and wetting agents. CELdek is
made of corrugated sheets assembled in self supporting pads, which have
a patented angle arrangement to direct water flow towards the air inlet
side, where most of the evaporation occurs. It is also designed to flush
away atmospheric dust. The pad has a contact surface between air and
water of 440 m2/m3. The water distribution is specially designed for the
Rootsdek air cooling machines. The water distribution cover is made of
Fibre glass reinforced plastic for high temperature conditions and anti-
corrosive properties. Metal parts are of 16 gauge galvanized sheet steel.
The water tank is made of 3mm Fibre glass reinforced plastic which is
steel reinforced
Salient features of roots air washers:
● Fill-type system can attain very high saturation efficiencies as against
conventional system.
● Compact pre-fabricated design to take less space, consuming only
40% of conventional systems.
● No masonry work required and can be located inside or outside a
building.
● Power consumption negligible as compared
to spray machine due to low pump power
and low pressure drop.
● Maintenance negligible as no nozzles are
involved and hence trouble free service.
● Noise level only 65 dB near machines as
there are no high pressure nozzles.
● Quick installation as machine is factory
fabricated and tested and has flexibility in
regard to re-location at a later date.
● Custom-built rootsdek machines are available
in stainless steel and/on FRP casings.
15. Mushroom industrial humidifiers for textile

mills
This can be used in textile, greenhouse, mushroom, garden, and so on.
The humidity can reach 30–98.5%. It is automatic and can work 24 hours
without manual work.
Technical parameter:
(a) Size of main engine: 880 ×
1400 × 580 cm
(b) weight of main engine: 118 kg
(c) specified 0–3 kW (Automatic)
(d) Power: 220–440 V; 50–60 Hz
(e) Feeding water quality: tap
water, purified water or similar
water
(f) Tank volume: 0.3 m3
Model No sys 07-A
The industrial plunger pump transfers the Grade-3 purified water, which
is pressed to 7 MPa, to the spray nozzle through the high-pressure cooler
pipes. The high-pressure water twists out from the specialized spray holes.
After atomization, the 3–15 µm drops are sprayed into the air and to lower
the air temperature. The spraying of the pressed water forms plenty of
anion, making people comfortable. The features of high pressure spray
humidifier are good atomization effect and low energy costs. Good
atomizing effect is obtained as the spray nozzle produces 5 billion atomized
particles of 3–15 µm diameter that is easily transformed into a gas, so
textile machines won’t be affected. Low energy loss is achieved by direct
use of water power, without supplementary equipment like air compressor.
Energy loss for atomizing 1 kg water is 0.005 kW average with the 0–3
kW hydraulic power automatic frequency converter. Energy loss is only
1% as much of traditional ionic pump 10% as that of centrifugal and gas-
water mixed pumps. The cost is greatly reduced.
The composition of the high-pressure spray humidifiers

The composition of the converter power: Adopt high-pressure ceramic
pump combined with sanlin converter techniques. Automatic adjustment
of the rotational speed and steady piping pressure make the humidifier
run steadily and save energy.
Living monitor: According to the demands for different RH in the area
and process the monitors measure and display on-line and control the
humidifier in different areas with the humidness sensor and controller.
The system put the water-supply protection and backwater control into
one system, which are monitored by computer online.
High-pressure transporter: System adopts brass pipes with pressure-
proof 15 MPa above, acid-proof, alkaline-proof, and good temperature
resistance, keeps high hydrostatic pressure in the pipes and do not easily
form dirty.
Waterway disposer: The system adopts large water tank. The in-out
opens of the tank are equipped with large-size filters to stop the blocks in
the spray nozzle. Temperature can be lowered in the tank by adding ice,
which reduces cost in the cost in summer.
Spray splasher: Different super thin spray nozzles in different apertures
and materials are accommodated in a set according to the requirement. A
set of the system is equipped by 20–320 nozzles made of stainless steal Ti
nozzle or ceramal supper-hard nozzle.
16. Neptronic SKE — resistive steam humidifier

A compact unit controls humidity to within ±1% RH and delivers up to 80
kg of steam per hour from a single unit. Made with 98% metal construction,
dramatically reducing the volume of spare parts required. This does not
require replacement boiling cylinders. Due to its self-cleaning elements
requires low maintenance. It also incorporates a scale inhibitor system to
reduce the effects of lime-scale build-up and an AFEC system to prolong
humidifier life. The unit’s patented AFEC ® (Anti-Foaming Energy
Conservation) system protects the heating elements from burning out,
enabling them to last much longer.
The system combines three safety features:
1. Internal electronic water level sensor: Regular float switches can fail
to give realistic water level readings due to the action of boiling and
foam formation. If too little water is added to the tank, the level
switch floats on the foam instead of on the water, thus resulting in
the elements burning out in the foam. Therefore an internal solid
state sensor is provided which gives realistic readings.
2. Internal and external temperature sensors: Other units only have
external temperature sensors to indicate when the elements are
overheating. The addition of an internal sensor gives added protection

from element burn-out.
3. Internal foam sensor: The internal foam sensor conserves energy by
responding to foaming only when necessary rather than having preset,
regular drain cycles to avoid foam damage.
These features combine to provide a system that maximise the life of

the elements.
Super-dry steam pipes as standard
The Neptronic SKE steam humidifier come with super-dry steam pipes
as standard, which provide an evaporation distance 40% less than standard
pipe work. Each pipe has tiny internal tubes that take the steam from the
centre of the pipe, where it is at its hottest and driest, guaranteeing
condensation-free, dry steam delivery.
Main features are 5–80 kgs steam output, self-cleaning super alloy, scale
management system reduces scale build-up, close control within ±1% RH
with RO water, fully CE compliant and WRAS approved, micro-processor
control with LCD and fault diagnostic linked to BMS, 0–100% modulation
as standard, duct pressures 1250–10000 Pa (with duct kit), rust-proof
aluminium casing with baked enamel finish, stainless steel evaporation
chamber with lifetime guarantee and wide, lockable hinged doors.
Neptronic SKE Ultra process version is useful with ultra-pure water (2–
18 megohms) and in extreme conditions like off-shore oil rigs and
laboratories. This version of the Neptronic SKE incorporates a stainless
steel enclosure low smoke zero halogen wiring, no plastic components,
special voltages and double nickel plated elements.
Neptronic SKE dimensions, output and power
Dimensions and weights SKE05M SKE10M, SKE20M, SKE50M, SKE60M

SKE30M and and SKE80M
SKE40M
Dimensions A (mm) / (in.) 597 / 23.5 724 / 28.5 794 / 31.25

Dimensions B (mm) / (in.) 470 / 18.5 533 / 21 813 / 32
Dimensions C (mm) / (in.) 292 / 11.5 318 / 12.5 318 / 12.5
Weight (kgs) / (lbs) 20 / 44 30 / 66 50 / 110
Room distribution unit RDU - 1 RDU - 2 RDU - 3
Dimensions D+A (mm) / (in.) 737 / 29 890 / 35 890 / 35
Output and power consumption
Model Power Capacity Current (A) No. of

(kW) (kg h-1) 230 V/ 400 V/ outlets
D
1 ph 3ph
SKE05 3.7 5 16 – 1
SKE10 7.5 10 – 11 1
A
SKE20 15 20 – 22 1
SKE30 22 30 – 33 2
SKE40 30 40 – 44 2
SKE50 36 50 – 53 2
SKE60 44 60 – 64 2
B C
SKE80 60 80 – 87 3
17. SAIVER A1 air handling unit

SAIVER series A1 air handling units incorporate the finely tuned, value
engineered cost effective design aided by computer coupled with human
ingenuity. SAIVER team is committed to produce one of the finest double
skinned air handling units range in the World to meet the requirements of
most demanding cost and quality conscious customer.
The Frame
SAIVER unique frame design has inherent strength stability. The modular
framework utilizes a corrosion resistant, extruded marine, aluminium alloy,
patented twin box section with True Thermal Break Construction. The
entire module is subsequently mounted on a heavy sectional aluminium
alloy or galvanized steel channel base.
Infill Panels Standard 30 mm or 60 mm thick infill panels

are of double skinned construction from pressure
injected polyurethane foam insulation with ‘K’
value of 0.02 W m-1 °C and density 40 kg m-3,
sandwiched between galvanized steel with
optional pre plasticized or pre-painted finish, pre-
aluman and stainless steel sheet is also available.
Filter, coils, air washers and fan sections

requiring regular maintenance and inspection,
have hinged or fully removable access panels.
These are fitted to the frame with easy release,
half-turn nylon handles and cam locks.
Handles can be operated internally for

additional safe Hinges are of heavy duty, load-
bearing design with stainless steel pivot. Other
panels can be detached, if necessary for access
by removing screws with simple hand tools.
Plenum completed with dampers is

specifically designed to minimize the
stratification of entering air streams for
maximum efficiency. Dampers are assembled
within a rigid extruded aluminium frame, flanged
and pre-drilled for easy fitting to connecting
ductwork. Dampers are opposed blade type and
available in both flat and double skinned aerofoil
sections. Blades are formed from extruded
aluminium with edge interlocks. Gaskets are
Inlet Section / Mixing Box
provided to minimize leakage of air.
Coils are computer selected to obtain

optimum psychometric efficiency with low air
and water pressure drops. Chilled water, dire
expansion, hot water and steam coils are
constructed from copper tubes, mechanically
bonded to aluminium fins as standard. Other fin
Coil Section materials are available including vinyl coated
aluminium, copper, tinned copper and galvanized
steel.
For corrosive flow media, stainless steel tubes and fins are available as
an option. The coil assembly completed with carbon steel, copper or
stainless steel headers is located within the coil section on aluminium
support for easy withdrawal from either side.
Onsite assembly: The lightweight construction material and modular
nature of the units make them suitable for lifting and maneuvering in
difficult or confined locations. Modules can be easily aligned on site and
locked together by sturdy stainless steel bolts, located in factory pre-drilled
assembly holes. Continuous gaskets between each section ensure an airtight
seal and thermal insulated. All fixings and gaskets are concealed within
the unit.
Filter sections: Fully sealed filter sections are designed for easy
withdrawal and renewal of filter cells and, are constructed to house any
type of primary or secondary filters of different media with varies
efficiencies. In areas of particular importance, such as hospitals and clean
rooms, absolute filters can be provided to ensure safe human and machine
environments.
Fan and motor section
SAIVER manufactured fans from the heart of all systems. Forward

curved or backward curved non-overloading aerofoil centrifugal fans are
available with various outlet configurations. All fan wheels and pulleys
are individually tested and precision balanced, statically and dynamically,
and keyed to the shaft.
Motors, mounted on slide rails with provision for easy belt tensioning,
drive the fan with heavy duty V-belts. Combination spring and rubber
vibration isolators are selected to match the power/weight ration of each
fan for maximum isolation.
lamp switch buckhead inspection outdoor weather proof canopy

lamp window
Intelligent package
control pad teamperature sensor smoke detector
control pad teamperature sensor
Intelligent motor control center

SAIVER Intelligent Package Air Handler equips with various operative
and control devices to optimize unit running conditions. Motor control
panel (MCP module) and direct digital controller (DDC module) can be
integrated into our SAIVER intelligent air handler. All-in-one modular
control centre results a fast and simple installation as well as a flexible
and reliable operations. A unit mounted feature means space and cost
saving.
control valve water pressure damper actuator air static micro switch emergency stop
sensor sensor
MCP modules comprise of inverter completed with EMC filters to

comply with EN regulations, auto-bypass starting in case of inverter failure
and marshalling box for other services interfacing/connection; e.g., Fire
Services/BMS/M&E.
DDC modules comprise of DDC controller for local/remote controlling/
monitoring, chilled water valve completed with electronic control actuator,
water/air differential pressure sensor, water/air temperature sensor, micro
switch adjacent to access door, damper actuator at supply section, probe-
type smoke detector at return air section, carbon dioxide sensor at return
air section and filter differential pressure sensor.
Super quiet operation

Through continuous research and development,
SAIVER is capable to design and manufacture
acoustic AHU with much lower noise level. For
VAV application, with the combination of plug fan
and SAIVER acoustic panel, we are able to meet
NC39 at 9.03 m s-1 and 1000 Pa without supply
silencer.
IAQ package
Heat recovery unit: To improve indoor air quality (IAQ), one of the best
solutions is to increase the fresh air quantity which is expensive. A rotary
heat recovery unit allows energy exchange between supply and exhaust
air streams. This high efficient heat exchanger can reduce the annual energy
consumption in AHU by as much as 90% (Latent and Sensible Heat
Recovery). Alternatively, heat plate is also one of the best heat recovery
devices which totally eliminate the potential problem of cross
contamination.
Ionizer: Ionizer destroys airborne and living micro organisms by

electrolysis process. The generator produces both positive and negative
ions as they would occur under natural condition and the microbial control
is performed by electrolysis (corona discharge) inside the bi-polar unit.
Single cell organisms are shocked/killed by the polar difference as

negatively charged organisms collide with a positively charged particle.
UV sterilizing light: An UV system intends to ‘capture and kill’ airborne

pathogens, improve IAQ and worker safety. The germicidal UV lamps in
our SAIVER air handler disinfect the air by irradiation and provide full
coverage of the target surfaces. Installation sights include coils, drain pans,
filters, exhaust systems, or anywhere mold, bacteria and pathogens can
breed.
Desiccant package: SAIVER provide all-in-one dehumidification

control system (able to reach below 10% relative humidity). Desiccant
dehumidification ensures a hygienic and healthy environment by preventing
the formation of moulds and fungi inside air stream.
Heat pipes: Besides the heat recovery application, heat pipes are used in
dehumidification also. Heat pipes can increase an air handler moisture
removal capability by 50–100%, reduce the chiller load by free pre-cooling
but also provide free re-heating to lower the relative humidity of supply air.
As most today’s primary indoor air quality concerns are humidity related,
the health benefits of heat pipes are noticeable. Run-around-coil is also an
alternative system to improve dehumidification load on HVAC application.
Computer selection program: Saiver use their own developed software

program to make optimum equipment selection and submit quotation
together with full technical information and drawings. Any variables such
as local climatic conditions, unusual psychometric and physical parameters,
are taken into account automatically. Clients are presented with computer
generated, certified drawings for approval prior to equipment
manufacturing.
Testing and inspection: Saiver an IS09001 Quality System Certified
company works for consistent high standard maintained by a strict quality
control program monitoring at all the manufacturing stages. Also variable
speed dynamic fan test, sampling digital pressure test, sound performance
test and coil performance test are conducted as needed.
18. Wet-pad humidifiers for industrial use – by

Ningbo Yinzhou Chenwu Humidifying
Equipment Factory
Features
(a) Enhances humidity and lowers temperature
(b) Components: special pads, water circulation system, fan, buoy, water
supply system
(c) Full range of quality air pads (standard and customer-designed
systems)
(d) Large airflow, operates smoothly, low noise, saves energy, easy
cleaning
(e) Low invest and installation cost, high efficiency
Specifications
● Humidification amount: 6–8 kg h -1 .
Humidification range: 750 m3
● Voltage: (a) 380V, 50Hz, (b) 220V,
50Hz, (c) Customization available
● Fan power: 110 W, Pump power: 85 W
● Weight: 40 kg, Dimensions: 820 × 820
× 1400 mm
● Ideally used for telecommunications
rooms, computer rooms, electronic
product rooms, and precision instrument
rooms (doors).
● Suitable for textiles and other industrial
and commercial industries.
● Also used in libraries and museums
Conditions for use

● Environment temperature: 0–45oC,
● Water: city process water
● Humidity controller is needed for automatic humidification
19. GaSteam gas fired steam humidifier by Carel USA

Carel USA supplies industrial and commercial humidifiers and controls
for the HVAC industry, which includes steam, air/water atomizing, high
pressure water atomizing, electrode, electric element, gas fired and direct
steam humidifiers for printing, static control, museums, libraries, hospitals
and many other applications. The GaSteam humidifier accomplished by
the unique combination of modulating gas valve and modulating blower
is tested at an astounding 89% efficiency by ETL without condensing,
which is so efficient that category IV venting is required.
Type: Gas Fired Steam Humidifier (Isothermic)

Water: All source including potable, R/O and DI
Capacity: 100, 200 and 400 lbs h-1
Modulation: 25–100%
Control type: On/Off, modulating, proportional
DDC, serial Tracking to set point: ±2%
Efficiency: 89%
Steam distribution: Duct, AHU, room, remote/room
Patented anti-foaming Small enough to fit in air handler vestibule
system (AFS)
Multiple communication capabilities (ModBus,

BacNet, WebGate, etc.), integrated conductivity
reading with control algorithms, triple external
electronic water level float, aluminium cast teflon-
coated heat exchanger for ease of maintenance,
fully modulating gas valve (field convertible to
LP), full top and bottom access for maintenance
and humivisor remote monitoring capability
20. Armstrong International GFH Gas-Fired

HumidiClean Humidifier
Gas fired humidifier reduces operating costs through significant energy
savings, compared to electric humidifiers. The GFH Gas-Fired HumidiClean
humidifier from Armstrong with innovative Ionic Bed technology reduces
operating costs by eliminating the labour required by a surface skimmer.
The GFH uses natural gas or propane for economical operation.
21. EvapoMist humidifier by Field Controls Home

Comfort Products
The EvapoMist™ humidifier is the solution to problems caused by dry
winter air. They are easy to install and are durable and reliable with minimal
maintenance.
Installation instructions: Do not use the EvapoMist ™ in a down-flow

furnace (the type where the heated air output is from the bottom of the
furnace). Select a location for your EvapoMist™ humidifier so that it will
derive the most benefit from the normal air flow of the heating system.
Care should be taken to install the unit in the area of highest air velocity
and away from any turns in the heating system where turbulence can reduce
evaporation. In installations where more than one humidifier is used, do
not place them in a position where one obstructs the air flow to the other.
Do not turn handle before or while installing the ‘saddle tapping valve’.
Be sure the piercing lance does not protrude beyond the rubber gasket,
failure to do this may result in damage to the piercing needle. Do not
install saddle valve on any water pipe which is downstream from a water
softener. Assemble the ‘saddle tapping valve’ on copper tube with enclosed
bolt and nuts. Tighten bolts evenly and firmly. Brackets should be parallel.
Make the water connection to the outlet of the ‘saddle tapping valve’ and
to the inlet of the EvapoMist™ humidifier. Use an insert, compression
sleeve, and compression nut at both locations. Turn the handle clockwise
until you feel it is firmly seated. You have now pierced the copper tube
and the valve is closed. Turn on the water and open the saddle valve to
check the entire system for leaks. Some tightening may be required but
care should be taken not to over tighten small fittings. When the humidifier
installation is satisfactorily completed, install the inspection cover. If the
humidifier is installed on a slanting surface the inspection cover must be
bent to the angle which the pan makes with the mounting bracket.
22. Air-O-Swiss humidifiers

Ultrasonic technology uses high-frequency vibrations to turn water into a
micro-fine mist where it is blown into the room to evaporate immediately.
Includes the patented Ionic Silver Stick® that forms aqueous silver ions to
prevent and control microbial growth for up to 1 year of continuous use.
The ultrasonic system, with its high-frequency vibrations, destroys most
bacteria and viruses. It includes a large, replaceable demineralization
cartridge with silver treated housing to keep the surface of the cartridge
germ and bacteria free. No white dust is produced. The powerful
demineralization cartridge removes minerals and lime scale from the water.
Variable low to high mist output control and rotating outlet for directing
the mist. Built-in Hygrostat allows setting the desired humidity level.
Humidifier switches off automatically when the selected humidity level is
reached. It is easy to maintain. Just checking for deposit build up every
fortnight depending on use is sufficient. A simple solution of white vinegar
and water will remove the deposits. A bristle brush is used to clean around
the vibrating membrane. It can be operated in continuous mode for not
stop humidification. Non-wear Titanium ultrasonic membrane gives long
life. Demineralization cartridge can be replaced or refilled with resin for
more economical operating costs. Water reservoir empty indicator light
and detachable transparent water tank are other features.
All models of Air-O-Swiss have pre-heating function heats water to
176°F before entering the nebuliser chamber. This kills micro-organisms
and allows the mist to exit the humidifier at a comfortable 104°F, preventing
a drop in room temperature. All models are known for ultra quiet operation
of less than 25 dB. All Air-O-Swiss equipments are UL listed.
22.1 Air-O- 22.2 Air-O- 22.3 Air-O-

Swiss 7131 Swiss 7133 Swiss 7135
Power cord length (in.) 79 79 79
Power consumption 45 W 45 W, 140 W 45 W, 140 W
pre-heating pre-heating
mode mode
Water capacity (gallons) 1.4 2 2
Output (gallons per day) Up to 2.5 Up to 3.5 Up to 3.5
Weight empty (lbs) 8.8 7.7 7.7
Dimensions 15.7 × 7.3 × 11.4 15.7 × 8.7 × 13.8 15.7 × 8.7 × 13.8
(L × W × H) (in.)
Recommended room Up to 540 Up to 600 Up to 600
area (sq ft)
Optional items — Cool or warm —
humidification,
detachable trans-
parent water tank
In model 7135 Electronic digital display and controls has several unique
functions:
● Timer function for 1–9 h of operation or continuous mode.

● Cleaning indicator provides an illuminated light to remind when to
check the cleanliness of the unit.
● Automatic mode provides the ideal air humidity relative to the room
temperature by regulating the output based on the selected humidity
level.
● Sleep mode sets the RH level to 60% and the operating time to 8
hours and turns on the pre-heating function. The output quantity is
regulated based on the difference between the actual and selected
humidity values.
22.1 Air-O-Swiss U7142 Ultrasonic humidifier

● Electronic digital display and controls has several unique functions:
■ Timer function for 1–9 h of operation or continuous mode.

■ Cleaning indicator provides an illuminated light to remind you
when to check the cleanliness of the unit.
■ Automatic mode provides the ideal air humidity relative to the
room temperature by regulating the output based on the selected
humidity level.
● Sleep Mode sets the humidity level to 60% and the operating time to
8 hours and turns on the pre-heating function. The output quantity is
also regulated based on the difference between the actual and selected
humidity values.
● Optional cool or warm humidification.

● Recommended for large spaces up to 860
sq ft.
● Power cord length: 79 in.
● Power consumption: 45 W, 140 W pre-
heating mode.
● Water capacity: 2.0 gallons.
● Output: up to 3.5 gallons per day.
● Weight empty: 8.8 lbs.
● Dimensions: 9.8l × 11.0 × 17.3 in.
Ionic Silver Stick: Maintains water purity without dangerous chemical

additives. Patented technology uses the anti-bacterial effect of silver
to eliminate over 650 bacteria and viruses. The anti-microbial protection
works constantly when the device is in contact with water. Silver ions
are released from the surface of the Ionic Stick to reach the required
concentration in water and automatically maintain this safe
concentration level. As the surface ions are released from the device,
they are replaced by the internal concentration providing effectiveness

for 1 year.
No maintenance is required. Place the Ionic Stick
in the humidifier base and replace once in a year.
Unlike other anti-microbial treatment methods, there
is no hassle with additives needed every time the
water reservoir is replaced, which can be 1 to 2
times a day. Safe enough to use with drinking water
to maintain purity. Releases only the quantity of
silver ions needed to kill micro-organisms and meet
standards of clean water maintenance. Economical
operation as no expensive products is needed to
buy continuously.
Air-O-Swiss Demineralization Cartridge: Minerals present in all water

such as calcium and magnesium can be released into the air by a humidifier
with the water vapour. These minerals precipitate out of the water vapour
as it evaporates and can leave a white dust on room furnishings. Minerals
in water also have an impact on humidifier performance, cleaning and
maintenance. Humidifier units that produce steam will lose their
effectiveness as the heating elements get covered with scale build-up. These
units develop heavy scaling over the heating element due to water minerals
and require frequent and difficult cleaning.
Some humidifier manufacturers use mineral absorption pads that sit
in the water base, which only have a limited capacity and effectiveness
to capture minerals and require frequent changing to work. The Air-O-
Swiss Demineralization Cartridge is a powerful device that uses a large
amount of granular adsorption media to capture and retain minerals from
water.
All water travelling from the water storage

tank into the humidifier base goes through the
Demineralization Cartridge, so the effectiveness
of capturing minerals is maximized. The
recommended cartridge replacement/refilling
period is 2–3 months. Depending on the quality
of your water and mineral content, the cartridge
may last longer or less.
Replacement of the Air-O-Swiss Demineralization Cartridge
Remove the water tank cap. Unscrew the cartridge

The cartridge is attached to from the tank cap and
the water tank cap. dispose.
Unpack the new cartridge from Screw the new cartridge to

the sealed bag. the water tank cap and
replace cap on water tank.
Refilling the Air-O-Swiss Demineralization Cartridge
Remove the water tank cap. Unscrew the cartridge from

The cartridge is attached to the tank cap.
the water tank cap.
Open the cartridge by unscrewing Dispose of the contents of the

cartridge. the top.
Open the refill bag of new resin. Pour the new resin into the
Note: granules must not enter cartridge. For easier filling, slip
centre area of cartridge. Pack bag over cartridge and wrap an
centre with cloth, paper, or cotton elastic band around the bag
prior to filling. and top edge of cartridge.
Flip cartridge and bag over so new Screw the refilled cartridge to
granules flow into cartridge. the water tank cap and replace
Remove any packing material in cap on water tank.
centre of cartridge. Screw top lid on.
Features: It removes minerals from water, helps prevent scale build-up

inside the humidifier, prevents ‘White Dust’ release from humidifier by
removing lime scale and water minerals. Two Options are available;
complete self-contained replacement cartridge or mineral adsorption
granule refill kits. Replacement is easy, unscrew the top lid, dispose of the
used granules, pour in new replacement granules and screw on top. They
are available as an economical refill 3 pack. It is an odourless resin. Replace
it in every 2–3 months.
22.2 Air-O-Swiss AOS1355 cool mist air washer

The AOS 1355 air washer washes and humidifies the air without the use
of filters. Special humidifier discs turn constantly through water. This
method removes many impurities (e.g., dust, pollen and particle-bound
odours) from the air; such as in nature, where the rain washes the air clean.
The air washer works on the self-regulating evaporation principle and thus
it requires no additional control systems to ensure optimal air humidity.
The AOS 1355 is equipped with a special anti-bacterial protection system.
By drawing the air through water, the air washer naturally cleanses the
air of smallest air-borne particles, just like outside air is washed by rain.
The air is humidified by special humidifying disks which render traditional
replacement filters unnecessary. The self-regulating principle of
evaporation guarantees an optimal level of humidity without additional
control systems.
Features: Washes and humidifies the air in rooms up to 600 sq ft, purifies
the air as naturally as rain, captures particles down to 0.8 microns, removes
impurities such as dust, pollen and particle-bound odours from the air.
Twenty two humidifying disks spin to wash the air and provide constant
humidity. Self-regulating humidification, no separate control systems are
necessary. Simultaneously cleans the air of impurities and humidifies. Two

ultra quiet modes are available with transparent and removable water tank
with handle. Easy handling and cleaning, disks are dishwasher safe up to
131°F. No replacement filters required. Patented Ionic Silver Stick
Microbial Inhibitor prohibits bacteria growth, ensures safe and healthy
air.
Specifications: Daily output:
Power: 20 W Size: 12.6"D x 16.7"H x 14.9"W
Humidification method: cool mist Weight: 13 lbs.
Area Covered: 600 sq. ft.
Tank Capacity: 1.9 gal.
Speeds: 2
Dimensions and Weight:
23. GS industrial humidifier and atomizer

Introduction: The ultrasonic humidifier equipment features high output in
water mist/fog, available selection from 6 to 26 lbs h-1, high efficiency in
spraying fine mist/fog droplet 1–10 µm with average 5 micron; it is silent,
has low trouble rate, a relative humidity 99% can be achieved. It is equipped
with standard water inlet, water outlet cock and overflow outlet, stainless
steel body with painting treatment on surface. The ultrasonic humidifier
can be classified into three control ways as following:
1. Manual control system. According to different situations, customers
can use single equipment or use multiple equipments working
independently. Multiple equipments can be controlled either
independently or collectively.
2. Digital cycle work control system. The automatic cycle control period
is between one minute and ninety-nine hours. Working time and time
period can be set up according to user’s need. Once it is set up, no
worker is needed with its continual operation.
3. Digital humidity automatic control system. The humidity control
range is among 1–100% with error rate of ±5%. Similarly, it is
automatically controlled. Outlet pipe can be reasonably arranged
according to user ’s requirement. Pipe connection should be
airtight.
Humidifier series: GS series industrial humidifiers have four types of
industrial humidifier based on different fog/mist output and three types
based on different control ways and there are two connection ways, single
PVC pipe outlet connection (available for 6 lbs h -1 and 12 lbs h-1) and
double PVC pipe connection (available for 18 lbs h -1 and 26 lbs h -1), see
picture.
Double PVC pipe outlet Humidifier front control panel
Technical specifications:
Humidifier Mist/fog Wind Control Power Unit size (in.) –

model (lbs h-1) (m3 h-1) (VAC/W) weight (lbs)
GS-10 6 170 Manual 110/300 21 × 19 × 10 – 40
GS-20 13 170 Manual 110/600 21 × 19 × 10 – 48
GS-30 20 350 Manual 110/900 25 × 20 × 13 – 66
GS-40 26 350 Manual 110/1200 25 × 20 × 13 – 84
GS-10S 6 170 Schedule 110/300 21 × 19 × 10 – 40
GS-20S 13 170 Schedule 110/600 21 × 19 × 10 – 48
GS-30S 20 350 Schedule 110/900 25 × 20 × 13 – 66
GS-40S 26 350 Schedule 110/1200 25 × 20 × 13 – 84
GS-10Z 6 170 Humidity 110/300 21 × 19 × 10 – 40
GS-20Z 13 170 Humidity 110/600 21 × 19 × 10 – 48
GS-30Z 20 350 Humidity 110/900 25 × 20 × 13 – 66
GS-40Z 26 350 Humidity 110/1200 25 × 20 × 13 – 84
Environmental temperature 1–40°C Water pressure 14–55 lbs in. - 2

