Met Tall Ography

8 metallography
8.1 macro and micro ecamination
When sections of metal, often polished and etched, are examined by the naked eye for detail such as
grain size and shape resulting from casting conditions or deformation, and for defects, this is called
macro-examina tion. Micro-examination involves the use of a microscope to observe grains,
deformation, phase distribution, and presence of impurities
8.2 specimen selection and preparation
It is important that the specimen selected represents the material being s should be taken from
investigated. When segregation is suspected, sample high and low concentration areas, and in
worked material, samples should include a cross-section, and longitudinal sections parallel and
perpen- dicular to the worked surface. Usually specimens for micro-examination are selected in
conjunction with those for macro-examination.
Sectioning may be carried out by sawing or breaking, but care should be taken that the original
condition of the material is not altered.
When specimens are small, or difficult to hold, they may be mounted in hot or cold setting plastics or
low melting point alloys, or held in a special clamping device.
The required surface is flattened by careful filing, or machining or grinding, and, as in sectioning, heat
or distortion should not affect the specimen.
The procedures are essentially the same for both macro- and micro- examination, except that in the
latter case the final surface finish is more important than in the former, Preliminary polishing involves
grades of progressively finer wet silicon carbide papers, the specimen being turned so that the
polishing direction is at right angles to the previous paper During polishing through the various
stages, four general effects occur: (1) abrasion, involving cutting the metal surface and removal of
particles of metal; (2) deformation, where the crystal structure of the surface is altered; (3) chemical
action between the atmosphere and the freshly exposed surface.
Metallography
The classical theory of polishing put forward by Beilby proposes that, during polishing, material
flows over the surface to fill in existing regu- larities.This smooth amorphous layer, called the Beilby
layer, which is 50-100 A thick, has lost its obvious crystalline structure and properties, and is merely a
close-packed assembly of atoms bearing no relation to the normal metal structure.
However, new evidence suggeststhat polishing occurs mainly by cutting, producing a crystalline, but
plastically deformed surface.The final surface is relatively smooth and may be finished completely by
polishing with diamond compounds or by electrolytic methods.
Following the wet silicon carbide papers, the specimen may be polished on wheels covered with
napped cloth and a paste impregnated with diamond abrasive.The most useful grades vary from tu to
14p, and consist of a stearic acid, or soap, carrier, and a dispersing agent such as poly propylene
glycol.Pastes must maintain the abrasive particles in a stable and uniform suspension over long
periods of time without agglomeration of the diamond particles.
The method can be universally applied to the preparation of metallo- graphic specimens, and gives a
marked improvement to the quality of the polish produced.Non-metallic inclusions are retained,
e.g.alumina inclusions in steel, and graphite in cast iron, and in sections through plated and coated
specimens there is a sharp retention of the edges.
Specimens have a freedom from deformation, which is important in the distortion of lamellar
pearlite, the rough appearance of ferrite, and the deformation artefacts in austenitic stainless
steel.Soft metals, such as tin and zinc can be successfully polished, also aluminium alloys of low alloy
content that scratch badly under other techniques.
Electrolytic polishing produces a smooth surface by selective anodic solution.The specimen, after
preliminary treatment on wet silicon carbide papers, is made the anode in an elcctrolytic cell with a
suitable electrolyte, Fig. 8.1(a).
Polishing takes place by preferential solution of the peaks and ridges of the metal surface, becausé
the metal ions that are formed produce a thin film of high viscosity and high electrical resistivity.The
surface of the film s smoother than the surface of the specimen, Fig. 8.1(b), partly due to the
circulation of the-liquid, the-film therefore being thinner at the peaks and ridges.In these areas the
current density is higher, due to decreased resistance, and the rate of metal dissolution is higher,
hence the surface becomes smoothed.The film also contains complex compounds of anode metal
that have high concentration gradients (highest in the valleys) and polarization differences,
accentuating the previous dissolution effects
Fig. 8.1(c) shows current density/voltage plots during polishing, which vary from metal to
metal.Theoretically, the curves may be divided into three sections.with a polishing plateau, below
which etching takes place.

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8 metallography

8.1 macro and micro ecamination

8.2 specimen selection and preparation

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