THE RECONSTRUCTION

OF RELIGIOUS
THOUGHT IN ISLAM
 encountering traditions

Stanley Hauerwas, Peter Ochs, Randi Rashkover, and Maria Dakake

editors

The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, a classic effort to

comprehend religion’s encounter with modernity, provides a fitting entrée
into Stanford University Press’s new book series, Encountering Traditions.
Writing in the waning years of colonial rule in the subcontinent, Allama
Muhammad Iqbal seeks “to reconstruct Muslim religious philosophy” by
bringing the latest developments in science into dialogue with the wisdoms
of early Qur’anic tradition. These lectures on the Qur’an, prayer, science,
and poetry illustrate the series’ primary themes: dynamic encounters
between traditions, religious as well as secular, and creative responses to
rapid social change across the globe.
THE RECONSTRUCTION
OF RELIGIOUS
THOUGHT IN ISLAM

M U H A M M A D I Q BA L

Edited and annotated by M. Saeed Sheikh

With a new Introduction by Javed Majeed

Stanford University Press ‡ Stanford, California

In Collaboration with
Iqbal Academy Pakistan
Government of Pakistan
6th Floor, Aiwan-i-Iqbal Complex
Off Egerton Road, Lahore
Tel:[+ 92-42] 36314-510/99203573
Fax:[+ 92-42] 3631-4496
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.allamaiqbal.com
Stanford University Press
Stanford, California
© 2012 Iqbal Academy Pakistan.
Originally published in 1989 and reprinted by arrangement with the Iqbal Academy Pakistan.
$QHZ3UHIDFHDQGDQHZ,QWURGXFWLRQKDYHEHHQVSHFLÀFDOO\SUHSDUHGIRUWKLVHGLWLRQ
© 2013 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press.
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Iqbal, Muhammad, Sir, 1877-1938, author.
The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam / Muhammad Iqbal ; edited and annotated by
M. Saeed Sheikh ; with a new introduction by Javed Majeed.
pages cm.--(Encountering traditions)
“Originally published in 1989 and reprinted by arrangement with the Iqbal Academy
Pakistan.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8047-8146-6 (cloth : alk. paper)--ISBN 978-0-8047-8147-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Islam--20th century. 2. Philosophy and religion. I. Sheikh, M. Saeed, editor. II. Title.
III. Series: Encountering traditions.
BP161.I7 2013
297.2--dc23 2013005235
ISBN 978-0-8047-8686-7 (electonic)
 CONTENTS

Preface to the American Edition vii

Basit Bilal Koshul
Introduction to Muhammad Iqbal’s
The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam xi
Javed Majeed
Editor’s Introduction xxxi
M. Saeed Sheikh
Preface xlv

LECTURE I
Knowledge and Religious Experience 1

LECTURE II
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations
of Religious Experience 23

LECTURE III
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 50

LECTURE IV
The Human Ego—His Freedom and Immortality 76

LECTURE V
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 99

LECTURE VI
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 116

LECTURE VII
Is Religion Possible? 143
vi Contents
Notes and References 158
Bibliography 215
- Index
Qur’anic 236
Index 242
 PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION

,WLVGLIÀFXOWWRLGHQWLI\DWKLQNHUZKRLQWHJUDWHVDVPDQ\RSSRVLWHVLQ
his person and in his ideas as Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938). A juxta-
position of some of the opposites that he integrates would look like this:
He is among the last classical Persian and Urdu poets.
+HLVDPRQJWKHÀUVWPRGHUQ0XVOLPSKLORVRSKHUV
He is considered the intellectual father of Pakistan.
One of his poems is among the national songs of India.
His Javed Namah is an expression of his love for Rumi.
His Payam-e-Mashriq is an expression of his love for Goethe.
The Turks honored him, giving him an honorary resting place
alongside Rumi in Konya.
The Germans honored him by naming a park after him in
Heidelberg.
He counted Rumi, Ibn Khaldun, Ghazali, Akbar Allahabadi
among his teachers.
He openly acknowledged his debt to Emerson, Whitehead,
Bergson, James, Royce.
The leading philosophers of his day counted him as one of their
own.
The leading mystics of his day counted him as one of their own.
His work demonstrates intimate knowledge of modern science
and Western philosophy.
He considered all his poetry and philosophy to be an exegesis of
the Qur’an.
Iqbal’s quest to build bridges and establish relationship between
opposites embodies the spirit of Tawheed and is a major reason for
his widespread popularity in the Muslim world. His Urdu poetry
is known throughout the Indo-Pak subcontinent and his Persian
viii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
poetry—in Iran and the Persian-speaking Central Asian republics.
Arabic translations of his poetry have been put to song by the Arab
icon Umm Kulthum. His works in translation are avidly read in
Turkey, Malaysia, and Indonesia. With the spread of the Muslim
diaspora in the West, academies have been established in England,
Norway, the United States, and elsewhere to disseminate his work.
As Iqbal points out repeatedly in his poetry and prose, his quest
to build bridges and establish relations is the result of a Qur’anically
inspired vision. This tawheedic vision aspires to transform life-
denying divisions into life-giving relationships. A partial list of the
divisions that are transformed into relationships in Iqbal’s thought
would include: modernity/tradition, East/West, religion/science,
philosophy/mysticism, and the human self/Divine Other. His best-
known work in prose, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in
Islam, is the one place where Iqbal’s philosophy is outlined most
clearly and systematically. This is a seminal text for both Islamic
and modern Western philosophy. For a variety of reasons, it has
been published only once by a Western press, Oxford University
Press in 1934, in an unedited, unfootnoted form. After a lapse of
almost eighty years, a collaboration between the Iqbal Academy
Pakistan and Stanford University Press addressed this lacuna. Given
the centrality of the Qur’an in Iqbal’s thought (the Qur’an is the
most often cited source in The Reconstruction of Religious Thought
in IslamLWLVYHU\ÀWWLQJWKDWWKLVWH[WLVEHLQJUHLQWURGXFHGWR
a Western audience as part of the Encountering Traditions series.
The publication of this classic by Stanford University Press in-
troduces the thought of one of the most important Muslim thinkers
of the twentieth century to a new generation of Western scholars.
Iqbal’s thought played a decisive role in the establishment of one
Muslim nation-state (Pakistan), it played a critical role in one of
the major political revolutions in the twentieth century (the Iranian
5HYROXWLRQDQGLWPDGHDVLJQLÀFDQWFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHVXUYLYDO
RI0XVOLPLGHQWLW\LQSDUWVRIWKHIRUPHU8665*LYHQWKHVLJQLÀ-
cant impact of Iqbal’s ideas in different parts of the Muslim world,
direct access to this text opens up the possibility of a better under-
standing of the Muslim world.
6WLOOLWZRXOGEHDJURVVXQGHUHVWLPDWLRQRIWKHVLJQLÀFDQFHRI
Iqbal’s thought if one were to assume that its relevance is limited
to the Muslim world. Robert Whittemore argues that while Iqbal’s
Preface to the American Edition ix
philosophy is faithful to the teachings of the Qur’an, it is “an achieve-
ment possessing a philosophical importance far transcending the
world of Islam.”1 Iqbal’s falsafa-e-khudi offers a possible resolu-
WLRQWRRQHRIWKHPRVWLQWUDFWDEOHFRQÁLFWVLQJOREDOL]HG:HVWHUQ
PRGHUQLW\´WKHSHUHQQLDOFRQÁLFWEHWZHHQVFLHQFHSKLORVRSK\
and religion.”2 Commenting on the place of The Reconstruction
of Religious Thought in Islam in modern philosophy, Whittemore
notes, “Iqbal, in fact, has added yet another dimension to that cosmo-
theological point of view associated in the west with such names as
Whitehead, Berdyaev, Montague, Hartshorne, and William James.”3
Iqbal’s work does not add to modern philosophy in merely quanti-
tative terms. Whittemore concludes his analysis by suggesting that
the breadth and success of Iqbal’s reconstruction project make it a
unique achievement in the annals of modern Western philosophy.
&KDUOHV7D\ORUDUJXHVWKDW,TEDO·VWKRXJKWLVVLJQLÀFDQWQRWRQO\
from the perspective of intellectual history but also because it speaks
directly to our present cultural condition. After noting (in 2010) that
“we must reread Iqbal,” Taylor goes on to explain:
We . . . have shared reasons, Western, Muslim and Eastern merged together,
in reading this remarkable man. Because our dialogues are troubled by a
deep and mutual distrust. This distrust is partly derived from our own un-
certainty regarding our identity, which sometimes gives us a feeling of in-
security under the gaze of others. It’s this feeling that can lead to a sort
RIK\SHUFRQÀGHQFHWLJKWHQLQJDURXQGDULJLGLGHQWLW\DQGWKHEHOOLJHUHQW
UHMHFWLRQRIWKHRWKHUDVWKHEHDUHURIHYLO7RVHHNRXWDQGGHÀQHRQHVHOI
using references found in the other’s tradition becomes impossible, becomes
treasonous.4

Iqbal is of special relevance in a cultural setting in which the af-

ÀUPDWLRQRIWKHVHOILVSUDFWLFDOO\LPSRVVLEOHZLWKRXWODEHOLQJWKH
other “as the bearer of evil.” In environments shadowed by distrust
and fear of the alien other, Iqbal is especially relevant: “In this at-
mosphere of suspicion and anger, it is a joy to hear the voice of
Iqbal, both passionate and serene. It is the voice of a soul that is
deeply anchored in the Qur’anic Revelation, and precisely for that
reason, open to all the other voices, seeking in them the path of
KLVRZQÀGHOLW\µ5 Consequently, “we all need to hear him again,”6
whether we are citizens of the East or the West, Muslim or non-
Muslim, believers or non-believers.
x The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
A few people deserve special mention in bringing this project
to fruition. Suheyl Umar, director of the Iqbal Academy Pakistan,
played the most critical role in the process. Acquisitions editor
Emily-Jane Cohen at Stanford University Press deserves special
thanks as well. The project would not have reached fruition with-
out the efforts of the academic editorial board of the Encountering
Traditions series at Stanford University Press: Stanley Hauerwas,
Peter Ochs, Randi Rashkover, and Maria Dakake. It is hoped that
the collaboration across cultures, institutions, traditions, countries,
and religions that resulted in the publication of this text will lead
to the generation of new relationships and to the opening of new
horizons for its readers.
Basit Bilal Koshul
May 2012
Lahore, Pakistan

Notes
1. R. Whittemore, “Iqbal’s Panentheism,” The Review of Metaphysics 9, no. 4
(June 1956): 681–99, 682.
2. Ibid., 698.
3. Ibid., 682.
4. C. Taylor, “Preface” in S. B. Diagne, Islam and Open Society: Fidelity and
Movement in the Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal, xi–xii; translated from the French
by Melissa McMahon (Dakar, Senegal: Council for the Development of Social Science
Research in Africa, 2010), xi.
5. Ibid., xii.
6. Ibid.
 INTRODUCTION TO MUHAMMAD IQBAL’S
THE RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
IN ISLAM

Javed Majeed

Muhammad Iqbal’s The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

emerged out of intellectual developments in both India and the wider
Islamic world in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Given the
legacies of Islamic civilization and polities in India, these two arenas
were often linked and were reinforced by the varied and widespread
impact of European colonialism. When Iqbal wrote, a substantial pro-
portion of the world’s Muslim population lived under British colonial
rule.1 With the European penetration of the Near East from the late
nineteenth century onwards, the defence of Islam and its recasting as a
religious faith became central to Arabic thought.2 Iqbal’s Reconstruc-
tionZDVSDUWRIWKLVRQJRLQJQDUUDWLYHRIUHGHÀQLQJ,VODPLQUHVSRQVH
to colonialism. It followed on from the work of self-consciously ‘mod-
HUQL]LQJ·ÀJXUHVIURPRXWVLGHDQGZLWKLQ,QGLDVXFKDV-DPDODOGLQ
Afghani (1839–97) and Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–98) amongst
others.3 The increasing religious communalization of public and intel-
lectual life in colonial India was also a distinguishing feature in the
era in which Iqbal lived. Reconstructions of both Islam and Hinduism
were key features of Indian cultural life in this period, and Indians re-
thought the basic categories of their religious systems and practices.4
The ferment in Indian intellectual life was not limited to those who
sought to recast the category of religion alone; Indian liberals appro-
priated and recast Western liberalism on their own terms and, in so
doing, sometimes anticipated later intellectual developments in Eu-
ropean liberalism itself.5 Thus, Iqbal’s Reconstruction was also part
of the vibrant intellectual landscape in South Asia during the colonial
xii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
period, in which an engagement with Western bodies of thought in
a wide range of areas, including religious thought within distinctive
traditions and narratives of civilization, was de rigueur.
The key word ‘Reconstruction’ in the title has connotations of
rebuilding and renewing, using a mixture of pre-existing and new
materials. For Iqbal this project consists of balancing the tasks of re-
form and revision with the forces of conservatism so as not to reject
the past entirely.6 The word ‘reconstruction’ therefore calls attention
to the complexity of the project undertaken in the text, and in any
project to rethink the foundations of religious thought in relation to
modernity and its consequences. Here the title of the last lecture, “Is
5HOLJLRQ3RVVLEOH"µLVVLJQLÀFDQWLQWKDWLWUHIHUVWRUHOLJLRQLQJHQHUDO
rather than Islam in particular. While Iqbal’s major preoccupation
was with Islam, at times he sought to outline how other religions
shared its predicament in the modern world. Islam becomes an acute
manifestation of the problems religions as a whole face in relation
to modernity’s processes of secularization and disenchantment and
its ‘scientism’, that is, “science’s belief in itself [and] the convic-
tion that we can no longer understand science as one form of pos-
sible knowledge, but rather must identify knowledge with science.”7
In the Reconstruction, Iqbal discusses how Islam and Christianity
faced analogous problems in their early histories and suggests that
Islam was passing through a period similar to “that of the Protestant
revolution in Europe.” For him, this ‘revolution’ and its outcome
was an instructive lesson.8 The decline of organized Christianity in
the modern world was a cautionary tale for Iqbal, one that partly
reinforced his own sense of the urgent need to reconstruct Islam.9
In addition, European colonialism brought the disruptive effects of
modernity to the Indian subcontinent and areas of the Middle East
in all their intensity and complexity within a short span of time.10
For this reason, colonialism deepened the problematic nature of
Islam’s and Hinduism’s relationships with modernity and further
complicated their tasks of religious reconstruction.