Environmental humidity Less than Water 1–30°C
80% RH temperature
Water quality Tap water Surrounding No high temperature
environment radiation source,
no high magnetic
interference
KJS-3.0, KJS-6.0 and KJS-15.0 industrial ultrasonic humidifier
Features:
Fully automatic humidity control with auto self-
cleaning function. Different from the GS series,
KJS ultrasonic humidifier will clean itself when
it is turned on or its continuous running time
reaching every 4 h, stale water will be flushed
out and 85% of mineral deposits on surface of
the ultrasonic oscillator will be cleaned and
drained out from the water outlet, this keeps
unit remaining in effective performance.
Easy in installation and operation. Just
connecting a water inlet hose to the inlet
connector and a water outlet hose to the outlet
connector and placing humidity sensor to the
location where humidity is needed and setting
the required humidity is required. Then turn on
the green power, humidifier starts cleaning itself
and spraying fine mist within minutes through
the sprayer mouth or PVC pipe. High efficiency
in spraying fine mist/fog (droplet size 1–10µm
with average 5 micron), silent, low trouble rate
and easy in maintenance, a relative humidity
99% can be achieved. KJS series is very good
for using to increase humidity in room,
warehouse, work shop, greenhouse, hydroponics
application or using with air conditioning.
KJS Series technical specifications:
Humidifier model KJS-3.0 kg h-1 KJS-6.0 kg h-1 KJS-15.0 kg h-1

Voltage (V) AC 110 AC 110 AC 110
Power (W) Less than 380 Less than 750 Less than 1800
Humidified Space (m 3) 200 390 976
Mist(fog) generated 3 kg (6 lbs) h-1 6 kg (13 lbs) h -1 15 kg (30 lbs) h-1
Water volume atomized 0.75 1.5 3.75
(gallon/hour)
Control Automatic Automatic Automatic
humidity humidity humidity
Daily maintenance Self auto- Self auto- Self auto-
cleaning cleaning cleaning
Unit weight (lbs) 77 98 200
Unit dimension (in.) 14 × 20 × 27 14 × 24 × 27 18 × 33 × 37
KJS series industrial ultrasonic humidifier is equipped with humidity

sensor, which can be set within 30–100% (RH). The machine automatically
switches on to humidify when humidity is less than 3% from set parameter.
Automatic control precision of the sensor is ±3% RH. Control panel
indicator light will display ‘low level water, add water automatically,
humidify, auto-clean’. It tells its working state at the current time. KJS
humidifier will automatically switch the power off when water is at low
level. It uses regular tap water and purified water is preferred. We should
not use water which contains acid and alkali substance, or sewage.
Installing:
1. Put humidifier on ground or workbench steadily, install 110V/50Hz
single-phase three-wire power socket on the wall near the machine.
2. Installing sprayer pipe (if necessary): Please refer to figure to install.
(a) KJS-3.0 kg h-1 humidifier, air pipe (9) (11), tee (10), elbow (12)
uses 3 in. (outside diameter) PVC water outlet pipe; but KJS-6.0 kg
h-1 and KJS-15.0 kg h -1 use 4.25 in. (outside diameter) water outlet
pipe. (b) PVC pipe needs relative immobility. (c) To prevent that
water drop down, PVC pipe (11) ought to tilt up slightly.
3. Connect humidity sensor (8) to socket of humidity sensor (4 pins) on
right side of the humidifier. Fix humidity sensor on the wall of
humidifying room, and position and altitude of humidity sensor is
determined by customers.
4. You may connect water inlet hose (16) (3/4 in. prepared by customer)
directly to tap water pipe, but if necessary, add water filter (15)
(optional prepared by customer) between water inlet hose and the

tap water pipe to get cleaner water for the machine. 5. Connect hose
(18) (1 in. prepared by customer) to ‘water outlet’ of humidifier, and
the other end connects to your water outlet pipe (17). Make sure the
level of water outlet pipe must be less than level of ‘discharging
water mouth’. Note: Avoid installing ‘water inlet’ or ‘water outlet’
mistakenly.
Usage and maintenance:

(a) After power on, insert power plug of the humidifier into power socket,
switch the power button on, indicator on the power button will be
lighted. If water tank has no water or water level is low, ‘low level
water’ red lamp will be lighted, and ‘auto-adding water’ green lamp
also will be lighted. The machine can not spray fog; if water level in
water tank is high level, ‘low level water’ red lamp will black out,
but if ‘auto-adding water’ green lamp and ‘spraying fog’ blue lamp
is lighted, the machine can spray fog. If water level in water tank
reaches the highest setting level, and ‘auto-adding water’ green lamp
is blacked out, ‘spraying fog’ blue lamp will be lighted, the machine
can spray fog. The above states indicate that the humidifier runs
normally.
(b) The machine has ‘auto-cleaning’ function. The humidifier will clean
itself when it is switched on or its continuous running time reaches
4 hours, at same time, ‘auto-cleaning’ red lamp will be lighted.
Cleaning time is about 4–6 minutes, and then sewage water will
discharge from ‘water outlet’, but these operations do not influence
on running of the humidifier. The
machine also has ‘manual cleaning’
function. You can press ‘cleaning
button’ down, and sewage water will
discharge from ‘water outlet’. Note:
After discharging sewage, you must
restore ‘cleaning button’ to ‘auto’
position; otherwise, the water will
discharge from the machine
continuously.
(c) The humidifier can control humidity in ‘manual’; put ‘humidity
control’ switch on ‘manual’ position, and then the machine will spray
fog beyond control of humidity sensor.
Humidity display and setting: the machine is equipped with AI humidity
controller according to humidity demand of humidifying space, which has
two lines digital display, upper line displays current room humidity, lower
line displays setting humidity.
Setting humidity: Press button to increase humidity and button to
decrease humidity. To avoid influence of electricity failures, after finishing
humidity setting, press ‘memory’ button, which saves the set parameter.
Maintenance: According to standard demand, it would be better to use
a water filter to get purified water for the machine. It is suggested to run
the machine once a week at least 30 minutes even if you don’t use it, so it
can be cleaned and flush out stale water, otherwise water mineral deposit
could stay hard and become difficult to be cleaned out, and that could
cause the misting discs not vibrating.
Service: The life of ultrasonic oscillator is about 5000 hours. As the
machine runs discontinuously according to humidity of workplace,
generally, it is needed to replace a new ultrasonic oscillator after 3 years.
The replacement oscillator disc (item K001) and humidifier part can be
purchased on line at fogger, mist maker webpage. General troubleshooting
table is provided with each Unit to the user.
Note:
1. Sprayer mouth can be connected directly to air condition pipe by
connecting air pipe to air returned end of air condition, in front of
exhaust fan and in back of surface cooling. Owing to high air pressure
in the pipe humidifier will run in high negative pressure condition.
Under the condition, regulate wind inlet on the side of humidifier to

avoid that water beads are sucked in air pipe of air-condition.
2. Adding water from sprayer mouth is not feasible as manual control
is not possible while adding water from sprayer mouth. If water level
is too high, it will submerge air pipe and air cannot circulate and fog
cannot spray out.
3. When the machine is spraying fog the cover of the humidifier should
not be taken out as it results in water beads sprinkle into the machine
and cause humidifier failure.
24. Textile air conditioning: Air washer system by

DraftAir
The systems are designed and developed considering all heat sources in
the department and required RH can be maintained constant at desired
level with only air washers system. However to control inside temperature
during hot and humid weather, chilled water spray is required and during
winter, heating is recommended. Supply and return air system is designed
considering concentration of heat load in the department to maintain
uniform conditions in the department and to avoid any hot zones.
Spray chamber: Corrosion free, low resistance, heavy duty rigid PVC
piping, short polycarbonate spray nozzles with S.S. orifice, and clamps
for quick fixing, specially arranged to ensure fine spray spectrum for
highest efficiency.
Louvers: Horizontal inlet distribution PVC louvers which evenly guide

entry of air in the washer and also prevents back splashing.
Dampers: Heavy gauge galvanized steel casing with airfoil aluminium

extruded opposed blades Suitable for Automatic operation
Eliminators: 5 bend 6 pass PVC eliminators completely remove
entrained free water particles and provide highest saturation efficiency.
Rotary water filter: Heavy gauge brass perforated drum fixed on hit-
dipped galvanized structure. It is more efficient cleaning device than
stationery screen where all water is returned to a central location. Water is
filtered continuously. Drum is periodically flushed to remove accumulated
waster matter into the GI tray.
Rotary air filter: Automatic rotary air filter is provided for continuous
cleaning of the return/exhaust air. A variety of filter media is selected for
varying applications and fitted on galvanized perforated rotating drum of
ample free area to catch maximum fluff and dust from the air. Rotating
action keeps the media clean and maintains uniform air flow. Fluff and
dust deposited on the filter is sucked off by sliding nozzles connected to
a powerful suction blower, which then is collected in the nylon bags. Clean
air is passed on for either re circulation or exhaust.
Ventilation and air pressurization system: The system is designed to maintain
the desired purity, temperature and over-pressure in the department. The supply
air quantities are estimated based on heat load, air leakages and ambient air
quality. Ventilation systems can be with or without air washer. The exhaust
system can be either mechanical or through gravity release dampers.
Size: 200–2500 mm impeller diameter

Capacity: 1000 to 400000 CMH.
Pressure: Up to 150 mm WG
Low noise, high efficiency, non-overloading impeller
with backward inclined blades. Impellers statically
and dynamically balanced as per ISO 1940. Casing
fabricated from heavy gauge steel with heavy duty
pedestals. Fan orientation is provided to suit the site
requirement. Centrifugal ventilation fans
Beside axial flow and centrifugal ventilation fans, Draft-Air offers special
purpose centrifugal fans for high temperature, fume/vapour exhaust, dust
handling, material, conveying, induced draft and forced draft applications.
Axial flow fans

Size: 450–1980 mm sweep; Capacity: 2000–200000 CMH; Pressure: Up
to 65 mm WG.
Hosing fabricated from heavy gauge steel sheet. Impeller is having high
efficiency aero-foil section adjustable pitch blades. Impellers are statically
and dynamically balanced as per ISO 1940. Inlet cone and outlet diffuser
are provided to further improve the efficiency.
25. Large air handler – by United Metal Products

textile facility
80000 CFM @ 3.13 tsp
FC DWDI supply fan (2) 40 hp
Inlet hood w/bird screen
OA dampers
CELdek media
Gas control vestibule
Hinged access louver
Operating weight: 16600 lbs
26. Air conditioning projects – standard and

specialized by Coolair (NI) Ltd
Coolair specializes in the air conditioning, ranges from the simplest to the
most complex projects. They can be tailor made to the requirement of the
user. Factors in which one could benefit from air conditioning are high
density of occupants/customers, etc, high lighting levels, heat emissions
from computers/displays/refrigeration equipment and other apparatus and
solar gain from large areas of glass.
Where the room/area has a suspended ceiling or

other ceiling void, ceiling cassette systems
represent an effective and unobtrusive method of
controlling temperature.
Where no ceiling void is available (or for smaller
rooms where cassette systems may be considered
to be too large) the choice of equipment will
normally be a high level wall mounted system.
Dependant on the number of rooms in the area
to be treated and their location, multiple outdoor
units or a single multi split or VRV outdoor unit
may be installed.
27. J. S. humidifiers
27.1 HumiPac – ceiling mounted humidifier

The HumiPac ceiling mounted humidifier with its patented design discretely
maintains the relative humidity needed to create a refreshing and safe
working environment. It can be used whether one already has an air
conditioning or ventilating system or not. Hidden above the suspended
ceiling, or mounted directly from the ceiling, quiet, energy efficient (only
300 W) and effective the JS HumiPac is the answer to office and workroom
humidification. There are two versions available. The JS HumiPac CM20T
is used above suspended ceilings and circulates air from suitable ceiling
mounted intake and outlet grilles and flexible ducting. The CM20PT is
for areas where no false ceiling is installed and has direct air intake and
outlet louvers. HumiPac uses BS316 stainless steel, silver ion water
sterilization and flush and drain cycles to maintain absolute hygiene.
Features suspended ceilings and circulates air from suitable ceiling
mounted intake and outlet grilles and flexible ducting.
Sizing data: One CM20 will provide humidification for 400 sq m
assuming outside conditions: -1°C @ 100% RH, inside conditions: 21°C
@ 45% RH, 0.5 air changes per hour and ceiling height of 2.7 m. To
maintain a pleasant relative humidity of 45%, the moisture addition
requirements in winter is approximately 3.2 grams of water per m 3 of room
volume.
Features:
● WRAS approved for direct mains water connection
● Ceiling mounted – saves valuable floor and wall space
● Hidden – maintains original office design
● Unobtrusive – no visible sprays or steam
● Internal air filter removes up to 98% of air borne particles
● Adiabatic cooling effect
● Low energy – keeps costs
down
● Easily installed and
maintained
● Silver ion water sterilization
● Safe 24 V control connections
● Humidification section in 316
stainless steel
● Satisfies H&S (Display
Screen Equipment) regulations
CM20T HumiPac – installation above suspended ceiling

Inlet air can be ducted or taken from the ceiling void. Outlet air is
discharged at the point of need through adjustable ceiling mounted vents.
CM20PT HumiPac – exposed unit

Inlet air is drawn in through a grill and outlet air can be directed downwards
through adjustable louvers.
27.2 HumEvap MC2 – evaporative humidifier/cooler

The HumEvap MC2 sits inside a duct and raises the humidity by passing
water through an evaporative matrix. The air passes through this moist
matrix picking up water vapour from its wetted surface. This process
consumes very little energy, far less than steam or even cold water
atomizers. As well as humidification, the unit also offers up to 12°C of
free evaporative cooling to an AHU system, making it a very economical
alternative or supplement to mechanical cooling. It has just three ‘plug
and play’ connections – water, drain and power – making it very easy and
simple to install. Therefore, this unit not only saves money in the long run
through low energy use but also saves installation time and cost straight
away.
Evaporative module
At the heart of the HumEvap MC2 is the evaporative module which is
installed in an AHU or duct. Dry air passes through an absorbent glass
fibre and ceramic composite matrix, picking up water vapour from its
wetted surface. This process consumes very little energy, far less than steam
or even cold water atomizers. Water distribution across the top of the matrix
is via durable stainless steel spray bars and uniform wetting is assured by
distribution cassettes at the top of each vertical bank. As each vertical
matrix bank has its own water supply, multi-stage control is an easy option
where closer control is desired. For added hygiene the evaporative media
is impregnated with an exclusive anti-bacterial agent.
Features include extremely low energy use, exclusive anti-microbial
impregnated matrix, quick and simple to install, high-grade stainless steel
which do not rust, modular, compact space saving matrix, significant water
saving technology, single phase evaporative humidifier/cooler and up to
12°C of evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling: The HumEvap MC2 can offer up to 12°C of free
cooling and an economical alternative or supplement to mechanical chillers.
As the hot outside air passes over the cool, wet surface of the evaporative
matrix, there is a transfer of energy as the water evaporates. This action has
two effects; it cools and cleans the air. Evaporative cooling is not a substitute
for air conditioning as there are still some instances where direct mechanical
cooling is required. However, as well as humidification the HumEvap MC2
provides low cost cooling without the costs associated with DX chiller units
that cannot humidify in winter when the air is cool and dry.
Extremely low energy use
Humidifier Energy consumption for 2000 operating hours

HumEvap MC2 0.5 kW
Air atomizer 6.5 kW
Gas-fired steam humidifier 80 kW
Electric steam humidifier 76 kW
Compact control panel

The HumEvap MC2 Management System regulates operation of the
evaporative module. This robustly constructed, micro-processor-driven unit
controls the relative humidity level, flush, drain
and other water quality maintenance features
completely automatically.
The operational interface is easy to set up and
navigate, and has multi-lingual options.
The panel is compact at 475 × 350 × 155 mm
and can be situated up to 10 m away from the
evaporative module.
Comprehensive real-time feedback shows RH, demand, hours run, water

quality, component operating status and whether maintenance is required.
Operation is programmable to suit the needs of the building, including
occupancy, humidity level, proportional band and multi-stage operation.
All this is security-code protected to prevent unauthorized alteration of
settings. Manual override of some functions, such as draining the unit, is
available for maintenance purposes
28. Air-O-Swiss combi — humidifier and HEPA air

filter
This combined air purifier and humidifier guarantees a healthy room
climate. Not only does it ensure pure air by removing even the smallest
particles (100000 times finer than a human hair), it also ensures optimal
air humidity.
By producing a healthy level of humidity static electricity in the
atmosphere is reduced and dust is suppressed. This makes this unit is ideal
for allergy sufferers as it not only reduces pollutants in the air with two
HEPA filters but also creates a healthy atmosphere in a room. This is
something that simple air filters cannot do.
Features include 3 extremely quiet performance settings, 2 HEPA

Particle filters to protect against allergens, such as pollen, dust, animal
hairs and mites, Static and dust suppression due to humidifier, Odour/
fume filter (active carbon filter) with increased efficiency due to a new
filter arrangement, top performance air circulation, easy filter replacement,
ergonomically designed handles, 2 removable transparent tanks with 2
handles for easy handling, tanks are easy to fill in even the smallest
washbasin, fitted with an anti-bacterial evaporator cartridge, fragrance
capsule for use with essential oils, clean, easy handling of the fragrance
capsule without spillage or stickiness, operating light, easy-to-clean
removable water tray and tidy cable.
The Air-O-Swiss Combi efficiently reduces the levels of air pollutants

such as pollen, dust, animal hairs, mites, smoke and odours. The
humidification facility of this unit is self-regulating, providing an optimal,
hygienically humidified atmosphere. The Air-O-Swiss Combi also has an
air freshening system. By placing natural oils in the small fragrance capsule,
aromas will be released into the room. With three performance settings,
the unit is ready for immediate use and provides noticeably better air and
reduces the amount of dust on the floors and furniture in rooms of up to
540 sq ft (50 m2). It circulates the air in a room of 230 sq ft up to five times
every hour and after a short period 99.97% of the harmful particles are
removed from the air. Further advantages of this attractively styled unit
are its extremely quiet operation, thanks to its enormous filter size and
high quality fan, easy handling and exclusive functional design.
How does the Combi work?

A high quality fan sucks in the polluted air and circulates it through two
HEPA particle filters, which protect against harmful particles such as
pollen, dust and spores that are up to 100000 times finer than a human
hair. The unit then draws the air through a wet mat and returns it to the
room, optimally humidified. During the humidification process, the air is
also washed, in other words, even more particles and odours are removed.
Depending on its temperature, air can only absorb a certain amount of
water. The process of evaporation thus provides self-regulating
humidification, and as a result, additional control systems are not necessary.
If desired the unit can also inject essential oils into the room making you
feel relaxed or invigorated depending on the type of oil selected.
29. Ecoflair, innovation in air-conditioning

When planning new buildings – especially when they have been earmarked
for the tertiary sector, commerce or industry – creating a comfortable
environment for the wellbeing of people who are going to work there,
installing a flexible HVAC system and, above all, keeping energy
consumption down should be recognized as elements of paramount
importance. Ecoflair is the new air-conditioning system developed by
Uniflair to meet these three requirements in one fell swoop: based on the
use of modular components, connected in a flexible manner offering
limitless changeable setup options, Ecoflair provides a comfortable
environment for each single individual while seeking to create the most
energy-efficient conditions. The normal demands are individual wellbeing,
flexibility and reduced energy consumption. The Ecoflair solution the
innovative air-conditioning and distribution system can meet local comfort
needs whilst assuring the building total flexibility, without foregoing the
undeniable advantage of reducing energy bill outlay.
Each individual user can tailor environmental conditions to meet his/

her comfort needs regardless of the conditions chosen by others. The user
is free to choose either cooling or heating at any time with customizable
temperature and ventilation levels, creating his/her own microclimate –
even in an open-plan space – which may differ from that chosen by the
colleague at the next desk.
A modular solution featuring connections of the plug and play kind,
integrates the HVAC system with the access floor, or possibly the false
ceiling, offering air-conditioning and heating solution that suits the
architectural needs of the rooms. With no HVAC system terminals to plan
around, the designer finds drawing the layout of the rooms much easier:
with this system, the terminals are actually fitted under the floor or in the
false ceiling. Moreover, the system can be installed with one configuration
and changed to a new setup at any later date – at no cost and without
interrupting service – to accommodate the rearrangement of space in the
rooms. With the exclusive Ecoflair control system, all the system’s
operating parameters can be measured and processed to define load profiles
and the best control strategies, optimizing the system’s energy usage. To
maintain thermal equilibrium, i.e. load balancing, traditional HVAC
systems feature two different systems – one to generate heat and the other
for cooling – which often have to run at the same time to cope with different
load conditions in various parts of the building, with a negative effect on
energy costs. Ecoflair, on the other hand, exploits heat transfer between
various interior areas with a different thermal profile to achieve and
maintain the climate wanted in the individual zones using as little energy
as possible. That way, the system tends to strike an energy balance and
only call on the services of the cold and heat production unit – consisting
of a single generator for the whole system – for the portions of energy that
fail to be balanced within the actual system.
The Ecoflair system, completely different from classic four-pipe systems
with simultaneous cold and heat generation, is made up of a handful of
modular elements. All parts are interchangeable and can be installed in
the void under the access floor or behind the false ceiling. Furthermore,
their plug and play-type assembly procedure means they are easy to
reposition.
The system’s main components are as follows:
● The water distribution system consisting of a heating loop and a
cooling loop which puts the hot and cold source at the disposal of all
the various zones in the building;
● The Unitile zone terminal units, used for local air treatment (to control
air temperature, humidity, ventilation, filtration and quality);
● Units transferring heat from one loop to the other to compensate
heat loads of opposite sign inside the building; the energy provider
effectively the generator producing heat and cooling required to cover
the portion that has not been balanced, i.e. the amount of heat with
a positive or negative sign for the portion not compensated by the
transfer of heat between the two loops;
● The fresh air distribution and treatment units;
● The humidity control units;
● The main control system for combined management of all the system’s
units.
● Unitile: Connected to the heating loop and cooling loop, the
individual Unitile module – which can be installed under the floor or
in the false ceiling – features an air/water coil and a fan. Based on
the parameters set by the user – temperature and fan speed – which
will determine his/her personal workstation microclimate, the module
provides heating or cooling at the preferred flow rate. The terminal
operates, cooling or heating each individual zone in the room with
specific control capacity, thus providing the ideal conditions
requested by the user.
● Heat transfer units: Heat can be transferred from one loop to the
other with a normal reverse-cycle unit, whose operation benefits from
highly favourable heat levels, both at the condenser and evaporator.
The unit maintains the temperature difference between the two loops
in simultaneous hot and cold request mode, achieving a dual heating/
cooling effect with a single compressor. A single unit can be used to
handle all the system’s needs, or it can consist of a number of small
units to join the other equipment in the void under the floor or in the
ceiling.
● Air treatment units: Fresh air is delivered into the rooms to be air-
conditioned by means of various independent units serving individual
zones or zone groups. The fresh air delivery rate is controlled with
sensors, which adjust fan rotation speed. With the cross-flow recovery
unit, air introduced can also be pre-cooled in summer and preheated
in winter. Optimal recovery is a guaranteed trait of the unit’s
operation: the flow of fresh air is initially pre-cooled using expelled
air and only then is the condenser used for cooling.
● Energy provider: The job of the energy provider is to ensure the
heating loop and cooling loop temperatures always match those
determined by the main control system as the best values at that
particular point in time. It starts working when heating and cooling
is requested at the same time and the heat transfer unit cannot maintain
the temperature difference, resulting in loss of load balance.
● Control system: The individual Unitile modules feature a control
device located near the user. This device can maintain the conditions
set by each user by adjusting the hot and cold water demand and fan
speed accordingly. The transfer unit is controlled by monitoring the
temperatures of the two loops and producing the necessary action
when the temperature difference between them starts to dwindle.
Fresh air control is adjusted by monitoring the area of the environment
in terms of moisture, carbon dioxide and VOC (Volatile Organic
Content).In the end, the whole system is managed by a central device.
Based on inside and outside temperatures, the temperature of the
loops and quality of the air, the device can minimize the electricity
demand, making for considerable energy savings whilst maintaining
the highest levels of comfort.
30. AAT2003 Windchaser Ionic Humidifying Air

Washer
The AAT2003 Ionic Humidifying Air Washer washes and humidifies the
air by drawing air through water. This natural process eliminates small
airborne particles just like the outdoor air is cleaned by rain.
Features: Purifies and humidifies the air at the same time, No traditional
filters to replace; uses dishwasher-safe plastic discs; 2 speeds for added
control; whisper-quiet operation, detachable water tank with handle; anti-
bacterial safety system, 1.9 gallon capacity; suitable for a 600 sq ft room.
Equipped with an ion generator and two whisper quiet operating modes,
the AAT2003 is suitable for operation during the pollen and heating
seasons. Its self-regulating evaporation system guarantees an optimal level
of humidity without additional control systems. The modern design and
ease of operation and cleaning make the AAT2003 perfect for your home
or office. Ion Generator cleans and refresh the air.
● Water output – 3 gallons per 24 hours
● Water capacity – 1.6 gallons
● Applicable area – Up to 600 sq ft
31. Air-cooled portable air conditioners by Atlas

Sales and Rentals Inc
Air-cooled portable air conditioners are most often the system of choice
for end-users and industry professionals looking for effective spot cooling
systems. The fact that air cooled portable air conditioning units can be
installed almost anywhere with in minutes explains their popularity as
server room air conditioners, data centre air conditioners, and cooling
systems for a wide range of other applications. They can be used as a
temporary air conditioning system as needed.
Classic series Office pro-series Cool cube Arctic air series
32. Roving cooler – spot humidifier by Skil-Aire

The roving cooler is designed to be readily mobile to meet emergency
needs for primary cooling or for transient supplementary needs. These
units boast features normally found only in traditional central A/C systems
such as independent evaporator and condenser air streams and integrated
digital controls. Roving coolers are designed to operate in conditions from
60–110°F which makes them perfect for many otherwise impossible
applications both in and out of doors.
Condenser air inlet
Condenser out let
Cold Air
Outlet
Return Air
The Skil-aire Roving Cooler, packaged air conditioners are available

in air or water cooled models. All models have high external static
capabilities which allow for the maximum airflow even with long flexible
ducting up to 25 in. These units fit through standard 30 in. doors and are
mounted on four or six heavy duty locking casters for convenient location
and storage. The durable 20-guage steel cabinet with special easy clean,
scratch-proof coating affords corrosion protection and provides an
attractive appearance with virtually no maintenance. Evaporator air is
continuously circulated through the front of the unit and condenser air
through the top of the unit by draw through, forward curved, direct drive
centrifugal blowers. Large face area coils eliminate condensate carryover
while optimizing heat transfer. Coils are constructed of heavy wall seamless
copper tubes mechanically expanded to aluminium fins. A full condensate
tank, with overflow safety cut out and alarms insures all condensate is
collected and properly protected. Standard 1 in. disposable filters with an
arrestance value exceeding 90% are standard.
The factory installed water cooled condenser is a co-axial counter flow
design selected to maintain low refrigerant operating pressures using a
minimum quantity of water. Maximum operating water pressure with
standard factory installed 2-way pressure regulating valve is 150 PSIG.
Heavy duty rotary or reciprocating compressors are standard, as are
automatic restart and short-cycle protection. These quiet compressors
provide dependable, proven, long-term service.
Each Roving Cooler includes an adjustable thermal expansion valve
control with external equalizer, sight glass/moisture indicator, filter drier
and liquid and suction Schrader fittings for charging. All controls,
condensate system and major components are conveniently accessible from
a single locking access door. Sight glass and service ports are located
outside the unit.
All electrical components are conveniently located in the side of the
unit, permitting fast inspection or servicing, even when the unit is operating.
Factory installed electrical components include colour coded wiring,
inherent protection on all motor legs, motor contractors, hi-lo pressure
switches, oversized 24 V control transformer, and control circuit field
terminals for interconnection with the controls.
Each Roving Cooler is controlled by a digital thermostat and comes
complete with condensate pump and adjustable cool air plenums for
maximum ease of use with minimum concern.
Appendix 2
Cooling and heating systems
1. New tech cooling towers

As these are made from corrosion proof engineered plastics, the cooling
tower does not rust, flake, chip, peel and does not need painting or
protective coating. These are totally seamless cooling towers, i.e., there
are no seems panel revert or hundred of fasteners to fail or compromise
the performance of the product. Known as a heat-transfer unit, it is used
to remove heat from any water-cooled system. Assembled with high
efficiency fan, it features a wide-chord design for maximum efficiency at
low fan tip speeds. It is also featured with gravity flow distribution system
that allows easy and nonrestrictive maintenance. Provided with 15 years
of warranty on the cooling towers structural shell and 18 months warranty
on Cooling Tower motors.
308
Cooling and heating systems 309
2. Air cooled chilling plants

It is made from best available compressor and constructed with quality
components. Durable, dependable and compatible in nature, it is fully-
integrated, turnkey cooling systems. It is also fully-wired and charged,
and tested under load conditions to ensure easy installation and successful
start-up. Air Cooled Chilled Plant is manufactured with non-ferrous
material to ensure a corrosion-free environment. Being compact in size, it
is ideal for environment where physical space is at prime concern, or for
small-scale process cooling applications in the plastics, pharmaceutical,
chemical processing and metal finishing industries.
Other salient features:

Imported/indigenous compressor, imported refrigeration controls, air
cooled condenser, S.S. tank insulated with PUF, electric control panel,
pipe section body, mobile and compact.
3. Water cooled chilling plant

Manufactured for indoor location, water cooled chilling plant comes
complete with an integrated pump/tank. Suitable for process cooling
applications, it is mostly installed in soap industries, plastic industries,
anodizing, cement, packaging, beverages, and chemical & pharma
industries. It is totally assembled with premium quality components and
test-run before dispatch. Fitted with highly efficient stainless steel water
pumps and stainless steel tanks, it is rated for ambient and cooling water
temperatures.
Featured with refrigeration controls, electric panel board, it is placed
on a common base which is compact and movable on wheels.
Other salient features: Imported/indigenous compressor, S.S. tank

insulated with PUF, imported refrigeration controls, electric control panel,
water cooled condenser, pipe section body, mobile & compact and FRP
cooling tower.
4. Air tech chilling plant

Description: Airtech chilling plant is being manufactured from 3 TR to
150 TR capacities in compact design covering minimum floor area.
Compressor: Reciprocating compressor of reputed indigenous make.