Cosmopolitanism
A striking feature of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in
Islam is the depth of its cosmopolitanism, as expressed, for exam-
ple, in the wide range of its references to texts and thinkers from
across different traditions and epochs. In part, this intellectual cos-
Introduction xiii
mopolitanism is a consequence of British colonialism itself, which
brought together diverse areas and regions in ways that enabled
not just the circulation of goods and commodities but also texts
and ideas in multiple languages and translations. This circulation
of ideas and texts created what Kris Manjapra and Sugata Bose
have called “cosmopolitan thought zones” for Indian thinkers who
engaged with the works of writers and thinkers from all over the
world.11 Iqbal’s work bears the imprint of this cosmopolitanism. It
ZHDYHVWRJHWKHUUHIHUHQFHVWRWKH4XU·ăQDQGDSSUR[LPDWHO\IRUW\
nine writers (both Muslims and European), blending them together
in relation to key philosophical problems and themes.12 He also
draws parallels between the intellectual situations of Muslim and
Western thinkers, for example, by suggesting similarities between
al-Ghazali and Kant in terms of their “apostolic” missions.13
Thus, Iqbal’s Reconstruction emerges from the cosmopolitan
thought zones and global conversations that underpinned Indian
intellectual life as a style and way of thinking in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. In order to put thinkers in different traditions
in dialogue with each other, Iqbal de-temporalizes the history of
thought, presenting these thinkers as if they were contemporaries
who discuss the same philosophical and metaphysical questions.
In this way, the “pursuit of conversations across lines of differ-
ence” (as Manjapra puts it) becomes central to the way the book
positions Muslim religious thought in its encounters with Europe.14
By de-temporalizing the history of the engagement between Islam
and European thought, Iqbal presents the encounter as a conversa-
tion among intellectual equals, lifting it above the hierarchies of
power created by European colonialism. In this way, the style and
methodology of the book creates a kind of anti-colonial cosmo-
politanism in which intellectual self-assertion, grounded in learned
reading, is key.15 However, this sometimes means that the text reads
as if cosmopolitan eclecticism were an end in its own right. The
display of wide reading, the suggestion of linkages, or what Iqbal
calls “unsuspected mutual harmonies,”16 and the dense, convoluted
texture of the book exceeds the imperatives of argumentation. At
times the Reconstruction is in danger of being overwhelmed by ir-
resolution, as it weaves together fragments of texts in relation to a
wider set of concerns that are sometimes obscured by the richness
of its own cosmopolitanism.17
xiv The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
The cosmopolitan thought zones of Indian intellectuals extended
beyond the Britain-India axis created by empire. A number of in-
ÁXHQWLDO,QGLDQVWUDYHOOHGZRUNHGDQGVWXGLHGLQWKHFRQWLQHQWRI
Europe, especially in Germany, and Iqbal was one of them.18 The
Reconstruction makes substantial reference to German thinkers, in-
cluding Kant, Hegel, Goethe, and Schopenhauer, as well as French
thinkers like Bergson and Descartes. The experience and motifs of
travel are central to Iqbal’s work, as well as to the texts of a number
of major nationalist thinkers in India. The ReconstructionUHÁHFWV
something of the qualities of a travelling identity and the restless
but creative mobility that characterized the outlook of many Indian
writers and thinkers during the colonial period.19
Indian intellectual life in the colonial period was generated out
of a set of institutions revolving around newspapers, law courts,
public meetings, and learned societies. This gave rise to a range
of speaking styles, debating techniques, and models of rhetorical
persuasion, ranging from legal and theological disputation to po-
litical polemic.20 Iqbal was a major poet in both Urdu and Persian
DQGDOVRDWUDLQHGODZ\HU7KHÀUVWHGLWLRQRIWKHReconstruction,
entitled Six Lectures on the Reconstruction of Religious Thought
in Islam (1930), was based on a series of lectures he gave in India
at Madras, Hyderabad, and Aligarh at the invitation of the Madras
Muslim Association. The second edition (1934), which is the text
used here, added a seventh lecture called “Is Religion Possible?”
This additional lecture was delivered by Iqbal to the Aristotelian
Society in London in December 1932. The book retains the style
of exposition appropriate to a lecture. It reads like notes designed
IRURUDOGHOLYHU\UDWKHUWKDQDÀQLVKHGWH[W,TEDO·VSRHWU\VKRZVD
strong command of the form of the rhyming couplet, and his dis-
tinctive voice emerges from the interplay between the tightness of
that form and the innovative nature of his subject matter.21 In the
Reconstruction the absence of this discipline of writing in couplets
ZLWKFDUHIXOO\PHDVXUHGPHWHUVSURGXFHVDPRUHÁXLGRSHQHQGHG
ZRUNLQ(QJOLVK,QVWHDGRIDSROLVKHGDHVWKHWLFDUWLÀFHZHKDYHD
text in progress.227KHRSHQTXHVWLRQLQWKHKHDGLQJRIWKHÀQDOOHF-
ture, “Is Religion Possible?,” is therefore appropriate for a project
that by its very nature cannot be concluded. This is also in keeping
ZLWK,TEDO·VFRQWHQWLRQWKDWWKHUHLVQRÀQDOLW\LQ0XVOLPODZDQG
WKDWWKHIRXQGHUVRI,VODPLFODZQHYHUFODLPHG´ÀQDOLW\IRUWKHLU
Introduction xv
reasonings and interpretations.”23 In its form and style the Recon-
struction dramatizes what Iqbal calls the “principle of movement
in the structure of Islam,” a principle that he attempts to recover as
the basis of his reconstruction of Islamic thought, not least in his
VWUHVVRQWKH´G\QDPLFRXWORRNµRIWKH4XU·ăQ24
Iqbal’s Reconstruction also draws on and continues earlier tradi-
tions of cosmopolitanism that pre-dated British colonialism. This
parallels re-enactments of other forms of vernacular cosmopolitanism
by thinkers and writers in the Indian subcontinent, such as Nehru.25
In Iqbal’s case, this earlier cosmopolitanism consisted of the long
history of interaction between Islamic philosophy and science and
*UHHNWKRXJKWZKLFKEHJDQLQHDUQHVWZLWKWKH¶$EEăVLG&DOLSKDWH
in the early ninth century.26$VZHKDYHVHHQWKHÀQDOOHFWXUHLQWKH
Reconstruction was based on a talk he gave to the Aristotelian Soci-
HW\LQ/RQGRQ,QKLVZRUNDVDZKROH,TEDOUHÁHFWVRQWKLVKLVWRU\
as he explores and reconstructs relationships between Islam and the
West. In particular, he focuses on the impact that Neoplatonism had
on the development of Islamic mysticism, which he argued played
a role in the decline of Islamic civilization.27 In the Reconstruc-
tion, Iqbal is keen to draw attention to Islamic Hellenism in order
to rebut Eurocentric notions of history. He stresses the creativity
of Islam’s engagement with Greek thought, showing how Muslims
added to and transformed Hellenistic learning. In his earlier English
work, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1907), he argued
that this partly stemmed from the very nature of that engagement,
which took place through processes of translation. Because “care-
less translators” of Greek philosophy introduced “a hopeless mass
of absurdities” in the texts, the commentaries on Greek philosophy
by thinkers such as Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, and others became “an
effort at discovery, not exposition. . . . They had largely to rethink
the Philosophies of Aristotle and Plato.”28 A similar point has been
made by contemporary scholars, who characterize the translation
activity that brought together Islam and Greece as a consciously
creative act,29 rather than (to use Iqbal’s words) an act of “servile
imitation.”30 Translation both in the sense of re-creating texts by
converting them from one language to another, and of merging dif-
ferent conceptual languages and cultures into each other, was a key
intellectual strategy of Indian thinkers and writers in the colonial
period, as well as of Muslim thinkers in the wider Islamic world.31
xvi The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
Reconstruction relies on works in translation and translates pas-
sages from other texts as well.32 More broadly, the Reconstruction
is an act of translation as the discovery and creative rethinking of
PRGHUQ(XURSHDQWKRXJKWZLWKLQDUHGHÀQHG,VODPLFIUDPHZRUN
Its approach dramatizes and continues the earlier cosmopolitanism
of Islamic Hellenism as an earlier episode in the interaction between
the evolving categories of Islam and Europe.

Religion and Science

Iqbal’s engagement with Islamic Hellenism as an earlier form of
Muslim cosmopolitanism has another more critical dimension to
it, which is relevant to the way the book deals with the relationship
between science and religion. While making an analogy between
WKH4XU·ăQDQG3ODWR·VRepublic, Iqbal argues that the intellectual
revolt against Greek thought by some Muslim thinkers, especially
against the speculative nature of Aristotelian logic, paved the way
for the experimental and empirical attitudes that underlay the de-
velopment of modern science.33 He further argues that “a careful
VWXG\RIWKH4XU·ăQDQGWKHYDULRXVVFKRROVRIVFKRODVWLFWKHRORJ\
that arose under the inspiration of Greek thought disclose the re-
markable fact that while Greek philosophy very much broadened
the outlook of Muslim thinkers, it, on the whole, obscured their
YLVLRQRIWKH4XU·ăQµ%HFDXVHWKH\UHDGWKH4XU·ăQ´LQWKHOLJKW
of Greek thought,” it took earlier Muslim interpreters of the text
“over two hundred years to perceive—though not quite clearly—
WKDWWKHVSLULWRIWKH4XU·ăQZDVHVVHQWLDOO\DQWLFODVVLFDOµ34 The
Reconstruction is therefore also a critical intervention in Islamic
+HOOHQLVPVHHNLQJWRUHLQWHUSUHWWKH4XU·ăQDVFRPSDWLEOHZLWK
science, thereby continuing to secure Islam against one of the effects
of Hellenism in the past in order to modernize Islam in the present.
With regard to science, the Reconstruction is an amalgam of
different narratives. One strand of the text, as mentioned, views
WKH4XU·ăQDV´DQWLFODVVLFDOµH[HPSOLI\LQJD´JHQHUDOHPSLULFDO
attitude” towards Nature and the “actual” and “concrete” which
made its followers “the founders of modern science.” For Iqbal,
Muhammad stood between the ancient and the modern world, with
the source of his revelation belonging to the former but the spirit to
the latter.35 Another strand in the Reconstruction argues that while
LQWKHSDVW6XÀVPGLG´JRRGZRUNLQVKDSLQJDQGGLUHFWLQJWKHHYR-
Introduction xvii
lution of religious experience in Islam,” its current representatives
are not capable of “receiving any fresh inspiration from modern
thought and experience.”36 The Reconstruction is partly an attempt
to provide this inspiration, and in doing so, it selectively appropri-
DWHVPDWHULDOIURP6XÀVPIRULWVRZQSURMHFW
Thirdly, the ReconstructionWULHVWRVKRZWKDWD´VFLHQWLÀFIRUP
of religious knowledge” is possible, and that religious experience
and faith have a cognitive value and content.37 It sees religion (and
not Islam alone) and science as compatible, arguing that both “may
discover hitherto unsuspected mutual harmonies” in the wake of
recent developments in physics. In Iqbal’s view these undermined
“materialism”; the foundations of Newtonian physics could now be
criticized, and “the empirical attitude which appeared to necessitate
VFLHQWLÀFPDWHULDOLVPKDVÀQDOO\HQGHGLQDUHYROWDJDLQVWPDWWHUµ
thereby opening up the possibility of the validity of religion’s un-
derstanding of reality and its “spirituality.”38 For Iqbal, humanity
is in need of “a spiritual interpretation of the universe, spiritual
emancipation of the individual, and basic principles of a univer-
sal import directing the evolution of human society on a spiritual
basis.”39 In his view, a reconstructed Islam and its spirituality, re-
GHÀQHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHFODLPVRIVFLHQFHFDQPHHWWKRVHQHHGV
+RZHYHU,TEDOGRHVQRWH[SOLFLWO\GHÀQHZKDW´VSLULWXDOµ
means, and in exploring the relationship between science and
religion his narratives are intricate. There is no structured argu-
ment addressing the question of religion and science; instead,
Iqbal makes evocative analogies such as seeing prayer as “a nec-
essary complement to the intellectual activity of the observer of
1DWXUHµDQGKHUHFDVWV´WKHVFLHQWLÀFREVHUYHURI1DWXUH>DV@D
kind of mystic seeker in the act of prayer.”40 Similes and analogies
RIWKLVNLQGUHPLQGXVWKDW,TEDOZDVSULPDULO\DSRHW7KHÀUVW
page of the Reconstruction outlines the key existential and epis-
temological questions that he believes religion, philosophy, and
“higher poetry” explore. While Iqbal draws distinctions between
these three areas of intellectual endeavor, he himself combines
all three in different ways and with varying degrees of success
in his oeuvre. His poetry might be described as philosophically
UHÁHFWLYHYHUVHWKDWDLPVWRUHFRQVWLWXWH,VODPZKLOHWKHRecon-
struction is less a scholarly monograph or a systematic treatise,
than a self-consciously visionary book that is stylistically distinc-
xviii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
tive, even idiosyncratic. Moreover, Iqbal refers to ideas coming to
WKLQNHUV´OLNHDSRHWLFLQVSLUDWLRQµDQGKHDUJXHVWKDWWKH4XU·ăQ
regards inspiration “as a universal property of life”; the growth
of plants, the evolution of animals, and humans “receiving light
from the inner depths of life, are all cases of inspiration.”41 As we
KDYHVHHQKHWKLQNVWKDW6XÀVPUHTXLUHV´IUHVKLQVSLUDWLRQµDQG
the Reconstruction aims to provide this. Notions of poetic inspi-
UDWLRQWKHQLQÁHFWWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRILGHDVLQWKHERRNDVZHOO
as the content of those ideas. They also reinforce the eclecticism
of the book, by mixing different modes of writing and thinking
in ways that make ideas like “inspiration” cut across the distinc-
tions between them.
It is for the reader to decide whether Iqbal is successful or not
in reconciling religion and Islam with modern science. Inevitably,
JLYHQWKHGLIÀFXOW\RIWKHWDVNWKLVDVSHFWRIReconstruction is com-
plex.42 In attempting to reconcile the two, Iqbal’s overall aim is to
bring Islam and Europe together in a global narrative of intellectual
endeavor. As he puts it, “European culture, on its intellectual side,
is only a further development of some of the most important phases
of the culture of Islam.”43 The Reconstruction tries to validate ear-
lier Islamic thought with and through modern European philosophy
and science. Its aim is to recover a repressed narrative of Islam’s
contribution to a progressive modernity, now presented by Europe
as uniquely European as well as unprecedented. In doing so, its
methodology is to treat an idea as a “complex whole,” whose “in-
ner wealth” unfolds over time; an idea “reveals the possibilities of
its application with advancing experience, and sometimes it takes
more than one generation of thinkers before these possibilities are
exhausted.”44 In Iqbal’s intellectual history of Islam and its rela-
tion to the West, there are no fully formed ideas but only antici-
pations of ideas that are in continual process of being re-thought.
For example, he refers to how the “idea of degrees of Reality” ap-
pears in the writings of Shihabuddin Suhrawardi Maqtul, how this
is “worked out on a much larger scale in Hegel,” and then “more
recently” in Haldane’s Reign of Relativity.45 So, too, Ibn Khaldun
is seen as a forerunner of Bergson and as anticipating the “modern
hypothesis of subliminal selves.”46
Thus, Iqbal’s history of Islamic thought in relation to the West
centres on relationships of foresight, hindsight, and anticipation.
Introduction xix
Iqbal also strives for a mutual illumination between ideas formu-
lated in the different contexts of Islam and Europe. Earlier bodies of
thought are deployed to illuminate and resolve aporias in the work
of later thinkers, as when he suggests that Nietzsche’s “failure was
mainly due to his intellectual progenitors such as Schopenhauer,
'DUZLQDQG/DQJHZKRVHLQÁXHQFHFRPSOHWHO\EOLQGHGKLPWR
WKHUHDOVLJQLÀFDQFHRIKLVYLVLRQµ,TEDOVXJJHVWVWKDW1LHW]VFKH·V
“mental history is not without a parallel in the history of Eastern
6XÀVPµDQGE\SODFLQJKLPLQWKLVKLVWRU\KHWULHVWRSURYLGHD
QHZSHUVSHFWLYHRQKLV´IDLOXUHµDQGWKHGLIÀFXOWLHVRIKLVWKLQNLQJ47
Here anticipation becomes a form of appropriation and refashion-
ing that aims to release a thinker’s work from the constraints of the
context in which he is usually placed.
Iqbal’s concern to connect Islamic civilization with modern sci-
ence also emerges from the way in which, in one historian’s words,
“the disparagement of the Muslim past by Europeans and Hindus
FRQWULEXWHGVLJQLÀFDQWO\WRWKHLQWHOOHFWXDODOLHQDWLRQRI0XVOLPV
in the later nineteenth century.”48 Another historian has stressed
how a powerful “Orientalist triptych contrasting the achievements
of ancient Hindu civilisation with the destruction and stagnation
of the Muslim Middle Ages and the enlightened rule and scien-
WLÀFSURJUHVVRIWKHFRORQLDOPRGHUQDJHµZDVSXWLQSODFHLQ
late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century India.49 This narra-
tive is evident even in otherwise rigorous works like B. Prashad’s
edited volume, The Progress of Science in India during the Past
Twenty-Five Years, published four years after the Reconstruction.
7KLVWH[WUHÁHFWVWKHLQFUHDVLQJFRQÀGHQFHRIWKH,QGLDQVFLHQWLÀF
community in the subcontinent from the beginning of the twentieth
century, as well as its growing recognition abroad, for example,
with C. V. Raman’s Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.50 However,
LQLWVLQWURGXFWRU\VHFWLRQ´6FLHQWLÀF:RUN8SWRWKH(QGRIWKH
1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\µWKHVXEVHFWLRQRQ´6FLHQWLÀF:RUNLQ$QFLHQW
India” is immediately followed by another section on “Develop-
PHQWRI6FLHQWLÀF:RUNLQWKHWKDQGWK&HQWXULHVµZLWKRXW
any reference to the Muslim period. In the introduction, the author
cites from the works of Orientalists on science in ancient India and
refers to “to the unsettled state of affairs and lack of security in
the country resulting from repeated foreign invasions and constant
changes in government” in the twelfth century that led to the de-
xx The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
cline of science in the subcontinent. The revival of science in the
ODVWWZRFHQWXULHVLVDWWULEXWHGWRVFLHQWLÀFDQGOHDUQHGVRFLHWLHV
DQGVFLHQWLÀFRIÀFHUVLQWKHYDULRXVVHUYLFHVDQGVXUYH\GHSDUW-
ments of the colonial state.51
Iqbal’s Reconstruction, like Sayyid Ahmed Khan’s writings
before him, is a riposte to this powerfully marginalizing narrative
that became increasingly central to the historical consciousness of
DVLJQLÀFDQWSDUWRIWKH,QGLDQLQWHOOHFWXDODQGOHDUQHGFRPPXQLW\
during the colonial period. It also parallels and echoes the rise of
conceptions of ‘Hindu science’ at the time, in which ancient Hindu
WKRXJKWLVSUHVHQWHGDVSUHÀJXULQJWKHGLVFRYHULHVRIFRQWHPSRUDU\
science and as anticipating modern Western thought.52 It is, how-
ever, in contrast to Gandhi’s critique of science as playing a cru-
cial role in an oppressive colonial modernity, which was especially
LQÁXHQWLDOLQWKHVDQGV53 In spite of the importance of
conceptions of science and technology (such as railways and the
telegraph) in the legitimization and practices of colonial rule and in
colonial self-perceptions,54 the Reconstruction eschews any critique
of both in relation to processes of colonialism in the subcontinent.
It also avoids any engagement with Western medicine, which was
VRLQÁXHQWLDOLQXQGHUSLQQLQJFRORQLDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIDQGLQ-
terventions in the subcontinent.55 Just as Iqbal distances himself
IURPWKHIRONSUDFWLFHVRI6XÀVPVRWRRKHVKRZVQRLQWHUHVWLQWKH
syncretism of popular indigenous sciences such as the unani and
ayurvedic medical systems.56 The Reconstruction does not engage
with technological developments as such, or with the practical im-
portance of science and technology. Its overall emphasis is on the
theoretical nature of physics, and its impact on understandings of
matter, space, and time, as well as larger themes such as evolution.
,WDWWHPSWVWRVKRZKRZERWKZHUHSUHÀJXUHGE\HDUOLHU,VODPLF
thought, for example in the case of physics by Ash‘arite atomism,57
and how they might be reconciled with spiritual views of the world.
The overall tenor, content, and scope of the Reconstruction is there-
fore different from the concrete details of Prashad’s The Progress
of Science, which although nationalist in tone (especially in its ref-
erences to ancient Indian learning in the introduction and in a few
RIWKHRWKHUFKDSWHUVFRYHUVGHYHORSPHQWVLQWKHÀHOGVRIPDWK-
ematical research, chemical research, geology and geography, agri-
cultural science, veterinary research, dairy husbandry, archaeology,
Introduction xxi
anthropology, psychology, zoology, forestry, engineering, physiol-
ogy, medical research, physics, and botany in India. The chapter
RQSK\VLFVLQ3UDVKDGLVHTXDOO\GHWDLOHGDQGVSHFLÀF3UDVKDG·V
HGLWHGYROXPHJURXQGVVSHFLÀFGHWDLOLQWKHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQRID
nascent nation-state, and its style is very much that of controlled
prose. This is in striking contrast to the transnational conception of
Islam as a world civilization in Iqbal’s Reconstruction and its more
VSHFXODWLYHWKUXVWH[SUHVVHGLQDÁXLGDQGDWWLPHVIUDJPHQWHGDQG
improvisational style.