Condenser: Condenser is compact design shell and tube type. It is being
tested hydrostatically at 20 kg cm-²
Chiller: Condensed liquid refrigerant is being expanded in DX-type
chiller through expansion valve. Water is being circulated through chiller
shell side having baffles arrangement; chiller is also being manufactured
and tested hydrostatically 20 kg cm-² pressure.
Controls: Low pressure, high pressure cutout is being provided for the
safety of plant. Thermostat is provided for automatic tripping, in case when
temperature gets maintained.
Model ACHW-3 ACHW-5 ACHW-7.5 ACHW-10 ACHW-15 ACHW-20 ACHW-25 ACHW-30
Temperature range (°C) 5–15 5–15 5–15 5–15 5–15 5–15 5–15 5–15
Refrigeration capacity (Kcal h-1) 9000 15000 22500 30000 45000 60000 75000 90000
Refrigerant R-22/R-12 R-22/R-12 R-22/R-12 R-22/R-2 R-22/R-12 R-22/R-12 R-22/R-12 R-22/R-12
Tonnage (TR) 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30
Power supply 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz, 415V, 50Hz,
AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH. AC, 3 PH.
Compressor Open type Open type Open type Open type Open type Open type Open type Open type
Chiller Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type Dx-type
Condenser Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water
cooled cooled cooled cooled cooled cooled cooled cooled
Chilled water flow (LPH) 2250 3750 5625 7500 11250 15000 18750 22500
Cooling and heating systems
311
● Due to continuous product development and improvement,

specifications and technical details are subject to change without
notice.
● Capacities are based on 11°C temperature of water.
● ΔT for chiller shall be 4°C.
● Condensed, water inlet temperature should be 32°C max.
● Higher capacity chilling plants are also available on demand and
fabricated accordingly to temp requirements.
Airtech pressurisation and air cooling plant are used to supply the filtered
cool air in the industrial shade to avoid outside dust and foreign material
entry into the working zone. This also helps to increase work-efficiency,
especially in the dry and hot season of May and June. These types of plants
involve low initial investment as compare to air conditioning plants.
Salient features include compact blower modular design, rugged and
precision engineering, economical construction, filtration up to maximum
peak efficiency and available from 10000 CFM to 200000 CFM.
5. Ammonia refrigeration plant by Airtech

Airtech ammonia refrigeration plants are designed and manufactured with
minute quality control installation with an aim of trouble free operation of
plant. All the major parts like oil separator, condensers, ice bank tank
system & IBT coil, receiver accumulator, air cooling unit are manufactured
in-house. They have non-CFC ammonia gas, hence, low running cost and
easy maintenance. Normally it is used for water chilling plant, brine chilling
plant, cold storage, deep freezing chamber, gas liquification plants, ice
plant and freezing complex. Scientifically designed cooling system is
combined with high efficiency condenser, chiller, compressor; expansion
valve provides more efficient water cooling with consequent reduction in
operating cost. Quality minimises the maintenance but motor requires
lubrication very often.
6. FRP induced draft counter flow cooling towers

by Airtech
Salient features: In FRP cooling tower, metallic parts are fully galvanised/
powder coated/epoxy coated and hence completely corrosion resistant.
Axial fans are direct driven. Bottle-
type design to withstand high wind
velocity, sudden shocks and
vibrations. Unit can absorb air from
all directions and is absolutely leak
proof.
Honey comb PVC fill increases
surface area, splits incoming air and
water into several streams spreading
equally across the tower cross-
section. It can take water temperature
up to 80°C. The unit is aesthetically
designed, compact and low weight.
Specifications:
Model Nominal Heat Dimensions Fan Motor Operat- Pump

capacity rejection Diame- (HP) ing head
(TR) Kcal h–1 × Height Diameter ter Weight (mm)
1000 (mm)s (mm) (mm) (Kg) H2O
ACT – 7.5 7.5 28 2000 1000 600 1.0 250 2000

ACT - 15 15 56 2000 1000 700 1.0 320 2000
ACT - 25 25 94 2200 1800 900 2.0 450 2400
ACT - 30 30 113 2200 1800 900 2.0 500 2400
ACT - 40 40 150 2800 2100 1200 2.0 700 3000
ACT - 50 50 189 2800 2100 1200 2.0 800 3000
ACT - 60 60 226 2800 2100 1200 3.0 1300 3000
ACT - 80 80 300 3000 2800 1500 3.0 1500 3000
ACT - 100 100 378 3000 2800 1500 5.0 1500 3000
ACT - 125 125 469 3000 2800 1500 5.0 1700 3200
ACT - 150 150 563 3000 2800 1500 7.5 1800 3200
ACT - 175 175 656 3200 3600 1800 7.5 2100 3400
ACT - 200 200 750 3200 3600 1800 10.0 2300 3400
ACT - 250 250 938 3500 4000 1800 10.0 3000 3700
ACT - 300 300 1126 3500 4000 1800 10.0 3500 3700
ACT - 400 400 1500 3700 5800 3000 15.0 5500 4000
Note: Nominal data based on 15 L.P.M. (4 USGPM per TR), water inlet 36.4°C
(97.5°F), water outlet 32.2°C (90.0°F) and wet bulb 28.3°C (83.0°F). Bigger
capacities cooling towers are available on demand.
7. Evaporative coolers by Airfilt

These evaporative coolers use the principle of simple evaporation of water
in air. These cooling devices and are quite effective in moderate humidity
locations, and are cost-effective finding use in many fields. In highly humid
climates, evaporative coolers provide thermal comfort benefit apart from
the increased ventilation and air movement. The units are available in single
skinned and double skinned PUF insulation. It is odourless and provides
a dust-free environment.
8. Air washer and textile air conditioning plants

by Nuberg Engineering Pvt. Ltd.
This system has unique feature of close control of temperature as well as
humidity. The main features include refrigeration equipment, machine
working in conjunction with cooling tower and pumps, using of chilled
water to control inside design conditions on by means of cooling coils
placed within the air flow to be cooled. Cooling coils will be chilled water
type. This system has the advantage to maintain close control of temperature
and humidity uniformly in all seasons and with varied equipment load and
help in long life of textile machinery.
9. Custom frame duct heaters by Farnam

Farnam’s open frame duct heaters are very rugged and efficient air heaters.
They are designed to heat large volumes of air in ducts. The open designs
provide very low pressure drops across these heaters. Their low static
pressures allow customers to use smaller and more economical blowers

since there is little restriction of air flow. Systems can be more efficient.
These heaters themselves are inherently very efficient since the circuits
are exposed directly to the air flow. So, heat transfer from the wire to air
is direct and immediate. As a result, these heaters give their heat readily
to the air and remain relatively cool themselves which affords long life.
Fast warm-up and cool-down times are inherent advantages.
Heaters are designed for easy installation into a duct. There are several
standard sizes available which can be tailored for particular needs. Voltages
up to 480 V single or three phases are available and have a long history of
trouble free service in the field. The inherent efficiency of the design assures
that excessive temperatures don’t build up in the heater to shorten its life.
And, since the heater is so open, it does not congest or tax the overall air
delivery system.
10. Heat Torch™ process heater by Farnam

The Heat Torch™ 030 is the smallest of Farnam custom products’ standard
process heaters. These 8.6 mm diameter air heaters are ideal for
concentrating hot air streams into small areas. It is a highly efficient tool
with relatively negligible heat losses. The small size and focused air stream
support great precision.
These air heaters operate best with air flow in the range of 0.3–6 standard
cubic feet per minute. Power options are available up to 300 W in either
120 V or 240 V supply. Maximum recommended output temperature for
our smallest Heat Torch process heaters is 700°C (1292°F). There are many
applications for these hot air tools such as: melting, cutting, adhesive
activation, de-soldering, heat staking and sterilisation.
● Wattage: 50–300 W, Voltage: 120 V, 50–300 W, 240 V, 200–300 W

● Inlet fitting: inlet fitting, #10-32 UNF thread, exhaust fitting: NF -
no fitting.
11. Flow torches by Farnam

ARDEN, NC, 1/1/07: Farnam custom products announced their new line
of high performance flow torches today. These open coil heaters are
designed for high flow rates and low pressure drop due to their efficient
design and minimal flow restrictions. The robust construction of these
stainless steel heaters offers reliable, long life performance and reduced
operational cost. Standard power from 1 kW to 75 kW is available for a
wide range of applications, including; hot air curtains, air drying,
dehumidification, paint baking/drying, plastic curing, and exhaust gas
heating. Airflow of up to 2000 SCFM and up to 3 PSIG can be handled by
the 8 in. Flow Torch. Maximum output temperature is 932ºF, depending
upon airflow. Farnam works closely with OEMs, plant engineers and end
product designers to provide custom air heaters for a broad array of
applications. Additional specifications and contact information are
available at: www.farnam-custom.com
Appendix 3
Fogging fans and Jets
1. Humidifan: The Nozzle-free, horizontal airflow

fogger by US Global Resources
These are all purpose units for all industries, humidification/fogging. There
are two series; HRSM and GRSM. HRSM model is the same as the Turbo
XE series, but is on wheels and has a tank. GRSM is used for odour control.
CRSM is used for application of chemicals.
1.A The Aqua Turbo XE series

Aquafog’s unique design simplifies principal moving parts to one motor
and its integral fan. Water or other fluids are fed into the specialised hub
of fan blade assembly where it is subdivided and channeled into
passageways running the length of each blade. As liquid exits, it is atomized
into ultra-fine fog particles. This does not require any permanent plumbing
installation, high pressure pumps, complicated filtration, and constant
maintenance of clogged nozzles. It has streamlined one motor/ one blade
design producing and dispersing fog using a single nozzle-free blade
assembly.
317
1.B Aquafog Turbo XE horizontal airflow fogger

Hanging Turbo XE units give the best versatility and dependability in the
Aquafog line. They generate micron-fine fog particles with excellent forced
circulation, providing uniform fog distribution and maximum coverage.
Additional Turbo XE features: When mounted high overhead, it allows

more time for the cold fog particles to evaporate as they naturally descend.
Exclusive nozzle-free design eliminates plugging problems and need for
expensive filtering systems.
It uses ordinary water and power supply to produce high quality, high
volume fog. Fans can be stationary or equipped with oscillation. It is
excellent for safe, effective chemical fogging. Used for pesticide and
fungicide application, insecticide use and foliar feedings, the Aquafog
Turbo XE is indispensable for use in greenhouses. They are capable of
continuous duty operation and come largely pre-assembled, ready to install.
Convenient panel mount flow meter and in-line strainer provide control
needed for required fog output. Dwyer flow meters provided are easy to
clean, available in seven sizes from broad volume use to narrow ranges,
providing better accuracy at low volume output. The high volume ranges
from 1–11 to 4–34 gallons per hour and low volume ranges from 5–50 to
20–300 cc min-1.
1.C Turbo XE Oscillator

When increased fog coverage and circulation-especially when coverage
area exceeds twenty feet - an oscillator helps doing the job right. Its
rotational movement lets the operator fog at higher outputs while
maintaining dryness underneath. In addition to improving circulation,
sweeping the fog with an oscillator alleviates droplet collisions and fallout.
Turbo XE Oscillators provide a continuous and consistent (dwell-free)
movement. There is a choice of ninety six different settings, with sweeps

ranging from 3.75 degrees to a two-minute, full rotation of 360 degrees.
Coverage range:
● 1 200 average, up to 2 000 sq ft
● 2 800 average up to 4 200 sq ft
● Contact your odour control consultant
● 1 unit per cooling chamber.
Fan Max dry Cycle CFM Propul- Noise Energy Weight Largest
size fog output (Hz) rating sion @ consump- (lbs) flow meter
(gallons dist- 10 in. tion (gallons
per hour) ance dist- per hour)
(ft) ance
1 HP 30 60 3260 35 76–79 10.6 amps 50. 4–34
dB(A) @ 120V
3/4 HP 24 50 3180 30 73–76 4.0 amps 52 2–24
dB(A) @ 240V
1/2 HP 20 60 2730 30 74–77 7.4 amps 39 2–24
dB(A) @ 120V
1/3 HPtt 14 50 2580 25 69–73 3.0 amps 42 1–11
dB(A) @ 240V
1/4 HP 12 60 2160 25 68–72 7.2 amps 40 1–11
dB(A) @ 120V
All Turbo XE fans are standard equipped with dark green housing and
a dual voltage, white epoxy painted wash down duty TM motor (WDD)
115/230V 1 ph 60/50 Hz. Suffixes are added to standard product number
to describe special features.
XE – 2000 – bk – SST -34

4-34 GPH Flow
meter
Fan size 1 HP
Block Housing Stainless Motor
Available fan options:
Fan size Manufact- Black WDD Explosion Explosion Stainless steel

urer’s housing 3 phase proof 1ph proof 3ph motor 1ph
standard (bk) 230/460V 115/230V 230/460V 115/230V
(3ph) (Exp) (3Exp) (SST)
1 HP XE 2000- ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
3/4 HP XE 1500- ✓ ✓
1/2 HP XE 1000 ✓ ✓ ✓
1/3 HP XE 660- ✓
1/4 HP XE 500t- ✓
t
XE 500 comes equipped with a 1/2 HP blade assemble, this unit can easily be upgraded
to an XE 1000.
P.N. Suffix volume range

F-34 (34) 4–-34 GPH
F-24 (24) 2–24 GPH
F-11 (11) 1–11 GPH
F-5 (5) 20–300 cc/min*
F-3 (3) 10–110 cc/min*
F-1 (1) 5–50 cc/min*
Flow meter sizes

*60 cc/min = approximately
1 GPH
Choosing an appropriate size flow meter can sometimes be difficult. If

a flow meter size is not indicated, the manufacturer will select the
appropriate size flow meter per your industry.
Accessories:
When fog circulation at ground level or bench height is required floor
stand provides convenient, rapid mobility and a safe, secure Aquafog
mounting support.
Traveling floor stand

More traveling stand features:
● Semi-pneumatic tires for easy travel

over rough surfaces.
● Tripod design with small 30 in.
footprint for fitting through aisle ways
and tight spaces.
● Generous 6' 8"-high stand dollies easily
for clearance through doorways.
● Support boom is fully adjustable for
pre-setting operational height.
● Compatible for use with a Turbo
oscillator.
● Easily assembled; ships via UPS.
1.D Aquafog Turbo XE RSM
Standard features:
● Large tank holds up to 18 US gallons (68 liters).
● Engineered for harsh environments, units have all stainless steel
hardware and heavy wall thermoplastic construction.
● Equipped with flow control, automatic fill float assembly, overflow
port, water hose connection, and liquid level pointer gauge.
● Wide-mouth opening for chemicals.
● Draining plug for easier cleaning.
● Sturdy molded handles and 10 in. semi-pneumatic wheels for rugged
mobility.
Available in two models, CRSM for pesticide application and HRSM
for humidification, the RSMs are compact, mobile foggers. They combine
the advantage for the no-clog, continuous duty atomizing fan with a large-
capacity tank for recirculation of all wastewater.
1.E Aquafog Turbo XE CRSM

When the job calls for a low-volume method chemical application, the
CRSM is top performer. Even when the tank is full, one can easily
wheel this sturdy unit from one place to another. Here’s more about
the CRSM:
● CRSM’s chemical pump operates at a maximum rate of 5 US GPH,
producing particles that average 5 microns in size.
● A circulation pump vigorously agitates the solution, allowing use of
heavy powders.
● Features a no-clog, nozzle-free atomization head and made of thermo-
plastic that’s highly corrosion-resistant.
● Fluid level gauge and large-mouth opening make it easy to mix and
fill tank with chemicals.
● Units treat up to 28000 sq ft.
● Uses standard electrical supply; available in 1/2 HP, 115 V, single
phase or 3/4 HP, 240 V, 50 Hz, single phase.
1.F Aquafog Turbo HRSM

The HRSM provides high fogging, maintaining the weight and appearance
of produce. It is ideal for use in produce storage. Humidity management
promotes wound healing and reduces weight loss and sprouting, enhancing
the quality and appearance of all fruits and vegetables. The HRSM is
designed to humidify large storage areas requiring a fogging machine that
can recirculate its own wastewater, and/or a humidifier that can he easily
transported from one location to another. Features same nozzle-free, no-
clot atomizing head as the Turbo XE fan, but has large recirculation tank.
Liquid chemicals can also he added to large recirculation tank for chemical
treatments. It is designed to be compact, sturdy and portable which are
constructed with watertight electrical components and all stainless steel
hardware. It is equipped with water hose connector and automatic-fill float
assemble for continuous duty operation.
Specifications:
● Voltages: 1 HP, 115 V, 60 Hz, 1 Ph or 1 HP, 208–230V, 60 Hz, 3 Ph
or 3/4 HP, 240 V, 50 Hz, 1 Ph
● CFM: 1 HP = 3260 or 3/4 HP = 3180
● Energy consumption: 1 HP = 10.6 AMPS or 1HP/3Ph = 3.0 AMPS

or ¾ HP = 4 AMPS
● Noise @ 10 ft. distance: 1 HP = 76–79 dB(A) or 3/4HP = 73–76
dB(A)
● Weight: 1 HP = 80 lbs or 1HP/3Ph = 76 lbs or 3/4 HP = 83 lbs
● Tank Capacity: 18 U.S. Gal. /68 Liters
● Output capability: up to 30 GPH
Standard features:
● Large tank holds up to 1 US gallons (68 liters).
● Engineered for harsh environments, units have all stainless steel
hardware and heavy wall thermo-plastic construction.
● Equipped with flow control, automatic-fill float assembly, overflow
port, water hose connection, and liquid level pointer gauge.
● Wide-mouth opening for adding chemicals.
● Draining plug for easier cleaning.
● Sturdy molded handles and 10 in. semi-pneumatic wheels for rugged
mobility.
● Delivered hilly assembled, ready for operation; shipped by common
carrier.
1.G Aquafog Turbo XE HRSM

The HRSM is ideal for high fogging output with mobility – or applications
where drainage is not available, such as vegetable and fruit storage.
HRSM’s powerful submersible pump is capable of pumping up to 30
gallons of fluid per hour to the fan’s atomizing head. Unit automatically
fills and can be operated for extended periods or on a continuous basis.
Compact in size, the HRSM combines a powerful humidifier with a
recirculatory sump module. Available in 1 HP, single or three-phase and
3/4 HP, 240V, 50 Hz, single phase.
1.H Aquafog 400 fogger for smaller areas

Aquafog ® 400’s adjustable fogging output and extensive air circulation
make it convenient for use in small places. It can be used for mixing
conditioning in cotton mills, in loom sheds, etc.
● Ideal for cooling – adding humidity in both retail and hobby
greenhouses
● Lightweight; easy installation
● Consumes extremely low amounts of energy less than 1 amp
● Features fully adjustable fogging output range

● Propels fog and air up to 20 ft
● Operates very quietly
● Unit fills automatically and connects to ordinary garden hose
Specifications:
● Fogging capability: 0–2 GPH /0–7 l per hour
● CFM: 840 @ 60Hz /710 @ 50 Hz
● Energy consumption: 0.7 AMP @ 115 V / .35 AMP @ 230 V
● Noise @ 10 ft. distance: 62 dB(A) @ 60 Hz / 61 dB(A) @ 50 Hz
● Weight: 8.5 lbs / 3.8 kg
● Dimensions: Width 15"/ 38 cm; Depth 12.5" / 32 cm; Height 20.5" /
52 cm
● Voltages: -115 V 60 Hz 1ph, -200–225 V 50 Hz 1ph, -225–250 V 50
Hz 1ph
● Maximum coverage: A. 2000 average, up to 4000 cu. ft. per unit,
B.3000 average, up to 5000 cu. ft. per unit and C. 4000 average, up
to 6000 cu. ft. per unit
1.I Humidistat
Automatically controls Aquafog® 400 for applications requiring fewer than
85% humidity. It incorporates a man-made sensing element with large,
easy access control dial and needs no wiring. Standard features are compact,
lightweight made of thermo-plastic that’s highly corrosion resistant, hangs
high overhead, out of the way. Features no-clog, nozzle-free atomization
head with adjustable fogging capabilities up to 2 US GPH, producing
particles of average 35 microns in size. A small, built-in sump area that
reuses all of its internal condensation and hence no drainage line is required.
Unit is equipped with flow control, automatic fill float assembly and water
hose connection. Comes as fully assembled and is quick to install.
Available models:
XE-400 2 GPH Mister fan unit 115 V 60 Hz
XE-400-H Fan unit /w humidistat 115 V 60 Hz unit w/
humidistat control pkg.
XE-400-50L 0–7 liters hour Mister 200–225 V 50 Hz
fan unit
XE-400-50L-H Fan unit /w humidistat 200–225 V 50Hz unit w/
XE-400-50H 0–7 liters hour Mister 225–250 V 50 Hz
fan unit
XE-400-50H-H Fan unit /w humidistat 225–250 V 50 Hz unit w/
1.J Industrial humidifier

Aquafog fans are useful in a variety of large-scale manufacturing
operations. Units are powerful and ideal for spot, evaporative cooling for
workers in hot working environments. Manufactures of products that need
specific RH levels can utilize the hanging Turbo XE units to humidify
large environments. Aquafog units produce high-quality fog with fully
adjustable output for versatility and control in keeping nearby equipment
dry. In addition, this low-maintenance, nozzle-free units are self-flushing
and will not clog. Aquafog fogging fans are successful in re-humidifying,
suppressing dust and static electricity in many indoor manufacturing
operations, such as wood, paper, textiles, and leather goods applications, as
well as providing for the proper relative humidity environments in storage
facilities. With industrial-grade components and unique engineering, they
provide the performance and dependability highly sought after in the
manufacturing industry. The key fogging equipments provided are for spot
and worker evaporative cooling – XE-1000, XE-2000, XE-1500 for 50Hz,
XE-HRSM, Mobile Humidification – XE-HRSM, Hanging Industrial Turbo
XE Fans Cooling/Humidification – XE-1000, XE-2000, XE-1500 for 50Hz
and for Fumigation – XE-HRSM, XE-ORSM, XE-CRSM
2. Hydrofogger
The Hydrofogger is the ideal solution for mid-size humidification. With
coverage up to approximately 2000 sq ft per unit, the Hydrofogger produces
the humidification needed simply, quietly, and efficiently. For applications
requiring less humidification, minifogger is available. These humidifiers

have fewer moving parts and do not require steam or treated water. They
both come with a smooth and powerful industrial-grade motor that will
produce clean and ample humidification for years to come. The units are
designed to install in minutes, and they are fed automatically by a simple
connection to existing cold water supply. No need to ever fill the tank.
Humidistat controls humidity level and Hydrofogger. Units are also
available in 230 V/50 Hz.
3. Keystone centrifugal spot humidifier units

Specification: The Keystone unit runs by specially designed 3/4 HP. High
Speed Electric Motor suitable for 400/440 V, 3 Phase, 50 cycles, A.C.
Supply. The Humidifier throws approximately 2200/2400 CFM. of air and
evaporates up to 40 liters water per hour. Available in two models (fixed
type and revolving type). Compact and easy to install. Independent and
light weight. No ducting required. High evaporating capacity. Uniform
distribution of humidified air. Low operating cost with minimum
maintenance.
4. Spot humidifier by AC Humidification

‘HUMIDAIR’ (Spot humidifier) with high efficiency evaporation, effective
mist dispersal, completely self contained, water atomizer, air distributor
are designed for minimum maintenance and very low operating cost.
Features: High efficiency evaporation designed for minimum

maintenance, atomizes water into a fine mist for rapid evaporation and
distributes the humidified air uniformly throughout room.
5. Industrial humidifier/cool mist humidifier

F-SP-10002-HP by Mist Magic
Conventional air washer Mist magic free space cool
humidification systems mist humidifier
Energy usage 25–50 HP 2–8 HP only

Water consumption All extra water is lost in All extra water is recycled
evaporation or wasted hence no wastage of water
Ducting Conventional, expensive In-built low cost ducting
and cumbersome ducting
Plant and machinery Large area required for the Small size machinery which
bulky air compressor and air takes the space of an air
washer system conditioner
Maintenance Expensive and problematic Hassle free low cost
involving constant breakage maintenance with low cost
spare parts
Power back-up Large generators required Very small domestic generator
which consume huge required which consumes less
amounts of fuel fuel, proving to be extremely
cost effective for India
Humidity regulation No provision for scientific Scientific control of humidity
maintenance of humidity levels through a humiditistat.
levels
Energy efficiency: The F-SP- 10002- HP Industrial Humidifier consumes

only 2 HP of electricity per 30000 cubic ft.
Key features are that they can be run by a very small generator, uses
50% water less than normal plants, plant and machinery requires the same
space as a window air conditioner, Easy maintenance, controls fluff and
dust, easily replaceable spare parts and after sales service available by
local representative
5.A Cool mist fan MF-10003-HP

Mist fan offers active cooling and is positioned directly at the intended
cooling area. Cool Mist fan provides enhanced performance compared to
mist line as the high velocity air increases the evaporation rate which in
turn improves the cooling effect. Cool mist fan can be mounted on walls
or columns. It can also be in the form of mobile pedestal unit.
6. TexFog – hygienic and energy-saving

humidification by Luwa
The high-performance humidifying system TexFog was developed specially
for use in the textile industry, in order to obtain the optimal dosage of moisture
in the supply air. It is specifically useful in non-woven manufacturing. TexFog
uses only fresh water and does not require a water tank. Using TexFog is
safe from a hygiene point of view and fulfills the German hygiene regulation
VDI 6022. It requires up to five times less energy than a conventional air
washer and also allows a super saturation of the air.
7. JetSpray air and water atomizing humidifier

The JetSpray humidifier provides economical and consistent humidification
directly into workspaces and within air handling systems. JetSpray
humidification systems have been humidifying industries and air handling
systems around the world, incorporates the latest in controls, hygiene and
environmentally sound technology. JetSpray’s precision engineered self-
cleaning nozzles are claimed having the lowest air consumption. The drip-
free nozzles produce sprays of just 7.5 µm and are built to last carrying a
10 year warranty. The control panel uses the latest remote digital interface,
which can be mounted up to 100 m away from the main control unit. The
whole system is very easy to install and can run on mains, demineralized
or softened water. Due to a self-cleaning mechanism, maintenance is
minimal and often comprises of just an annual check, making the JetSpray
ideal for use in busy industrial environments.
In-duct humidification:
The JetSpray induct humidifier is an energy efficient way to humidify air
handling systems. Excellent moisture distribution is guaranteed by the
choice of nozzle capacity, suitable spacing on the manifold, correct
positioning of the manifold in the AHU and the capacity to change the
orientation in relation to the airflow. Evaporation distance varies with air
temperature, velocity and desired RH but, where space is limited the
JetSpray Eliminator Matrix System (JEMS) can be installed downstream
to guarantee evaporation within one metre.
Features include close humidity control, low energy consumption, low
running costs, low maintenance and significant cooling effect with 10-
year warranty on all nozzles. Lowest compressed air consumption
compared to any air/water atomizing humidifier.
Environmental friendly:
The JetSpray humidifier uses 90% less energy than electric steam
humidifiers. Not only are there considerable cost savings but, for a system
producing 100 kg of moisture per hour, this equates to a reduction in CO2
emissions of around 260 tonnes over five years. As an ISO14001 company,
environmental impacts and sustainability are important features of JetSpray
design. Water and energy use are minimised during operation and at the
end of JetSpray’s long service life, a high proportion of materials can be
reclaimed and recycled, reducing impacts on landfill.
Remote interface:
Microprocessor controlled units have an easy-to-read multi-lingual
interface, which shows operational status and makes commissioning
simple. Set point, ambient humidity and temperature, purge and flush cycle
operation, hours run, service interval times, occupancy operation and fault
diagnostics are shown. The display can be installed up to 100m away from
the control panel. For improved control in large areas, up to three averaging
humidity sensors can be connected to the microprocessor controller or it
can be linked to a building management system. On/off and modulating
control is available on high capacity systems allowing ±2% RH control.
Modulating systems also incorporate information on water flow.
The nozzle jets are kept free from blockages with a self-cleaning pin
7.A Armstrong live steam humidifier by

J.S. Humidifiers
The Armstrong live steam humidifier with high specification and offered
at competitive price is ideal for situations where there is a ready supply of
steam, as it removes the expense of generating steam to humidify using
electrode or resistive boiler type humidifiers. Unlike a steam-to-steam
humidifier, a live steam system will give a very fast response to
humidification requirements and has minimal maintenance requirements.
It also has the advantages of guaranteed dry steam injection and no bacteria
risk as the steam itself is totally sterile.
The Armstrong live steam humidifier is capable of running at pressures

up to 4 bar producing hotter, drier steam than other 2 bar systems. This
high pressure also gives a huge output capacity of up to 1823 kg h-1 from
a single unit. By running at a higher pressure the size of pipe work and
pressure reducing valve required to install the humidifier is much smaller
making it a cheaper system to set-up.
The steam is initially put through a Y-strainer to remove most of the

stream’s dirt and scale particles. It is then fed through a jacket that
surrounds the steam lance situated in the duct. In so doing the lance’s
temperature is maintained at a very high level to ensure the steam passing
through it and into the duct at a later, more critical stage doesn’t produce
condensation on its surface. Once the steam has traveled through the lance’s
jacket, it is fed into the separator. This chamber contains two baffles, which
reduce the speed of the steam and reverse its flow in order to separate the
condensation from the steam.
Features include running up to 4 bar pressure delivering very dry steam,
large capacity from a single unit – 1,823 kg h-1, fast response and excellent
control with up to 123:1 turndown ratio and ±1% RH. Silencer provided
reduces noise. Fully engineered and pre-set humidifier with actuator pre-
stroked to control valve and excellent controllability with control valve
integrated into separator to maintain its temperature and reduce
condensation. Zero leakage on valve due to opening against steam pressure.
The humidifier’s control valve is situated in the separator chamber and

is controlled by an actuator mounted on the top of the unit. By situating
the valve within the separator its temperature is kept at a very high level
and condensation through the control valve is eliminated.
Condensation is removed through a condensate trap located under the
separator chamber. A temperature switch is located before this trap, which
will only allow the humidifier’s control valve to open once it reaches a set
temperature. This ensures that the humidifier will only start to inject steam
into a duct once the system is fully heated with super-dry steam.
In other live steam systems that don’t incorporate a temperature switch as
standard it is often recommend that the control valve is not opened until
10 minutes after the humidifier is switched on. This is often ignored in
plant rooms, which leads to condensation being injected into a duct.
Stainless steel version: The Armstrong live steam humidifier is available
in cast iron with stainless steel steam lance or a fully stainless steel model
for critical applications.
Direct dir version: For applications that require direct humidification
of an atmosphere, a wall-mounted live steam system is available. It has a
maximum capacity of up to 130 kg h-1 and ensures evaporation of the
steam with a fan mounted behind the steam outlet.
Stainless steel version Direct air version
7.B J.S. Mistifier – cool mist humidifier

This humidifier is ideal for greenhouses, mushroom or orchid growing, storage
areas, research chambers or industrial environments such as textile or tobacco
processing. The JS Mistifier emits impressive clouds of cool, humidifying
mist. It has three levels of output — 2.5 litres, 3.5 litres and 5 litres per hour
that are achieved by removing the upper sections of the unit. This humidifier
will maintain the optimum environment required for growing plants that need
high humidity levels. The unit has a very quiet operation and requires no
wiring as it plugs directly into a standard electrical plug. The Mistifier is
plumbed into a mains outlet and an internal float valve automatically controls
the level in the water reservoir. Alternatively, it can be used without a mains
connection for short periods and manually topped-up.
Features:
● Easy to install and use
● Durable trouble-free structure
● Good for chemical disinfection and
deodorization
● Maintains humidity from 10% to 80%RH
● Manual or automatic fill
● 2.5 litre, 3.5 litre or 5 litre output per hour
● Generates particles 5–20 microns in size
● Low energy
Three different outputs:
8. Misting fan VersaFog Oscillating Portable
8.A 36 in. VersaFog ½ HP Misting fan 8.B 30 in., 36 in. Misting fan pedestal
Features: High velocity oscillating portable Pedestal portable: 24 in.

misting fan. High velocity 2 speed oscillating
VersaFog: 36 in., 1/2 HP, misting fan
2 speed, 12 nozzles 24 in., 1/4 HP, 2 speed,
Fan misting cart: 24in., 1/4 hp, 6 nozzles
2speed, 6 nozzles.
Functions: Increase air humidity air recircula- Lower the air temperature air
tion lower the air temperature recirculation increase air humidity
Voltage 110 V (Specify if 220 V) 110 V (specify if 220 V)
Ampere 3a, (VersaFog 6a)
Horse power 1/4 HP, (VersaFog 1/2 hp)
CFM rating 5100 CFM high/3920 CFM low
Weight 160 lbs. 107 lbs (VersaFog 240lbs)
Oscillating fan 24 in. (VersaFog 36 in.)
Nozzles 6 nozzles (Versafog12) 4 nozzles, (VersaFog 12)
Speeds Two speeds
(table contd.)
Water pressure 1000 pci.

Primary water filtration Build-in
Primary water filtration Build-in
Non-corrosive materials
continuous operation
Power consumption 95 W (250 W)
Humidification capacity up to 10 W/gallon/h
Humidification coverage 50000 sq ft (and more )
Misting ring Stainless-steel, powder-coated
Water source Regular cold water system
Auto drain valve reduces nozzle clogging
Brass and stainless steel nozzles and fixtures
Mist fan humidifier easily integrated with our THC-1 in.
Humidistat (optional, not included) for automatic area
humidification.
9. Humidifier NP – 50
Two versions are available in NP – 50 type, viz Deluxe Industrial
Humidifier and Centrifugal Humidifier.
Humidifier NP-50
This Deluxe Industrial Humidifiers delivers excellent quality performance,
easy fast installation and low maintenance with dependability. It is designed
on a centrifugal concept to produce fog mist. This concept design allow to
bypass all of the burdens of complicated installations, need of compressors,
pumps, nozzles, drainage pipes, high maintenance, waste of space, heavy
power consumption. It is trouble-free having simple structure with high
durable qualities. It has direct cold water system connection. Very quiet
and continuous Operation which has centrifugal principle applied. No
Special Installation Required. Aerosol mist is completely droplet free
because of powerful and heavy duty atomizer. There is no need of high
pressure pumps or water filters. The nozzle does not clog.
Humidifier centrifugal NP-50

Centrifugal Humidifier is connected directly to a cold water supply, gets
filled it self automatically with build in Automatic-Fill Float Assembly
without interruptions. Centrifugal Humidifier quietly delivers up to 2 gal/
hr of perfect Mist Fog. Each Humidifier can be integrated with HCH-3"
Humidistat (optional, not included) for automatic area humidification. It
does not require drainage line. It is reliable with low space requirement.
Has low energy consumption with maintenance free Squirrel Cage Motor
with built - in Thermal Overload Switch. The structure is simple and trouble
free with high durability and easily portable.
● Humidification coverage: 5000 sq ft (and more )
● Humidification capacity: Up to 2.5 gallon/W/h (2000–4000 cc h -1)
● Power supply: 110 V/60 Hz. (or 220 V/50 Hz European system
available )
● Power consumption: 90 W
● Particle size: 2~20 Microns
● Water source: Regular Cold water system
● Water connection fitting: 1/4 in.
● Water pressure: No special requirements
● Air humidity control: Automatically controlled by ‘HCH-3’(humidity
control humidistat, optional item)
● UL, CE: Approved
10. Air AKI ® DRY Fog Industrial Humidification

System
It is a total humidification system for humidity control in large space.
Features:
1. Humidity control in large space: The high-precision-made Dry Fog
spraying unit, with its sprayed fog reaching a distance of 4 meters
ahead, produces the stable humidity in large space (within the whole
factory).
2. For solution of troubles caused by electrostatic: Solving the troubles
caused by electrostatic, the system drastically improves productivity
of machinery.
3. High performance energy saving: No steam by boilers required.
Energy saving of over 30% expected.
4. The least maintenance necessary: With supply of clean air and purified
water, the system requires the least maintenance.
10.A AKIMist® ‘D’ Dry Fog Humidifier

Dry Fog humidifier in ultra-compact body with its high spraying
performance has following features:
1. Ultra-compact design: This is claimed as the most compact humidifier

in the world with high performance. Plenty of customers in various
industries have been supplied.
2. High spraying performance: World-wide patented AKIJet® nozzle
sprays fine quality fog over 4 m to provide effective humidification.
3. Easy-to-maintain mechanism: Ease of maintenance by one-touch
disassembly. Connection to the compact RO water purifier AKIMist®
keeps it in almost maintenance-free condition.
4. The least clogging nozzle: 2 types of the least clogging nozzle, based
on the new technology, are available according to the application.
5. Good extensibility of the system: Up to 4 pieces of the nozzle
mountable to a humidifier
6. Flexible operation ability: Spray direction is adjustable within 10–
50% with the Ball Adaptor (option) attached. Automatic humidity
control is exercised by the timer or the humidity controller.
High Quality Fog (S-type) Large Volume Fog (D-type)
S-Type D-Type
Fog size Ultra fine Dry Fog with a Large volume cotton-like fine
silky touch. fog
Sauter mean droplet - dia: 7.5 microns 12 microns
Spray volume per 2.4 l h-1 (0.63 GPH) at air 3.0 l h-1 (0.79 GPH) at air
each nozzle pressure 0.3 Mpa (42 PSI) pressure 0.3 Mpa (42 PSI)
S-Type Performance
Air pressure Mpa (PSI) Spray volume l hr -1 (GPH) Air consumption NL/min (SCFM)
0.3 (42) 2.4 (0.63) 36 (1.34)

0.35 (50) 2.7 (0.71) 41 (1.53)
Model No A pressure 0.3 Mpa (42 PSI) Number

Spray volume l h -1 Air consumption NL/min of nozzle
(GPH) (SCFM)
AD-1S 2.4 36 1
AD-2S 4.8 72 2
AD-3S 7.2 108 3
AD-4S 9.6 144 4
This is more suitable for humidification without wetting the wall and
floor even within a room of limited space.
D-Type Performance
Air pressure Mpa (PSI) Spray volume l hr -1 (GPH) Air consumption NL/min (SCFM)
0.3(42) 3.0(0.79) 36(1.34)

0.35(50) 3.5(0.92) 41(1.53)
Model No at air pressure 0.3 Mpa (42 PSI) Number

D. Type Spray volume Air consumption NL/min of nozzle
l h -1 (SCFM)
AD-1D 3.0 36 1
AD-2D 6.0 72 2
AD-3D 9.0 108 3
AD-4D 12.0 144 4
The humidifier produces large volume of fog with less air. It is suitable
for humidification in large volume in a spacious room. For minimal
maintenance and long life, clean air and purified water must be supplied.
IKEUCHI provides wide range of ancillary devices for purifying water/
air and automatic humidity control from years of experience.
11. AD – T Dry Fog Portable Humidifier Set
Features:
Portable humidifier set: No piping work necessary. Portable humidifier
set for immediate use at any place just with air supply.
Choose your fog: Two types of spraying
nozzle are available with the spraying unit;
one for high quality fog (2.4 l h-1or 0.63
GPH) with a silky touch, and another for
large volume cotton-like fog (3.0 l h-1or 0.79
GPH), both per one nozzle at air pressure
0.3 MPa.
High extensibility: Up to 4 nozzles can
be mounted. The humidifier with 4 nozzles
has large spraying capacity, maximum 12 l
h-1or 3.16 GPH at air pressure 0.3 MPa or
42 PSI.
Flexible operationality: Easy automatic
control by Humidity Controller (option) or
its timer.
Portable: Easily portable by attaching casters.
Main applications are in various factories such as of printing, textile,
and paper fabrication, etc., for spot humidification around machinery and
electrostatic prevention, for electrostatic prevention and cooling by Dry Fog
in factories of plastic, film fabrication, etc., for humidification within a
horticultural facility, for humidification within a storage of vegetable, fruit,
and fresh produce, for spraying of deodorant in sewage dump, for easy
installation of a humidifier and when a small volume of Dry Fog is required.
The standard contents include along with AKI Mist units, a stand,
pressure tank, gauge-mounted air pressure regulator unit, spiral tubes for
air and water, pole. Portable compressor, Humidity controller and humidity
sensor are optional.
11.A Portable compressor:

The oil-free type of compressor with its piston ring made of Teflon is for
the longer life and clean air.
Model No. Motor Max. Output Tank Weight Dimensions

pressure capacity
TO5P5S17 100V 50Hz 0.96MPa 60NL/min 12L 20kg L: 418 mm

0.55KW (9.8kg/cm 2) at 0.68MPa W: 495 mm
(7kg/cm 2 ) H: 230 mm
Note: These portable compressors are to operate the humidifier with one nozzle only.
Pressure tank:
Tank capacity Material Max. pressure Weight
18 l SUS304 0.68MPa 5kg

(7 kg cm-2) (23 kg in full)
Note: Relief valve is already set at 0.4 Mpa.
Portable humidifier sets are suitable for small space and spot
humidification.
1. Portable humidifier set: No piping work necessary. Portable
humidifier set for immediate use at any place just with power and air
supplies.
2. Flexible spraying direction: Spraying direction 360 degrees rotatable.
It is best for spot humidification at any place.
3. Best for small space: For spot humidification around machinery and
humidification in such small room up to 100 m3 volumes as an
inspection room.
4. Flexible operationality: Easy automatic control by Humidity
Controller (option) or its timer.
5. Portable: Easily portable by attaching casters.
Required supply air: 36–46 NL/min (at air pressure 0.29–0.49
MPa). Portable humidifiers are used to prevent electrostatic destruction
and particle adhesion in electronics processes, to prevent paper jam, and
paper expansion and contraction in printing factories, to prevent dust
adhesion and ignition, when a small volume of Dry Fog is required. When
air supply is available from utilities, the portable compressor is not

necessary.
12. Industrial humidifiers by S.K.B Systems

Range: Bahnson spot type, oscillation, fogaire, E-fog, humilab, con-air,
con air max, custom-built humidifiers with automatic controls all to suit
specific requirements.
Application industries: Textile industry, tea and tobacco manufacturing

units, pharmaceutical industries, wood processing industries, cold storage,
horticulture industries and green houses.
12.A ‘BH’ spot humidifier

The features are low operating and recurring cost with efficient fractional
HP motor, better humidity control at lower cost, correct humidity
maintained, self-contained, requiring no duct work or auxiliary equipment,
minimum and easy maintenance, quick atomization of water into a fine
mist for rapid evaporation, effective mist dispersal due to positive
directional air flow, high capacity evaporation. Installed room shall get
uniform distribution of humidified air, easy to install Flexible and self-
contained unit.
12.B ‘BH’ Oscillation humidifier

Features: Total area covered by single system shall be 2200 sq ft. One
oscillation humidifier shall replace 3 spot type humidifiers because of its
sweep area of 170 degrees oscillation arrangement. No condensation of
water in front of humidifiers. They are easy to install and smooth in
operation, simple and silent due to the genuine grade bearing for the energy
efficient motors. Evaporating capacity of 40 liters per hour, but can be
manipulated to suit customers requirements using imported gate valve.
E-Fog Humidifier
13. Air humidifier by Ningbo Chenwu Humidifying

Equipment Factory
Description:
Mainly used in all kinds of clothing factories, all kinds
of textile factories, high temperature and workshop
with polluted, ironware factories which need to lower
temperature, waiting room, supermarkets, restaurants
and other public places, and it is also used in the
hothouse and the farm.
The technical parameter is as follows: Mist Output:
0–35 l h -1, air capacity: 7200 m3 l-1, humidified space:
300 m 2, spray direction: mobile, power: 600 W, power
supply: 220 V 50 Hz, Weight: 60 kg., dimension: 550
× 450 × 1400 mm.
14. HR – 15 (Industrial humidifier) by Faran

Industrial Co. Ltd.
Specifications:
● Coverage: 15–30 sq. m
● Power supply: 110V or 220V / 50Hz or 60Hz
● Power consumption: 90 W
● Humidification capacity: 1500 cc h-1 (0.4 gallon
per hour)
● Dimensions: 310 × 310 ×470 mm (12.20 × 12.20
Model: Hr- × 18.50 in.)
Features:
● Easy to install(connect to water tap or water tank)
● Various space usage (on-wall)
● Easy to carry by handle
● Trouble free simple structure (high durability)
● Good for chemical disinfection & deodorization
● Good for electronics, textile, tobacco factories, low temperature
warehouse and mushroom cultivation.
Applications:
● Greenhouse, propagation room, research chamber, storage room,
nursery, mushroom and orchid cultivation, chicken breeding, textile,
tobacco and timber industries.
Notes:
● Set it up horizontally to control the water level
● Make sure the connecting wire is long enough
● Check and clean the water tank periodically
● If there is no humidification, turn power off and check the water
level.
● If water overflows, turn the water tap off and check the float valve.
Appendix 4
Spray nozzles and mist eliminators
A. Nozzles
1. Hydraulic nozzles by Ikeuchi (following varieties

are available)
Flat spray nozzle

● Standard flat spray:
■ One-piece structure standard flat spray
nozzles (VP, VVP).
■ One-piece structure standard flat spray
nozzles in plastic (UVVP, VVP-U). Flat spray nozzle
■ Three-piece structure standard flat spray
nozzles (V, VV).
■ Coin-shaped standard flat spray nozzles (CVVP).
● Even flat spray:
■ Even flat spray nozzles (VE, VEP).
■ High pressure cleaning even flat spray nozzles (VNP).
■ Descaling nozzles (DSP).
■ Wide-angle flat spray.
■ Wide-angle flat spray nozzles (YYP).
■ Wide-angle flat spray nozzles for low pressure operation (LYYP).
● Off-center even flat spray nozzles (OVVEP).
● Self-cleaning flat spray nozzles (MOMO).
● Quick installation nozzles (QB).
● Quick-detachable-type flat spray nozzles (ISVV).
346
Spray nozzles and mist eliminators 347
● Air-mixing-type flat spray nozzles (EJVV).

● Air and steam spraying flat spray nozzles (VZ).
Full cone spray nozzles

● Standard full cone spray nozzles (JJXP).
● Ceramic orifice and whirler inserted full
cone spray nozzles (JUP).
● Alumina orifice and whirler inserted full cone
spray nozzles (JUXP-AL92).
● Flange-type large capacity full cone spray
nozzles (TJJX).
● Wide-angle full cone spray nozzles (BBXP).
● Narrow-angle full cone spray nozzles
Full cone spray nozzles (NJJP).
● Small capacity full cone spray.
● Small capacity full cone spray nozzles in plastic (JJRP).
● Small capacity full cone spray nozzles in metal (J).
● Minimal clogging full cone spray nozzles (AJP).
● Quick detachable type full cone spray nozzles (ISJJX).
● Full cone spray nozzles for high-efficient etching (SNAPJet).
Hollow cone spray nozzles

● Extremely fine mist and ultra small capacity
hollow cone spray nozzles (KB).
● Spray header with KB-CERTIIM series
nozzles.
● Fine atomization and small capacity hollow
cone spray nozzles (K).
● Medium capacity hollow cone spray.
■Medium capacity hollow cone spray
nozzles (AAP).
Hollow cone spray nozzles ■ Alumina ceramics and medium apacity
hollow cone spray nozzles (AP-AL92).
● Flange-type large capacity hollow cone spray nozzles (TAA).
● Small capacity hollow cone spray nozzles (KD).
Special cone spray nozzles

● Square full cone spray nozzles (SSXP).
● Multiple-nozzle head full cone spray.
■ 7-head full cone spray nozzles (7JJXP).

■ Extremely fine atomization 7-head full cone spray nozzles
(7KB).
■ Gas cooling nozzles SPILLBACK (SPB).
Solid stream jet nozzles

● Standard solid stream Jet nozzles (CP, CCP).
● Round inlet solid stream Jet nozzles (CRP,
CCRP).
● Trimming nozzle (CM, CTM).
● Multiple-orifice solid stream Jet nozzles
2CCP/7CCP, 2CP/7CP series.
● Self-cleaning solid stream jet nozzles
(MOMOC).
Solid stream jet nozzles
Special solid stream jet nozzles

● Ejector nozzles for solution agitation (EJX).
Special purpose nozzles and accessory

● Air nozzles (TAIFUJet®).
● Water/air curtain nozzles (SLNH/SLNHA).
● Accessory: UT ball joints.
2. Pneumatic air nozzles (TAIFUJet®)
Pneumatic spray nozzles

Features:
● Taking in surrounding air through holes
around nozzle edge, TAIFUJet nozzles
spout out double volume of air supplied.
● Uniform distribution resulting from unique
design achieves an efficient air blow and
saves air consumption.
● Designed to reduce a noise level for
improving working environments.
Pneumatic spray nozzles
Materials:
● ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)/Stainless steel
Applications:
● Cooling
● Blowing off water droplets, drying
● Blowing off dust
● Transporting
● Air curtain
Comparing with hydraulic spray nozzles applying only water pumps,
pneumatic spray nozzles have the following features:
● Excellent atomizing performance
● Large turndown ratio (Large flow control coverage)
● Large free passage diameter
Fine mist nozzles

(BIM/GBIM/GSIM_s series): Pneumatic spray nozzles developed to satisfy
crucial requirement on spray nozzles in continuous casting process in steel
making.
Minimal clogging fine mist nozzles

(SETOJet series): Pneumatic spray nozzles developed especially for
spraying/atomization of viscous liquid.
Impinging-type fine mist nozzles

(AKIJet® series): Impinging-atomization type pneumatic spray nozzles
featuring uniform distribution of droplet size.
Semi-fine mist nozzles

(LSIM series): Pneumatic spray nozzles producing semi-fine atomization,
applying very low pressurised air from conventional blowers
Steam driving nozzles

(JOKlJet® series): Innovative pneumatic nozzles using steam instead of
compressed air to generate fine mist of liquid components.
Water/air curtain nozzles (SLNH/SLNHA series)

Features:
● Spray uniformly in width direction with soft spray impact for minimal
damage to the products.
● Thinner liquid film spray saves cost of chemicals and water.

● Available in liquid spraying type (SLNH series) and air spraying type
(SLNHA series).
Materials:
● Stainless steel 304/PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
Applications:
● Air Blow-off
● Etching
● Cleaning
3. JetSpray AHU cold water spray humidifier

The JetSpray AHU system can provide close humidity control to ±2%
relative humidity and is the energy efficient way to humidify air handling
systems. It can be retro-fitted to existing AHUs or specified for new
systems. Either way the savings in running costs and low maintenance
routines mean that this remarkable system will pay more than for itself
within one year.
JetSpray AHU is hygienic in use, self-cleaning and self-purging, uses

mains, demineralised or RO water and gives excellent control of the relative

humidity.
A JetSpray AHU humidifier comprises a suitable number of atomizing

nozzles mounted onto one or more custom-designed manifolds, installed
across the airflow. Excellent moisture distribution is assured by the choice
of nozzle capacity, suitable spacing on the manifold, correct positioning
in the AHU and flexible orientation of the nozzles.
Evaporation distance varies according to air temperature, velocity and
RH but, where space is at a premium, a JetSpray evaporation matrix can
be installed to guarantee evaporation in just 1 m.
JS Pure Tec ensures hygienic operation, with UV water sterilisation,
active drain to empty the nozzle line when not in use and regular purging
of pipe work to the JetSpray control so water doesn’t remain static in the
system.
JetSpray AHU: Low energy, hygienic humidification for air handling units.
Features:
● ±2% relative humidity control
● WRAS approved for direct mains water connection
● Saves energy and money
● Low maintenance costs
● Hygienic and clean:
■ UV sterilisation
■ Self-purging
■ Self-cleaning
■ No water recirculation
● Mains and RO water
● Complete evaporation
● Excellent control of RH
● Easy installation
● Better for the environment
Precision engineered nozzles:

Precision engineered nozzles combine compressed air and water to achieve
maximum evaporation at minimum distance.
JetSpray complete package: A clean, dry compressed air supply of

0.56 m 3 h -1 (0.033 CFM) is required for each litre of atomized water, at
a minimum of 4.5bar (67 psi). A final filter with auto drain is
recommended immediately before each JS control panel. Mains, softened
or demineralised water supply should be available at a minimum pressure
of 4.0 bar (58 psi), with no significant fluctuation, max pressure 7.5 bar
(109 psi). Even though the JetSpray can run with mains water,
demineralised water should be used for a dust-free environment, where
the application demands it.
4. Spray nozzles by excel air technique

Spray nozzles produce a fine mist (fog) and allow the passing air stream
to absorb the same, thereby lowering its dry bulb temperature closer to its
wet bulb temperature. They are available in PVC, PP, and PC with S.S.
caps and clamping provision.
B. Eliminators
B.1 MM Aqua mist eliminator

Mist eliminator produced by MM Aqua is UV stabilised made out of virgin
PVC in 3 different designs to meet engineering applications in textile units,
air washers/air handling units, paint booth gas turbine air intake systems
etc. Mist eliminator is an impingement separator designed for horizontal
gas flow. It is composed of sine curve shaped flow contours assembled
with phase separating chambers our three types of mist eliminators are
T-100, T-200 and T-400.
T – 100 Profile depth 170 mm

Maximum length 5000 mm
Material PVC
Uses Mist eliminator as well as air
straightener

Material PVC
Uses Mist eliminator

Material PVC
Uses Mist eliminator
Advantages of MM Aqua mist eliminators:

Manufactured through continuous extrusion process gives uniform
thickness to eliminator profile. Lower pressure drop due to special
aerodynamic contour and smooth surface. Longer life due to corrosion
resistant plastic material. Light weight so easy to handle. Up to 3 m height,
no intermediate support is required.
B.2 ACS mist eliminators

ACS is pioneers in mesh pad eliminators which have a very high efficiency
of vapour elimination.
ACS mesh pad mist eliminators
ACS offers a large variety of mesh materials, densities, and

configurations to offer exact replacement-in-kind for virtually any existing
mesh pad within days or to optimise your mist elimination application, most
often with no modifications being required to your equipment. In most
applications, the ACS mist eliminator can be sized, designed, and rated
based on the given process data for up to 99% removal of liquid droplets
3 microns and larger.
Chevron vane mist eliminators
ACS offers exact replacement-in-kind for most chevron shaped vane

mist eliminators and two specialty designs that offer improved high
performance mist elimination at very high flow capacities and velocities.
Our patented MultiPocket® vane is truly revolutionary in the vane industry
of low fouling, durable, high capacity products. In most applications,
the ACS MultiPocket® product can be sized, designed, and rated based on
the given process data for up to 99% removal of liquid droplets or
small particulates 8 microns and larger.
Mesh-vane assembly mist eliminators
After years of testing and field verification experience, ACS offers the
industry the very best combination of capacity and fine liquid droplet
micron removal performance with the mesh-vane assembly product. Let
ACS show you how to handle 200% greater flow rates at up to 99% removal
of liquid droplets 3 microns and larger with no modifications to your vessel.
Appendix 5
Fans and blowers
1. AeroTech centrifugal blower

AeroTech manufacture a wide range of centrifugal fans to suit number of
industrial applications. Centrifugal blowers are well engineered and having
high efficiency incorporating all the latest technologies. All types of centrifugal
fan that manufactured are designed to meet customer’s specific requirements.
Type of fans:
● High volume limit load blowers (SISW type)*
● High volume limit load blowers (DIDW type)*
● Low pressure blowers
● Plug fans
● Medium pressure blowers (Backward curved blades)
● Medium pressure blowers (Self-cleaning blades)
● Medium pressure blowers (Straight radial blades)
● Induced and forced draft fans
● High pressure blowers
● Two stage blowers
*Available in class 1, 2, 3 and 4 constructions.
356
Fans and blowers 357
Technical specification:
● Air volume 250000 CMH.
● Air pressure up to 1200 mm w.g in single stage.
● Air pressure above 1200 mm w.g in two stage.
● Temperature up to 380°C with cooling disc.
Salient features:
● Easy maintainability
● Low power consumption
● Low noise
● High efficiency
● Customise drive
● Arrangements
● Customise discharge directions
Extra features available:

● Available in M.S/S.S/Aluminum/F.R.P.
● High temperature fan with cooling disc.
● Drain pug and inspection window.
● Horizontally split housing for easy handling.
● F.R.P/rubber lining.
● Inlet/outlet damper.
● Special paint finish.
2. Aerotech axial flow fan

AeroTech axial flow fans are specially designed and manufactured for
optimum relation between air quantity and power consumption and to meet
the exact demands of commercial and industrial ventilation in hot, humid,

dusty and corrosive environments. Cylindrical casing of fans is fabricated
out of mild steel/stainless steel sheet with adequate size for fine clearances
as is practicable for better efficiency. Impeller will be of cast aluminium
alloy and aerofoil of blade is designed to have maximum efficiency at
lesser HP.
Type of fans:
● Tube axial fan (Belt driven/direct driven)
● Heavy duty wall mounting fan/ring fan
● Mine ventilation fan/contra-rotating fan
● Vane axial fan (Belt driven/direct driven)
● Bifurcated axial fan
● Power roof ventilator/extractor
Technical specification:
● Air volume up to 130000 CMH
● Sizes from 300 mm to 1600 mm*
● Larger sizes also available on demand
Salient features:
● Cost effective
● Large air volumes
● Low power consumption
● Easy to install
● Low maintenance
● Can be connected to duct
*Available with 4,6,7,8 & 11 blades impeller.