The Category of Islam in Iqbal’s Work

So far I have considered aspects of the process of ‘reconstruction’
in Iqbal’s work. The other key term in Iqbal’s text is ‘Islam’, and
this is also multifaceted and intertwines multiple narratives.
One of the prominent strands in the Reconstruction is the focus
on selfhood, or what Iqbal in his poetry called khXGĦ. His major
Persian poem, the -ăYHG1ăPk, which appeared in 1932 two years
before the Reconstruction, dramatized this notion of selfhood, and
Iqbal concludes the latter with a long citation on individual selfhood
from the poem. Scholars have commented on the transgressive na-
ture of Iqbal’s notion of khXGĦ58 Throughout the Reconstruction,
Iqbal uses the term “ego” to render this Persian term. The kernel of
his conception of selfhood is the contention that as human selves
approach God, rather than losing their individuality (which is what
is imagined to happen under some concepts of IDQăLQ6XÀVP
when the individual self merges with the divine), they become
more strongly individuated. Iqbal concludes the Reconstruction
by asserting that “the end of the ego’s quest is not emancipation
from the limitations of individuality; it is, on the other hand, a more
SUHFLVHGHÀQLWLRQRILWµ595HLQWHUSUHWLQJWKH4XU·ăQ,TEDODUJXHV
that “it is with the irreplaceable singleness of his individuality that
WKHÀQLWHHJRZLOODSSURDFKWKHLQÀQLWHHJRWRVHHIRUKLPVHOIWKH
consequences of his past action and to judge the possibilities of his
IXWXUHZKDWHYHUPD\EHWKHÀQDOIDWHRIPDQLWGRHVQRWPHDQ
the loss of individuality.”60 Iqbal here applies his master language
of individual selfhood to God, who is also described as an “ego,”61
so that the transgressive charge of the word tXGĦLVLQSOD\LQKLV
conception of God as well. Both God and human individuals are
conceived of in the same terms; the difference between them lies
xxii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
in the degrees of selfhood they possess. At times there is a slip-
page between selfhood and God as an ultimate or absolute self, as
ZKHQKHUHÁHFWVRQWKHSURSHUWLHVRIVHOIKRRGDQGLWV´GLUHFWLYH
HQHUJ\µLQJHQHUDOE\UHLQWHUSUHWLQJDYHUVHIURPWKH4XU·ăQWKDW
represents God’s “creative activity.”62,TEDOUHDGVWKH4XU·ăQLQ
innovative ways to support his notion of selfhood. He reinterprets
33:72, concerning the burden of trust borne by man, as referring to
“the trust of personality” and the “acceptance of selfhood,” rather
than signifying individual moral responsibility and accountability
alone.63+HDOVRUHLQWHUSUHWVDQGLQWKH4XU·ăQ
in terms of “the emergence and multiplication of individualities,
HDFKÀ[LQJLWVJD]HRQWKHUHYHODWLRQRILWVRZQSRVVLELOLWLHVDQG
seeking its own dominion.”64
Iqbal’s notion of khXGĦVRPHWLPHVDPRXQWVWRDIRUPRIVHOI
divinization, in which there is a relationship of ontological equal-
ity between God and the individual human self, both of which are
represented in the language of “ego-hood.” The human self is vari-
ously described as being God’s “co-worker,” a free personal agent
who “shares in the life and freedom of the Ultimate Ego,” and an
entity that is “consciously participating in the creative life of his
Maker.”65 Some commentators have seen Iqbal’s concept of God as
PDUNLQJDEUHDNIURPWKHFRQFHSWLRQRI*RGDVDQLQÀQLWHGHLW\LQ
WKH4XU·ăQEXWQRWDOODVSHFWVRIWKHFRQFHSWRI*RGLQWKH4XU·ăQ
are self-evident, as the history of theological disquisition in Islam
shows.66 These elements of self-divinization can be seen to move
WKH6XÀLGHDRI´LQVăQHNăPLOµRU´WKH3HUIHFW0DQµLQWRDYHU\
different philosophical direction, one focused on the inerasable real-
ity of the individual human self rather than its illusory nature in the
face of the Divinity who alone exists.67 Iqbal also refers to the ac-
count of the Prophet Muhammad’s ascension, or PL¶UăM, as referred
WRLQWKH4XU·ăQ²DQG²DFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKKHVWRRG
in the presence of God without being annihilated. For Iqbal this is
DQLQVWUXFWLYHHPEOHPRIVHOIKRRGDQGKHGLVFXVVHVWKHVLJQLÀFDQFH
of this in the Reconstruction in terms of the differences between
prophets and mystics.68 It is also worth noting that the -ăYHG1ăPk
is partly modelled on the account of the Prophet Muhammad’s as-
FHQVLRQRUPL¶UăMDORQJVLGH'DQWH·VDivine Comedy.
+RZHYHU,TEDO·VUHODWLRQVKLSWR6XÀVPZDVFRPSOH[$ORQJVLGH
FULWLFDOO\HQJDJLQJZLWK6XÀQRWLRQVRIIDQăWKHReconstruction
Introduction xxiii
also argues that “mysticism has . . . revealed fresh regions of the
VHOIµZKLFK´PRGHUQSV\FKRORJ\µZRXOGEHQHÀWIURPVWXG\LQJ
and for which it as yet has no framework of analysis. As a result,
psychology has “not yet touched the outer fringe of the subject,”
DVRSSRVHGWR6XÀQDUUDWLYHVZKLFK´JLYHXVDWOHDVWVRPHLGHDRI
a whole universe of inner experience.”69 In Iqbal’s view, religious
experience gives us “a clue to the ultimate nature of the ego” and
uncovers the “inmost individuality of men” [sic]; for him “the
climax of religious life . . . is the discovery of the ego as an indi-
vidual deeper than his conceptually describable habitual self.”70
Iqbal’s notion of selfhood, then, is grounded in a complex inter-
DFWLRQZLWK6XÀQRWLRQVRIVHOIKRRGEUHDNLQJIURPVRPHDVSHFWV
of these notions, while calling attention to their valuable insights
into inner experience and subjectivity. His selective appropriation
RI6XÀQDUUDWLYHVDORQJVLGHKLVLQYHUVLRQVDQGUHZRUNLQJRI6X-
ÀVP·VNH\WURSHVLPDJHVDQGWKHPHVZDVSDUWRIWKHSURGXFWLYH
interplay between continuity and discontinuity in his poetry and
in his work as a whole.71
Thus, for Iqbal the reconstruction of Islam partly involves the
reconstruction of an individuated selfhood within a reinterpreted
Islamic framework, in order to ground a modernizing anti-colo-
QLDOVHOIDIÀUPDWLRQ6XFKDVHOIHPEHGGHGLQWKLVSURMHFWLVDOVR
a riposte to Spengler’s view in The Decline of the West (1918–23)
that (in Iqbal’s words) “Islam amounts to a complete negation of
the ego” and that it is “thoroughly ‘Magian’ in spirit and char-
acter.”72 Iqbal saw his “main purpose” in the Reconstruction “to
secure a vision of the spirit of Islam as emancipated from these
Magian overlayings which . . . have misled Spengler.” Key here
for Iqbal is “the way in which the ‘I’, as a free centre of experi-
ence, has found expression in the religious life of Islam,”73 hence
the importance of selfhood to his project, as well as the need to
reconstruct aspects of that religious life of the past for a contem-
porary, Islamicized self.
In Iqbal’s work the relationship of self to group identity, and of
VHOIWRVHOÁHVVQHVVLVFRPSOH[DQGLQVRPHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVXQUH-
solved, perhaps necessarily so.74 Regardless of this, in the Recon-
struction Islam is also recast as a way of overcoming the opposition
between “the subject and the object, the mathematical without and
WKHELRORJLFDOZLWKLQµ,WDIÀUPVDQLQGLYLGXDWHG´VSLULWXDOVHOIµ
xxiv The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
and the “world of matter,” the former in terms of a reconstructed
religious selfhood, and the latter in terms of its focus on the empiri-
cal, observable, and “actual.”75 Iqbal also sees Islam as “a social
experiment,” which is “non-territorial in character.” Its aim, he ar-
JXHVLVWR´IXUQLVKDPRGHOIRUWKHÀQDOFRPELQDWLRQRIKXPDQLW\
by drawing its adherents from a variety of mutually repellent races,
and then transforming this atomic aggregate into a people possess-
ing a self-consciousness of their own.”76 This particular narrative
of Islam echoes Iqbal’s view of it as a process of “deracialisation,”
which he discusses elsewhere, and also as a transnational entity,
which, as he puts it in the Reconstruction, is “neither Nationalism
QRU,PSHULDOLVPEXWD/HDJXHRI1DWLRQVZKLFKUHFRJQL]HVDUWLÀ-
cial boundaries and racial distinctions for facility of reference only,
and not for restricting the social horizon of its members.”77 This
transnationalism is particularly evident in contrast to Iqbal’s earlier
English prose work, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia
(1907), with its emphasis on Persia alone. The Reconstruction, by
FRQWUDVWWUHDWVUHOLJLRXVWKRXJKWLQ,VODPDVXQLQÁHFWHGE\WKHJHR-
graphical or cultural spaces in which it originated and lifts it above
GLVWRUWLRQE\HFRQRPLFIDFWRUVDQGOLQJXLVWLFDQGHWKQLFFRQÁLFW,W
approaches and reconstructs Islam primarily as a civilizational de-
territorialized space, and as such, it echoes the strong pan-Islamist
(and at times anti-national) dimension in his major poetry.
$QRWKHUVLJQLÀFDQWQDUUDWLYHLQWKHReconstruction is that of Is-
lamic law. Referring to the impact of the destruction of Baghdad
in the thirteenth century on the Islamic world, he argues that in
order to prevent the disintegration of the social order, the ‘ulema
“focused all their efforts on the one point of preserving a uniform
social life for the people by a jealous exclusion of all innovations
in the law of Shari‘a as expounded by the early doctors of Islam.”
The problem with this, though, was that “in an over-organized soci-
ety the individual is altogether crushed out of existence.” For Iqbal,
the only way to counter the decline of “a people” is to recover the
category of the individual, or what he calls, in an evocative phrase,
“self-concentrated individuals.”78 Hence his focus on selfhood in
his work as a whole. This is accompanied by a narrative of LMWLKăG
as “the principle of movement in the structure of Islam.”79 In Lec-
ture VI, he speculates on the historical causes that “reduced the Law
of Islam practically to a state of immobility” (he includes as a fac-
Introduction xxv
WRUKHUHWKHLQÁXHQFHRIDVFHWLF6XÀVPDQGHQGRUVHVWKH7XUNLVK
Grand National Assembly’s abolition of the Caliphate/Khilafat, both
DVDQH[HUFLVHLQLMWLKăGDQGDVJURXQGHGLQRQHKLVWRULFDOVWUDQGRI
Islamic political thought. In his attempt to strike a balance between
conservatism and innovation, he argues that the “claim of the pres-
ent generation of Muslim liberals to reinterpret the foundational le-
gal principles, in the light of their own experience and the altered
FRQGLWLRQVRIPRGHUQOLIHLVSHUIHFWO\MXVWLÀHGµZKLOHDOVRDI-
ÀUPLQJWKHQHHGIRU´healthy conservative criticism [to] serve at
least as a check on the rapid movement of liberalism in the world of
Islam.”80 To this end, he suggests the need for a Muslim legislative
assembly that combines both members of the ‘ulema and those who
are not formally trained as such, but are conversant with “modern
jurisprudence.”81 For Iqbal, Turkey in the 1920s and 1930s and the
abolition of the Khilafat/Caliphate point to how the “renaissance
of Islam is a fact,” and to the necessity of how “we [presumably
referring to himself and his Indian audience] too one day, like the
Turks, will have to re-evaluate our intellectual inheritance.”82 An
important part of any such re-evaluation was to reconstruct Islam
as a “social experiment” in “deracialisation” and as “uniting reli-
gion and state, ethics and politics, in a single revelation much in the
same way as Plato does in his Republic”83—the reference to Plato
here once again showing how Iqbal intertwines multiple narratives
to produce his modernist Islam.

Conclusion
Iqbal’s Reconstruction remains a key reference point and resource
IRUWKRVHZKRUHÁHFWRQWKHSODFHRI,VODPLQWKHPRGHUQZRUOG
$OL$OODZLIRUH[DPSOHGHVFULEHVLWDV´WKHÀUVWPRGHUQDWWHPSW
by a committed Muslim to rediscover the vitality of Islam in the
light of the evolution of Western philosophical thought and of the
realities of the new, West-dominated world.”84 I have suggested
elsewhere that there are multiple Wests in Iqbal’s work, ranging
from pre-modern Christendom to the site of secular modernity,
the seat of imperial powers and the place of modern science, as
well as the heir of a Hellenistic heritage shared with Islam. The
category of Islam in the Reconstruction is also multifaceted. In its
UHFRQVWUXFWHGIRUPLWVLJQLÀHVDPRQJVWRWKHUWKLQJVDVRFLDOH[-
periment in deracialisation and transnationalism with a concomi-
xxvi The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
tant legal project in political spirituality; a formative contribution
to the inception of modern science; a key narrative (repressed by
others) in the development of modernity; a site for the reconstruc-
tion of individuated selfhood using religious and mystical experi-
ences of the past; a testing ground for the future of religion in the
modern world especially in relation to the truth claims of science;
a response to the opposition between subject and object; and a re-
OLJLRXVO\LQÁHFWHGSRVWFRORQLDOLVP
This list is by no means exhaustive and the fact that the reader
might supplement it is testimony to the open-ended nature of the
FDWHJRU\RI,VODPLQWKHERRN7KHÁXLGLW\DQGFDSDFLRXVQHVVRI
that category, while dramatizing what Iqbal calls the “elasticity
of Islamic thought,” the “ceaseless activity of our early thinkers,”
and its “assimilative spirit,” which he re-enacts in the present,85
also creates its own problems, insofar as ‘Islam’ can lose its speci-
ÀFLW\DQGHIÀFDF\E\EHLQJFRH[WHQVLYHZLWKDUDQJHRIPHDQ-
ings (although if Iqbal were to present a picture of Islam as a core
RIFOHDUO\GHÀQHGEHOLHIVKHZRXOGEHGLVPLVVHGRXWRIKDQGDV
‘fundamentalist’). However, while in Iqbal’s work the boundaries
between the West and Islam can sometimes be porous, it is not the
case, as in the work of some thinkers such as Muhammad ‘Abduh,
that Islam becomes identical with the dominant ideas of modern
Europe.86 Instead, the style and texture of the text, with its inter-
WZLQHGQDUUDWLYHVLWVFRQÁXHQFHRIWH[WXDOIUDJPHQWVIURPDYDUL-
ety of currents of thought, and its avoidance (and even celebration
of) a lack of textual ‘wholeness’, calls attention to the problems of
relating Islam to the West. This stylistic distinctiveness also fore-
JURXQGVWKHGLIÀFXOWLHVRIZKDW,TEDOFDOOVWKH´LPPHQVHµWDVNWR
“rethink the whole system of Islam without completely breaking
with the past.”87 Moreover, the weaving together of fragments and
the text’s creative irresolution articulates the complex relationship
between reconstruction and disintegration. Iqbal opens up spaces
for rethinking by dismantling and reconstituting Islam in a non-
systemic way. The rubble of past tradition (in part created by Iqbal
himself) is selectively appropriated to refashion Islam in the age
of modernity. The text’s distinctive style and aesthetic prompt a
particular kind of reading experience; piecing the text together out
of its fragments, while identifying, teasing out, and disentangling
LWVQDUUDWLYHVWKHUHDGHUVLPXOWDQHRXVO\XQLÀHVDQGGLYLGHVWKH
Introduction xxvii
text. In doing so, s/he participates in the interplay between recon-
struction and disintegration that Iqbal dramatizes and becomes a
co-worker in his project.