*Available with fixed and variable pitches impeller.
Extra features available: Available in direct drive & V-belt drive, long
and short casing, F.R.P or rubber lined, gravity louver or bird guard (front/
back) and special paint finish.
3. Man coolers by Aerotech

‘Aerotech’ man coolers are meant for industrial use where forced draft
circulation of air is needed. These blasters discharge high velocity powerful
air offering effective cooling at a particular spot or long distance. They
are unique for the comfort for the man, machine and materials. Built in
robust construction and fitted with TEFC motors for 3 phases, 50 cycles,
AC supply operation, these air blasters employ high efficiency aluminum
alloy impellers with aerofoil section blades and are designed for optimum
relation between air quantity, pressure and power consumption. The air
blasters consist of strong wire guards, tilting and swiveling arrangement.
Air filters are designed to provide better filter efficiency, and ideal air
flow characteristics, constant performance greater fire retardency. It is easy
maintenance and simple handling provide it a longer life thus eliminates
numerous operational constraints. Available in standard as well as tailor
made sized.
Tubular mounted
Type Size A B C D H L Motor

HP RPM
AETM 500 745 55 510 650 500 460 2 2850
AETM 600 845 655 610 750 600 520 1.0 1440
AETM 700 1000 655 710 850 700 620 2 1440
Column mounted
Type Size A B C D E Motor

HP RPM
AECM 500 255 205 600 485 325 2 2850
AECM 600 255 205 700 485 325 1 1420
AECM 700 255 205 800 585 325 2 1440
AECM 800 – – – – – 3 1440
Pedestal type
Type Size A B C D Motor

HP RPM
AEPM 500 555 1155 600 430 2 2850
AEPM 600 555 1155 700 415 1 1440
AEPM 700 555 1155 800 485 2 1440
ACM A B ØC ØD E F
50 160 6 750 500 540 350

60 160 6 900 600 640 430
70 200 6 1050 700 746 440
80 210 6 1200 800 846 560
90 210 6 1350 900 950 575
100 225 6 1500 1000 1046 590
120 290 6 1800 1200 1265 680
140 300 8 2100 1400 1410 760
160 325 8 2400 1600 1525 800
4. Air curtain by Aerotech

Air curtain is the environmental separation which prevents outside air,
insects or hot air entry to the conditioned area through the open door ways
or the door being opened at frequent intervals. The principle of air curtain
is that it blows the atmospheric air at constant velocity at the door ways
and forms an air stream for the entire width and height of the door openings.
The velocity will vary depending on the effective trough of the air stream.
Moreover, it can reduce energy consumption considerably by holding the
uniform cold air conditioned area. It also eliminates the flies and other
small insects’ infiltration through an open door, and helps maintaining the
required hygienic standard in the specified areas.
Applications:
Aerotech air curtains are ideal for clean rooms, computer centres, air-
conditioned buildings and offices, research laboratories, medical
institutions, hospitals, kitchens, departmental stores, restaurants, electronic
component manufacturing, pharmaceutical processing optical instruments
assembly units.
Features:
● Easy installation.
● Engineered to provide many years of maintenance free service.
● Aesthetic design.
● Constructed from high quality materials.
5. Keystone air systems
Axial flow fans

● To achieve high efficiency, fans have a defined hub ratio 71:25 for
given capacity, pressure and speed.
Centrifugal blower
● Impeller blades are adjustable type and can rest at designed angle to
suit the system resistance.
● Fan can run in parallel to suit capacity and in series for higher
pressure.
● Impeller is made of aerofoil profile from cast aluminium alloys.
● Bifurcated-type fans are available for handing corrosive gases.
● Capacity: Up to 300000 m 3 h -1.
● Pressure: Up to 100 mm WG.
6. Roof extractor by AC humidification engineers

Aerotech roof extractor is a motor-driven fan unit and is provided with
durable weather proof exhaust hood. This is ideal for extraction or air
supply through the roof, usually preferable in factories, D.G. rooms, steel
plants and foundries.
ACM A B ØC ØD E F
50 160 6 750 500 540 350
60 160 6 900 600 640 430
70 200 6 1050 700 746 440
80 210 6 1200 800 846 560
90 210 6 1350 900 950 575
100 225 6 1500 1000 1046 590
120 290 6 1800 1200 1265 680
140 300 8 2100 1400 1410 760
160 325 8 2400 1600 1525 800
7. Backward curved centrifugal blowers

HUMIDIN centrifugal blowers are multi-bladed and designed to deliver
large volume of air when operating at the lowest possible peripheral speeds.
Ideal for heating, ventilating, air conditioning and industrial process duties,
they can be used for all type of air-moving applications where relatively
clean air is moved. Ruggedly built, quiet operating and dependable, these
blowers would perform year after year with a minimum of attention.
Limit Backward Backward Straight blade High pressure

load curved curved with
radial tip
Type Type Total Type Total Type Total Type Total
pressure pressure pressure
(mm WG) (mm WG) (mm WG)
ACLL-S & ACBL 100 AMRL 300 AMSL 250 ACHS 700
ACLL-D and
Class 1 1000
Class II AMBM 450 AMRM 600 AMSM 400 2-stage fan
which develops
up to 2500 mm
WG (on
request)
Class III AHBM 800 AHRM 900 AHSM 500
Class IV AHBM 1200 AHSH 1100
8. Forward curved centrifugal blowers

HUMIDIN is manufacturing forward curved centrifugal blowers in DIDW
as well as SISW designs. As mentioned below:
● These fans have forward curved impellers with forward curved blades
having special profile.
● Gives maximum efficiency at low noise level.
● The fan impeller is statically and dynamically balanced.
HUMIDIN forward curved centrifugal blowers are suitable for various

applications, where high volume air displacement is required like – air
cooling, general ventilation pressurisation, air conditioning, heating and
commercial processes. They are available in various capacities from 1000
to 100000 m3 h-1 and static pressure is ranging from -10 to 100 mm WG.
9. Centrifugal blowers (ID & FD)

The ID & FD Centrifugal blowers are carefully designed to meet ideal
requirement for various industrial applications. HUMIDIN, 3 basic types
of blowers in 23 sizes are made in heavy duty construction with statically
and dynamically balanced impellers which give trouble free performance.
Available air delivery 500–150000 cum h-1. These models consist of

completely backward curved, backward curved with self-cleaning and
straight blades.
10. Axial flow fans

HUMIDIN also offers axial flow fan through which the air of gas flows
parallel to the impeller axis. Available in various types, covers a wide
range of quantities and pressures. They are widely used in industry for
providing general ventilation, fume exhaust and removal of hot spots and
as roof extractor. Designed for an optimum relation between air quantity,
pressure and power consumption, these ACA axial flow fans have MS
casing/bracket with cast aluminium alloy impeller along with aerofoil
section blades suitable for various mountings.
They offer the most economical and efficient installation for industry
such as thermal power stations, fertilizers, heavy engineering, chemical,
textile, food general, paper, sugar and pharmaceuticals, etc.
11. Green house fan

Increase demand for vegetables, flowers, fruits has resulted for cultivation
in green houses. HUMIDIN systems ensure proper climatic condition with
low pressure drop and high efficiency equipments with minimum energy
requirements.
Environmental control for birds has become essential as they are put in
enclosed place.
12. Roof extractor – HUMIDIN

It is a motor driven fan unit equipped with cast aluminium alloy impeller,
aero foil section blades and is provided with a durable weather proof
exhaust cowl. This is ideal for extraction or air supply through the roof
and is usually preferable in factories, power plant, steel plant and foundries.
The fan which is incorporated here is of our ACA series and can be selected
accordingly.
13. Fans by Trane Climate Changer

Trane Climate Changer™ air handlers offer an extensive array of fan types
and options with different capacity. These fans can optimise not only the
airflow and static pressure requirements, but also the acoustical, efficiency,
and discharge requirements. Variable-frequency drives for modulation in
variable-air-volume systems gives even more precision.
Fan selection should be based on the fan airflow (CFM), total static
pressure (TSP), efficiency (BHP), operating range, and sound levels.
Trane fan curves show fan CFM, TSP, fan rpm, and fan wide-open CFM
(WOCFM) performance relationships with the fan in the module. The

effect of the air handler casing on fan performance is included in the fan
curve. Fan curve catalogues are available from Trane sales engineer. Trane
offers fan types that include forward-curved (FC) airfoil (AF), backward-
curved (BC) plenum (unhoused AF, or plug), and direct-drive plenum
fans.
14. Centrifugal blowers by Airfilt

They are specially designed for an efficient functioning and come in a
variety of sizes. These centrifugal blowers comprise of housing, impeller
and drive arrangements. The housing consists of a sheet iron with circular
inlet and rectangular outlet. The impellers precision balanced for a smooth
vibration less operation. These blowers are fabricated in M.S., stainless
steel, aluminium, etc., depending upon the kind of usage. Apart from the
usual material these can also be made from various other coatings like
F.R.P, hot dip, galvanizing, epoxy, etc.
15. Axial flow fans by Airfilt

Airfilt brings a variety of axial fans that find their usage in all the major
industries where a required air flow and mass transfer operations are
involved. They are conventionally designed with impellers made of
aluminium and mild steel. The new and improved aerodynamic fan
designing, composite development, structural design combined with latest
manufacturing process are aimed to bring out consistent quality and higher
productivity. The fans have a capacity of 500–100000 CMH and an impeller
size of 300–1600 mm.
16. Roof exhausters by Airfilt

Airfilt offers specially designed roof exhausters for efficient ventilation
in the humid and hot workspaces. They are available in various capacities
having high volume sweeping actions to assure removal of humid air. The
body of the exhauster is made up of MS and has an impeller directly
connected to the motor.
17. Tunnel ventilation

Tunnel ventilation assures an efficient exhaust system. The unit consists
of axial impellers that deliver large quantities of air at high pressures. The
system consists of either a single impeller or two impellers having a varied
blade width.
18. Axial flow fans by C.D. Blowers

C.D. Blowers offer axial flow fans, which are claimed to be highly
efficient. The number of blades in the rotors could vary from 2 to 50.
As the name suggests, the flow of air is occurred in axial direction and
the casing is done in such a way that it recovers static pressure. As
soon as the rotor rotates using an electric motor, a flow establishes
through rotor causing an increase air stagnation pressure. There is a
cylindrical casing, which encloses rotor. There are well shaped
converging and diverging passage to receive and discharge the flow.
The fan wheels or rotors are constructed using heavy gauge MS sheet
with an aluminium casting. Widely applicable in ventilation process,
which could be mines or tunnel where the large pressure is required
along with compact dimensions.
19. Centrifugal ventilation fans by DraftAir

Size 200–2500 mm. impeller Dia
Capacity 1000–400000 CMH
Pressure Up to 150 mm WG
Low noise high efficiency non-overloading

impeller with backward inclined blades.
Impellers statically and dynamically balanced
as per ISO 1940. Casing fabricated from
heavy gauge steel with heavy duty pedestals.
Fan orientation is provided to suit the site
requirement.
19.A Centrifugal process fans

Beside axial flow and centrifugal ventilation fans, draft-air offers special
purpose centrifugal fans for high temperature, fume/vapour exhaust, dust
handling, material, conveying, induced draft and forced draft applications.
20. Axial flow fans by DraftAir

Size 450–1980 mm sweep.
Capacity 2000–200000 CMH.
Pressure Up to 65mm WG.
Hosing fabricated from heavy gauge steel
sheet. Impeller is having high efficiency aero-
foil section adjustable pitch blades. Impellers
are statically and dynamically balanced as per
ISO 1940. Inlet cone and outlet diffuser are
provided to further improve the efficiency.
21. Axial flow fans by AeroTech Engineers

The axial flow fans are widely used for providing the required airflow for
the heat and mass transfer operations in various industrial equipment and
processes. These includes cooling tower for air conditioning and
ventilation, humidifiers in textile mills, air-heat exchangers for various
chemical processes, ventilation and exhaust as in mining industry.
All the major industries use large number of axial flow fans operation,
such as: humidifiers fans, ventilation fans, cooling towers, heat exchangers
industrial air circulator and man cooler.
The FRP fans offer certain critical advantages as optimal aerodynamic
design of fan impellers to provide higher efficiency for any specific
application, reduction in overall weight of the fan, thereby extending the
life of mechanical drive system. It requires lower drive motor rating and
light duty bearing system. Lower power consumption is resulting in
appreciable energy savings. FRP fan fabricated compression moulding/
resin transfer moulding technique would have uniform dimensions and
consistent quality. Lower flow noise and mechanical noise level compared
to conventional metallic fans. Longer life of the fan is achieved due to
improved mechanical strength.
22. Automatic centrifugal atomization humidifier

Features:
● Centrifugal atomization, directly atomizes water, vents to space via fan
● Enhances air humidity
● Operates smoothly, immediately improves humidity
● Our proprietary designs significantly improve humidifier performance
● Suitable for use in textile factories manufacturing wool, hemp, cotton,
silk, knitting, tie and non-woven textiles
● Also suitable for humidity adjustment
● Easy maintenance
Specifications:
● Atomization amount: 10–12l/hb;
Atomization direction: 360°C
● Humidification cubage: 1200 m3
● Power: 250 W; Voltage: 220 V, 50 Hz
● Hydraulic pressure: 0.6–3kg cm-2
● Dimensions: 550 × 620 × 720 mm
● Conditions for use:
■ Environment temperature: 0–40°C
■ Water: city processed water
■ Place humidifier where working
humidity is needed
23. Automatic centrifugal atomization humidifier

Features:
● Centrifugal atomization, directly atomizes water, vents to space via fan
● Enhances air humidity
● Operates smoothly, immediately improves humidity
● Our proprietary designs significantly improve humidifier performance
● Suitable for use in textile factories manufacturing wool, hemp, cotton,
silk, knitting, tie and non-woven textiles.

● Also suitable for humidity adjustment
● Easy maintenance
Specifications:
● Atomization amount: 7–8l/hb; Atomization
direction: 2 nozzles
● Humidification cubage: 750 m3
● Power: 200 W; Voltage: 220 V, 50 Hz
● Hydraulic pressure: 0.6–3 kg cm -2
● Dimensions: 550 × 620 × 720 mm
● Conditions for use:
■ Environment temperature: 0–40°C
■ Water: city processed water
■ Place humidifier where working humidity is needed
24. Quench air outlet for filament spinning by

Luwa
Machine air-conditioning is required in filament spinning. The quench air
outlet produces a laminar air flow with which maximum product quality is
achieved in the spun-bond process. Luwa guarantees a speed variation of
max ±0.05 m s -1 in the range of 0.3–0.7 m s-1 with minimum pressure loss.
Luwa offers a comprehensive system including extraction, depending on

requirements.
Appendix 6
Dampers and diffusers
1. AeroTech damper
AeroTech damper grill and register fabricated in high quality extruded
profile adjustable horizontal and vertical single/double deflection louver
with opposed blade aluminium extruded section damper. Horizontal fixed
bar linear grill with 0–45° louver inclination in heavy and slim line
sections.
AeroTech has been the leader in recognizing and meeting the need of
air management product and system. They are the manufacturer and
supplier of comprehensive range of air terminal equipment to suit decor
and interior. To meet with modern sophisticated architectural design
AeroTech manufacture horizontal fixed bar grill in any curvature shape
and mitered corner.
Diffuser square/rectangular from aluminium extrusion an ideal for most
commercial project having high quality diffuser with 1,2,3,4 way
directional flow. Multi-slot diffuser in 2,3,4,5 slots with hit and miss damper
with special coating to give them a smooth surface. AeroTech has complete
range of air terminal equipment in extruded aluminium and steel
construction.
373
2. Hiross C and Hiross V

Hiross C and Hiross V range cover cooling and heating needs by
distributing the air under the floor: either chilled or hot water is supplied
to a changeover coil or a double coil system which have each a 3 way
valves incorporated. Conditioned air module Hiross C, generate
conditioned air to be delivered into the under floor supply plenum and
draw air back through grilles into return under floor plenum thus
reducing the need for a false ceiling, offering up to 10% reduction of
floor-to-ceiling height and 5–7% of building construction costs. It is
suitable for both open plans and cellular offices space and in height-
limited space.
Hiross variable air flow unit Hiross V, generate conditioned air to be
delivered into the under floor plenum and draw air back through the space
or, un-ducted, through the false ceiling, thus allowing full use of the under
floor void as supply plenum with no restrictions as to positioning of air
terminal units. This continuously monitors and controls the air volume
and temperature both in the floor plenum and in the ambient for each
assigned zone by means of the intelligent data link to each fan tile. This
is, particularly, suitable for open-space plans and non-height-limited areas.
High efficiency filters provide air cleanliness and an optional electrode
steam humidifier (5kg h-1) provides humidity control.
They may be enclosed in partitions or left free standing in shafts,
corridors, technical rooms or in the working space.
Hiross C Hiross V
Dampers and diffusers 375
Hiross C Hiross V
Models 3 models: HirossC15-25-35 4 models: 11-22-33-44 for under
for under floor air supply floor air supply with room or
and return. ceiling return
Cooling capacity Up to 32 kW (26°C, 50% Up to 40 kW (26°C, 50% R.H.,
R.H., CW in/out 7/12°C) CW in/out 7/12°C)
Heating capacity Up to 50 kW (20°C, 50% Up to 58 kW (20°C, 50% R.H.,
R.H., HW in/out 80/70°C) HW in/out 80/70°C)
Air flow Up to 9500 m3 h -1 Up to 9500 m 3 h -1 automatic
variable flow speed controller
SPL (Noise level) 40-45 dB(A) 2m free field 40-50 dB(A) 2m free field
(generally 35NR in room)
Filter From G3 to F7 grade From G3 to F5 grade
Electric heater Up to 14.85 kW Up to 9.1 Kw
Length (mm) 1000–2000 850–1450
Height (mm) 1950 1950
Depth (mm) 750 750
Automatic control: Zone AHUs have on-board microprocessor control, Micro face,
intelligent, user friendly interface for continuous HirossTU/
HirossTUC network monitoring and optimization of FSS system
working parameters. The controller may interlink with higher level
interfaces and supervision system.
3. Plastic T-Bar ceiling air diffuser by Eager

Products
Eager products have all plastic 24in. T-Bar ceiling air diffuser designed
for drop in ceilings that will not rust, will not sweat, and it will not chip;
colour stays consistent throughout the part. Neck sizes: 6in., 8in., 10in.,
12in. and 14i.
Perfect for all applications.
4. Air outlets by Luwa
4.1 Baffle plate air outlet

Luwa baffle plate air outlet guarantees an optimum air distribution of the
supply air and creates a predominance of vertical air movement so that the
humidity can reach the yarn optimally and the dust produced is pushed
downwards. There, the dust is taken up by the exhaust air system where
the air is re-conditioned in the filter and washer plant. After this re-
conditioning process, the air is returned to the spinning hall.
4.2 RotorSphere air outlet

Since rotor spinning is a closed production process compared to ring
spinning, Luwa have developed the RotorSphere system for this
application. RotorSphere requires less air and can be run with a smaller
air-conditioning plant. Thus, initial investment and operating costs are
reduced. In addition, with RotorSphere a much improved homogeneity of
the micro-climate is achieved along the rotors and the feed cans situated
between them. RotorSphere also ensures a good working environment for
the factory staff.
4.3 LOOMSPHERE® air outlet

The patented air outlet LOOMSPHERE®—allowing direct air conditioning
of the weaving machines—is the main feature of the air conditioning
concept for weaving mills. It guarantees the desired conditions regarding
humidity and temperature on the warp.
This spot air-conditioning in combination with a reduced air volume

for the room, called TAC® combi air-conditioning, is the ideal and most
economical solution for any weaving mill. The TAC ® combi air-
conditioning offers a high degree of efficiency and comfort with low
investment and subsequent low running costs.
4.4 AirBell air outlet for circular knitting

The AirBell air outlet is used for air-conditioning of circular knitting
machines. AirBell has the effect that the air flow above the machine forms
a sort of bell around the machine. Cross contamination between machines
is eliminated with the AirBell system. Furthermore, with the AirBell air
outlet, the work area is freed from fly and dust and fault frequency is
reduced by up to 50%.
4.5 The FlowMaster laminar flow outlet for

non-woven plants
The FlowMaster laminar flow outlet is suitable for local air conditioning in
manufacturing halls with an irregular local heat load distribution. The
FlowMaster is a fresh air outlet which distributes the incoming air at a low
speed near the floor, with little induction and turbulence. The air that has
been warmed by machines and people rises, and is guided via the outlet
openings out of the room or removed directly as machine exhaust air.
4.6 Quench air outlet for filament spinning

The quench air outlet produces a laminar air flow with which maximum
product quality is achieved in the spun-bond process. Luwa guarantees a
speed variation of max. ±0.05 m s-1 in the range of 0.3–0.7 m s-1 with
minimum pressure loss and offer a comprehensive system including
extraction, depending on requirements.
5. Air distributors by Excel Airtechnique
5.1 Distribution louvers

They streamline the air flow after the fans entering the spray chamber so
that the humidification process is uniform for every CFM of air passing
through the spray. They are also available in extruded PVC. They are
assembled with a set of PVC fixtures and can be quickly removed allowing
an easy entry into the spray chamber.
5.2 Air dampers

Air dampers are provided at fresh air entry, hot air exit, and recirculation
and by pass locations. They are used for controlling the air flow in the
required proportion. They are made in M.S. steel construction as well as
aluminium foil extruded construction. They could be connected with
actuators for automation purpose.
5.3 Gravity louver damper

Gravity louver damper also known as ‘Auto shutter’ is an arrangement
provided at the delivery side of the axial fan and remains open when the
fan is switched on and remains closed when the fan is switched off. This
allows using less number of fans in a multiple fan system design without
short circuit. Further when a motor trips and hence the fan is not able to
run the short circuit is prevented.
5.4 Air diffusers

They distribute the humidified air in the department at various locations.
They are available in PVC powder coated aluminium/S.S construction.
6. Power grand diffusers and accessories
6.1 Swirl air diffuser

1. The vane is designed on the
principle of fluid dynamics to
provide the swirling air flow with a
certain primary speed.
2. The angle of the vane can be
adjusted in accordance with the
working conditions to provide
rotating air in horizontal, vertical
and diagonal directions.
3. Vane adjusting device can be
manually or electrically controlled.
6.2 Swirl air diffuser square

The outside frame and the inside vane of
the cone are of detachable structure, easy
to install and adjust.
Air volume regulating valve can be added
so as to adjust airflow.
Powder coated and anti-oxygenation can
be used for surface treating.
Aluminium and stainless steel is for option, size can be adjusted as per
requirement.
6.3 FKP – SAD plastic air diffuser

Size: Out size 395 × 395 mm, adapt to the size of ceiling mounted. Neck
size diameter 150, 200, 250, 300, 350 mm.
Material: Plastic, ABS and HIPS.
Features:
1. Less condensation than metal grills
2. Do not rust
3. Easy to install and clean
4. Match adjustable damper to control the
air volume
6.4 FKP-RAD air diffuser

Size: Out size diameter 405mm, neck size diameter 150, 200, 250, 300 mm
Material: Plastic, ABS and HIPS
Colour: The standard size is white RAL9016, if the quantity is big
enough, we can choose colour according to
customers’ requirements.
Features:
1. Less condensation than metal diffuser
2. Light weight
3. With countersink in the out frame, easy
to install
6.5 Round air diffuser

1. Used for upward airflow, suitable for
ceiling mounted
2. Excellent appearance with molding
vane and outside frame into integrity
3. Inside core can be dismantled, install easily.
4. Neck size can be adjusted as per
customers’ requirements.
5. Dampers can be installed to adjust the
airflow.
6.6 Jet diffuser

FK-BS ball spout is mainly used for the odium,
airport, theatre, museum, etc.
Excellent appearance, long space of
airflow, low noise.
Airflow direction can be adjusted
manually or electrically.
Plastic spraying, outside colour can in
harmony with architecture requirements.
6.7 Square air diffuser

Development of the FK-SADE series comes
from the FK-SAD series. Compared with FK-
SAD series, the outside frame is extended, and
size is normally at 595 × 595 mm and 603 ×
603 mm so as to match the ceiling grid. Material
can be aluminium alloy and ABS plastic.
6.8 Ceiling diffuser

1. Outside frame and inside vane of the
cone are of detachable structure, easy
to install and adjust
2. Air volume regulating valve can be
added so as to adjust airflow
3. Powder coated and anti-oxygenation
can be used for surface treatment
4. Aluminium and stainless steel material
for option, size can be adjusted as per
requirements.
6.9 Ball spout

1. Mainly used for stadiums, airports,
theatres and museums
2. Excellent appearance, long space of
airflow, low noise
3. Airflow direction can be adjusted
manually or electrically
4. Dampers can be installed to adjust the
airflow.
6.10 Air intake

1. Used for exhaust and air intake
of exterior walls
2. With excellent waterproof
function owing to special
designed blade
3. Air filter or insect filter can be
inserted
6.11 Air grille

1. Excellent appearance, long space
of airflow, used as return air of
ceiling and side wall
2. Egg crate design, with solid
structure, easy for balancing
airflow
3. Dampers can be installed to
adjust the airflow
6.12 Air louver

1. Excellent appearance, mainly used
for return air of ceilings and side
walls
2. Fixed blade with solid frame
3. Blade angle is 45°
6.13 Linear grille

1. Mainly used for supplying air in
halls, lobbies
2. Two adjustable vanes in each
seam so as to control direction
and volume of airflow
3. Can be assorted with static
pressure box
4. Swiftly balances the temperature of airflow and shows velocity of
airflow to avoid dust wind
5. Maximum length is 2.5 m, can be assembled with two or more
parts
6.14 Volume control damper square:

1. Opposite multi-blade regulating damper
made by our plant has the features of
good design, solid and practical, nice
looking and easy to operate
2. Can be manually operated or motor
operated
3. Galvanized sheet and stainless steel for
option, size can be adjusted as per
requirements
6.15 Volume control damper

round
1. Can be manually-operated or motor-
operated
2. Galvanized sheet and stainless steel
material for option, size can be adjusted
as per requirements
6.16 Manual actuator for

dampers
1. Handle design fit for somatology
2. Galvanized or chromium-nickel plating
(optional)
6.17 Manual actuator

1. Transmission mechanically by worm
wheel so as to control accurately and be
convenient for operation
2. Galvanized or chromium-nickel plating
(optional)
6.18 Flexible duct

Constructed of 1-layer of aluminium film and
1-layer of polyethylene film 100% bonded
together, encapsulating the steel wire. Apply
for low/medium/high pressure air ventilation
and air condition system; easy to install with oval or round connection,
non-toxic gas and can resist high temperature.
6.19 Flexible air duct

Constructed of 2-layers of aluminium film 100% bonded together,
encapsulating the steel wire. With a thick blanket of fibreglass insulation
and jacket with an aluminium sleeve. Micro-hole made in the aluminium
foil inside can absorb the noise effectively.
Apply for low/medium/high pressure air ventilation and air condition
system; easy to install with oval or round connection, no toxic gas and can
resist high temperature.

encapsulating the steel wire. Apply for low/medium/high pressure air
ventilation and air condition system; easy to install with oval or round
connection, no toxic gas and can resist high temperature.
● Diameter range: 75–1200 mm (3.5–48 in.)

● Temperature range: -30–140
● Max. air velocity: 30 m s -1
● Working pressure: 2500 pa
● Standard length: 10 m

encapsulating the steel wire. With a thick blanket of fibreglass insulation
and jacket with an aluminium sleeve. Apply for low/medium/high pressure
air ventilation and air condition system; easy to install with oval or round
connection, no toxic gas and can resist high temperature.
● Diameter range: 75–1200 mm (3.5–48 in.)

● Temperature range: -30–140
● Max. air velocity: 30 m s -1
● Working pressure: 2500 pa
● Fiberglass thickness: 25 mm
● Fiberglass density: 20kg m-3
● Standard length: 10 m
Appendix 7
Sensors and data loggers
1. Veriteq relative humidity and data loggers

The Veriteq SP 2000 RH and data loggers are portable, battery operated
self-contained RH and temperature recorder with internal sensors and
memory. It is an easy-to-use alternative for RH chart recorders and bulky
data acquisition systems. The battery provided can work for ten-years.
Data loggers record relative humidity and temperature without wires, power
cords or connections. Simply place them where you need to measure
humidity and temperature and they will record accurate time-based readings
up to six times per minute – covering periods of up to several years in
duration. No charts, wires, connections or power cords are required.
The other salient features are traceable instrument-grade RH and

temperature measurement accuracy, adjustable logging intervals with multi-
year data recording capacity, premium quality precision sensors offering
exceptional in-calibration data logger performance, powerful graphing,
analysis, logger setup, and reporting software (Spectrum software).
387
Spectrum 2000 data loggers incorporate data logging and RH-sensing

technologies with integral precision RH and temperature sensors with long-
term high-accuracy measurement performance, sensitivity, and
responsiveness. Accurate to ±2% RH and 0.15°C, the data loggers can
sense changes as minute as 0.05% RH and 0.02°C. with a time-base
accuracy of better than five seconds per day. The rugged thermoset
polymer-based capacitive RH sensor offers outstanding resistance to air-
borne contaminants and condensation, delivering exceptional in-calibration
service and reliability. Data loggers interface to any PC (through any serial
or USB port) with Spectrum software, a windows-based package for
configuring, downloading, displaying, analyzing and reporting collected
humidity and temperature information. Humidity data is displayed in
graphical or tabular form or can export results for use in other programs.
The logger can also be used with the Spectrum Excel add-in, a utility
program designed to work directly within Microsoft Excel.
2. CMOS Humidity sensors

Humidity sensors are gaining more significance in diverse areas of
measurement and control technology. Manufacturers are not only
improving the accuracy and long-term drift of their sensors, they are
improving their durability for use in different environments, and
simultaneously reducing the component size and the price. Following this
trend, Swiss-based Sensirion AG has introduced a new generation of
integrated, digital, and calibrated humidity and temperature sensors using
CMOS ‘micro-machined’ chip technology. The new product, SHT11, is a
single chip RH and temperature multi sensor module with a calibrated
digital output which allows for simple and quick system integration.
Conventional sensors determine relative air humidity using capacitive
measurement technology. For this principle, the sensor element is built
out of a film capacitor on different substrates (glass, ceramic, etc.). The
dielectric is a polymer which absorbs or releases water proportional to the
relative environmental humidity, and thus changes the capacitance of the
capacitor, which is measured by an onboard electronic circuit.
Weaknesses: Stefan Christian, product manager at Sensirion, lists three
primary weaknesses of conventional analogue humidity sensors.
● Poor long-term stability: Due to the relatively large dimensions of
the sensor elements (10–20 mm2), as well as the aging of the polymer
layer, current capacitive sensors exhibit varying degrees of sensitivity
to the same external influences. Therefore, the drift per year, i.e., the
yearly change in error tolerance of the sensor, is becoming an
Sensors and data loggers 389
important criterion for quality. The aging of the metallic layer

electrodes can also lead to errors in the humidity signal.
● Complicated calibration: Before use, capacitive humidity sensors
must undergo a complicated calibration process. For this purpose,
the end user must have complex and expensive calibration and
reference systems, as well as external electronic components, such
as memory components.
● Analogue technology: Additional problems arise directly from the
analogue measurement principle, which links the stability of the
operating voltage inseparably to the sensor accuracy. This problem
can only be counteracted by increased spending on electronics and
inevitably leads to higher integration costs.
By combining CMOS and sensor technologies, Sensirion has released

this new standard a highly integrated and extremely small humidity sensor,
the SHT11. The device includes two calibrated micro sensors for relative
humidity and temperature which are coupled to an amplification, analogue-
to-digital (ND) conversion and serial interface circuit on the same chip.
A micro-machined finger electrode system with different protective and
polymer cover layers forms the capacitance for the sensor chip, and, in
addition to providing the sensor property, simultaneously protects the
sensor from interference. Total coverage with condensation or even
immersion in liquid presents no problems. The temperature sensor and the
humidity sensor together form a single unit, which enables a precise
determination of the dew point without incurring errors due to temperature
gradients between the two sensor elements.
3. Titan duct humidity sensor (Product code:

TPDH, TPVDH, TPVDHT & TPDHT)
The titan duct humidity sensor measures humidity and temperature
conditions in ventilation ducts. The measurement element is based on a
monolithic integrated circuit combining a capacitance measurement for
humidity and PT 100 element for temperature giving 0–10 V or 4–20 mA
outputs.
● TPDH 4–20 mA humidity only

● TPVDH 0–10 V humidity only
● TPDHT 4–20 mA and 0–10 V temperature
and humidity
● TPVDHT 0–10 V temperature and humidity
● TPVDH-RT 0–10V humidity and thermister
temperature
● TPDH-RT 4–20 mA humidity and thermister
temperature
Specifications:
● Material: Polycarbonate, Probe: 20 mm PVC Tube
● Sensing elements: Monolithic integrated circuit (combined)
alternative thermister for temperature
● Supply: 24 V DC ±15%mA loop powered and 24 V ±15% AC/DC
combined voltage
● Output: 4–20 mA, 0–10 V, Optional thermister temperature
● Range: Humidity 0–100%. Temperature 0–50ºC
● Accuracy: Humidity ±2%. Temperature ±0.2ºC
● Operating temperature: 0–50ºC
● Terminals: 1 mm recommended, 2.5 mm max
4. Honeywell humidity sensors

Relative humidity/temperature and relative humidity sensors are configured
with integrated circuitry to provide on-chip signal conditioning.
Absorption-based humidity sensors provide both temperature and %RH
outputs. On-chip signal processing ensures linear voltage output versus
%RH. Sensor laser trimming offers 5% RH accuracy and achieves 2%RH
accuracy with calibration. Packages are chemically resistant and operate
in ranges of -40–85°C to accommodate harsh environments. Relative
Humidity sensors contain a capacitive sensing die set in thermoset polymers
that interacts with platinum electrodes.
● HIH-4000 Series
● HIH-3610 Series
● HIH Series
5. RH-CAL portable relative humidity calibrator

from EdgeTech
RH-CAL is a microprocessor based, programmable
humidity calibration system that is at home in the
metrology lab or out in the field performing on site
NIST traceable humidity calibrations. The system
is claimed to offer the highest accuracy available
for both relative humidity and ambient temperature.
Benefits: EdgeTech field proven Optical Chilled
Mirror (OCM) technology, completely self-
sufficient and portable humidity calibration system,
RH Accuracy: ± 0.5%, Range: 5–95% and AT
[Temperature] – Accuracy: ± 0.2°C, Range: 10–50°C
6. Dewmaster – chilled mirror dew point

hygrometer from EdgeTech
Dewmaster is a precision NIST traceable hygrometer with accuracy at an
economical price. Dew points can be measured from -75–95ºC (chill mirror
sensor selection required). Air temperature and pressure sensors are
optional. LCD display, Serial and analog outputs, alarms relays. Dew point
lab standard is using proven chill mirror technology.
● Nema 4, panel mount and rack

mount configurations available.
● 3 parameter measurement
● dew point, temperature, pressure
● 3 line display and analog outputs
● Table top/rack mount
● Nema 4 housing option
● Chilled mirror sensor selection
required
7. H-STAT Microprocessor based humidistat from

EdgeTech
● Programmable humidistat
● LCD display
● User friendly installation with plug-in
electronics
● Accuracy ±2% RH from 30 to 80% RH
0–10 V DC
8. Humidity transmitter H-S – by EdgeTech

The H-S is a low voltage microprocessor
based humidity transmitter with a LCD
display and voltage output. This transmitter
is ideal for monitoring indoor humidity
application and HVAC applications where
both a display and a voltage output are
desired. Options: Temperature sensor to
monitor ambient conditions and
programmable relay contacts are available.
Features are large LCD showing humidity reading or set point, proven
humidity sensor with extraordinary performance in repeatability and
durability, user friendly installation/ replacement with plug-in electronic
module and base plate.
Measurement range: 10–95% RH, Control range: 10–95% RH, Accuracy
@ 25C: ±2% RH from 30–80%, Repeatability: ±0.3% RH, Operating
Temperature: 5–50°C, Temp effect: 0.05%RH/°F. Power requirement: 24
V dc or 24 V ac, Outputs 0–10 V. Sensor stability: ±1% @ 50% RH, 5
years.
9. Model 650 hand held hygrometer – by

EdgeTech
The Model 650 incorporates maintenance free humidity
probe ideal for checking humidity measurements for
validation of critical environments. It is rugged, compact
and protected by a water-proof plastic housing. The
Humidity measuring range is 0–100% RH with ±1%
accuracy. The probe is equipped with a patented RH
sensor. The unit can be upgraded depending on the
requirements and is supported with user friendly basic
comfort software, and can be used for programming, data
processing and Bar-coding. The optional barcode pen
allows for quick and easy data processing. The modular design allows for
upgrades to the instrument as they are developed.
Benefits: Guaranteed 2 years long stability, humidity sensor is unaffected
by water, highest %RH measurement accuracy with a capacitance probe,
NIST Certification, Battery powered and data logging capabilities with
small attachable printer.
Description: The precision temperature/humidity measuring instrument
includes the basic parameters viz temperature, dew point and %RH and
rapid measurement with accurate temperature probes. The measuring
instrument extrapolates the final value. Highest precision achieved due to

system calibration (measuring instrument + probe). Calibration data is
saved in the probe. Calculates all of the physical humidity parameters in
the Mollier diagram: %RH, dew point, pressure dew point (tp, tdp), absolute
humidity (g/m³), humidity levels (g/kg pressure-compensated), wet
temperature °C and °F, water vapour partial pressure in mbar/hPa, Enthalpy
kcal/kg, Humidity probes for every application, from low to high humidity
levels, Guaranteed long-term stability < 1% over 2 years and accuracy up
to ±1%.
10. Model 650% RH Transmitter

The integrated microprocessor accepts the
linearization and compensation for humidity over
the whole range from -40 to +180°C. This guarantees
highest accuracy of up to ±1% RH. In addition to
RH and temperature, dew point can also be
calculated. Up to 32 transducers can be analyzed
on a PC. The optional LED display is easy to read.
The Model 650 incorporates ±1% maintenance free
humidity probe ideal for checking RH measurements
for validation of critical environments. It’s rugged,
compact and protected by a water-proof plastic
housing. The Humidity measuring angle is 0–100% RH.
The accuracy of this probe has been tested and proven time and time
again in worldwide laboratory tests. The probe is equipped with a patented
%RH sensor.
Benefits: Highest precision of ±1% RH, Mollier diagram integrates °C,
%RH, td, g/m³, g kg-1, housing with LED display, 2 wire technology, 4–20
mA for signal and power, variable cable lengths up to 10 m, variable scaling
of outputs signals possible and parallel analysis of up to 32 transducers
via PC (RS485).
Description: The precision temperature/humidity measuring instrument
includes the basic parameters – temperature, dew point and %RH. Rapid
measurement with accurate temperature probes. The measuring instrument
extrapolates the final value. Highest precision achieved due to system
calibration (measuring instrument + probe). Calibration data is saved in
the probe. Guaranteed long-term stability <1% over 2 years. Accuracy
achieved up to ±1%. Calculates all of the physical humidity parameters in
the Mollier diagram, i.e., relative humidity (%RH) dew point, pressure
dew point (tp, tdp), absolute humidity (g/m³), humidity levels (g kg-1
pressure-compensated).
11. Model EC4 – NIST Traceable RH Calibration

chamber
NIST Traceable with accuracy of ±0.5%RH. Large calibration chamber
has 4.5 cu ft internal volume (also available in 20 and 30 cu ft.), which is
extremely stable and maintains uniform environment in wide temperature
and RH range. The EdgeTech 4.5 cu ft calibration chamber combines the
quality and durability of the PGC line with the technology of the EdgeTech
hygrometer. This chamber can be used for research and production testing,
in addition to quality control applications requiring RH and temperature
control within very narrow tolerances. The chilled mirror hygrometer
provides accuracies of measurement and control. The PGC system furnishes
RH and temperature with a chamber uniformity of ±0.5% RH and ±0.3°C.
The system, equipped with a single-latched outer door, is easy to use. It
also features a clear inner lexan door and a glove port which can be used
for adjusting product and test materials.
● Chamber uniformity of to ±0.5%RH and

±0.3°C temperature.
● High sensor accuracy and reliability; NIST
traceable accuracy of ±0.2°C.
● Features clear inner lexan door and glove
port which can be used for adjusting
product and test materials.
● Sensor dew/frost point measurement range
up to -40 to +85°C.
● Worry-free operation can control RH to
±0.5%.
12. Vigilant™ – multifunction hygrometer

With dew point (NIST traceable) accuracy of ±0.2°C ServoLock™, digital
control servo, automatic Balance Control (ABC), and wide measurement range
-75 to +100°C EdgeTech claims of introducing the next generation hygrometer.
● Highest dew point NIST traceable accuracy

of ±0.2°C
● ServoLock™: digital control servo
● Graphical backlit LCD display, dual alarms
● Wide dew point measurement range up to
-75 to +100°C
● Self-calibrating PRT amplifiers
● Automatic Balance Control (ABC)
The hygrometer is engineered for a multitude of demanding

applications and environments. It combines the inherent accuracy and field
proven reliability of chilled-mirror technology with the flexibility and speed
of digital control within a very compact package. Vigilant is a versatile
hygrometer for any process or laboratory environment with its wide -50–
90°C measurement range, optional pressure and temperature inputs for
calculating any psychrometric variable and with flexible mounting. Using
optional accessories, vigilant can be adapted for bench-top, portable, wall,
pipe or rack use. Another practical innovation is the menu-driven graphical
backlit LCD display. This hand-free design allows operators to clearly
view up to three parameters simultaneously, along with the status of
ServoLock™, ABC, mirror condition, alarms, date and time. No manual
scrolling or other distracting selecting is necessary to monitor major
indicators. The front panel provides easy access to a fully programmable
menu. ServoLock™, a new digital control scheme improves sensitivity and
response characteristics while providing greater control and operational
stability. Vigilant’s SetPoint mirror temperature control allows the user to
chill the mirror to a predetermined temperature above dew point and alarm/
alert the user if the dew point attains or exceeds this threshold. To provide
extended intervals of unattended operation, the Vigilant boasts a new
Automatic Balance Control (ABC) scheme that automatically corrects for
the light reducing affects of mirror contaminates. In addition, it provides
both analog and digital outputs. 0–5 V dc and 4–20 mA dc can be assigned
to any parameter and are user scalable throughout the entire range. It offers
RS232C duplex serial for programming, data output, status indication of
control, mirror condition, and optional relays.
13. Model 1-C DewTrace – Trace moisture

analyzer – by EdgeTech
Tracing moisture (0–500 PPMv) measurements of inert gasses with
sensitivity below 1 PPMv can be done with fast response and high accuracy.
Used in Semiconductor industry for monitoring common process gases,
gas supplier industry as a quality control instrument and in electric power
industry for checking moisture levels in transformer gases.
● Monitors PPMv moisture levels in

relatively clean, dry, inert gases.
● Electrochemical sensor with
proprietary diffusion membrane.
● 0.1–500 PPMv measurement;
sensitivity below 1 PPMv.
Fast response; flow insensitive

The DewTrace™ moisture analyzer utilizes an electrochemical (phosphorus
pentoxide-P2O5 coated) sensor in combination with a proprietary semi
permeable diffusion membrane. This membrane freely passes water vapour
molecules while protecting the sensor from larger molecules which might
adversely affect performance. The sensing element itself is an interdigitated
wafer electrode and is manufactured using a unique procedure. It doesn’t
utilize a wire wound component. The cable length between the sensor housing
and electronics is of minor importance since the sensor outputs a DC current.
A six-foot length is provided. The electronics unit supplies power for the
sensor and converts the received analog signal into a moisture value in PPMv
which is then digitally displayed on the front panel. The electronics is
equipped with a stand-by position on the function switch which allows the
cell to remain dry when not sampling, and which also gives indication of
proper functioning of the cell. This feature significantly reduces or eliminates
the amount of drying time prior to startup. This is also equipped with a cell
life indicator which displays the useful life of the sensing element. If the
sensing element is replaced, a Calibration Digital Switch, located on the
rear panel, matches the new element to the electronics.
Principle of operation: The electrochemical cell consists of a
hygroscopic material, phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), coated on a
semiconductor electrode element. Voltages are applied to the electrodes
such that adequate field strength is obtained to dissociate absorbed water
into hydrogen and oxygen, the current flowing is proportional to the
quantity of water dissociated (Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis). Thus, this
instrument, which measures the dissociation current, makes a fundamental
measurement of the moisture present.
Features: This sensor design is easy to install, use and maintain. The
sensing element and membrane are mounted in rugged 316SS housing
which can be used in-situ with its own mounting flange, or it can be used
in a flow stream with the optional 316 SS sample chamber. It is less subject
to contamination because of the membrane. There is no need to replace
whole sensor when oxide sensors fail. Only the membrane and/or wafer
electrode would require replacement which is an easy and inexpensive
task. Measurements are very repeatable. Since measurements are
independent of the mass of gas, the inaccuracies and calibration problems
associated with most other electrochemical sensors are eliminated.
14. Model 137 Aircraft hygrometer

Rugged, field proven chilled mirror technology with wide measurement
and operating range. 2-stage sensor available; The model 137 aircraft
hygrometer is a rugged, shock mounted, military

qualified instrument for the primary measurement of
dew point in flight or in installations with existing
flow, such as wind tunnels. It features a miniature
remote sensor employing a platinum resistance
thermometer, and has 15 feet of interconnecting cable
to the control unit. Precision calibration units for the
linear analog outputs are included.
Power 115 V AC ±10%, 50–1000 Hz, 50 W
nominal. Dew point accuracy to ±0.5°C with temperature range of -20–
60°C. Wide measurement range -60–70°C. Two-stage sensor now available.
Weighs less then 13.5 lbs. – including control unit, sensor and cabling.!!!!!!
15. Model DPM-99 medical gas dew point monitor

Model DPM – 99 gas dew point monitor exceeds the latest NFPA99
requirements for dew point monitoring of Med Gas, which is easy to install
and virtually maintenance free. The NFPA99 has mandated that for Med
Gas systems the ‘dew point for locally compressed air shall be monitored
and alarmed per 4–3.1.9.8 and 4–3.1.1.2(f) to protect from a line pressure
dew point rise to 39°F (3.9°C) from a nominal design of 35°F (1.7°C).’
This safeguard was the foundation for the new EdgeTech and AIRVAC
technical services DPM-99 Med Gas dew point monitor. This specifically
designed monitor exceeds the requirements set-forth by the NFPA and
was collaborated with AIRVAC technical services who are certified by
P.IP.E as medical gas inspectors in all 50 US states. The DPM-99 utilizes
a chilled mirror sensor, one of the most accurate reliable dew point sensing
scheme. This primary measurement is directly traceable to N.I.S.T. The
DPM-99 also uses a modified Automatic Balance Cycle (ABC) that allows
for continuous monitoring of dew point with virtually maintenance-free
operation. Dew point is monitored continuously for safety. This consists of
sensor, audible and visual alarms, and flow controller contained within an
easily mountable rugged aluminum NEMA-12 enclosure. Only 1 sample line
and power connections need to be made to become immediately compliant.
Performance that exceeds the latest requirements of NFPA99 for Med
Gas dew point monitoring
● NIST traceable dew point

● Continuous dew point monitoring
● Easy to install, virtually maintenance free
16. Model 1500 Portable dew point monitor

Features: Primary measurement technique, NIST Traceable, rechargeable
batteries, easily transportable in hard protective case, wide measurement
range (-75–75°C), microprocessor controlled, self balancing and portable.
A portable dew point hygrometer that integrates the accuracy and

reliability of the EdgeTech chilled mirror, with the battery life and
ruggedness required for field use. This device incorporates all of the
standard features from EdgeTech, such as drift-free NIST traceable
accuracy, low maintenance, high durability and ease of use, in a system
suited for the demands of field use. This can be used as a field transfer
standard, or to spot check process air dryness or Endo gas dew point.
It is a self contained system with no field assembly required and no
need to carry around individual components such as control boxes, sensors,
cables, pumps, and power cords. Simply attaching the sample line and
adjusting the flow (with the integral flow meter) and turning on the power
gives the field dew point data with the same chilled mirror accuracy of a
lab standard hygrometer. With a nominal battery life of 12 hours, one can
collect the data for entire shift or spot check processes for several days.
17. Com.Air complete dew point monitoring system

Com.Air dew point monitoring system designed by EdgeTech offers the
highest level of reliability and accuracy for compressed air system dew
point measurements, with primary measurement technology fully NIST
traceable and utilizing a chilled mirror sensor to deliver consistent drift-
free measurements without regular calibrations or sensor replacement. It
is easy to install and operate. The rugged aluminum NEMA-12 enclosure
houses the sensor, control circuitry, as well as flow control and is wall-
mounted to conserve space. Only the sample line and power connection is
needed for the system to be operational. It also offers a programmable
Automatic Balance Control (ABC) cycle, which corrects for the light
reducing effects of mirror, contaminates and allows for continuous
monitoring and virtually maintenance-free operation.
Com.Air offers continuous and virtually

maintenance free dew point monitoring with
many standard features:
● NIST Traceable
● Virtually maintenance free, easy to install
● Self monitoring
● User programmable audible and visual
alarms and relay contact
● Programmable Automatic Balance
Control (ABC)
● Widest available range -103–122°F
(-75–50°C) Dew point monitor for
compressed air systems
● Reliable and accurate
18. OxyMaster II 16TDP - Oxygen and dew point

analyzer
● Oxygen and humidity measurement in one

unit
● Oxygen measurement range 0–10000 ppm
● Humidity measurement -0.1–1000 ppm
● 4–20 mA outputs, RS232 and data logging
included
● User selectable measurement range
● Oxygen sensor – a micro fuel cell, P2O5
trace moisture sensor Power 85–230 V
AC, 24 V DC
Clear text graphic display: This Model was made for fast, accurate and
economic measurement of oxygen and Dew point at trace levels. A simple
menu-driven software, touchpad and large LCD-display allow easy and
fast start-up of the instrument. The Unit measures humidity between -0.1
and 1000 ppm and oxygen between 0–10000 ppm.
User-selectable measuring range: The user can select any range within
0–10000 ppm and 0.1–1000ppm humidity. Free-programmable
concentration alarm and a system alarm give versatility meeting almost
any requirement.
Data outputs: For oxygen concentration and dew point 2 × 4–20 mA
output is standard. Other outputs are available on request. RS485 is an option.
Sensor with long operating life: The OxyMaster uses a special fuel cell
to measure the oxygen concentration. The sensor meets the industrial
requirements for accuracy, sensitivity, easy to use and operating life. (To
measure the humidity the unit uses a P2O5 probe.)
Calibration: The calibration of the instrument for trace oxygen

measurements in gas is done with a calibration gas. The concentration can
be chosen freely within the measuring range.
Flow-through measuring cell: The measuring cell is modular and is
made of stainless steel. A defective measuring cell can be repaired by
replacing the defective part only, rather than the complete unit.
19. HTPB Series

Various models are available which all have in general humidity/
temperature steel probe made of sinter filter, RS 232 and 0–10 Vdc outputs,
with RH measuring range of 5–95% with an accuracy of ±1%.
HT75 – Operating temperature -20–75°C, dew point range 30–-60°C,

default outputs: RH, temperature and dew point.
HTB75 – Pressure range is (barometric pressure) 300–1100 mb,
operating temperature -20–75°C, default outputs: RH, temperature and
pressure.
HTP 55 – Pressure range is 0–200 psia, operating temperature -20–
55°C, default outputs: RH, temperature and pressure.
HT115 – Available with remote humidity probe. Operating temperature
-20–115°C, default outputs: RH, temperature and dew point-DIS option
included.
HTB115 – Available with remote (6ft cable) humidity/ high temperature/
barometric pressure stainless steel probe. Pressure range is 300–1100 mb,
operating temperature -20–115°C, default outputs: RH, temperature and
pressure, DIS option included.
HT115N – Available with remote humidity/ high temperature stainless
steel probe. Operating temperature -20–115°C, default outputs: RH,
temperature and dew point.
Specification: 0–10 Vdc, RS232 outputs, 18–30 Vdc power,
programmable scaling and selectable measurement parameters through
RS232 serial port, Wall(W),Remote (R), pipe (P) ¾ in. thermocouple bore
through compression fitting and duct (D) mount configurations-need to
specify the mounting configuration at the time of order, Accuracy ±1%
nominal, standard 6 ft cable length, stain less steel sinter filter-removable.
Options:
● DIS display, 4–20 mA, RS232 and 2 programmable alarm relays, 1
Form A (NO) 3A/250Vac.
● FRSHT75 field replaceable sensors module for RH/T
interchangeability accuracy to published specifications.
● FRSHTP55 field replaceable sensor module with RH/T/P
interchangeability accuracy to published spec.
● Sensor Dimensions: Width ¾ in. OD, length 8 in.
20. Model WBL-200 Series

WBL200M is a miniature packaged data logger for RH and temperature,
housed in a ESD (electro static discharge) enclosure, can transmit up to
70ft in the line of sight, powers: 3.6 Vdc lithium coin cell battery,
Dimensions: 4.75 in. (120 mm)L * 1.5 in.W (38.1 mm) * 0.375 in. H
(9.5 mm).
WBL200T is a data logger for humidity and temperature housed in a
aluminum enclosure, can transmit up to 250 ft in the line of sight, powers:
2 AA lithium batteries, Dimensions: 6.75 in. L (171.5 mm) * 3 in. W
(76 mm) * 1 in. H (25.4 mm) WBL200R- (required) is a receiver for both
the WBL200M and the WBL200T, power through the USB port on a PC.
Features:Real time on board data logging capabilities,
● Ultra low power consumption.