Notes
1. Francis Robinson, “The British Empire and the Muslim World,” in The Twentieth
Century, ed. Judith Brown and Wm. Roger Louis, vol. 4 of The Oxford History of
the British Empire, ed. Wm. Roger Louis (Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001), 398.
2. Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press,1983), 103–4, 112–13.
3. Aziz Ahmad, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, 1857–1964 (London:
Oxford University Press, 1967).
4. Kenneth Jones, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989).
5. C. A. Bayly, Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and
Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
6. Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, ed. M.
Saeed Sheikh (1934; repr., Lahore, India: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1999), 132.
7. Jürgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. Jeremy J. Shapiro
(London: Heinemann, 1972), 4.
8. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 129.
9. Javed Majeed, Muhammad Iqbal: Islam, Aesthetics and Postcolonialism (London,
New York, and New Delhi: Routledge, 2009), 66, 77, 96–97, 146–47.
10. For which, see Bayly, Recovering Liberties, 5; Ranabir Samaddar, Emergence
of the Political Subject (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2010), 12.
11. Kris Manjapra and Sugata Bose, eds., Cosmopolitan Thought Zones: South
Asia and the Global Circulation of Ideas (New York: Macmillan, 2010).
12. For telling examples, see Iqbal, Reconstruction, 78–80.
13. Ibid., 4.
14. Kris Manjapra, “Introduction” to Manjapra and Bose, Cosmopolitan Thought
Zones, 1.
15. This strategy of displaying one’s reading for the purposes of creating an
authoritative persona in the public sphere is also evident in the texts of such major
ÀJXUHVDV*DQGKLDQG1HKUX
16. Iqbal, Reconstruction, xxii.
17. Majeed, Iqbal, 56–57.
18. Annemarie Schimmel, Gabriel’s Wing: A Study into the Religious Ideas of Sir
Muhammad Iqbal (Lahore, India: Iqbal Academy, 1989), 37–39.
19. Majeed, Iqbal, chap. 5; Javed Majeed, Autobiography, Travel and Postnational
Identity: Nehru, Gandhi and Iqbal (Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2007); Bayly, Recovering Liberties, 150–60.
20. Bayly, Recovering Liberties, 32, 134–36; Samaddar, Emergence of the Political
Subject, 14–16.
21. Majeed, Iqbal, 1–39.
xxviii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
22. Although Iqbal’s poetry is also process driven; see ibid.
23. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 134.
24. Ibid., xxi, 132, chap. 6.
25. Majeed, Autobiography, Travel and Postnational Identity, chap. 4.
26. For useful accounts, see Franz Rosenthal, The Classical Heritage in Islam, trans.
Emile and Jenny Marmorstein (London: R. K. Paul, 1975); Majid Fakhry, Philosophy,
Dogma and the Impact of Greek Thought in Islam (Aldershot, UK, and Burlington,
Vermont: Ashgate, 1994); Montgomery Watt, Islamic Philosophy and Theology: An
Extended Survey (Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1985).
27. For a detailed exposition of Iqbal’s Islamic Hellenism, see Majeed, Iqbal, chap. 7.
28. Muhammad Iqbal, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1907; repr.,
Lahore, India: Bazm-e Iqbal, n.d.), 22–23.
29. Rosenthal, Classical Heritage in Islam, 1–23.
30. Iqbal, Metaphysics in Persia, 23.
31. Bayly, Recovering Liberties, and Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal
Age, both discuss this in some detail. See also Javed Majeed, “Nature, Hyperbole,
and the Colonial State: Some Muslim Appropriations of European Modernity in Late
Nineteenth Century Urdu Literature,” in Islam and Modernity, ed. John Cooper et al.
(London: I. B. Tauris, 1998).
32. For details, see M. Saeed Sheikh, “Introduction” to Muhammad Iqbal, The
Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Lahore, India: Institute of Islamic
Culture, 1999), vi–vii, xv–xvi.
33. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 64, 102–3, 106, 113. As examples, Iqbal refers to works
on optics, psychology, logic, and mathematics. For the analogy between Plato and the
4XU·ăQVHHSDJHZKHUHKHUHIHUVWRKRZWKHODWWHU´FRQVLGHUVLWQHFHVVDU\WRXQLWH
religion and state, ethics and politics in a single revelation much in the same way as
Plato does in the Republic.”
34. Ibid., 3.
35. Ibid., 3, 8, 11, 100–101, 103–4, 106–7.
36. Ibid., xxi.
37. Ibid. This narrative is pursued on xxi, 1, 21, 14–18, 149–50. See also 143–44,
on “higher religion” as based on experience and as a “genuine effort to clarify human
consciousness.”
38. Ibid., xxii, 26–28, 33–34.
39. Ibid., 142.
40. Ibid., 72–73.
41. Ibid., 91, 100.
42. Majeed, Iqbal, chap. 6.
43. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 6.
44. Ibid., 63.
45. Ibid., 57.
46. Ibid., 112–13, 14.
47. Ibid., 154–55.
48. Bayly, Recovering Liberties, 141.
49. David Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2000), 4.
Introduction xxix
50. For these developments, see ibid., 153–62.
51. B. Prashad, “Introduction” to B. Prashad, ed., The Progress of Science in India
'XULQJWKH3DVW7ZHQW\ÀYH<HDUV (Calcutta: Indian Science Congress Association, 1938).
52. Bayly, Recovering Liberties, 255–57, 278; Arnold, Science, Technology and
Medicine, 169–76.
53. Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine, 189–90. For an early statement of
Gandhi’s critique, see M. K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, ed. Anthony
Parel (1909; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). Gandhi developed
the themes in Hind Swaraj in his later work, as well as in his An Autobiography or the
Story of My Experiments with Truth (1927–29).
54. Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine, chap. 4.
55. Ibid., chap. 3.
56. For the popularity of these systems in colonial India, see ibid., 176–85.
57. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 54–57.
58. Schimmel, Gabriel’s Wing, 42–44; Majeed, Iqbal, 24–29.
59. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 156–57.
60. Ibid., 92–94.
61. Ibid., 45, 47–9, 50–51, 57–58, 61–62, 75, 85, 86–87.
62. Ibid., 82.
63. Ibid., 70.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid., 10, 86–87, 58.
66. M. S. Raschid, Iqbal’s Concept of God (London: R. K. Paul, 1981), 59–60, 62.
67. Majeed, Iqbal, 31–32.
68. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 99.
69. Ibid., 72, 77, 152.
70. Ibid., 145.
71. For a detailed exposition, see Majeed, Iqbal, passim.
72. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 87, 114.
73. Ibid., 114–15.
74. Majeed, Iqbal, chap. 3.
75. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 7–8, 12–13.
76. Ibid., 132–33.
77. Ibid., 126. For Iqbal’s transnational Islam as a process of “deracialisation,”
see Majeed, Iqbal, chap. 4.
78. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 120.
79. Ibid., 120. ,MWLKăG literally means effort, physical or mental, expended in a
particular activity. In legal terms it denotes the exertion of a jurist’s mental faculties
LQÀQGLQJDVROXWLRQWRDOHJDOTXHVWLRQDQGPRUHEURDGO\WKHXVHRILQGHSHQGHQW
reason in interpreting law.
80. Ibid., 134, 121; my emphasis.
81. Ibid., 138–40.
82. Ibid., 121.
83. Ibid., 132.
84. Ali A. Allawi, The Crisis of Islamic Civilisation (New Haven, CT, and London:
Yale University Press, 2009), 52. Allawi’s book interacts with Iqbal in other ways;
xxx The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
the prologue begins with an epigraph from one of Iqbal’s major poems, ‘Shikvâ’
(‘Complaint’), and ends with a citation from it, while chapter 2 begins with an epigraph
from the same poem.
85. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 130.
86. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 144.
87. Iqbal, Reconstruction, 78.
 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION

In the present edition of Allama Iqbal's Reconstruction of

Religious Thought in Islam, an attempt has been made at
providing references to many authors cited in it and, more
particularly, to the passages quoted from their works. The titles
of these works have not always been given by the Allama and, in
a few cases, even the names of the authors have to be worked
out from some such general descriptions about them as 'the
great mystic poet of Islam', 'a modem historian of civilization',
and the like.
The work, however, referred to more often than any other,
and quoted most, is the Qur' an. Of a large number of passages
quoted from it, about seventy-seven, generally set apart from the
main text, carry numbered references to the Qur' anic Surahs and
verses. The unnumbered passages from the Qur' an, about fifty
or so, given within the text are comparatively briefer- sometimes
very brief, merely calling attention to a unique expression of the
Qur' an. References to these as well as to many Qur' anic ideas
and quite a few Qur' anic subjects, alluded to especially in the
first five Lectures, have been supplied in the "Notes" and later
also in the "Index of Qur' anic References." A numerical scanning
of this Index shows quite significantly that the number of verses
bearing on the subjects of 'man', 'Qur'anic empiricism' and the
'phenomenon of change' (mostly in terms of alternation of the
night and the day and also in a wider sense) in each case, is
comparatively larger than the number of verses on any other
single subject. This may as well be noted in the clustering of such
verses or of references to them on quite a few pages of the
Reconstruction.
Added to the verses quoted from the Qur' an and references
to them, in the present work, are a good number of quite
significant observations and statements embodying Allama's
xxxii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
rare insight into the Qur' an born of his peculiarly perceptive and
deep study of it. These are to be found scattered all over the
work, except in Lecture VII, where one would notice just one
observation and complete absence of passages from the Qur' an,
possibly because it was originally addressed to a non-Muslim
audience. About sixty-five of these observations and statements
have been listed in the general Index under: 'observations and
statements based on' as a sub-entry of the 'Qur'an'.
Of the other works quoted from in the Reconstruction, forty-
nine that I could work out and later list in the Index, about
fifteen are by Muslim authors, mostly mystics and mystic poets.
Passages from these Muslim works, originally in Arabic, Persian
or Turkish, have been given, with the single exception of Rum!' s
Mathnawi, in their first-ever English translation by Allama Iqbal.
Notable among these are passages from Fakhr aI-Din al-Razi's
AI-Mabahith al Mashriqiyyah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's
Maktiibat and, above all, Ziya Gokalp's Turkish poems, which
the Allama was able to render into English from their German
version by August Fischer in his Aus der religiOsen
Reformbewegung in der Turkei (Leipzig, 1922).
Equally important and perhaps more are Allama's condensed
English versions of considerably longer passages or sections from
Ibn Maskawaih's AI-Fawz aI-Asghar (on evolutionary hypothesis
in both the biological and the spiritual sense), Shah WaH Allah's
magnum opus AI-Hujjat Allah al-Balighah (on the prophetic
method of building up a universal Shari' ah) and 'Iraqi's Ghayat
al-Imkan fi Dirayat al-Makan (on the plurality of space-orders and
time-orders). This last, the longest of all the summarized
translations from works in Arabic or Persian, was originally
prepared by Allama Iqbal from the, then a rare, MS for his Sectional
Presidential Address: A Plea for Deeper Study of the Muslim Scientists"
II

presented at the Fifth Oriental Conference, Lahore: 20-22

November 1928. The translation of the passage from Shah
Wali Allah's AI-Hujjat Allah al-Balighah, however, seems to
belong to a still later date. There is a clear reference to this
significant passage in Allama Iqbal's letter addressed to Sayyid
Sulaiman Nadvi on 22 September 1929, i.e. a month before he
delivered the first six Lectures at the Aligarh Muslim University.
All these summarized translations, it may be added, form parts
of the main text of Lectures III, V and VI.
Editor's Introduction xxxiii
As to RumI's Mathnawi, quoted very extensively (six of its
verses are quoted even in the original Persian), one is to note
that the translations of all the passages from it are not by Allama
Iqbal himself but by others: Whinfield, Nicholson (with certain
modifications) and Thadani. Only in one case has the Allama
given his own translation of a verse from RumI (p. 88); but,
unbelievable though it is, this verse, according to the Persian
translator of the Reconstruction, is to be found neither in the
Mathnawi nor in the Kulliyiit-i Shams. This certainly needs further
research. However, almost every time a passage is quoted from
the Mathnawi or even a reference is made to it, the reader is
reminded of 'the beautiful words of RumI and of his being 'far
more true to the spirit of Islam than', say, 'GhazalI'.
Of about thirty-four Western writers from whose works the
Allama has quoted, as many as twenty-five were his contem-
poraries and among these one is to underline the names of
Whitehead, Eddington, Wildon Carr, Louis Rougier, and certainly
also of Spengler. One is also to note that the works of these and
other contemporaries quoted from happen to be mostly those
which were published between 1920 and 1928. This is not at all
to minimize the importance of quite significant passages quoted
from the works of Bergson, James, Hocking and even Aghnides,
all published before 1920, but only to refer to the fact of there
being a greater number of quotations in the Reconstruction from
Western works published within a certain period of time.
The year 1920, in fact, happens to be the year of the
publication of Einstein's epoch-making Relativity: The Special and
the General Theory: A Popular Exposition. And it is the year also of
the publication of Eddington's Space, Time and Gravitation and
Wildon Carr's General Principle of Relativity in Its Philosophical and
Historical Aspect, perhaps the earliest expository works on
Relativity by English writers. Passages from both these works
are to be found in the Reconstruction. Einstein's own work is
catalogued in Allama's personal library along with a dozen
others bearing on Relativity-Physics.
Mention must also be made here of Alexander's peculiarly
difficult two-volume Space, Time and Deity, which on its
appearance in 1920 was hailed as 'a philosophical event of the
first rank'. This is perhaps the first contemporary work which
xxxiv The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
received Allama's immediate professional comments, even
though brief, embodying his significant admission: 'Alexander's
thought is much bolder than mine'. Despite Alexander's
pronounced realistic (and hereby also naturalistic-empiricistic
and so scientific) metaphysics, the Allama seems to have found
in his supreme 'principle of emergence' a kind of empirical
confirmation of Bergson's Creative Evolution. It was verily in
terms of the principle of emergence that he explained to
Nicholson his idea of Perfect Man in contradistinction to that of
Nietzsche's Superman in his long, perhaps the longest, letter
addressed to him on 24 January 1921.
Allama Iqbal's assessment of the works of Western writers,
especially of those which received his closest attention, seems to
be characterized by the ambivalence of admiration and
dissatisfaction, or acceptance and rejection. This is also reflected
in one of his most valuable dicta addressed to Muslims:
'Approach modem knowledge with a respectful but
independent attitude' (p. 78). Nowhere is this ambivalence
perhaps better exemplified than in Allama's treatment of
Spengler's The Decline of the West; two volumes published in
April 1926 and November 1928. He readily accepts some of
Spengler's pronouncements such as these: 'The history of
Western knowledge is thus one of progressive emancipation
from classical thought'; 'The symbol of the West ... is the
(mathematical) idea of function'; 'Not until the theory of
functions was evolved' could it become possible for us to have
'our dynamic Western physics'. But the Allama was completely
dissatisfied with the very central thesis of The Decline of the West
'that cultures, as organic structures, are completely alien to one
another'. In his Address at the Oriental Conference, he pointedly
observed that facts 'tend to falsify Spengler's thesis'. It was this
thesis or doctrine of 'mutual alienation of cultures' or cultural
isolationism, the Allama strongly felt, that blinded Spengler to
the undeniable Muslim influences or ingredients in the
development of European culture. There is no mention in his
otherwise 'extremely learned work' of such known facts of
history as the anti-classicism of the Muslim thinkers, which
found its clearest expression in the work of the very brilliant Ibn
Khaldun- Spengler's Muslim counterpart in many ways. Nor is
there any reference, in The Decline of the West, to AI-BIrunI's
Editor's Introduction xxxv
'theory of functions', clearly enunciated in his AI-Qiinim al-
Mas'udz, six hundred years before Fermat and Descartes- a fact
which Spengler had every right to know for he was so well
versed in mathematics, and even as a historian of cultures.
Again, while referring to Spengler's allegation that 'the
culture of Islam is thoroughly Magian in spirit and character'
Allama Iqbal candidly observes: 'That a Magian crust has grown
over Islam, I do not deny'. And he adds quite importantly for us:
'Indeed, my main purpose in these lectures has been to secure a
vision of the spirit of Islam as emancipated from its Magian
overlayings' (p. 114). However, Spengler's vision of Islam as a
cultural movement, according to Allama, was completely
perverted by his thesis of 'mutual alienation of cultures' and also
by his morphological approach to history, which led him to
group Islam as a culture with the manifestly Magian cultures of
Judaism, Zoroastrianism and others. Allama Iqbal did recognize
the historical fact that Islam imported some concepts and a
'religious experience'- as reflected, for instance, in some esoteric
traditions in Muslim theology and in certain theosophical and
occultist tendencies in Sufism- from these earlier cultures in the
period of its expansion as also in later periods especially
when the conquered became conquerors culturally. But these
importations, the Allama insisted, remained all along the husk of
Islam, its Magian crust or its Magian overlayings. Spengler's
capital error is obvious.
Moreover, Spengler failed to perceive in the idea of finality of
prophethood in Islam, 'a psychological cure for the Magian
attitude of constant expectation'. It should be clear to any body
that with the 'revelation' of this idea of finality, one of the
greatest that dawned upon the prophetic consciousness, 'all
personal authority claiming a supernatural origin came to an
end in the history of man'. Spengler also failed to appreciate the
cultural value of this idea in Islam. With all his' overwhelming
learning', it perhaps did not become possible for him to
comprehend the all-important truth that 'the constant appeal to
reason and experience in the Qur'an, and the emphasis that it
lays on Nature and History as sources of human knowledge are .
. . different aspects of the same idea of finality'. It is these aspects
of the idea of finality which bring to man, indeed, a keen
xxxvi The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
awareness of the 'birth' of a new epoch with Islam, the epoch' of
inductive intellect'.
The fact that none of the works of the Western writers quoted
from in the Reconstruction crosses 1928 as its date of publication
does not make much of a problem so far as the first six Lectures
are concerned. One has only to recall that the first three Lectures
were written or finally re-written in 1928, and the next three in
1929, mostly perhaps during the summer vacations of the
Courts. It is quite likely that at the time of writing the second set
of three lecturers in 1929, Allama Iqbal did not come across
many works published in the West the same year, or did not find
anything in them to quote from in his Lectures. But the last
Lecture in the present work: 'Is Religion Possible?' was delivered
in a session of the Aristotelian Society, London, in December
1932; and yet all the six Western works quoted from, even in this
Lecture, happen to have been published within 1928. How is one
to understand Allama's not keeping up his usual keenly
perceptive and reportedly avid reading of the Western
philosophers?
Why this almost an ascetic self-denial of philosophy? There
could be many reasons for this. Among these, due allowance has
to be made for his preoccupation of two different orders: one
which suited his superb poetic genius most; and the other, of
more practical nature, which increasingly took possession of his
time and attention towards guiding and helping the Muslims of
India in their great struggle for an autonomous homeland.
Allama Iqbal all along keenly felt that Islam was to have an
opportunity 'to mobilize its law, its education, its culture, and to
bring them into closer contact with its own original spirit and
with the spirit of modern times' (Speeches, Writings and
Statements of Iqbal, p. 11). From the depth of these feelings there
emerged a prophetic vision of a geographical form- now called
Pakistan.
As stated above Allama's avowed main purpose in his
Lectures is 'to secure a vision of the spirit of Islam as emanci-
pated from its Magian overlayings' (p. 114). There is, how-ever,
not much mention of Magianism, nor of the specific Magian
overlayings of Islam, in the Reconstruction. In all there is a brief
reference to Magian culture in the opening section of Lecture IV
Editor's Introduction xxxvii
and to Magian idea or thought in the concluding passage of
Lecture V. In the latter case Allama's statement that Ibn Khaldun
has 'finally demolished the alleged revelational basis in Islam of
an idea similar ... to the original Magian idea' (p. 115) is an
implied and may be some what suppressed reference to his view
that 'all prophetic traditions relating to mahdi, masihiyyat and
mujaddidiyyat are Magian in both provenance and spirit'
(lqbiilniimah, Vol. II, 231). It may be rightly said that Allama's
whole Weltanschauung is so completely anti-Magian that he does
not always have to name Magianism whenever he says
something which implies anti-Magianism. A good instance of
this, perhaps, would be his observation in Lecture VII on
the 'technique' of medieval mysticism in the Muslim East. 'Far
from reintegrating the forces of the average man's inner life, and
thus preparing him for participation in the march of history', this
Muslim mysticism, he tells us, 'has taught man a false
renunciation and made him perfectly contented with his
ignorance and spiritual thraldom' (pp. 148-49).
It remains, however, true that there are not very many
statements in the Reconstruction even with Allama's implied anti-
Magianism, unless we understand the expressions 'implied' and
'implication' in a different and deeper sense, and go to the very
starting-point or genesis of his anti-Magianism. As is the case
with most of his other great and rare insights- generally couched
in a language different from that of Bergsonian-Whiteheadian
metaphysics, Allama owes his anti-Magianism to his uniquely
perceptive reading of the Qur' an. It essentially emanates from
his keen understanding of the profound significance of the
supreme idea of finality of prophethood looked at from the point
of view of religious and cultural growth of man in history, and
even thus, looked at also from the point of view of ' man's
achieving full self-consciousness' as bearer of the 'Divine trust'
of 'personality' (ego) and of the 'Divine promise' of'a complete
subjugation of all this immensity of space and time'. With this
Prophetic idea of the perfection and thereby the completion of
the chain of all Divinely-revealed religions in Islam, says Allama:
'all personal authority, claiming a supernatural origin, has come
to an end in the history of man' (p. 101). But then from the same
supreme idea also emanates the keen awareness of the epochal
'birth of inductive intellect', summed up in Allama's well-known
xxxviii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
aphorism: 'Birth of Islam is the birth of inductive intellect' (p.
101). Added to this is his observation, characterized by the same
simplicity and directness of 'perception': 'In the Prophet of
Islam, life discovers other sources of knowledge suitable to its
new direction' (p. 101). Thus, 'abolition of all Magian claims' and
'the birth of inductive intellect', within the logic of Islamic
experience, are two co-implicant ideas, for they owe their origin
to the same supreme idea of finality and from it they Draw their
common inspiration.
Because of the veritable inner unity of the Qur'an, man's
new awareness of himself with regard to both his place in
Nature and his position in History awakened by 'the idea of
finality' is already clearly reflected in 'the emphasis that the
Qur'an lays on Nature and History as sources of human
knowledge'. The latter, according to the Allama, is only one
of the other aspects of the former; as is also 'the constant
appeal to reason and experience in the Qur'an'. Thus, 'the
birth of inductive intellect' is to be found in the Qur' an in
more than one way; and, therefore, in as many ways is to be
found also the repudiation of Magianism inherently implied
by it. This explains largely, perhaps, Allama's having taken
up in the Reconstruction the methodological device of
removing the Magian crust from Islam by promoting, from
within Islam, its own intrinsic awareness of the birth of in-
ductive intellect. This is borne out by many of the brightest
parts of the present work.
Some of the perceptive Western readers of the Reconstruction
have correctly noticed in Allama's idea of 'the birth or
awakening of inductive intellect' a middle term between 'Islam'
and 'modern science', even as one is also to notice Allama's
bracketing 'science' with 'God-consciousness'- more precious
than mere belief in God, in some of his extraordinary
pronouncements. These appear sometimes, suddenly as if, in the
concluding part of an argument as spontaneous expressions of
an essential aspect of that argument's inner impulse, which
seems to have become a little more heightened in the end. Such
are the pronouncements, for instance, in which the Allama
equates the scientist's observation of Nature with someone's
'virtually seeking a kind of intimacy with the Absolute Ego' (p.
45) or where he calls 'the scientific observer of Nature,' 'a kind of
Editor's Introduction xxxix
mystic seeker in the act of prayer' (p. 73). Making this matter of
'God-consciousness through-science' more explicit, he tells us
that 'scientific observation of Nature keeps us in close contact
with the behaviour of Reality, and thus sharpens our inner
perception for a deeper vision of it' (p. 72), or that 'one
indirect way of establishing connexions with the reality that
confronts us is reflective observation and control of its
symbols as they reveal themselves to sense-perception' (p. 12).
So sure is Allama of the near at hand possibilities of the scientific
observer's 'establishing connexions with Reality' through his
following the 'modest' ways of inductive intellect that he
significantly concludes: 'This alone will add to his power over
Nature and give him that vision of the total-infinite which
philosophy seeks but cannot find' (p. 73).
The Reconstruction, however, cannot be said to be a critique of
Magian supernaturalism, nor, perhaps, is it aI-together a
dissertation on Islamic awareness of inductive intellect, or on
Islam's saying 'yes' to the world of matter and the unique
emphasis that it lays on the empirical aspect of Reality, and
thence on science and on power over Nature. All these do get
their due place in Allama's work, but they also get their share of
criticism in the philosophically conceived total religio-moral
synthesis of Islam. In fact, the exigency of the writing of the
major part of the Reconstruction seems to have arisen, among
other things, out of a state of despair into which Muslim religio-
philosphic tradition had fallen, apparently, out of sheer neglect
over the ages. Muslims in the end were, thus, left with what the
Allama has de-scribed 'a worn-out' or 'practically a dead
metaphysics' with its peculiar thought-forms and set
phraseology producing manifestly 'a deadening effect on the
modern mind' (pp. 72, 78). The need for writing a new Muslim
metaphysics could not be overemphasized; and the Allama
wrote one in the Reconstruction in terms of contemporary
developments in science and philosophy. This he hoped would
'be helpful towards a proper understanding of the meaning of
Islam as a message to humanity' (p. 7). Allama's hope carne true.
The Reconstruction is one of the very few precious Muslim works
available today for a meaningful discourse on Islam at the
international forum of learning. Even thus it is unique in
promoting effective interreligious dialogue, provided the
xl The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
'metaphysics' at least of the major world religions are got
similarly translated into the common idiom and metaphor of
today. The Reconstruction certainly also aims at greatly
facilitating the much-needed inner communication between
Islam and some of the most important phases of its culture, on
its intellectual side' (p. 6), which now, with the passage of time,
have come to be manifested in many human disciplines
rapidly progressing all over the world. Promotion of Islam's
communication with its own manifestations elsewhere is,
perhaps, today, historically speaking, an indispensable part
of Muslims' own 'proper understanding of the meaning of
Islam'.
While preparing the script of the Reconstruction for its present
edition I have used basically its Oxford University Press edition
of 1934. The few misprints of the proper names like
Maimmonides, Rongier, Tawfik Fitrat -which seem to have been
transferred to the Oxford edition of the Reconstruction from its
poorly printed original Lahore (Kapur Art Printing Works)
edition of 1930- were pointed out by some of the earlier Western
reviewers. None of these misprints, however, posed much of a
problem except one, which, I confess, put me on real hard work.
I mean: 'Sarkashi: of the tenth century of the Hijrah', a misprint
of composite nature relating to both name and date. The French,
the Urdu and the Persian translators of the Reconstruction have
noted it as a misprint for 'Sarakhsi: of the fifth century of the
Hijrah' - a bit too commonly known a name and date to find its
way into a composite misprint in the Reconstruction; and then
the date certainly a bit anachronistic for the passage where it
is meant to go. After arriving at, what I may be allowed to
call, my foolproof reasons and authenticated evidence with
regard to this misprint in name and date, I decided to change it
into 'ZarkashI of the eighth century of the Hijrah' with a long
note to this name.
As to my primary task of tracing the passages quoted in the
Reconstruction to their originals in the Muslim or Western
writers, I am to say that I did finally succeed in finding them out
except four, i.e. those quoted from Horten, Hurgronje, von
Kremer and Said Halim Pasha. All these passages belong to
Lecture VI. This Lecture, as I have adduced some evidence
to show in my Notes, is justly believed to be the revised
Editor's Introduction xli
and enlarged form of a paper on Ijtihad read by Allama
Iqbal in December 1924. After all my search for the so far
four untraced passages in the possible works which could
become available to me, I am inclined to assume that they are
Allama's own translations from German works. Allama's
translation of two passages from Friedrich Naumann's Briefe iiber
Religion and five passages from August Fischer's Aus der
religiosen Reformbewegung in der Turkei in Lecture VI, earlier
paper on Ijtihiid and his past practice of quoting from German
works in The Development of Metaphysics in Persia as well as his
correspondence with some of the noted German and other
orientalists are among the additional reasons for this
assumption.
As to the passages which have been quoted in Lecture VI and
could be traced to their originals, there are good reasons to
believe that all the three passages quoted from Nicolas
Aghnides' Mohammedan Theories of Finance (a copy of which was
presented to the Allama in March-April 1923), in the latter part
of this Lecture, belong to the period of Allama's writing his
paper on the 'Idea of Ijtihad in the Law of Islam' in 1924. This
also seems to be true of Ziya Gokalp's poems translated by the
Allama from Aus der religiosen Reformbewegung in der Turkei
(1922) a copy of which he did receive in April 1924 from the
author, August Fischer, then also the editor of Islamica. In one of
his letters to Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvi, the Allama clearly refers to
his having made use of Ziya Gokalp's poems in his paper on
Ijtihad. There are, however, at least two passages which, with
some good measure of certainty, can be said to belong to later
dates. I mean the passage in the beginning of Lecture VI from
Denison's Emotion as the Basis of Civilization, published in 1928;
and, secondly, the passage from AI-Hujjat Alliih al-Biilighah
which, as stated earlier, is to be linked with Allama's letter to
Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvi on 22 September 1929.
Composition of Lecture VI, thus, appears to be spread over a
longer period of time than is the case with other Lectures; even
as Allama's interest in the 'idea of Ijtihad in the Law of Islam'
and thereby in the entire methodology of Muslim jurisprudence
- recurrently visible in the last fifteen years of his life- is much
more sustained than his interest in many other subjects,
including a good many that he came across in his avid and vast
xlii The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
reading of the great Western philosophers.
In a press interview, a little before the second Round Table
Conference, the Allama expressed his intention of writing a book
on 'the system of fiqh in the light of modern know-ledge',
another 'work of reconstruction' on the legal aspect of Islam,
much more important than its purely theological aspect. To this
second work of reconstruction, his present work of
reconstruction on the philosophical aspect of Islam, he added
with his usual modesty, was 'necessary as a prelude'. The much
cherished book: 'The Reconstruction of Legal Thought in Islam' was,
however, not written: but the bare fact that the Allama wanted to
write it and the great importance that he attached to the writing
of it, signifies, perhaps, his will to posterity.
In working out references to the views of many authors-
Islamic or Western, medieval or modern-cited in the present
work, or in providing notes to some of the points raised or
names and terms mentioned in it, I sincerely believe that, though
I have reaped a rich academic harvest of my work, I have done
only what any other admirer and lover of Allama Iqbal would
have done, and done better.
From an almost encyclopaedic range of views and facts
covered in the Reconstruction as also from the pre-eminently
towering intellectual and spiritual stature of Allama Iqbal, it
should not be difficult to imagine that the production of an
annotated edition of this work could not have become possible
for me without the kindly assistance and advice of many friends
and scholars both in Pakistan and abroad. I most sincerely
acknowledge my debt to them all.
lowe a special debt of gratitude to Chief Justice Dr. Javid
Iqbal for his kindly agreeing to the proposal of bringing out
an annotated edition of the Reconstruction and also for
granting permission for its publication. I am also grateful
to the members of the Board of Directors of the Institute of
Islamic Culture, Lahore, for their approval of my under-
taking this work as one of my academic assignments in
partial fulfilment of my duties as Director of the Institute,
and especially to Dr. M. Afzal, Minister for Education, for his
kind encouragement and sustained keen interest in its
publication.
Editor's Introduction xliii
It is my most pleasant duty to thank Professor M. Siddiq of
Islamia College, Lahore, for his many courtesies and generous
assistance in the use of Allama Iqbal's personal library and
particularly for his expert advice in the matter of locating and
reading Allama's marginal and other marks and notes in his
personal copies of many important works.
My grateful thanks are also due to Dr. Ahmad Nabi Khan,
Director: Archaeology, and his junior colleague Mr. M.H.
Khokhar, Curator: Allama Iqbal Museum, Lahore, for their
special courtesy which made it possible for me to examine and
study some of the important MSS and books preserved in this
Museum and especially the letters of the orientalists. This did
help me solve some of my riddles.
I am gratefully indebted to Qazi Mahmudul Haq of the British
Library, London, for his kindly sending me the Photostat of Allama
Iqbal's article published in the first issue of Sodological Review (1908),
and also of sections from Deni-son's, now a rare book, Emotion as the
Basis of Civilization. In addition Mr. Haq very kindly arranged to send
to me microfilms of certain MSS in Cairo including the unique MS of
Khwajah Muhammad Parsa's Risiilah dar Zamiin-o Makiin. Thus alone
did it become possible for me to work out some difficult, if not
impossible, references in the Reconstruction.
I also wish to express my gratitude to MIle Mauricette
Levasseur of Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, for her kindly
supplying me the requested information on Andre Servier, and
more importantly for her detailed notes on Louis Rougier
(earlier Rongier) which helped me work through a somewhat
tangled problem of names and titles.
My very grateful thanks are due to the two Dutch friends:
the Reverend Dr. Jan Slomp and Mr. Harry Mintjes. The
former was never tired of translating for me passages from
articles and books in German or French, for the information
requested by me sometimes was to become available only
in these languages. And it was Mr. Mintjes who finally made
it possible for me to have the photostat of the passages from
Naumann's Briefe iiber Religion quoted in the Reconstruction.
I must also thank my nephew, Professor Mustansir Mir of the
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, for his ready supply of
photostats of this or that article, or of parts of books, or more
xliv The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
importantly of a new dissertation on Allama Iqbal in the States.
Of the many more friends and scholars who have kindly
helped me in my work or from whose views I have benefited in
one way or the other, mention must be made of Maulana M.
Hanif Nadvi and Maulana M. Is aq Bhatti. I met them aI-most
daily in the office of the Institute of Islamic Culture, and it was
always so convenient to take some significant Arabic texts to
them and enter into a lively discussion on this or that Islamic
issue touched upon in the Reconstruction. I am ever so grateful to
them for all these discussions.
I must also acknowledge my great indebtedness to Mr. M.
Ashraf Darr, Secretary and Publication Adviser of the Institute,
for his kindly preparing the entire manuscript for press, for his
many valuable suggestions and technical assistance in the
difficult task of preparing the two Indexes- particularly the
second, which, in fact, has grown unto index-cum-concordance-
and finally for reading and correcting proofs of the latter part of
the work, i.e. the editor's part starting with his Notes and
References.
Nobody is more conscious of the many drawbacks in this
latter part than I, and, for that very reason, none so eager to
welcome the suggestions of the worthy reader to improve upon
it, for the next edition.
Even so, I would like to dedicate this part of the work by the
editor to the memories of the late Chief Justice S. A. Rahman and
the late Maulana Said Ahmad Akbarabadi, the two Iqbalites,
who helped me understand 'the great synthesis, the greatest in
the modern Muslim world' that Allama Iqbal is. May their souls
rest in eternal peace!

Lahore: May 1984 M. Saeed Sheikh

 PREFACE

The Qur' an is a book which emphasizes 'deed' rather than

'idea'. There are, however, men to whom it is not possible
organically to assimilate an alien universe by re-living, as a vital
process, that special type of inner experience on which religious
faith ultimately rests. Moreover, the modem man, by developing
habits of concrete thought- habits which Islam itself fostered at
least in the earlier stages of its cultural career- has rendered
himself less capable of that experience which he further suspects
because of its liability to illusion. The more genuine schools of
Sufism have, no doubt, done good work in shaping and
directing the evolution of religious experience in Islam; but their
latter-day representatives, owing to their ignorance of the
modem mind, have become absolutely incapable of receiving
any fresh inspiration from modem thought and experience. They
are perpetuating methods which were created for generations
possessing a cultural outlook differing, in important respects,
from our own. 'Your creation and resurrection,' says the Qur'an,
'are like the creation and resurrection of a single soul.' (31:28) A living
experience of the kind of biological unity, embodied in this
verse, requires today a method physiologically less violent and
psychologically more suitable to a concrete type of mind. In the
absence of such a method the demand for a scientific form of
religious knowledge is only natural. In these Lectures, which
were undertaken at the request of the Madras Muslim
Association and delivered at Madras, Hyderabad, and Aligarh, I
have tried to meet, even though partially, this urgent demand by
attempting to reconstruct Muslim religious philosophy with due
regard to the philosophical traditions of Islam and the more
recent developments in the various domains of human
knowledge. And the present moment is quite favourable for
such an undertaking. Classical Physics has learned to criticize its
own foundations. As a result of this criticism the kind of
xlvi The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
materialism, which it originally necessitated, is rapidly
disappearing; and the day is not far off when Religion and
Science may discover hitherto unsuspected mutual harmonies. It
must, however, be remembered that there is no such thing as
finality in philosophical thinking. As knowledge advances and
fresh avenues of thought are opened, other views, and probably
sounder views than those set forth in these lectures, are possible.
Our duty is carefully to watch the progress of human thought,
and to maintain an independent critical attitude towards it.
M.1.
THE RECONSTRUCTION
OF RELIGIOUS
THOUGHT IN ISLAM
 I