● Up to 3–5year battery life depends on
usage,
● Transmission parameters configurable
by user,
● PC compatible, software included,
● Transmit up to 250 feet, 0–100% RH,
-40–85C° and
● FCC and CE approved.
Specifications:
Temperature: Sensor: CMOS Range: -55–130C°, Accuracy: ±1C° at 25
typical
Humidity: Sensor: Capacitive (polymer), Range: 0–100% RH,
Resolution: 0.3%
Calibrated accuracy: ±1.5% RH between 0–10% ±2% between 11–55%,
±3%between 56–100%, Drift rate: 1%/year, Response time: Time constant
3 sec, On board data logging: 20000 data points (humidity and
temperature), Real time recording: Transmit data to PC for monitoring
and recording, Reading intervals: 1–60 minutes, Computer interface:

RS232, USB, RF Frequency: 2.4 GHz. Coexist with: WiFi and Blue Tooth,
Typical battery life: WBL200M:1 yr at one sample reading every 15
minutes, WBL200T: 3 year at one sample reading every 15 minutes,
Approvals: FCC and CE, Optional software for client/server data storage
in SQL Server/Oracle.
21. DigiControl 5 – by Luwa

Luwa developed the freely programmable digital system DigiControl 5
for regulating, controlling and monitoring of all air handling processes.
DigiControl 5 ensures that the air is always ideally conditioned, and also
allows permanent operation with optimized operating costs.
22. M 4000E, M4000ED – DIGITAL HVAC

ANALYZER – by Thermostat Shop
An advanced measurement product with the
measurement capabilities of temperature, humidity,
air velocity, air volume, capacity; additionally dew
point can be measured by Dew Point (M4000ED).
The measurement parameters are in English system,
i.e., temperature by °F, humidity by %RH, air
velocity by ft/sec, width / length by in., air volume
by CFM, power by BTU/H and dew point by °F.
1. Measuring temperature
1.1 Press the ON button (on the first time) or MODE button - TEMP will
be displayed on LCD (Fig.1).
1.2 Place the probe in front of unit outlet (or any other outlet) so that the
sensors cover is facing the outlet.
1.3 The LCD screen will display temperature level in °F. Press ? to display
Dew Point in °F. (fig.2).
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
2. Measuring humidity level

2.1 Press the MODE button – HUMIDITY% will
be displayed on LCD. (fig.3)
2.2 Place the probe in front of unit’s outlet (or any
other outlet) so that the sensor’s cover is facing
the outlet.
2.3 The LCD screen will display relative humidity Fig. 3
level in % RH.
3. Measuring air velocity

3.1 Press the MODE button – VELOCITY will be
displayed on LCD. (fig.4).
3.2 Place the probe in front of unit’s outlet (or any
other outlet) so that the sensor’s cover is facing
the outlet.
3.3 The LCD screen will display Air velocity in feet/ Fig. 4
second.
4. Measuring air volume

4.1 Press the MODE button – AIR VOLUME and
ENTER WIDTH (flashing) will be displayed on
LCD.* (fig 5) The M4000 will request the A\C’s
outlet width. Fig. 5
4.2 Using buttons enter the appropriate

measurements in inch.
4.3 Press ENTER to write width to memory. AIR
VOLUME and ENTER LENGTH (flashing)
will be displayed on LCD.* (fig 6).
Fig. 6 The M4000 will request the A\C’s outlet
length.
4.4 Using buttons enter the appropriate
measurements in inch.
4.5 Place the probe in front of the unit’s outlet so
that the sensors cover is facing the outlet.
Press ENTER, the M4000 will start flashing
Fig. 7
‘WAIT’.
‘WAIT’ will flash for about 20 seconds put
the probe on the grill and when ‘start average’
start to flash then move the probe along the
units outlet so as to cover the whole area, aim
to get an average reading from all available
Fig. 8
openings*.
Try to cover all area in less than 10 seconds
(fig.8) and repeat again and again for 1 minute
( ‘START AVERAGE’ flashing fig.9).
4.6 If you wish to measure round grills - after step
4.1 press ENTER button more than 2 sec (long
Fig. 9 press) until DIAMETER will be displayed on
LCD. (fig.7)
4.7 At the end of one minute the M4000 will beep signaling that
measurement time ended. The LCD will display the measured Air
Volume in CFM.(fig.10)
4.8 If you wish to redo this action, or if you wish to measure few openings
press ENTER and return steps 4.2-4.7.
Measure each opening as described up to now and after the last
measuring press and LCD will display the sum of all openings.
Fig. 10
* When moving the probe along the grill’s borders (A,D) keep the probe half out of the grill.
5. Measuring capacity
IMPORTANT: Before you begin to measure switch with MODE to HUM
mode. Put the probe in front of the inlet air (or ambient room humidity)
and wait until the measure will stable (which promise that the Temp?
measure stabilized too). Do not put it at output grill - it will take long time
to return to normal room temperature and humidity conditions.
5.1 Press MODE button – CAPACITY will be
displayed on LCD (fig.11). (It is recommended
to test at HIGH FAN SPEED)
5.2 Align the probe in front of unit’s inlet (or
ambient room temperature) and press ENTER.
The LCD will display the HUMIDITY %, Fig.11
CAPACITY, Probe at RETURN AIR and
‘WAIT’ flashing (fig.12) The M4000 will start
measuring the unit’s inlet air parameters while
displaying a flashing ‘WAIT’. After one minute
of measuring, the M4000 will beep and the
‘WAIT’ will stop flashing a signal that this
measurement has ended. Fig.12
5.3 ENTER WIDTH flashing will be displayed on

LCD. (fig.13)
When measuring return air the sensor box
should be in the center (no need to move it
during measuring)
5.4 Using the buttons enter the outlets width Fig.13
(inch) and press ENTER (fig.14 step 3).
ENTER LENGTH flashing will be displayed on LCD.
Fig. 14
5.5 The M4000 will request the A\Cs outlet length.

Using the buttons enter the outlets length
(in inch) (fig.14 step 4, fig.15).
5.6 If you wish to measure round grills – after step
Fig.15 5.2 press ENTER button more than 2 sec (long
press) until DIAMETER will be displayed on
LCD. (fig.16).
5.7 Press ENTER ‘WAIT’ will flash (fig.17). Place
the probe in front of the units outlet. Pay
attention that the sensors cover is facing the
Fig.16 grill no need to move it. The M4000 is waiting
until sensors will be stable with the new
temperature and hum. (about 90 seconds) when
‘START AVERAGE’ will flash (fig. 17) go to
5.8.
IMPORTANT: Read 4.6 (and *) before
starting 5.8.
Fig.17
5.8 Measure for one minute (fig.14 step 5). Make
sure you move the probe along the unit’s outlet
so as to cover the whole area, aim to get an
average reading from all available openings. At
the end of this minute the M4000 will beep and
the LCD screen will display the result in
Fig.18 Btu/h.(fig.18).
Redo measuring outlet air:

5.9 In case you wish to redo this action (return air and the grill size are
already in memory) press ENTER and repeat sections 5.4–5.8 above.
Measuring few outlet’s opening:

5.10 When there are several outputs openings but the same return air,
press ENTER and repeat sections 5.4–5.8 for each one. In this case
in section # 5.7 ‘WAIT’ will flash for 20 seconds. Each time a
measurement ends the LCD will display the Btu/h for that specific
outlet, if you wish to know the total Btu/h of all the outlets measured
up to now press .
If you wish to go over the all process again include return air you should
wait for about 10 minutes and allow the humidity sensor to return to the
humidity room or help it by home ventilator. Then start from section # 5.1.
23. Humidity control humidistat THC-1 Buyomac

THC-1 humidity control is designed to control humidity automatically and
accurately. Switch mode is provided which can be switched between
humidify and dehumidify to be the controlled within an enclosed area.
The humidity switch controls humidity equipment by providing power to
it, which can be set and adjust with adjustable setting knob provided on
control. The dehumidifying mode will activate fans or other dehumidifying
apparatus until level drops approximately 5% and the dehumidifying
equipment is disabled until humidity increases again 5%. In the humidifying
mode this control operates fogging or other humidifying equipment by
activating switches, motors, valves or pumps. Humidifiers can be precisely
controlled according to atmospheric humidity to create ideal conditions
for any environment. Sensor allows a 5% (differential) comfort zone
between “on” and “off” functions. Operating voltage is 120 V with 15
Amp maximum. This can also be used with many other types of humidity
equipment or any other electrically triggered.
24. Humidity control HCH-3 – by Buyomac

Easy and fast to install and can be connected to regular tap cold water
source with water line, tube or hose. Just by plugging the Misting Fan
Humidifier Power Cord into standard three-prong outlet power source,
the connection is complete. Air humidity can be automatically controlled
by ‘THC-1’ humidity control humidistat. It can be used for both out door
and indoor misting fan controls by just hooking it up to any water hose,
and the water travels through the hose and is jetted out of 4 misting heads
on the Misting Hub on the front of the fan head. The holes are so small
that the water pressure sprays out the water in a fine mist. This unit
humidifies and cools large areas for much less expense than an air
conditioner, and conveniently connects to a standard hose for continuous
misting operation cycle. This unique Misting Fan can reduce the
surrounding temperatures by as much as 25 degrees.
Knob and numbers are provided for desired humidity setting. Red and
green lead light indicators provided for RH% maintenance in desired
area. Automatic control of mist fog production in desired area with
accuracy of ±5% is possible. One humidifier can be integrated with no
more than 125V/10A, or 220V/5A for automatic area humidification.
Technical specifications: Humidity range control: 30% ~95% (25ºC)
with accuracy of ±5%, Temperature range: 0ºC ~ 60 ºC, No. of Humidifiers
controlled: One, available span operation: - 2% ~ 10%, Operation method:
Electronic (ANALOG), Relay capacity: 125V/10A, 220V/5A,
Consumption power: 2.2 W. Voltage: 110V/60H, 220V/60Hz, Response
method: High molecular resistant type, Install requirements: 150 cm from
the floor (special hole is provided in the back housing), Weight NP-50: –
8Oz., Size: 104 H × 100 W × 55 B (mm) and Length of cord: 1.5 m
25. Humidity controller for automatic operation of

humidifiers (Operating range: 20%–90% RH) –
by H. Ikeuchi & Co. Ltd., Japan
Compact digital type (RHC-021): Digital indicators display present and

desired humidity, compact size to fit any place. Tolerance ±3%, Supply
voltage 100–240 V.
Digital type (RHC-D*): Digital indicators display present and desired
humidity, multi-channel type available up to 4 channels. Tolerance ±3%.
Analog type (RHC-011): Economical analog type with rotating
dial, compact size to fit any place. Tolerance ±5%, Supply voltage
100–240 V.
* Shows the version of desired specification. (Photo shows the 2 channel type.)
26. HIH-3610 Series by Honeywell

The HIH-3610 Series humidity sensor is designed for high volume OEM
users. Direct input to a controller or other device is made possible by this
sensor’s linear voltage output. With a typical current draw of only 200 A,
the HIH-3610 Series is ideally suited for low drain, battery operated
systems. Tight sensor interchangeability reduces or eliminates OEM
production calibration costs.
Individual sensor calibration data is available. The HIH-3610 Series

delivers instrumentation-quality RH sensing performance in a low cost,
solderable SIP (Single In-line Package). Available in two lead spacing
configurations, the RH sensor is a laser trimmed thermoset polymer
capacitive sensing element with on-chip integrated signal conditioning.
The sensing element’s multilayer construction provides excellent resistance
to application hazards such as wetting, dust, dirt, oils, and common
environmental chemicals.
27. Humidity sensor HIH-3610 Series

Parameter condition: (Relative Humidity): RH accuracy(1) ±2% RH,
0-100% RH non-condensing, 25°C, V supply = 5 V DC, Interchangeability
±5% RH, 0–60% RH; ±8% @ 90% RH typical, Linearity ±0.5% RH typical,
Hysteresis ±1.2% RH span maximum, Repeatability ±0.5% RH, Response
time, 1/e 15 sec in slowly moving air at 25°C and stability ±1% RH typical
at 50% RH in 5 years.
Power requirements: Voltage supply: 4 VDC to 5.8 VDC, sensor
calibrated at 5 VDC,
Current supply: 200 A at 5 VDC, Voltage output: V supply = 5 VDC
Drive limits: V out = V supply (0.0062(Sensor RH) + 0.16), typical @
25°C, (Data printout option provides a similar, but sensor specific, equation
at 25°C.), 0.8–3.9 VDC output @ 25°C typical, Push/pull symmetric; 50
A typical, 20 A minimum, 100 A maximum, Turn-on ?0.1 sec.
Temperature compensation: Effect @ 0% RH: True RH = (Sensor RH)/
(1.093–0.0012T), T in °F., Effect @ 100% RH: True RH = (Sensor RH)/

(1.0546–0.00216T), T in °C ±0.007 %RH/°C (negligible)., -0.22% RH/°C
(<1% RH effect typical in occupied space systems above 15°C (59 °F)).
Humidity range: Operating: 0–100% RH, non-condensing., Storage:
0–90% RH, non-condensing.
Temperature range: Operating: -40–85°C (-40–185°F)., Storage: -51–
125°C (-60–257°F).
Package: Two numbers, three pin, solderable SIP in molded thermoset
plastic housing with thermoplastic cover. Handling Static sensitive diode
protected to 15 kV maximum.
Notes:
1. Extended exposure to 90% RH causes a reversible shift of 3% RH.
2. This sensor is light sensitive. For best results, shield the sensor from
bright light.
28. HUMIDISTATS – by White Rodgers Humidity

Controls
Provides automatic control of humidification equipment for optimum
humidity control
Features:
● Choice of horizontal or vertical mounting.
● Line voltage or low voltage.
● Snap-action switch.
● Mounts on 2in. × 3in. single gang box.
● Pigtail leads.
Dimensions: Horizontal 23/4in.H × 4 /2in. W × 27/ 6in.D., Vertical 4 /

2in.H × 23/4in. W × 27/ 6n.D
2271–100
Model number Description: Switch action Range Differential Contact ratings

2271-100 Humidistat Open on rise 10–60% 5% 120 VAC, .5A,
(Horizontal) RH RH Pilot Duty, 30
VAC, 60 VA
29. DEHUMIDISTATS – by White Rodgers

Humidity Controls
Provides automatic control of dehumidification equipment or operates
damper/exhaust fans to control humidity levels.
Features: White color case.

Choice of horizontal or vertical
styling, line voltage or low
voltage, snap-action switch,
mounts on 2¢¢ × 3¢¢ single
gang box and pigtail leads.
Model number Description: Switch action Range Differential Contact ratings

2273W-21 Dehumidistat Close on 30–80% 5% 120 VAC, 1.0A
(Horizontal) rise RH RH Pilot Duty
30 VAC, 60 VA
2274W-21 Dehumidistat Close on 30–80% 5% 120 VAC, 1.0A
(Vertical) rise RH RH Pilot Duty
30 VAC, 60 VA
Dimensions: Horizontal 23/4′′ H × 4 /2′′ W ×27/ 6′′ D., Vertical 4 /2′′

H ×23/4′′ W ×27/ 6′′D.
30. Relative humidity transmitters both analogue

and digital
Features:
● Rugged epoxy encapsulation
● voltage, current, or digital output
● optional dust filter
● Individually point calibrated
● Combination humidity,
temperature transmitters available
● Threaded or wall box mount
● High quality at low cost
General specifications: Power: 4–20 mA loop (2 wire), 7–24 VDC (3

wire)., Ambient operating range: 0–70 C., Storage temperature: -25–85 C.,
Temperature coefficient 0.1% RH/C., Linearity ± 2% RH., Operating range
(non-condensing) 5–98% Time constant (moving air) 20 seconds - 2 minutes
Output ranges: 4–20 ma, 0–1 V, 0–5 V, 0–10 V, Digital RS 232. Special
ranges and custom calibration available.
31. iTHX-2 - Temperature + Humidity Industrial

iServer Micro Server
View temperature + humidity with a web browser: The NEWPORT iTHX
transmitter lets monitoring and recording temperature, relative humidity
and dew point over an ethernet network or the internet with no special
software except a web browser. It serves active web pages to display real
time readings, display charts of temperature and humidity, or log data in
standard data formats for use in a spreadsheet or data acquisition program
such as Excel or Visual Basic.
✔ Virtual Chart Recorder

✔ Web Server
✔ Temperature
✔ Relative Humidity
✔ Dew Point
✔ Accurate Readings
✔ Email Alarms
✔ Data Logging
✔ No Special Software Required
Display and chart two channels: The iTHX transmitters come complete
with a temperature and humidity probe for measurement of a single
location. With the addition of a second probe, the iTHX transmitter can
measure and display humidity, temperature and dew point in a second
location up to twenty feet away. The transmitter can display and chart
absolute measurements in both locations, or a differential measurement
between the two locations. The second probe requires no change to the
basic iTHX transmitter hardware, firmware or software. A second probe
can be added at the time of purchase or in the future. NEWPORT offers a
choice of industrial probes in 2in. and 5in. lengths, and a wand style for
ambient indoor applications.
Probe options: Select nothing (leave field blank) for Standard 5in.
industrial probe and 20' cable with stripped wire leads, -2 for industrial
2in. probe and 3' cable with stripped wire leads (substitution for 5in./ probe)
Replaces THDX & KTX models!
32. Temperature and humidity monitoring

instruments – by Dickson
Pharmaceutical, life science and bio-tech companies have long been
familiar with Dickson’s THDX and KTX model chart recorders. Now,
Dickson has released (2) new designs (TH8 and KT8) which incorporate
value, performance and accuracy; all things expected from the
instrumentation for a lab or plant. The new TH8 line of 8-inch Temperature/
Humidity Chart Recorders and the new KT8 line of K-Thermocouple
Remote Sensing 8-inch Chart Recorders have a number of added features
designed to make them newly practical in pharmaceutical applications –
from larger charts for readability, to smaller footprint designs, to higher
quality metal components, and more.
There are three different models of Dickson TH8 8in. Temperature/
Humidity Chart Recorders and five different models of KT8 K-
Thermocouple Remote Sensing Chart Recorders, each optimized for
different humidity and/or temperature ranges. Users are able to interchange
24-hour, 7-day, or 31-day charts as desired, opt to display temperature or
humidity, and specify preferred traceable calibration methods.
Benefits of TH8 and KT8

Large 8′′. charts providing 84% more readable area than 6′′ designs with
Large digital displays viewable from 20-feet distances. Remote probes
ideal for tight locations, clean rooms, or incubators.
● Audio and visual alarms

● Compact and durable enclosure that is 41%
smaller than previous models
● Dew point recording and display
● Flip-up pen arm for easy chart and pen
changes
● Standardized and easily replaced
k-thermocouple remote probes (in the KT8
models)
This new chart recorder replaces the older Dickson THDX and KTX
models with the same functionality but now these new TH8 and KT8
recorders have even more features.
33. Temperature/Relative Humidity Chart

Recorder CTH200 Series – by Omega
Engineering
The CTH200 thermo-hygrograph is an economical, self-contained recorder.
The user can set the chart speed at one revolution for every 1 day, 8 days,
or 32 days. Simultaneous temperature and humidity readings are plotted
on the easy-to-read, 165 mm (6.5in.), circular chart.
Designed for wall-mounted operation in a vertical, upright position,

the CTH200 comes with easily replaceable charts and recording pens. The
CTH200 uses the same pens and chart paper as the CTH100 Series.
Simultaneous view of both temperature and Relative humidity recordings
are possible. Neat appearance and compact size; good for various
applications. Easy, convenient chart replacement. Variable recording times:
1 day, 8 days, or 32 days. Measurements in °F or °C
34. Thermohygrograph — Single height

● Humidity section: Range: 0–100%, Accuracy: ± 3% between 20 and
80%, Sensing element: Specially treated human hair
● Recording section: Either battery operated quartz clock with simple
mechanism for changing rotation from daily to weekly or Clockwork
clock – daily or weekly rotation
● Recording is effected by easily changed fibre tipped pen.
● Temperature section: Range either 0–50 degrees C or -5–55 degrees
C, Accuracy: ± 0.5 degrees C, Sensing element : Bi-metallic coil
(corrosion protected)
General description: Mechanism machined and

fabricated from high quality brass, polished and
lacquered. The unit is supplied with fabricated,
vented sheet steel cover finished in white enamel
with convenient carrying handle.
Fairmount single height thermohygrograph

This compact single height instrument neatly
combines both temperature and relative humidity
records on one standard height chart thereby
allowing installation inside a standard size
Stevenson Screen if required.
35. Thermohygrograph (Instrument #4)

The thermo-hygrograph records percent relative humidity (% RH) and
temperature continuously for a given time period. A chart marked off into
hours and days is fastened to the rotating drum. The drum is regulated by
a timing device so that the pen tips move horizontally one hour on the
chart for each hour that actually passes. The top pen responds vertically to
changes in temperature. The bottom pen responds to changes in humidity.
Therefore, temperature is plotted on the top graph and %RH on the bottom
graph of the chart. This was done continuously for one week as shown on
the sample chart.
To read the two graphs on the chart:

1. The small numbers across the top indicate time. For example;
12=noon, 18=6:00pm, 24=12:00 midnight).
2. Find the desired time and day. Follow the orange curved line down
to its intersection with the %RH or temperature curve, and then follow
the orange horizontal line to read the corresponding %RH or
temperature.
36. Sling Psychrometer (Instrument #5)

Using the sling Psychrometer we can determine percent relative humidity
(%RH), dew point temperature, and current temperature.
Principles: The sling Psychrometer determines %Relative Humidity
by measuring the evaporation of water into the surrounding air. Two
thermometers are placed in flowing air, one thermometer bulb being
covered by a wet wick. Evaporation from the wetted bulb causes its
temperature to be depressed relative to that of the dry bulb. In dry air
evaporation will be rapid and the depression will be greater, giving a low
%RH reading.
In humid air there will be little evaporation and the depression will be
small, giving a high %RH reading. If the air is completely saturated, no
evaporation can take place, so both the wet and dry bulb thermometers
will give the same reading. This equates to 100% RH. The %RH can be
read off the slide rule calculator integrated into this model of the sling
Psychrometer. An independent ‘slide rule’ calculator and Standard humidity
tables can also be used.
Operation: The sling Psychrometer consists of three main parts: 1. the
inner frame with wet and dry bulb thermometers, 2. the wet and dry bulb
scale on the reverse side of the inner frame, and 3. the outer case with the
relative humidity scale.
Taking a reading
Open the instrument by withdrawing the inner frame from the case.
Thoroughly wet the wick using the dispensing water bottle provided, or
immersing it in water for about 30 seconds. Be sure that both the exposed
wick and that portion coiled in the wick container are thoroughly saturated.
(Hot water must not be used as it may damage the thermometers.) The
wick will remain moist for several hours. Always check that the wick is
wetted before taking any readings and ensure no moisture remains on the
dry bulb. To take a reading, set the Psychrometer at right angles, and
holding the case, rotate the frame for 30–60 seconds at between 2 and 3
revolutions per second. Stop revolving the instrument and note the wet
and dry bulb temperatures. Wet bulb temperature should be read first and
as quickly as possible for highest accuracy. Delay in reading may cause
error. Close the instrument and use the slide rule calculator to determine
the %RH.
Using the slide rule calculator

Slide the inner case in or out until the wet and dry bulb temperatures you
recorded are in line with each other (similar to a slide rule). The calculator
has two scales: the upper scale should be used for dry bulb temperatures
below 70°F and the lower scale should be used for dry bulb temperatures
above 70°F. Near 70°C either scale can be used.
If the wet bulb reading is 62°F and the dry bulb reading is 68°F, the
%RH, shown by the white arrow is 69–70%.
Appendix 8
Dehumidifiers
1. Desiccant dehumidifiers by Bry-Air (Asia) Pvt. Ltd.

This is compact custom designed environmental control equipment. It is
claimed to solve problem of any size relating to humidity by the Bry-Air
dehumidifiers. They offer the simple and economical solution to humidity
control which can maintain RH as low as 1% or even lower at a constant
level, regardless of ambient condition during production, processing,
storage and packaging.
FFB dehumidifier
Largest capacity range in compacts – from 170 CMH to 2000 CMH (100–
1177 CFM). The new series Bry-Air FFB, 170 CMH through 2000 CMH
(100–1177 CFM) desiccant dehumidifier line is designed to integrate ‘small
footprint and finish’ of a commercial unit with ‘the ruggedness’ of an
industrial dehumidifier.
Range: 170–2000 CMH (100–1177 CFM) C ∈ Certified - FFB

(Fluted flat bed) dehumidifiers
The BRY-AIR ® FFB compact dehumidifier is CNC fabricated with

powder coated finish and incorporates a high performance fluted metal
silicate desiccant synthesised rotor which allows for:
418
Dehumidifiers 419
● Reduced foot print.

● Increased performance.
● Lowest volume/ weight per CMH.
● Innumerable mounting options.
● Light weight, and can be installed above the false ceiling eliminating
the need for floor space.
Model Capacity (CMH)

FFB 170 170
FFB 300 300
FFB 600 600
FFB 1000 1000
FFB 1500 1500
FFB 2000 2000
This removes moisture through a process of continuous ‘physical

adsorption’. The moisture is adsorbed in the dehumidification sector by
the fluted, desiccant synthesised rotor and is exhausted in the reactivation
sector by a stream of hot air in a counter flow.
Innumerable mounting options: Floor, ceiling, wall, table and trolley.
The dehumidifier can be mounted on top of false ceiling also.
FVB dehumidifiers
The BRY-AIR FVB (Fluted Vertical Bed) is the latest in desiccant
dehumidifier technology. It incorporates a custom-made fluted metal
silicate desiccant synthesised rotor which ensures highest moisture removal
at lowest energy cost. It has a small foot-print, thus allowing for space
saving, and is available in two ranges FVB senior and FVB junior with
capacities ranging from 1500 CMH (880 CFM) to 7600 CMH (4473 CFM).
Range : 1500 CMH (880 CFM) to 7600 CMH (4473

CFM) New FVB (Fluted Vertical bed) dehumidifiers
FVB Junior FVB Senior

Model Capacity (CMH) Model Capacity (CMH)
FVB 1500 1500 FVB 5000 5000
FVB 2100 2100 FVB 6200 6200
FVB 3000 3000 FVB 7600 7600
FVB 4000 4000 – –
Features
● Lowest volume/weight per CMH
● Capacity: 1500 CMH (880 CFM) to 7600 CMH (4473 CFM)
● Self-contained unit, CNC manufactured with powder coated finish
● Can be packaged with pre/after cooling, bypass filter elements
● Highest moisture removal efficiency at lowest energy cost
● Standard in-built heat recovery.
● Easy to install and maintain
● Can maintain RH as low as 1% or even lower, regardless of ambient
conditions
● With high performance, metal silicate fluted desiccant synthesized
rotor
● A totally self-contained unit
● Can be packaged with pre/after cooling, bypass ducting and mixing
chambers, volume controls, filter elements, etc., for complete
environment control
How does it work?

The moisture laden air enters through the process inlet and passes through
the desiccant rotor, where the moisture is absorbed by the desiccant.
The dry, dehumidified air is delivered to conditioned area through the
process outlet.
The rotor then rotates to the reactivation sector and the moisture is
Dehumidifiers 421
removed from the desiccant rotor, by blowing hot air through the
reactivation outlet to the atmosphere. The hot desiccant rotor is cooled by
a small portion of the process air before rotating back to the process sector.
Thus, the adsorption process is continuous.
CNC fabricated with powder coated finish, the Bry-Air FVB can be
packaged with:
● pre/after cooling
● by pass ducting and
● mixing chambers*
Volume controls, filter elements, etc., are provided for complete
environment control in a single package for any application.
The EcoDry dehumidifying rotors are the result of many years of in-
depth study and research on countless permutations and combinations of
substrates, desiccants and chemical processes. Every parameter has been
considered to maximize performance, durability and applicability.
Advantage
● Adsorbent, non-toxic, non-flammable, fully water washable.
● In-situ synthesised metal silicate desiccant on an inert inorganic fibre
substrate.
● Active desiccant 80% of the media weight, so as to ensure high
performance and minimal heat carry-over.
● Rotor is non-flammable. The net organics in the honeycomb media
less than 2%.
● Special edge hardened media surface to ensure a smooth surface and
long life of both, media and the seal contacting it.
● Rotor perimeter flange extend media and seal life.
● Rotor incorporates robust internal structure with perimeter flange
for industrial quality, durability and easy serviceability.
FnP-dehumidification system
FnP is specially designed for Food and Pharma industry
● Extra hygiene
● Fire resistance and safety
● Weatherproof options
● Efficient controls
● ‘Zero’ leakage and high structural
strength
● User friendly features
● With EcoDry inside
● Bry-smart controls
Packaged systems... customised solutions

Bry-Air dehumidifiers are available as standard units as well as packaged
with pre-cooling, pre-heating, after-cooling, after-heating, heat recovery,
etc. for the most cost efficient environment control in a variety of industrial
applications.
Dehumidifiers 423
Bry-Smart Dehumidifier Digital Controller (DDC)

● Bry-Smart dehumidifier digital controller is a smart controller for
smart age
● It is a complete equipment diagnosis in a minute
● It provides online support to customers
Appendix 9
Fume and dust control, air ventilation hose
and ducts
1. Dunham rubber and belting
1.A General purpose hose and ducting

General purpose duct and hose consists of products made from PVC
materials and double or single ply cotton and neoprene materials. Material
handling and blower hose for light duty conveying of dust, woodchip and
grass clippings. PA-EX Series hose for
higher temperature applications and TD-
S series hose which is excellent for
applications where the hose is regularly
dragged around from place to place. R
Series hose for air, fume, dust and light
duty material handling applications.
1.B Suction, transport and material handling hose

Plastic hoses and duct are used in a tremendous range of industrial
applications; from dust collection, fume control, pellets and scrap transfer,
leaf and woodchip collection, insulation blowing applications are just a
sampling of some of the applications where
plastic hoses are suitable.
The Master-Pur series of hose including
the durable Master-Pur Step FG and Master
TPR L a versatile multipurpose hose for a
wide range of process and applications are
available in this section. Additionally,
424
Fume and dust control, air ventilation hose and ducts 425
Series ARH, UFD-AP, CVD-AP and 333 Insulation Blowing hoses are
also available and described within this section.
1.C Suction and blower hoses for air-conditioning,

ventilation and welding fumes
Items within this section include utility blower hose and large volume air
conditioning/ventilation hoses. Additionally, hoses for suction plants, tent
heating, weld fume extraction and low pressure applications are also
available within this section. Many varieties of material construction and
end finishes are available including sewn ends, funnel cuff, belt loop and
pull tab, enclosed belted cuff and more.
1.D Medium and high temperature hose

Dunham rubber offers a wide range of hoses and ducting capable of
handling medium to higher temperature applications. This includes vehicle
and engine construction applications,
chemical plants, exhaust fume equipment,
granule dryers, aggressive media extraction,
suction plants, paint spray extraction, aircraft
and defense industry applications, Master-
clip CAR for diesel engine fume exhaustion,
U-lok 1500 for service up to 1500ºF for
furnace construction.
1.E Gas and fume exhaust hoses

These systems draw harmful fumes and gasses out of the working
environment, promoting worker safety. Other products in this section are
designed for use in the ship building industry, furnace construction
applications, infrared-dryer plants, iron and steel works, weld fume
extraction and bulk handling technology applications.
Dunham rubber offers a wide range of products for gas and fume removal
and extraction. Options are available to cover a wide range of applications
in a variety of operating conditions. For example,
the Carflex line of products is ideal for extraction
of engine exhaust gases with temperatures that
range up to 570°F. This product is ideal for
overhead hose reel applications in service garage
environments or in slotted channels above floor
or under floor suction extraction operations.
2. RFH series hoses and duct by Duravent

Hi-Tech Duravent RFH series hoses offer wider temperature range, have
superior chemical resistance, better abrasion resistance, are versatile, have
wear strip capabilities, offer better UV, moisture and weathering resistance,
have outstanding flex fatigue resistance, are air tight, will not set to shape
of box when packed. Available in standard
RFH, RFH-Plus, RFH-White, RFH-W, and
RFH.045. RFH series hoses are used for
chemical fume removal in computer chip
manufacturing, fume control and cooling
of electronic equipment, fume, dust control
and ventilation in foundries, RFH-White
for fresh air intake and ventilation in
hospitals, fume, moisture and drying
control in paper mills and dust and lint
control in textile mills.
3. Commercial vacuum and carpet cleaning hoses

Hoses for industrial and commercial vacuum cleaners, ventilating or
cooling industrial machinery, bilge pump hose, car wash systems, carpet
cleaning and more. Hose in this category demonstrate some of the following
characteristics; moisture resistant, UV/ozone resistant, oil resistant, fume
removal, chemical resistant and drag resistant.
4. Ducting clamps and accessories

Ducting bridge clamps and connectors are available accessories for most
ducting applications.
4.A UFD
Temperature Construction Standard colors Standard Size range

range lengths
-65–200°F Thermoplastic poly- Clear or black 25 in., 50 in. 2 in.–18 in.
urethane reinforced
with a wire helix
Description: Superior abrasion resistance, excellent flex fatigue

resistance, allows users to locate blockages, handles higher pressure and
vacuums than standard ducting, materials used in UFD-Clear are FDA
acceptable, available with cuffed end finishes, available in metric
diameters, please consult us on minimums.
4.B CVD-AP

range lengths
10–160°F Clear polyvinylchlo- Clear with 25 in., 50 in. 4 in.–8 in.
ride reinforced with black helix
a rigid polyvinyl-
chloride helix
Description: Economical, smooth interior to minimise friction loss, crush

resistant, helix provides added durability where the hose is being dragged,
lightweight, durable and great bending characteristics, ideal for sawdust
collection, ventilation, fume removal, light duty material handling and
leaf collection, supplemental helix available.
4.C RFH-W.045

range lengths
-60–275°F Heavy walled thermo Black with 10 in. 8 in.,
(intermittent plastic rubber orange wear (seasonal) 10 in., 12 in.
to 300°F) reinforced with strip
a wire helix and an
external polypropy-
lene wear strip
Description: Good abrasion resistance, ideal for applications where

dragging is involved. The wear strip helps prevent premature wear-through,
RFH-W wear strip is molecularly bonded to the hose wall, so it will not
delaminate, available with cuffed end finishes, other wear strip colors
available, consult us on minimums.
4.D TBH-W
Temperature Construction Standard Standard Size range

range colors lengths
-40–225°F 100% polypropylene Black with a 25 in., 50 in. 2–12 in.
with a wire helix green wear
and a polypropylene strip
wear strip
Description: Wear strip provides greater wear resistance in applications

where the hose may be dragged, excellent tear, abrasion, moisture and
drag resistance. The wear strip is molecularly bonded to the hose, so it
will not delaminate, Ideal for dust collection, ventilation and leaf and lawn
collection applications.
4.E UFD-AP

-65–200°F All thermoplastic Clear with a 25 in., 50 in. 1.5–8 in.
polyurethane hose safety yellow
reinforced with an helix
ABS helix
Description: Smooth interior, lightweight and highly flexible, suitable

replacement for thicker walled EPDM hoses. The clarity of the hose allows
the user to check for blockages; helix provides added durability in
applications where the hose is being dragged, great for dust collection,
leaf and woodchip collection or transferring stones, pellets and scrap,
supplemental helix available.
4.F UFD.045

-65–200°F Heavy walled Clear or 25 in., 50 in. 4–18 in.
thermoplastic polyure- translucent
thane reinforced with blue
a wire helix
Description: Superior abrasion resistance, the colour of the hose allows

for the user to locate blockages, excellent for leaf and lawn collection and
other severe service applications, materials used in UFD.045-Clear are
FDA acceptable, available with cuffed end finishes, available in 10 in.
lengths during leaf collection season.
4.G UFD.060

-65–200°F Heavy walled thermo- Translucent 25 in., 50 in. 4–18 in.
plastic polyurethane blue
reinforced with a
wire helix
Description: Superior abrasion resistance, the colour of the hose allows

the user to locate blockages, excellent for leaf and lawn collection, street
sweepers and other severe service applications, available in 10 in. lengths
during leaf collection season, cuffed ends available.
5. PVC flexible air duct by Guangzhou PaiPu

Ventilation Equipment Co. Ltd.
Fire retardant material and steel wire helix features equip these air ducts
for maximum durability. These air ducts are for use with ventilators for
fume removal or to bring in fresh air to manholes, tanks, or other enclosures.
They are tough weather resistant hose with dual directional flow and low
friction loss for exceptional efficiency in moving air and fumes.
6. Fume extraction systems by Excel

Airtechnique
Fume/smoke produced inside a factory is a contaminant and a control
device and an extraction device source is required in order to control the
build up of concentration of the fume/smoke and thereby provide a good
working environment for the operatives. The fume extraction system by
Excel Airtechnique plays a very important role in designing the hoods and
the system with an optimum exhaust capacity with the inclusion of a
scrubber in the system, demand for power increases.
Typical fume extraction systems in vogue are for welding, open surface
tanks (pickling, plating, etc.), painting, kitchen, foundry, laboratory, metal
working, etc.
7. Flexible aluminum ducting by Dundas Jafine –

Class 0 Air Duct
Ideal for use in general purpose exhaust applications
including kitchen range exhaust. Totally, non-
combustible can be bent into any configuration.
Maximum operating temperature is 435°F.
8. Duct cleaning by Dunne

Cleaning Specialists Inc.
1. A vacuum hose (minimum of 10 in. of diameter) is attached separately
to the supply and then to the return duct (2 separate hookups) to
clean the entire duct system. If only 1 hookup is used, half the system
will not be cleaned and in a short time the dirty side will contaminate
the cleaned side.
2. Brushes and electric blowers are very ineffective in duct cleaning,
there biggest advantage – they are very inexpensive. Running a brush
down the ducts from the grill makes an awful mess when pulled back
into the room. A blower directed into the duct will only remove debris
from the consumers view. To completely clean the ductwork, a power
whip must be fed through the vents and the trunk lines in the
basement.
3. A power whip with a high pressure air sweep ball will fit into virtually
every inch of ductwork and blast loose and get airborne the caked on
contaminants and debris in both the supply and return ducts which
once airborne are carried out by the large industrial 25 HP Vacuum
located outside your home or business.
4. It removes as much debris as possible from the entire supply and
return ductwork to collection bag, which is attached to large industrial
25 HP Vacuum.
Appendix 10
Filters and dust collectors
There are varieties of filters available for filtering air fed to air washer
plant and the air being let out from the machineries. There are varieties of
filters like Static flat screens, static zigzag screens, rotary screens, etc.
There are systems for continuously cleaning the machines like travelling
cleaners. Following are some of the commercially available filters. The
descriptions given are as claimed by the manufacturers.
1. Static flat screen filters
1.A Fine filters by AeroTech Equipments &

Projects (P) Ltd.
Efficiency claimed 99.9%

Initial pressure drop 6.5 mm WG at aerated flow in clean condition
Nominal rating 5 micron
Media Synthetic non-woven polyester, nylon or polypropylene fabrics
Construction The filter housing box type and flanged type housing thickness
as per specific requirements.
Testing Tested as per BS 6540 for (1985).
Servicing Filter cleaning recommended when the pressure drop across
the filter is double that of initial pressure drop. These filters are
washable and can be washed with any household detergent.
Application AeroTech Micrometric Fine Filters are best suited for computer
centers, ventilation system, telephone, modern paint shops,
nuclear power plants, textile mills and miscellaneous industrial
ventilation.
431
Fine filters Pre-filters Metallic viscous filters
1.B Pre-filtersby AeroTech Equipments & Projects (P)

Ltd.
Efficiency 90%
Initial pressure drop 2.5 mm WG at rated flow in clean condition.
Nominal rating 20 micron and 40 micron
Media Synthetic non-woven + HDP Mesh
Type Flange or box type
Frame Tested as per BS 6540 for (1985).
Tested method As per BS – 2831
1.C Metallic viscous filters/wire mesh by AeroTech

Equipments & Projects (P) Ltd.
Efficiency 65%
Initial pressure drop 1 mm WG at rated
Drop Flow in clean condition
Media Wire mesh
Type Box type(sliding fitting)
Frame GI/Aluminium
Servicing Metallic filters are washable
Construction The element is constructed of 5 layers of G.I. wire mesh
interspaced with 2 crimped layers and 3 flat layers. The media
is supported with expanded metal from both sides as
reinforcement and housed in 2 in. deep metal frame
Application Metallic filters are designed for general ventilation and air
conditioning systems, they are economical and durable.
1.D Air filters by Wider Worldwide Enterprise Limited

Description: Large filter surface, firm structure, low pressure loss, high
cost performance ratio. It is widely used in the filtering systems of cleaners
and air freshening machines. It has a wide market prospect.
Filters and dust collectors 433
1.E Static filters by Excel Airtechnique:

They are simple panel type filters assembled in a ‘V’ shape to provide
large surface area. This is the most economic method of filtration though
the cleaning should be manual and frequent.
1.F Robust pleated air filter by A.A.F International

The Perfect pleat ultra, from AAF International, is designed for air filtration
applications across general industry and has a pleated design that has
enabled the manufacturer to eliminate the traditional metal support grid
without sacrificing structural resilience. The pleats provide extra surface
for filtration, and also make the filter strong and robust.
2. Rotary filters
2.A Rotary air filters by Keystone

This equipment is specially designed for handling high volume of air laden
with fibre and dust returning along with the air from the department/ waste
recovery equipments. The fluff, fibre and dust arrested on the filtering
media is sucked out by travelling suction nozzles, moving along the outer
surface of the drum and are deposited in collection bags for easy disposal.
The clean air is then either re-circulated or exhausted in to the atmosphere.
● Continuous filtering and cleaning enable a uniform flow of return

air at constant pressure.
● A variety of filter media like polyurethane foam and nonwoven
material are available for varied application.
2.B Rotary screen filters by Keystone

Rotary screen filter is added to the range of filtering equipment for fibre
and waste separation mainly to clean the air laden with high concentration
of dust and fibres. Its high filtering property and separation process with
low dimension makes it particularly versatile and can be used as separator
for blow room and carding machines where generation of free fibre is
very high.
This equipment is specially designed for handling high volume of air

laden with fibre and dust returning along with the air from the department/
waste recovery equipments. The fluff, fibre and dust arrested on the filtering
media is sucked out by travelling suction nozzles, moving along the outer
surface of the drum and are deposited in collection bags for easy disposal.
The clean air is then either re-circulated or exhausted in to the atmosphere.
Continuous filtering and cleaning enable uniform flow of return air at
constant pressure. A variety of filter media like polyurethane foam and

non-woven material are available for varied application.
2.C Rotary air filter by Excel Airtechnique

A fully automatic Rotary filter is preferred wherever a fine filtration of
the micro dust particles and recirculation of the department air coming
out of an exhaust plant is required. They work at very low filtration velocity.
A special filter cloth is used to achieve a fine filtration. With automatic
waste cleaning nozzle arrangement over the filter cloth with a dust collector,
it is possible to achieve a steady exhaust rate from the department without
fluctuation in RH, development of hot spots and infiltration of air from
one department to another department.
2.D Disc filter by Excel Airtechnique

While filter cloth is wound around a rotating drum in a Rotary filter, the
cloth is wound in a disc shaped steel skeleton arrangement in a disc filter.
Though the filtration velocity is higher in this case, the continuous cleaning
nozzle arrangement provided with a dust collector helps in maintaining a
steady rate of exhaust in the department.
2.E RPF - Automatic pre-filtration

by Luwa
The Luwa rotary pre-filter unit is used as a part
of air engineering plants to provide preliminary
filtration of air steams heavily charged with
waste, especially in automatic waste disposal
systems. The air stream is conducted axially to
the slowly rotating pre-filtration disc via feed
pipes through the back panel or via a connecting
box. The rotational rate, mesh size and flow velocity, which are selected
in accordance with the type of application, cause a build-up of a layer of
waste which has an additional effect of retaining fine dust. The waste
deposited on the filter screen is removed by means of a fixed, radially
mounted suction nozzle which feeds a disposal station.
Advantages claimed are low cost, individual adaptation to extremely
varying operational conditions, small space requirement and easy
integration, low power consumption, multiple filter classifications
available, increasing separation efficiency with simultaneous reduction
of the load of the final filtration stage, simple to maintain and operate and
semi or fully automated waste disposal.
Technical data:
Dimensions and installation
Width 1520/2128 mm
Height 1520/2128 mm
Length 912 mm
Rated air flow 12000–75000 m³ h -1
Nominal pressure loss 200–400 Pa
Drive power consumption 0.17 kW
Stripper fan power consumption 4–6 kW
3. Dust collectors
3.A Aerotech dust collectors

AeroTech manufactures and supplies the following dust collectors.
Cyclones
The cyclone has tangential inlet which gives the gas flow rotating
movement whereby the dust particles are driven towards the envelop
surface where they are screwed down. AeroTech cyclones are supplied in
MS sheet/stainless steel/MS with FRP lined construction dustech cyclones
available in DECA and DECH type depending upon collection efficiency.
Aerotech wet scrubber

AeroTech-Dews wet collector is a low pressure, high efficiency collector
for coarse dust which settles in water rapidly. The efficiency is as high as
95% for particle size up to 5 micron. It is without water circulating pump.
Bag filters
AeroTech bag filter contains a number of hose made of textile material.
The dust laden air/gas is passed through the walls of the hoses from inside
to outside or outside to inside. The dust is deposited as a layer on the
inside/outside of the hoses. The dust is dislodged to the dust hopper by
shaking/reversing high pressure jet of air.
3.B Dust master filters by Sai Aqua fresh

Dust master filters supplied by Sai Aquafresh are one among the number
of air pollution control devices supplied. It catches even the minute dust
particles and ensures clean air.
3.C AC humidification: dust collectors

This is ideally suited for fine and light dust applications; this product is
completely self-contained heavy-duty cartridge collector. Easy to operate
and durable in nature, they require less maintenance.
3.D Dust collector by Abbot Air Systems

Abbott Air Systems is dealing with the wide range of air handling
equipment in India. Dust collector which is a reverse jet cleaner have the
below salient features as high volume dust collection system, continuous
cleaning of dust separation media, no choking of filter system, dust
collection at bottom of bags through full length travelling air jets and
multilayer media volume: 1–600 kg of dust per hour.
3.E Exhaust systems and pollution control

equipments by Abbot Air Systems
The dusty air is collected from individual machines and is conveyed out
of the room through ducts.
3.F Aaron equipments

Torit vibra shake cartridge type dust collector, model VS1500. 177 square
feet filter area, carbon steel. Nominal air flow 1200 acfm. 7 in. inlet, top
mounted blower, 5 hp, 3/60/208/460 V. Side access doors.
Flex Kleen bin vent dust collector, model 58CT14-C, stainless steel.
Approximate 102 sq ft filter area. Side access doors, top stainless steel
plenum. Requires bags and cages.
4. Travelling cleaners
4.A Travelling cleaner Spin TRAVCLEAN® for spinning

mills by Luwa
The continuous cleaning of the work area with the Spin TRAVCLEAN®
considerably improves the quality of the yarn due to reduction of thread
breakages thanks to less fibre fly and increases the machine’s efficiency.
Two drive concepts are available for different uses: Belt drive – for
conventional continuous cleaning with mechanical reversing control and
direct drive – for demanding applications.
4.B Travelling cleaner Loom TRAVCLEAN® for

weaving mills by Luwa
The Loom TRAVCLEAN® (LTC) improves the production conditions of
weaving machines, thus preventing thread breakages and weaving flaws.
Oscillating, blowing nozzles and a separate supply and exhaust air system
guarantee a top cleaning effect.
4.C Cleaning and waste disposal – increased quality

and productivity by Luwa
Regulation and reduction of fibre fly and dust are important for the quality
of the products to be processed. High-performance travelling cleaners and
room air changes counteract these problems. TRAVCLEAN, with its ideal
blowing strength and movement frequency guarantees best cleaning
efficiency. There are two models: Spin TRAVCLEAN® for spinning mills
and TRAVCLEAN ® for weaving mills. A clean production area and
prevents thread breakages and weaving flaws. In production fringe areas
– near creels, transport systems, casings or interim storage – additional
cleaning measures are necessary. By using vacuum cleaning plants and
the ceiling cleaner CIRCULAIRE®, considerably reduce cleaning work
and increase the production time.
As a pioneer for efficient and environmentally friendly disposal
concepts, Luwa offers a wide range of products for waste removal and for
collecting and compacting of dust, fibres and dirt particles. The wide
selection of products is possible and systems range from individual products
through to fully automatic plants.
4.D Power Vac Electric for Indoor debris removal

The Electric Power-Vac commercial vacuum sweeper manufactured by IAS
Industrial vacuum is suited for quick cleanup of virtually any type of litter
and debris found indoors — from paper to foam packaging to broken glass,
bottles and insulation. The electric Power-Vac can be used on a variety of
surfaces such as concrete, tile, carpet and more. Tackle even the largest job at
40000 sq ft per hour. The Power-Vac saves time and money by cleaning
12 times faster than manual broom and rake methods. Power-Vac Sweepers
are low maintenance, with no moving parts such as chains or belts, no
gates, hinges, or levers to complicate operations. The machine is always
at the right operation height, ready to pick up almost any size object.
The Power-Vac’s unique engineering provides for the collection of
dissimilar litter. A patented design allows objects outside the width of the
machine to be vacuumed, and the Quick-Tilt feature offers a snap-on Dolly
assembly to allow the introduction of large objects into the air stream.
The 11-cubic-foot-capacity polyester felt bag has a specifically designed
zippered screened vent for superior dust control, yet still maintains proper
machine balance for titling.
5. Iononizers
5.A Wein high density negative ionizer for air supply

VI 2500
The Wein high density negative ionizer takes over where nature stops by
electronically generating a powerful stream of negative ions. The spiral
emitter on the VI-2000 negative ionizer produces 70 trillion negative ions
per second in intermittent pulses which ‘wash’ the air at a rate of nearly
100 feet per minute.
5.B Bench top static neutralizer SNP-01 By Marvel

products
Specifications:
● Air flow: 1.8 cu m/min. Noise level : 45 dB (at 1 m)
● Power supply: 210 – 250 V AC/50 Hz
● Ionization voltage: ± 6 kV. Un balance voltage: < ± 100 V
● Construction: Power-coated MS cabinet
● Dimensions: 230 × 150 × 110 mm.
● Weight: Aprrox. 2.9 kgs
Test conditions:
1. Test data available using ME268A charge plate monitor.
2. Test figures are subject to the variation in the atmosphere and Input
Ac voltage.
3. Decay times are found from 1000 V to 100 V in accordance with
EOS/ESD S-3.
4. All data taken using full fan speed.
5.C Over head ionizer OHI-01 by Marvel products
Specifications:
● Air flow: 90 CFM. Noise Level: 43 dBA
● Power supply: 210–250 V AC/50Hz
● Ionization voltage: ± 6 KV
● Un balance voltage: < ±50 V
● Construction: Power coated MS cabinet
● Dimensions: 1220 × 200 × 120 mm
Test conditions: (P1 – P12) Test data available using ME268A Charge
plate monitor. Test figures are subject to the variation in the atmosphere
and input Ac voltage. Decay times are found from 1000 to 100 V in
accordance with EOS/ESD S-3. All data are taken using full blower speed.
Distance between the Ionizer and charged plate monitor 24 in.
5.D Horizontal ionizing air blower HIAB-01 by Marvel

Products
Specifications:
● Air flow: 170 CFM
● Speed: 1700 min -1
● Blower width: 320 mm
● Power supply: 210 – 250 V AC/50 Hz
● Ionization voltage: ± 6KV
● Un balance voltage: <± 50V
● Construction: Power coated MS cabinet
● Dimensions: 520 × 300 × 200 mm
● Weight: Apex. 7.5 Kgs
Test Conditions: (P1 – P12) Test data available using ME268A Charge
plate monitor test figures are subject to the variation in the atmosphere
and input Ac voltage. Decay times are found from 1000 V to 100 V in
accordance with EOS/ESD S-3. All data taken using full blower speed
6. Others
6.A AccuCleanT whole house air filtration system

American standard AccuCleanT-an effective air filtration system can clean
up to an astonishing 99.98% of allergens from the filtered air, so everyone
will feel more comfortable, no matter what the season. The majority of
irritating particles like dust, pollen, pet hair and dander, dust mites, mildew,
lint, fungus, most tobacco smoke, cooking grease, even bacteria, will be
removed from the filtered air.
Features: Removes up to 99.98% of allergens from filtered air. It catches
particles down to .3 microns in size, 8 times more effective than the best
HEPA room appliance, 100 times more effective than a standard 1 in.
throwaway filter or ionic-type room appliance. Delivers cleaner air, and
more of it and filter is reusable and easy to vacuum or wash. AccuCleanT
is a whole house air cleaner works in conjunction with heating and cooling
system to clean up to 99.98% of airborne allergens from filtered air.
6.B Electronic air filter – by The Cooler Company

An American Standard Perfect Fit air cleaner is attractive and designed to
fit in with any of our furnace or air handler cabinet widths. It is also flexible.
It can be mounted horizontally, vertically, at the top or at the bottom,
depending on the installation requirements. It can fit in tight spaces and is
available in a variety of sizes. It is made to last, equipped with heavy-duty
latches and air-tight construction. It is also easily accessed from the front
so that cleaning and maintenance is easy.
Features:
Energy efficiency: Improves the air quality in your home while using less
energy than a 40 W bulb.
Effectiveness:
There are three filtration options:
1. The basic 1 in. pleated filter that is six times more effective than a
standard throwaway filter;
2 The 5 in. media filter that is up to 15 times more effective than a
standard throwaway filter; and
3. The electronic model with pre-filter and electronic cell that is up to
40 times more effective than a standard throwaway filter and up to
99% efficient at removing airborne particles like pollen, dust,
bacteria, tobacco smoke, cooking smoke, animal hair, and dander.
References
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2. Psychrometrics by S. G. Wakade – 31st All India Textile Conference.
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6. DRI-STEEM Offers Outdoor Enclosures for Humidifiers Archive
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7. Proper design of vapor retarders requires close attention to
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12. High Performance HVAC – By. Carl Ian Graham, PE. Whole Building
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13. Motion Tracking – Event Sentry.
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15. Engineering Tool Box.
16. The Old Farmer’s Almanac Webcam – Yankee Publishing Inc.
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18. Air Conditioning: Improving the way of Life – Consumer
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19. Yahoo Answer.com
20. WordNet.com
21. About Temperature – By Beverly T. Lynds.
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24. American Moistening Company.
443
25. Centrifugal humidifier with sawtooth ridged impingement surface

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26. Sensorland.com – Online information centre for Sensing and
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27. Controlling Moisture by Mechanical Design in Highly Efficient
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28. Titan Products – Measurement devices for Control Systems —
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29. Hiross Flexible Space Systems – Italy.
30. Breaking Tradition – A Better way of Controlling Economizers By
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31. Hi-Tech Duravent hoses.
32. Jargon Buster By Rapid Climate Control.
33. Loom and Room Conditioning system US Patent Issued on November
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34. US Patent issued on April 25, 1995. Method and apparatus for
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35. US Patent 4183224 Method and apparatus for temperature and
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36. A fuzzy logic and rough sets controller for HVAC systems Arima,
M.; Hara, E.H.; Katzberg, J.D. WESCANEX 95. Communications,
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37. JetSpray atomising by J. S. Humidifiers.
38. Energy Efficient FRP Axial Flow Fans – By G. Srikanth, Sangeeta
nangia and Atul Mittal.
39. Humidification – Controlling the air we breathe – The Armstrong
Humidification handbook.
40. Refrigirators – Physics Hypertextbook. by Glenn Elert.
41. The Design Standards – Section 15880 San Diego State University
Division 15 – Mechanical.
42. The Control Of Microbiological Hazards Associated With Air-
Conditioning And Ventilation Systems by B.P. Ager and J.A. Tickner.
43. Social compliance in Pakistan’s textile industry by Dr. H.R. Sheikh,
Professor, Textile Institute of Pakistan.
44. Existing HVAC systems analysis by Spencer Engineers, Inc.
45. Literature supplied by Excel Airtehnique.
46. Supply air grill condensation elimination method and apparatus US
Patent Issued on August 19, 1997 by William G. Suggs.
47. The Trouble with Humidity – Hidden Challenges of Humidity
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48. Ventilation Principles (COPE) by National Research Council,
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49. Humidity Control for Tropical Climate By Kecha Thirakomen

President ASHRAE Thailand Chapter 2001-2002.
50. Understanding HVAC System Design Issues by the Air Conditioning
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51. SITRA Energy Audit” – Implementation Strategy in Textile Mills by
K.R. Chandran and P. Muthukumaraswamy .
52. Air Duct System Design by Dynacomp. Inc.
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54. Cooling device, condenser, and air conditioning system – United
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TetsuoYamaoka, Akira.
55. Energy Savings and Audits in Textile Industry – By. S. Ashok
([email protected])
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57. PLC Technology and its in highway traffic system application –
Autooonet Automated Online.
58. UVC Lamps Can Keep AHUs Clean By Ashoke Sarkar – Air
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60. Chemical Cleaning of Finned Coils By Yashwant Jhaveri – Air
Conditioning and Refrigeration Journal Oct-Dec 2005.
61. Air Washers - A new look at a vintage technology – By M. El-Morsi
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Humidification and ventilation management

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA (P) LTD

Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington

First published 2009, Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

Woodhead Publishing India (P) Ltd. ISBN 13: 978-81-908001-2-9

Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, New Delhi

1 Need for maintaining humidity 1

2 A glance at the developments 12

3 Different types of humidification 22

4 Air handling units in textile industry 41

4.2 Supplying air to air washer plants 45

5 Humidification requirements in manmade-

6 Humidification requirements in nonwoven plants 95

7 Concept of total air control 101

8 Localised humidification control 110

8.4 AirBell air outlet 114

9 Maintenance of humidity 121

10 Auxiliary units to make humidification

11 Air-conditioning units 174

12 Air pollution control in textile industry 194

14 Designing heating, ventilating and air-

15 Definitions of terms used in humidification

Appendix 1 Some of the commercial humidification plants 253

The importance of maintaining and managing humidity and temperature

control can help safeguard against explosive atmospheres. In short,

1.2 Relation of humidity to working in the textile

(due to difference in co-efficient of thermal expansion) will be subjected

Department Cotton Man-made Department Wool (%)

Opening and picking 45–60 50–55 Raw wool storage 50–55

Similar to the requirement of humidity, the temperature also plays a

Department Minimum temperature Maximum temperature

1.3 Dust control

including ground up plant matter, fibre, bacteria, fungi, soil, pesticides,

Department Number of air changes

To minimize risk of industrial diseases such as byssinosis (lung

equipments to control vapours emanating from the plant from some of

1.4 Control of air pollution

1.5 Air changes

Table 1.4 Specified air changes at different levels of air control

ISO Controls Air velocity Air changes HEPA coverage

1.6 Humidity and the health

1.1 Comfortable levels of humidification. (ASHRAE findings)

1.7 Protection of electronics and equipments

strikes faster. In addition to the risk of damage to electronic devices from

2.2 Unit humidifiers

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00000000 00000000 00000000

2.1 Unit-type plant.

2.3 Central station-type plant

2.2 Semi-central humidification unit.

2.3 Air-washer plant developed by Willies Carrier.

2.4 Central station – air washer.

more suitable for refrigerative cooling as chilled water can be added as

2.4 Supplementary humidification

2.5 All-air system

2.6 Energy management

2.5 Device for evaporation of water.

In this device for the evaporation of liquid, in particular for water, an

is 1, X is halogen and R is hydrogen, or X and R together are –O–.