KNOWLEDGE AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE

WHAT is the character and general structure of the universe in

which we live? Is there a permanent element in the constitution
of this universe? How are we related to it? What place do we
occupy in it, and what is the kind of conduct that befits the place
we occupy? These questions are common to religion, philo-
sophy, and higher poetry. But the kind of knowledge that poetic
inspiration brings is essentially individual in its character; it is
figurative, vague, and indefinite. Religion, in its more advanced
forms, rises higher than poetry. It moves from individual to
society. In its attitude towards the Ultimate Reality it is opposed
to the limitations of man; it enlarges his claims and holds out the
prospect of nothing less than a direct vision of Reality. Is it then
possible to apply the purely rational method of philosophy to
religion? The spirit of philosophy is one of free inquiry. It
suspects all authority. Its function is to trace the uncritical
assumptions of human thought to their hiding places, and in this
pursuit it may finally end in denial or a frank admission of the
incapacity of pure reason to reach the Ultimate Reality. The
essence of religion, on the other hand, is faith; and faith, like the
bird, sees its "trackless way" unattended by intellect which, in
the words of the great mystic poet of Islam, "only waylays the
living heart of man and robs it of the invisible wealth of life that
lies within."l Yet it cannot be denied that faith is more than mere
feeling. It has something like a cognitive content, and the
existence of rival parties- scholastics and mystics- in the history
of religion shows that idea is a vital element in religion. Apart
from this, religion on its doctrinal side, as defined by Professor
Whitehead, is "a system of general truths which have the effect
of transforming character when they are sincerely held and
vividly apprehended."2 Now, since the transformation and
guidance of man's inner and outer life is the essential aim of
religion, it is obvious that the general truths which it embodies
2 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
must not remain unsettled. No one would hazard action on the
basis of a doubtful principle of conduct. Indeed, in view of its
function, religion stands in greater need of a rational foundation
of its ultimate principles than even the dogmas of science.
Science may ignore a rational metaphysics; indeed, it has
ignored it so far. Religion can hardly afford to ignore the search
for a reconciliation of the oppositions of experience and a
justification of the environment in which humanity finds itself.
That is why Professor Whitehead has acutely remarked that "the
ages of faith are the ages of rationalism". 3 But to rationalize faith
is not to admit the superiority of philosophy over religion.
Philosophy, no doubt, has jurisdiction to judge religion, but
what is to be judged is of such a nature that it will not submit to
the jurisdiction of philosophy except on its own terms. While
sitting in judgement on religion, philosophy cannot give religion
an inferior place among its data. Religion is not a departmental
affair; it is neither mere thought, nor mere feeling, nor mere
action; it is an expression of the whole man. Thus, in the
evaluation of religion, philosophy must recognize the central
position of religion and has no other alternative but to admit it
as something focal in the process of reflective synthesis. Nor is
there any reason to suppose that thought and intuition are
essentially opposed to each other. They spring up from the same
root and complement each other. The one grasps Reality
piecemeal, the other grasps it in its wholeness. The one fixes its
gaze on the eternal, the other on the temporal aspect of Reality.
The one is present enjoyment of the whole of Reality; the other
aims at traversing the whole by slowly specifying and closing up
the various regions of the whole for exclusive observation. Both
are in need of each other for mutual rejuvenation. Both seek
visions of the same Reality which reveals itself to them in
accordance with their function in life. In fact, intuition, as
Bergson rightly says, is only a higher kind of intellect. 4
The search for rational foundations in Islam may be regarded
to have begun with the Prophet himself. His constant prayer
was: "God! grant me knowledge of the ultimate nature of
things!"S The work of later mystics and non-mystic rationalists
forms an exceedingly instructive chapter in the history of our
culture, inasmuch as it reveals a longing for a coherent system of
ideas, a spirit of whole-hearted devotion to truth, as well as the
limitations of the age, which rendered the various theological
Knowledge and Religious Experience 3
movements in Islam less fruitful than they might have been in a
different age. As we all know, Greek philosophy has been a great
cultural force in the history of Islam. Yet a careful study of the
Qur' an and the various schools of scholastic theology that arose
under the inspiration of Greek thought disclose the remarkable
fact that while Greek philosophy very much broadened the
outlook of Muslim thinkers, it, on the whole, obscured their
vision of the Qur' an. Socrates concentrated his attention on the
human world alone. To him the proper study of man was man
and not the world of plants, insects, and stars. How unlike the
spirit of the Qur'an, which sees in the humble bee a recipient of
Divine inspiration 6 and constantly calls upon the reader to
observe the perpetual change of the winds, the alternation of day
and night, the clouds,? the starry heavens,s and the planets
swimming through infinite space!9 As a true disciple of Socrates,
Plato despised sense-perception which, in his view, yielded mere
opinion and no real knowledge. 10 How unlike the Qur'an, which
regards "hearing" and "sight" as the most valuable Divine giftsll
and declares them to be accountable to God for their activity in
this world. 12 This is what the earlier Muslim students of the
Qur' an completely missed under the spell of classical
speculation. They read the Qur' an in the light of Greek thought.
It took them over two hundred years to perceive- though not
quite clearly-that the spirit of the Qur' an was essentially anti-
classical,13 and the result of this perception was a kind of
intellectual revolt, the full significance of which has not been
realized even up to the present day. It was partly owing to this
revolt and partly to his personal history that Ghazali based
religion on philosophical scepticism- a rather unsafe basis for
religion and not wholly justified by the spirit of the Qur' an.
Ghazali's chief opponent, Ibn Rushd, who defended Greek
philosophy against the rebels, was led, through Aristotle, to
what is known as the doctrine of Immortality of Active
Intellect,I4 a doctrine which once wielded enormous influence on
the intellectual life of France and Italy,lS but which, to my mind,
is entirely opposed to the view that the Qur' an takes of the value
and destiny of the human ego. 16 Thus Ibn Rushd lost sight of a
great and fruitful idea in Islam and unwittingly helped the
growth of that enervating philosophy of life which obscures
man's vision of himself, his God, and his world. The more
constructive among the Ash' arite thinkers were no doubt on the
4 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
right path and anticipated some of the more modern forms of
Idealism; yet, on the whole, the object of the Ash' arite movement
was simply to defend orthodox opinion with the weapons of
Greek dialectic. The Mu'tazilah, conceiving religion merely as a
body of doctrines and ignoring it as a vital fact, took no notice of
non-conceptual modes of approaching Reality and reduced
religion to a mere system of logical concepts ending in a purely
negative attitude. They failed to see that in the domain of
knowledge- scientific or religious- complete independence of
thought from concrete experience is not possible.
It cannot, however, be denied that Ghazall's mission was
almost apostolic like that of Kant in Germany of the eighteenth
century. In Germany rationalism appeared as an ally of
religion, but she soon realized that the dogmatic side of religion
was incapable of demonstration. The only course open to her
was to eliminate dogma from the sacred record. With the
elimination of dogma came the utilitarian view of morality, and
thus rationalism completed the reign of unbelief. Such was the
state of theological thought in Germany when Kant appeared.
His Critique of Pure Reason revealed the limitations of human
reason and reduced the whole work of the rationalists to a heap
of ruins. And justly has he been described as God's greatest gift
to his country. Ghazali:'s philosophical scepticism which, how-
ever, went a little too far, virtually did the same kind of work in
the world of Islam in breaking the back of that proud but
shallow rationalism which moved in the same direction as pre-
Kantian rationalism in Germany. There is, however, one
important difference between Ghazall and Kant. Kant, con,.
sistently with his principles, could not affirm the possibility of a
knowledge of God. Ghazall, finding no hope in analytic
thought, moved to mystic experience, and there found an
independent content for religion. In this way he succeeded in
securing for religion the right to exist independently of science
and metaphysics. But the revelation of the total Infinite in
mystic experience convinced him of the finitude and incon-
clusiveness of thought and drove him to draw a line of cleavage
between thought and intuition. He failed to see that thought
and intuition are organically related and that thought must
necessarily simulate finitude and inconclusiveness because of its
alliance with serial time. The idea that thought is essentially
finite, and for this reason unable to capture the Infinite, is based
Knowledge and Religious Experience 5
on a mistaken notion of the movement of thought in knowledge.
It is the inadequacy of the logical understanding which finds a
multiplicity of mutually repellent individualities with no
prospect of their ultimate reduction to a unity that makes us
sceptical about the conclusiveness of thought. In fact, the logical
understanding is incapable of seeing this multiplicity as a
coherent universe. Its only method is generalization based on
resemblances, but its generalizations are only fictitious unities
which do not affect the reality of concrete things. In its deeper
movement, however, thought is capable of reaching an
immanent Infinite in whose self-unfolding movement the
various finite concepts are merely moments. In its essential
nature, then, thought is not static; it is dynamic and unfolds its
internal infinitude in time like the seed which, from the very
beginning, carries within itself the organic unity of the tree as a
present fact. Thought is, therefore, the whole in its dynamic self-
expression, appearing to the temporal vision as a series of
definite specifications which cannot be understood except by a
reciprocal reference. Their meaning lies not in their self-identity,
but in the larger whole of which they are the specific aspects.
This larger whole is, to use a Qur'anic metaphor, a kind of
"Preserved Tablet" ,17 which holds up the entire undetermined
possibilities of knowledge as a present reality, revealing itself in
serial time as a succession of finite concepts appearing to reach a
unity which is already present in them. It is in fact the presence
of the total Infinite in the movement of knowledge that makes
finite thinking possible. Both Kant and Ghazail failed to see that
thought, in the very act of knowledge, passes beyond its own
finitude. The finitudes of Nature are reciprocally exclusive. Not
so the finitudes of thought which is, in its essential nature,
incapable of limitation and cannot remain imprisoned in the
narrow circuit of its own individuality. In the wide world
beyond itself nothing is alien to it. It is in its progressive
participation in the life of the apparently alien that thought
demolishes the walls of its finitude and enjoys its potential
infinitude. Its movement becomes possible only because of the
implicit presence in its finite individuality of the infinite, which
keeps alive within it the flame of aspiration and sustains it in its
endless pursuit. It is a mistake to regard thought as inconclusive,
for it too, in its own way, is a greeting of the finite with the
infinite.
6 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
During the last five hundred years religious thought in Islam
has been practically stationary. There was a time when European
thought received inspiration from the world of Islam. The most
remarkable phenomenon of modern history, however, is the
enormous rapidity with which the world of Islam is spiritually
moving towards the West. There is nothing wrong in this
movement, for European culture, on its intellectual side, is only a
further development of some of the most important phases of
the culture of Islam. Our only fear is that the dazzling exterior of
European culture may arrest our movement and we may fail to
reach the true inwardness of that culture. During all the
centuries of our intellectual stupor Europe has been seriously
thinking on the great problems in which the philosophers and
scientists of Islam were so keenly interested. Since the Middle
Ages, when the schools of Muslim theology were completed,
infinite advance has taken place in the domain of human
thought and experience. The extension of man's power over
Nature has given him a new faith and a fresh sense of
superiority over the forces that constitute his environment. New
points of view have been suggested, old problems have been re-
stated in the light of fresh experience, and new problems have
arisen. It seems as if the intellect of man is outgrowing its own
most fundamental categories- time, space, and causality. With
the advance of scientific thought even our concept of
intelligibility is undergoing a change. I8 The theory of Einstein
has brought a new vision of the universe and suggests new ways
of looking at the problems common to both religion and
philosophy. No wonder then that the younger generation of
Islam in Asia and Africa demand a fresh orientation of their
faith. With the reawakening of Islam, therefore, it is necessary to
examine, in an independent spirit, what Europe has thought and
how far the conclusions reached by her can help us in the
revision and, if necessary, reconstruction, of theological thought
in Islam. Besides this it is not possible to ignore the generally
anti-religious and especially anti-Islamic propaganda in Central
Asia which has already crossed the Indian frontier. Some of the
apostles of this movement are born Muslims, and one of them,
Tevfik Fikret, the Turkish poet, who died only a short time ago,19
has gone to the extent of using our great poet-thinker, Mirza Abd I

aI-Qadir Bedil of Akbarabad, for the purposes of this movement.

Surely, it is high time to look to the essentials of Islam. In these
Knowledge and Religious Experience 7
lectures I propose to undertake a philosophical discussion of
some of the basic of ideas of Islam, in the hope that this may, at
least, be helpful towards a proper understanding of the meaning
of Islam as a message to humanity. Also with a view to give a
kind of ground-outline for further discussion, I propose, in this
preliminary lecture, to consider the character of knowledge and
religious experience.
The main purpose of the Qur' an is to awaken in man the
higher consciousness of his manifold relations with God and the
universe. It is in view of this essential aspect of the Qur' anic
teaching that Goethe, while making a general review of Islam as
an educational force, said to Eckermann: "You see this teaching
never fails; with all our systems, we cannot go, and generally
speaking no man can go, farther than that." 20 The problem of
Islam was really suggested by the mutual conflict, and at the
same time mutual attraction, presented by the two forces of
religion and civilization. The same problem confronted early
Christianity. The great point in Christianity is the search for an
independent content for spiritual life which, according to the
insight of its founder, could be elevated, not by the forces of a
world external to the soul of man, but by the revelation of a new
world within his soul. Islam fully agrees with this insight and
supplements it by the further insight that the illumination of the
new world thus revealed is not something foreign to the world
of matter but permeates it through and through.
Thus the affirmation of spirit sought by Christianity would
come not by the renunciation of external forces which are
already permeated by the illumination of spirit, but by a proper
adjustment of man's relation to these forces in view of the light
received from the world within. It is the mysterious touch of the
ideal that animates and sustains the real, and through it alone
we can discover and affirm the ideal. With Islam the ideal and
the real are not two opposing forces which cannot be reconciled.
The life of the ideal consists, not in a total breach with the real
which would tend to shatter the organic wholeness of life into
painful oppositions, but in the perpetual endeavour of the ideal
to appropriate the real with a view eventually to absorb it, to
convert it into itself and illuminate its whole being. It is the
sharp opposition between the subject and the object, the
mathematical without and the biological within, that impressed
Christianity. Islam, however, faces the opposition with a view to
8 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
overcome it. This essential difference in looking at a
fundamental relation determines the respective attitudes of these
great religions towards the problem of human life in its present
surroundings. Both demand the affirmation of the spiritual self
in man, with this difference only that Islam, recognizing the
contact of the ideal with the real, says "yes" to the world of
matter21 and points the way to master it with a view to discover
a basis for a realistic regulation of life.
What, then, according to the Qur' an, is the character of the
universe which we inhabit? In the first place, it is not the result
of a mere creative sport:
We have not created the Heavens and the earth and whatever is between
them in sport. We have not created them but for a serious end: but the
greater part of them understand it not. 22
It is a reality to be reckoned with:
Verily in the creation of the Heavens and of the earth, and in the
succession of the night and of the day, are signs for men of
understanding; who, standing and sitting and reclining, bear God
in mind and reflect on the creation of the Heavens and of the earth,
and say: "Oh, our Lord! Thou hast not created this in vain (3: 190-
91).
Again the universe is so constituted that it is capable of
extension:
(God) adds to His creation what He wills (35: 1).23
It is not a block universe, a finished product, immobile and
incapable of change. Deep in its inner being lies, perhaps, the
dream of a new birth:
Say- go through the earth and see how God hath brought forth all
creation; hereafter will He give it another birth (29:20).
In fact, this mysterious swing and impulse of the universe,
this noiseless swim of time which appears to us, human beings,
as the movement of day and night, is regarded by the Qur' an as
one of the greatest signs of God:

God causeth the day and the night to take their turn. Verily in this
is teaching for men of insight (24: 44).
This is why the Prophet said: "Do not vilify time, for time is
God."24 And this immensity of time and space carries in it the
promise of a complete subjugation by man whose duty is to
Knowledge and Religious Experience 9
reflect on the signs of God, and thus discover the means of
realizing his conquest of Nature as an actual fact:
See ye not how God hath put under you all that is in the Heavens,
and all that is on the earth, and hath been bounteous to you of His
favours both in relation to the seen and the unseen? (31: 20).
And He hath subjected to you the night and the day, the sun and
the moon, and the stars too are subject to you by His behest; verily
in this are signs for those who understand. (16: 12).
Such being the nature and promise of the universe, what is
the nature of man whom it confronts on all sides? Endowed with
a most suitable mutual adjustment of faculties he discovers
himself down below in the scale of life, surrounded on all sides
by the forces of obstruction:

That of goodliest fabric We created man, then brought him down to

the lowest of the low (95: 4-5).
And how do we find him in this environment? A "restless"25
being engrossed in his ideals to the point of forgetting
everything else, capable of inflicting pain on himself in his
ceaseless quest after fresh scopes for self-expression. With all his
failings he is superior to Nature, inasmuch as he carries within
him a great trust which, in the words of the Qur' an, the heavens
and the earth and the mountains refused to carry:
Verily We proposed to the Heavens and to the earth and to the
mountains to receive the trust (of personality), but they refused the
burden and they feared to receive it. Man alone undertook to bear it,
but hath proved unjust, senseless! (33: 72).
His career, no doubt, has a beginning, but he is destined,
perhaps, to become a permanent element in the constitution of
being:
Thinketh man that he shall be thrown away as an object of no use?
Was he not a mere embryo? Then he became thick blood of which
God formed him and fashioned him, and made him twain, male and
female. Is not He powerful enough to quicken the dead? (75: 36-40).
When attracted by the forces around him, man has the power
to shape and direct them; when thwarted by them, he has the
capacity to build a much vaster world in the depths of his own
inner being, wherein he discovers sources of infinite joy and
10 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
inspiration. Hard his lot and frail his being, like a rose-leaf, yet
no form of reality is so powerful, so inspiring, and so beautiful
as the spirit of man! Thus in his inmost being man, as conceived
by the Qur' an, is a creative activity, an ascending spirit who, in
his onward march, rises from one state of being to another:
But, Nay! I swear by the sunset's redness and by the night and its
gatherings and by the moon when at her full, that from state to state
shall ye be surely carried onward (84: 16-19).
It is the lot of man to share in the deeper aspirations of the
universe around him and to shape his own destiny as well as
that of the universe, now by adjusting himself to its forces, now
by putting the whole of his energy to mould its forces to his own
ends and purposes. And in this process of progressive change
God becomes a co-worker with him, provided man takes the
initiative:
Verily God will not change the condition of men, till they change
what is in themselves (13: 11).
If he does not take the initiative, if he does not evolve the
inner richness of his being, if he ceases to feel the inward push of
advancing life, then the spirit within him hardens into stone and
he is reduced to the level of dead matter. But his life and the
onward march of his spirit depend on the establishment of
connexions with the reality that confronts him 26 It is knowledge
that establishes these connexions, and knowledge is sense-
perception elaborated by understanding.
When thy Lord said to the Angels, "Verily I am about to place one
in my stead on earth", they said, "Wilt Thou place there one who
will do ill and shed blood, when we celebrate Thy praise and extol
Thy holiness?" God said, "Verily I know what ye know not!" And
He taught Adam the names of all things, and then set them before
the Angels, and said, "Tell me the names of these if ye are endowed
with wisdom". They said, "Praise be to Thee! We have no knowledge
but what Thou hast given us to know. Thou art the Knowing, the
Wise". He said, "0 Adam, inform them of the names". And when
he had informed them of the names, God said, "Did I not say to you
that I know the hidden things of the Heavens and of the earth, and
that I know what ye bring to light and what ye hide?" (2: 30-33).
The point of these verses is that man is endowed with the
faculty of naming things, that is to say, forming concepts of
them, and forming concepts of them is capturing them. Thus the
Knowledge and Religious Experience 1)
character of man's knowledge is conceptual, and it is with the
weapon of this conceptual knowledge that man approaches the
observable aspect of Reality. The one noteworthy feature of the
Qur'an is the emphasis that it lays on this observable aspect of
Reality. Let me quote here a few verses:
Assuredly, in the creation of the Heavens and of the earth; and in
the alternation of night and day; and in the ships which pass
through the sea with what is useful to man; and in the rain which
God sendeth down from Heaven, giving life to the earth after its
death, and scattering over it all kinds of cattle; and in the change of the
winds, and in the clouds that are made to do service between the
Heavens and the earth- are signs for those who "understand" (2: 164).
And it is He Who hath ordained for you that ye may be guided
thereby in the darkness of the land and of the sea! Clear have We
made Our signs to "men of knowledge". And it is He Who hath
created you of one breath, and hath provided you an abode and
resting place (in the womb). Clear have We made Our signs for
"men of insight"! And it is He Who sendeth down rain from
Heaven: and We bring forth by it the buds of all the plants and from
them bring We forth the green foliage, and the close-growing grain,
and palm trees with sheaths of clustering dates, and gardens of
grapes, and the olive, and the pomegranate, like and unlike. Look
you on their fruits when they ripen. Truly herein are signs unto
people who believe (6: 97-99).
Hast thou not seen how thy Lord lengthens out the shadow? Had
He pleased He had made it motionless. But We made the sun to be
its guide; then draw it in unto Us with easy in drawing (25: 45-46).
Can they not look up to the clouds, how they are created; and to the
Heaven how it is upraised; and to the mountains how they are
rooted, and to the earth how it is outspread? (88: 17-20).
And among His signs are the creation of the Heavens and of the
earth, and your variety of tongues and colours. Herein truly are
signs for all men (30: 22).
No doubt, the immediate purpose of the Qur'an in this
reflective observation of Nature is to awaken in man the
consciousness of that of which Nature is regarded a symbol. But
the point to note is the general empirical attitude of the Qur' an
which engendered in its followers a feeling of reverence for the
actual and ultimately made them the founders of modern
science. It was a great point to awaken the empirical spirit in an
age which renounced the visible as of no value in men's search
after God. According to the Qur'an, as we have seen before, the
12 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
universe has a serious end. Its shifting actualities force our being
into fresh formations. The intellectual effort to overcome the
obstruction offered by it, besides enriching and amplifying our
life, sharpens our insight, and thus prepares us for a more
masterful insertion into subtler aspects of human experience. It
is our reflective contact with the temporal flux of things which
trains us for an intellectual vision of the non-temporal. Reality
lives in its own appearances; and such a being as man, who has
to maintain his life in an obstructing environment, cannot afford
to ignore the visible. The Qur' an opens our eyes to the great fact
of change, through the appreciation and control of which alone it
is possible to build a durable civilization. The cultures of Asia
and, in fact, of the whole ancient world failed, because they
approached Reality exclusively from within and moved from
within outwards. This procedure gave them theory without
power, and on mere theory no durable civilization can be based.
There is no doubt that the treatment of religious experience,
as a source of Divine knowledge, is historically prior to the
treatment of other regions of human experience for the same
purpose. The Qur' an, recognizing that the empirical attitude is
an indispensable stage in the spiritual life of humanity, attaches
equal importance to all the regions of human experience as
yielding knowledge of the Ultimate Reality which reveals its
symbols both within and without. 27 One indirect way of
establishing connexions with the reality that confronts us is reflective
observation and control of its symbols as they reveal themselves
to sense-perception; the other way is direct association with that
reality as it reveals itself within. The naturalism of the Qur' an is
only a recognition of the fact that man is related to nature, and
this relation, in view of its possibility as a means of controlling
her forces, must be exploited not in the interest of unrighteous
desire for domination, but in the nobler interest of a free upward
movement of spiritual life. In the interests of securing a complete
VISIon of Reality, therefore, sense-perception must be
supplemented by the perception of what the Qur'an describes as
Fu'ad or Qalb, i.e. heart:
God hath made everything which He hath created most good; and
began the creation of man with clay; then ordained his progeny
from germs of life, from sorry water; then shaped him, and breathed
of His spirit unto him, and gave you hearing and seeing and heart:
what little thanks do ye return? (32: 7-9).
Knowledge and Religious Experience 13
The "heart" is a kind of inner intuition or insight which, in
the beautiful words of Rum!, feeds on the rays of the sun and
brings us into contact with aspects of Reality other than those
open to sense-perception. 28 It is, according to the Qur' an,
something which "sees", and its reports, if properly interpreted,
are never false. 29 We must not, however, regard it as a
mysterious special faculty; it is rather a mode of dealing with
Reality in which sensation, in the physiological sense of the
word, does not play any part. 30 Yet the vista of experience thus
opened to us is as real and concrete as any other experience. To
describe it as psychic, mystical, or supernatural does not detract
from its value as experience. To the primitive man all experience
was super-natural. Prompted by the immediate necessities of life
he was driven to interpret his experience, and out of this
interpretation gradually emerged "Nature" in our sense of the
word. The total-Reality, which enters our awareness and appears
on interpretation as an empirical fact, has other ways of invading
our consciousness and offers further opportunities of
interpretation. The revealed and mystic literature of mankind
bears ample testimony to the fact that religious experience has
been too enduring and dominant in the history of mankind to be
rejected as mere illusion. There seems to be no reason, then, to
accept the normal level of human experience as fact and reject its
other levels as mystical and emotional. The facts of religious ex-
perience are facts among other facts of human experience and, in
the capacity of yielding knowledge by interpretation, one fact is
as good as another. Nor is there anything irreverent in critically
examining this region of human experience. The Prophet of
Islam was the first critical observer of psychic phenomena.
Bukhar! and other traditionists have given us a full account of
his observation of the psychic Jewish youth, Ibn Sayyad, whose
ecstatic moods attracted the Prophet's notice. 31 He tested him,
questioned him, and examined him in his various moods. Once
he hid himself behind the stem of a tree to listen to his
mutterings. The boy's mother, however, warned him of the
approach of the Prophet. Thereupon the boy immediately shook
off his mood and the Prophet remarked: "If she had let him
alone the thing would have been cleared Up."32 The Prophet's
companions, some of whom were present during the course of
this first psychological observation in the history of Islam, and
even later traditionists, who took good care to record this
14 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
important fact, entirely misunderstood the significance of his
attitude and interpreted it in their own innocent manner.
Professor Macdonald, who seems to have no idea of the
fundamental psychological difference between the mystic and
the prophetic consciousness, finds "humour enough in this
picture of one prophet trying to investigate another after the
method of the Society for Psychical Research."33 A better
appreciation of the spirit of the Qur' an which, as I will show in a
subsequent lecture,34 initiated the cultural movement terminat-
ing in the birth of the modern empirical attitude, would have led
the Professor to see something remarkably suggestive in the
Prophet's observation of the psychic Jew. However, the first
Muslim to see the meaning and value of the Prophet's attitude
was Ibn Khaldun, who approached the content of mystic
consciousness in a more critical spirit and very nearly reached
the modern hypothesis of subliminal selves. 35 As Professor
Macdonald says, Ibn Khaldun "had some most interesting
psychological ideas, and that he would probably have been in
close sympathy with Mr. William James's Varieties of Religious
Experience./1 36 Modern psychology has only recently begun to
realize the importance of a careful study of the contents of
mystic consciousness, and we are not yet in possession of a
really effective scientific method to analyze the contents of non-
rational modes of consciousness. With the time at my disposal it
is not possible to undertake an extensive inquiry into the history
and the various degrees of mystic consciousness in point of
richness and vividness. All that I can do is to offer a few general
observations only on the main characteristics of mystic
experience.
1. The first point to note is the immediacy of this experience.
In this respect it does not differ from other levels of human
experience which supply data for knowledge. All experience is
immediate. As regions of normal experience are subject to
interpretation of sense-data for our knowledge of the external
world, so the region of mystic experience is subject to
interpretation for our knowledge of God. The immediacy of
mystic experience simply means that we know God just as we
know other objects. God is not a mathematical entity or a system
of concepts mutually related to one another and having no
reference to experience. 37
2. The second point is the unanalysable wholeness of mystic
Knowledge and Religious Experience 15
experience. When I experience the table before me, innumerable
data of experience merge into the single experience of the table.
Out of this wealth of data I select those that fall into a certain
order of space and time and round them off in reference to the
table. In the mystic state, however vivid and rich it may be,
thought is reduced to a minimum and such an analysis is not
possible. But this difference of the mystic state from the ordinary
rational consciousness does not mean discontinuance with the
normal consciousness, as Professor William James erroneously
thought. In either case it is the same Reality which is operating
on us. The ordinary rational consciousness, in view of our
practical need of adaptation to our environment, takes that
Reality piecemeal, selecting successively isolated sets of stimuli
for response. The mystic state brings us into contact with the
total passage of Reality in which all the diverse stimuli merge
into one another and form a single unanalysable unity in which
the ordinary distinction of subject and object does not exist.
3. The third point to note is that to the mystic the mystic state
is a moment of intimate association with a Unique Other Self,
transcending, encompassing, and momentarily suppressing the
private personality of the subject of experience. Considering its
content the mystic state is highly objective and cannot be
regarded as a mere retirement into the mists of pure subjectivity.
But you will ask me how immediate experience of God, as an
Independent Other Self, is at all possible. The mere fact that the
mystic state is passive does not finally prove the veritable
"otherness" of the Self experienced. This question arises in the
mind because we assume, without criticism, that our knowledge
of the external world through sense-perception is the type of all
knowledge. If this were so, we could never be sure of the reality
of our own self. However, in reply to it I suggest the analogy of
our daily social experience. How do we know other minds in our
social intercourse? It is obvious that we know our own self and
Nature by inner reflection and sense-perception respectively. We
possess no sense for the experience of other minds. The only
ground of my knowledge of a conscious being before me is the
physical movements similar to my own from which I infer the
presence of another conscious being. Or we may say, after
Professor Royce, that our fellows are known to be real because
they respond to our signals and thus constantly supply the
necessary supplement to our own fragmentary meanings.
16 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
Response, no doubt, is the test of the presence of a conscious
self, and the Qur' an also takes the same view:
And your Lord saith, call me and I respond to your call (40: 60).
And when My servants ask thee concerning Me, then I am nigh
unto them and answer the cry of him that crieth unto Me (2: 186).
It is clear that whether we apply the physical criterion or the
non-physical and more adequate criterion of Royce, in either
case our knowledge of other minds remains something like
inferential only. Yet we feel that our experience of other minds is
immediate and never entertain any doubt as to the reality of our
social experience. I do not, however, mean, at the present stage
of our inquiry, to build on the implications of our knowledge of
other minds, an idealistic argument in favour of the reality of a
Comprehensive Self. All that I mean to suggest is that the
immediacy of our experience in the mystic state is not without a
parallel. It has some sort of resemblance to our normal
experience and probably belongs to the same category.
4. Since the quality of mystic experience is to be directly
experienced, it is obvious that it cannot be communicated. 38
Mystic states are more like feeling than thought. The
interpretation which the mystic or the prophet puts on the
content of his religious consciousness can be conveyed to others
in the form of propositions, but the content itself cannot be so
transmitted. Thus in the following verses of the Qur' an it is the
psychology and not the content of the experience that is given:
It is not for man that God should speak to him, but by vision or
from behind a veil; or He sendeth a messenger to reveal by His
permission what He will: for He is Exalted, Wise (42: 51).
By the star when it setteth,
Your compatriot erreth not, nor is he led astray.
Neither speaketh he from mere impulse.
The Qur'an is no other than the revelation revealed to him:
One strong in power taught it him,
Endowed with wisdom with even balance stood he
In the highest part of the horizon: Then came he nearer and approached,
And was at the distance of two bows or even closer
And he revealed to the servant of God what he revealed:
His heart falsified not what he saw:
What! will ye then dispute with him as to what he saw?
He had seen him also another time
Knowledge and Religious Experience 17
Near the Sidrah tree which marks the boundary:
Near which is the garden of repose:
When the Sidrah tree was covered with what covered it: His eye
turned not aside, nor did it wander:
For he saw the greatest of the signs of the Lord (53: 1-18).
The incommunicability of mystic experience is due to the fact
that it is essentially a matter of inarticulate feeling, untouched by
discursive intellect. It must, however, be noted that mystic
feeling, like all feeling, has a cognitive element also; and it is, I
believe, because of this cognitive element that it lends itself to
the form of idea. In fact, it is the nature of feeling to seek
expression in thought. It would seem that the two- feeling and
idea- are the non-temporal and temporal aspects of the same
unit of inner experience. But on this point I cannot do better than
quote Professor Hocking39 who has made a remarkably keen
study of feeling in justification of an intellectual view of the
content of religious consciousness:
What is that other-than-feeling in which feeling may end? I answer,
consciousness of an object. Feeling is instability of an entire
conscious self: and that which will restore the stability of this self
lies not within its own border but beyond it. Feeling is outward-
pushing, as idea is outward-reporting: and no feeling is so blind as
to have no idea of its own object. As a feeling possesses the mind,
there also possesses the mind, as an integral part of that feeling,
some idea of the kind of thing which will bring it to rest. A feeling
without a direction is as impossible as an activity without a
direction: and a direction implies some objective. There are vague
states of consciousness in which we seem to be wholly without
direction; but in such cases it is remarkable that feeling is likewise in
abeyance. For example, I may be dazed by a blow, neither realizing
what has happened nor suffering any pain, and yet quite conscious
that something has occurred: the experience waits an instant in the
vestibule of consciousness, not as feeling but purely as fact, until
idea has touched it and defined a course of response. At that same
moment, it is felt as painful. If we are right, feeling is quite as much
an objective consciousness as is idea: it refers always to something
beyond the present self and has no existence save in directing the
self toward that object in whose presence its own career must end!
Thus you will see that it is because of this essential nature of
feeling that while religion starts with feeling, it has never, in its
history, taken itself as a matter of feeling alone and has
constantly striven after metaphysics. The mystic's condemnation
18 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
of intellect as an organ of knowledge does not really find any
justification in the history of religion. But Professor Hocking's
passage just quoted has a wider scope than mere justification of
idea in religion. The organic relation of feeling and idea throws
light on the old theological controversy about verbal revelation
which once gave so much trouble to Muslim religious thinkers. 40
Inarticulate feeling seeks to fulfil its destiny in idea which, in its
turn, tends to develop out of itself its own visible garment. It is
no mere metaphor to say that idea and word both
simultaneously emerge out of the womb of feeling, though
logical understanding cannot but take them in a temporal order
and thus create its own difficulty by regarding them as mutually
isolated. There is a sense in which the word is also revealed.
5. The mystic's intimate association with the eternal which
gives him a sense of the unreality of serial time does not mean a
complete break with serial time. The mystic state, in respect of its
uniqueness, remains in some way related to common experience.
This is clear from the fact that the mystic state soon fades away,
though it leaves a deep sense of authority after it has passed
away. Both the mystic and the prophet return to the normal
levels of experience, but with this difference that the return of
the prophet, as I will show later, may be fraught with infinite
meaning for mankind.
For the purposes of knowledge, then, the region of mystic
experience is as real as any other region of human experience
and cannot be ignored merely because it cannot be traced back to
sense-perception. Nor is it possible to undo the spiritual value of
the mystic state by specifying the organic conditions which
appear to determine it. Even if the postulate of modern
psychology as to the interrelation of body and mind is assumed
to be true, it is illogical to discredit the value of the mystic state
as a revelation of truth. Psychologically speaking, all states,
whether their content is religious or non-religious, are organically
determined. 41 The scientific form of mind is as much organically
determined as the religious. Our judgement as to the creations
of genius is not at all determined or even remotely affected by
what our psychologists may say regarding its organic
conditions. A certain kind of temperament may be a necessary
condition for a certain kind of receptivity; but the antecedent
condition cannot be regarded as the whole truth about the
Knowledge and Religious Experience 19
character of what is received. The truth is that the organic
causation of our mental states has nothing to do with the criteria
by which we judge them to be superior or inferior in point of
value. Among the visions and messages", says Professor
II

William James, 42
some have always been too patently silly, among the trances and
convulsive seizures some have been too fruitless for conduct and
character, to pass themselves off as significant, still less as divine. In
the history of Christian mysticism the problem how to discriminate
between such messages and experiences as were really divine
miracles, and such others as the demon in his malice was able to
counterfeit, thus making the religious person twofold more the child
of hell he was before, has always been a difficult one to solve,
needing all the sagacity and experience of the best directors of
conscience. In the end it had come to our empiricist criterion: By
their fruits ye shall know them, not by their roots.
The problem of Christian mysticism alluded to by Professor
James has been in fact the problem of all mysticism. The demon
in his malice does counterfeit experiences which creep into the
circuit of the mystic state. As we read in the Qur' an:

We have not sent any Apostle or Prophet 43 before thee among whose
desires Satan injected not some wrong desire, but God shall bring to
naught that which Satan had suggested. Thus shall God affirm His
revelations, for God is Knowing and Wise (22: 52).
And it is in the elimination of the satanic from the Divine that
the followers of Freud have done inestimable service to religion;
though I cannot help saying that the main theory of this newer
psychology does not appear to me to be supported by any
adequate evidence. If our vagrant impulses assert themselves in
our dreams, or at other times we are not strictly ourselves, it
does not follow that they remain imprisoned in a kind of lumber
room behind the normal self. The occasional invasion of these
suppressed impulses on the region of our normal self tends more
to show the temporary disruption of our habitual system of
responses rather than their perpetual presence in some dark
corner of the mind. However, the theory is briefly this. During
the process of our adjustment to our environment we are
exposed to all sorts of stimuli. Our habitual responses to these
stimuli gradually fall into a relatively fixed system, constantly
20 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
growing in complexity by absorbing some and rejecting other
impulses which do not fit in with our permanent system of
responses. The rejected impulses recede into what is called the
unconscious region" of the mind, and there wait for a suitable
1/

opportunity to assert themselves and take their revenge on the

focal self. They may disturb our plans of action, distort our
thought, build our dreams and phantasies, or carry us back to
forms of primitive behaviour which the evolutionary process has
left far behind. Religion, it is said, is a pure fiction created by
these repudiated impulses of mankind with a view to find a kind
of fairyland for free unobstructed movement. Religious beliefs
and dogmas, according to the theory, are no more than merely
primitive theories of Nature, whereby mankind has tried to
redeem Reality from its elemental ugliness and to show it off as
something nearer to the heart's desire than the facts of life would
warrant. That there are religions and forms of art, which provide
a kind of cowardly escape from the facts of life, I do not deny.
All that I contend is that this is not true of all religions. No
doubt, religious beliefs and dogmas have a metaphysical
significance; but it is obvious that they are not interpretations of
those data of experience which are the subject of the sciences of
Nature. Religion is not physics or chemistry seeking an
explanation of Nature in terms of causation; it really aims at
interpreting a totally different region of human experience-
religious experience- the data of which cannot be reduced to the
data of any other science. In fact, it must be said in justice to
religion that it insisted on the necessity of concrete experience in
religious life long before science learnt to do SO.44 The conflict
between the two is due not to the fact that the one is, and the
other is not, based on concrete experience. Both seek concrete
experience as a point of departure. Their conflict is due to the
misapprehension that both interpret the same data of experience.
We forget that religion aims at reaching the real significance of a
special variety of human experience.
Nor is it possible to explain away the content of religious
consciousness by attributing the whole thing to the working of
the sex-impulse. The two forms of consciousness- sexual and
religious- are often hostile or, at any rate, completely different to
each other in point of their character, their aim, and the kind of
conduct they generate. The truth is that in a state of religious
passion we know a factual reality in some sense outside the
Knowledge and Religious Experience 21
narrow circuit of our personality. To the psychologist religious
passion necessarily appears as the work of the subconscious
because of the intensity with which it shakes up the depths of
our being. In all knowledge there is an element of passion, and
the object of knowledge gains or loses in objectivity with the rise
and fall in the intensity of passion. That is most real to us which
stirs up the entire fabric of our personality. As Professor
Hocking pointedly puts it: 45

If ever upon the stupid day-length time-span of any self or saint

either, some vision breaks to roll his life and ours into new channels,
it can only be because that vision admits into his soul some trooping
invasion of the concrete fullness of eternity. Such vision doubtless
means subconscious readiness and subconscious resonance too,- but
the expansion of the unused air-cells does not argue that we have
ceased to breathe the outer air:- the very opposite!
A purely psychological method, therefore, cannot explain
religious passion as a form of knowledge. It is bound to fail in
the case of our newer psychologists as it did fail in the case of
Locke and Hume.
The foregoing discussion, however, is sure to raise an
important question in your mind. Religious experience, I have
tried to maintain, is essentially a state of feeling with a cognitive
aspect, the content of which cannot be communicated to others,
except in the form of a judgement. Now when a judgement
which claims to be the interpretation of a certain region of
human experience, not accessible to me, is placed before me for
my assent, I am entitled to ask, what is the guarantee of its truth?
Are we in possession of a test which would reveal its validity? If
personal experience had been the only ground for acceptance of
a judgement of this kind, religion would have been the
possession of a few individuals only. Happily we are in
possession of tests which do not differ from those applicable to
other forms of knowledge. These I call the intellectual test and
the pragmatic test. By the intellectual test I mean critical
interpretation, without any presuppositions of human
experience, generally with a view to discover whether our
interpretation leads us ultimately to a reality of the same
character as is revealed by religious experience. The pragmatic
22 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
test judges it by its fruits. The former is applied by the
philosopher, the latter by the prophet. In the lecture that follows,
I will apply the intellectual test.
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 23

II

THE PHILOSOPHIC TEST OF THE

REVELATIONS OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE

SCHOLASTIC philosophy has put forward three arguments for

the existence of God. These arguments, known as the Cosmological,
the Teleological, and the Ontological, embody a real movement
of thought in its quest after the Absolute. But regarded as logical
proofs, I am afraid; they are open to serious criticism and further
betray a rather superficial interpretation of experience.
The cosmological argument views the world as a finite effect,
and passing through a series of dependent sequences, related as
causes and effects, stops at an uncaused first cause, because of the
unthinkability of an infinite regress. It is, however, obvious that
a finite effect can give only a finite cause, or at most an infinite
series of such causes. To finish the series at a certain point, and to
elevate one member of the series to the dignity of an uncaused
first cause, is to set at naught the very law of causation on which
the whole argument proceeds. Further, the first cause reached
by the argument necessarily excludes its effect. And this means
that the effect, constituting a limit to its own cause, reduces it to
something finite. Again, the cause reached by the argument
cannot be regarded as a necessary being for the obvious reason
that in the relation of cause and effect the two terms of the
relation are equally necessary to each other. Nor is the necessity
of existence identical with the conceptual necessity of causation
which is the utmost that this argument can prove. The
argument really tries to reach the infinite by merely negating the
finite. But the infinite reached by contradicting the finite is a
false infinite, which neither explains itself nor the finite which is
thus made to stand in opposition to the infinite. The true infinite
does not exclude the finite; it embraces the finite without
effacing its finitude, and explains and justifies its being.
Logically speaking, then, the movement from the finite to the
infinite as embodied in the cosmological argument is quite
24 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
illegitimate; and the argument fails in toto. The teleological
argument is no beUer. It scrutinizes the effect with a view to
discover the character of its cause. From the traces of foresight,
purpose, and adaptation in nature, it infers the existence of a
self-conscious being of infinite intelligence and power. At best, it
gives, us a skilful external contriver working on a pre-existing
dead and intractable material the elements of which are, by their
own nature, incapable of orderly structures and combinations.
The argument gives us a contriver only and not a creator; and
even if we suppose him to be also the creator of his material, it
does no credit to his wisdom to create his own difficulties by
first creating intractable material, and then overcoming its
resistance by the application of methods alien to its original
nature. The designer regarded as external to his material must
always remain limited by his material, and hence a finite
designer whose limited resources compel him to overcome his
difficulties after the fashion of a human mechanician. The truth
is that the analogy on which the argument proceeds is of no
value at all. There is really no analogy between the work of the
human artificer and the phenomena of Nature. The human
artificer cannot work out his plan except by selecting and
isolating his materials from their natural relations and situations.
Nature, however, constitutes a system of wholly interdependent
members; her processes present no analogy to the architect's
work which, depending on a progressive isolation and
integration of its material, can offer no resemblance to the
evolution of organic wholes in Nature. The ontological argument
which has been presented in various forms by various thinkers
has always appealed most to the speculative mind. The
Cartesian form of the argument runs thus: 1

To say that an attribute is contained in the nature or in the concept

of a thing is the same as to say that the attribute is true of this thing
and that it may be affirmed to be in it. But necessary existence is
contained in the nature or the concept of God. Hence it may be with
truth affirmed that necessary existence is in God, or that God exists.
Descartes supplements this argument by another. We have
the idea of a perfect being in our mind. What is the source of the
idea? It cannot come from Nature, for Nature exhibits nothing
but change. It cannot create the idea of a perfect being.
Therefore, corresponding to the idea in our mind, there must be
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 25
an objective counterpart which is the cause of the idea of a
perfect being in our mind. This argument is somewhat of the
nature of the cosmological argument which I have already
criticized. But whatever may be the form of the argument, it is
clear that the conception of existence is no proof of objective
existence. As in Kant's criticism of this argument the notion of
three hundred dollars in my mind cannot prove that I have them
in my pocket.2 All that the argument proves is that the idea of a
perfect being includes the idea of his existence. Between the idea
of a perfect being in my mind and the objective reality of that
being there is a gulf which cannot be bridged over by a
transcendental act of thought. The argument, as stated, is in fact
a petitio principii: 3 for it takes for granted the very point in
question, i.e. the transition from the logical to the real. I hope I
have made it clear to you that the ontological and the
teleological arguments, as ordinarily stated, carry us nowhere.
And the reason of their failure is that they look upon "thought"
as an agency working on things from without. This view of
thought gives us a mere mechanician in the one case, and creates
an unbridgeable gulf between the ideal and the real in the other.
It is, however, possible to take thought not as a principle which
organizes and integrates its material from the outside, but as a
potency which is formative of the very being of its material.
Thus regarded thought or idea is not alien to the original nature
of things; it is their ultimate ground and constitutes the very
essence of their being, infusing itself in them from the very
beginning of their career and inspiring their onward march to a
self-determined end. But our present situation necessitates the
dualism of thought and being. Every act of human knowledge
bifurcates what might on proper inquiry tum out to be a unity
into a self that knows and a confronting" other" that is known.
That is why we are forced to regard the object that confronts the
self as something existing in its own right, external to and
independent of the self whose act of knowledge makes no
difference to the object known. The true significance of the
ontological and the teleological arguments will appear only if we
are able to show that the human situation is not final and that
thought and being are ultimately one. This is possible only if we
carefully examine and interpret experience, following the clue
furnished by the Qur'an which regards experience within and
without as symbolic of a reality described by it,4 as "the First
26 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
and the Last, the Visible and the Invisible."5 This I propose to do in
the present lecture.
Now experience, as unfolding itself in time, presents three
main levels- the level of matter, the level of life, and the level of
mind and consciousness- the subject-matter of physics, biology,
and psychology, respectively. Let us first turn our attention to
matter. In order exactly to appreciate the position of modern
physics it is necessary to understand clearly what we mean by
matter. Physics, as an empirical science, deals with the facts of
experience, i.e. sense-experience. The physicist begins and ends
with sensible phenomena, without which it is impossible for him
to verify his theories. He may postulate imperceptible entities,
such as atoms; but he does so because he cannot otherwise
explain his sense-experience. Thus physics studies the material
world, that is to say, the world revealed by the senses. The
mental processes involved in this study, and similarly religious
and aesthetic experience, though part of the total range of
experience, are excluded from the scope of physics for the
obvious reason that physics is restricted to the study of the
material world, by which we mean the world of things we
perceive. But when I ask you what are the things you perceive in
the material world, you will, of course, mention the familiar
things around you, e.g. earth, sky, mountains, chairs, tables, etc.
When I further ask you what exactly you perceive of these
things, you will answer- their qualities. It is clear that in
answering such a question we are really putting an interpre-
tation on the evidence of our senses. The interpretation consists
in making a distinction between the thing and its qualities. This
really amounts to a theory of matter, i.e. of the nature of sense-
data, their relation to the perceiving mind and their ultimate
causes. The substance of this theory is as follows: 6
The sense objects (colours, sounds, etc.) are states of the perceiver's
mind, and as such excluded from nature regarded as something
objective. For this reason they cannot be in any proper sense
qualities of physical things. When I say, "The sky is blue", it can
only mean that the sky produces a blue sensation in my mind, and
not that the colour blue is a quality found in the sky. As mental states they
are impressions, that is to say, they are effects produced in us. The cause
of these effects is matter, or material things acting through our sense
organs, nerves, and brain on our mind. This physical cause acts by contact or
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 27
impact; hence it must possess the qualities of shape, size, solidity
and resistance.
It was the philosopher Berkeley who first undertook to refute
the theory of matter as the unknown cause of our sensations. 7 In
our own times Professor Whitehead- an eminent mathematician
and scientist- has conclusively shown that the traditional theory
of materialism is wholly untenable. It is obvious that, on the
theory, colours, sounds, etc., are subjective states only, and form
no part of Nature. What enters the eye and the ear is not colour
or sound, but invisible ether waves and inaudible air waves.
Nature is not what we know her to be; our perceptions are
illusions and cannot be regarded as genuine disclosures of
Nature, which, according to the theory, is bifurcated into mental
impressions, on the one hand, and the unverifiable, imperceptible
entities producing these impressions, on the other. If physics
constitutes a really coherent and genuine knowledge of
perceptively known objects, the traditional theory of matter must
be rejected for the obvious reason that it reduces the evidence of our
senses, on which alone the physicist, as observer and experimenter,
must rely, to the mere impressions of the observer's mind. Between
Nature and the observer of Nature, the theory creates a gulf which he is
compelled to bridge over by resorting to the doubtful hypothesis of
an imperceptible something, occupying an absolute space like a
thing in a receptacle and causing our sensation by some kind of
impact. In the words of Professor Whitehead, the theory reduces one-
half of Nature to a "dream" and the other half to a "conjecture". 8 Thus
physics, finding it necessary to criticize its own foundations, has
eventually found reason to break its own idol, and the empirical
attitude which appeared to necessitate scientific materialism has
finally ended in a revolt against matter. Since objects, then, are
not subjective states caused by something imperceptible called
matter, they are genuine phenomena which constitute the very
substance of Nature and which we know as they are in Nature.
But the concept of matter has received the greatest blow from the
hand of Einstein- another eminent physicist, whose discoveries
have laid the foundation of a far-reaching revolution in the
entire domain of human thought. Mr. Russell says:9
The theory of Relativity by merging time into space-time has
damaged the traditional notion of substance more than all the
28 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
arguments of the philosophers. Matter, for common sense, is
something which persists in time and moves in space. But for
modern relativity-physics this view is no longer tenable. A piece of
matter has become not a persistent thing with varying states, but a
system of inter-related events. The old solidity is gone, and with it
the characteristics that to the materialist made matter seem more
real than fleeting thoughts.
According to Professor Whitehead, therefore, Nature is not a
static fact situated in an a-dynamic void, but a structure of
events possessing the character of a continuous creative flow
which thought cuts up into isolated immobilities out of whose
mutual relations arise the concepts of space and time. Thus we
see how modern science utters its agreement with Berkeley's
criticism which it once regarded as an attack on its very
foundation. The scientific view of Nature as pure materiality is
associated with the Newtonian view of space as an absolute void
in which things are situated. This attitude of science has, no
doubt, ensured its speedy progress; but the bifurcation of a total
experience into two opposite domains of mind and matter has
today forced it, in view of its own domestic difficulties, to consider
the problems which, in the beginning of its career, it completely
ignored. The criticism of the foundations of the mathematical
sciences has fully disclosed that the hypothesis of a pure
materiality, an enduring stuff situated in an absolute space, is
unworkable. Is space an independent void in which things are
situated and which would remain intact if all things were
withdrawn? The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno approached the
problem of space through the question of movement in space. His
arguments for the unreality of movement are well known to the
students of philosophy, and ever since his days the problem has
persisted in the history of thought and received the keenest
attention from successive generations of thinkers. Two of these
arguments may be noted here. to Zeno, who took space to be
infinitely divisible, argued that movement in space is impossible.
Before the moving body can reach the point of its destination it
must pass through half the space intervening between the point
of start and the point of destination; and before it can pass
through that half it must travel through the half of the half; and
so on to infinity. We cannot move from one point of space to
another without passing through an infinite number of points in
the intervening space. But it is impossible to pass through an
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 29
infinity of points in a finite time. He further argued that the
flying arrow does not move, because at any time during the
course of its flight it is at rest in some point of space. Thus Zeno
held that movement is only a deceptive appearance and that
Reality is one and immutable. The unreality of movement means
the unreality of an independent space. Muslim thinkers of the
school of aI-Ash' ari did not believe in the infinite divisibility of
space and time. With them space, time, and motion are made up
of points and instants which cannot be further subdivided. Thus
they proved the possibility of movement on the assumption that
infinitesimals do exist; for if there is a limit to the divisibility of
space and time, movement from one point of space to another
point is possible in a finite time. l l Ibn Hazm, however, rejected
the Ash'arite notion of infinitesimals,12 and modern mathematics
has confirmed his view. The Ash'arite argument, therefore,
cannot logically resolve the paradox of Zeno. Of modern
thinkers the French philosopher Bergson and the British
mathematician Bertrand Russell have tried to refute Zeno's
arguments from their respective standpoints. To Bergson
movement, as true change, is the fundamental Reality. The
paradox of Zeno is due to a wrong apprehension of space and
time which are regarded by Bergson only as intellectual views of
movement. It is not possible to develop here the argument of
Bergson without a fuller treatment of the metaphysical concept
of life on which the whole argument is based.13 Bertrand
Russell's argument proceeds on Cantor's theory of mathematical
continuity14 which he looks upon as one of the most important
discoveries of modern mathematics. IS Zeno's argument is obviously
based on the assumption that space and time consist of infinite
number of points and instants. On this assumption it is easy to
argue that since between two points the moving body will be out
of place, motion is impossible, for there is no place for it to take
place. Cantor's discovery shows that space and time are
continuous. Between any two points in space there is an infinite
number of points, and in an infinite series no two points are next
to each other. The infinite divisibility of space and time means
the compactness of the points in the series; it does not mean that
points are mutually isolated in the sense of having a gap between
one another. Russell's answer to Zeno, then, is as follows: 16
Zeno asks how can you go from one position at one moment to the
30 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
next position at the next moment without in the transition being at
no position at no moment? The answer is that there is no next
position to any position, no next moment to any moment because
between any two there is always another. If there were,
infinitesimals movement would be impossible, but there are none.
Zeno therefore is right in saying that the arrow is at rest at every
moment of its flight, wrong in inferring that therefore it does not
move, for there is a one-one correspondence in a movement between
the infinite series of positions and the infinite series of instants.
According to this doctrine, then it is possible to affirm the reality of
space, time, and movement, and yet avoid the paradox in Zeno's
arguments.
Thus Bertrand Russell proves the reality of movement on the
basis of Cantor's theory of continuity. The reality of movement
means the independent reality of space and the objectivity of
Nature. But the identity of continuity and the infinite divisibility
of space is no solution of the difficulty. Assuming that there is a
one-one correspondence between the infinite multiplicity of
instants in a finite interval of time and an infinite multiplicity of
points in a finite portion of space, the difficulty arising from the
divisibility remains the same. The mathematical conception of
continuity as infinite series applies not to movement regarded as
an act, but rather to the picture of movement as viewed from the
outside. The act of movement, i.e. movement as lived and not as
thought, does not admit of any divisibility. The flight of the
arrow observed as a passage in space is divisible, but its flight
regarded as an act, apart from its realization in space, is one and
incapable of partition into a multiplicity. In partition lies its
destruction.
With Einstein space is real, but relative to the observer. He
rejects the Newtonian concept of an absolute space. The object
observed is variable; it is relative to the observer; its mass, shape,
and size change as the observer's position and speed change.
Movement and rest, too, are relative to the observer. There is,
therefore, no such thing as a self-subsistent materiality of
classical physics. It is, however, necessary here to guard against
a misunderstanding. The use of the word observer" in this
1/

connexion has misled Wildon Carr into the view that the Theory
of Relativity inevitably leads to Monadistic Idealism. It is true
that according to the theory the shapes, sizes, and durations of
phenomena are not absolute. But as Professor Nunn points out,
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 31
the space-time frame does not depend on the observer's mind; it
depends on the point of the material universe to which his body is
attached. In fact, the "observer" can be easily replaced by a recording
apparatus,17 Personally, I believe that the ultimate character of
Reality is spiritual: but in order to avoid a widespread misunder-
standing it is necessary to point out that Einstein's theory, which, as
a scientific theory, deals only with the structure of things, throws
no light on the ultimate nature of things which possess that
structure. The philosophical value of the theory is twofold. First, it
destroys, not the objectivity of Nature, but the view of substance as
simple location in space- a view which led to materialism in
Classical Physics. "Substance" for modern Relativity-Physics is
not a persistent thing with variable states, but a system of
interrelated events. In Whitehead's presentation of the theory the
notion of "matter" is entirely replaced by the notion of "organism".
Secondly, the theory makes space dependent on matter. The
universe, according to Einstein, is not a kind of island in an
infinite space; it is finite but boundless; beyond it there is no
empty space. In the absence of matter the universe would shrink
to a point. Looking, however, at the theory from the standpoint
that I have taken in these lectures, Einstein's Relativity presents
one great difficulty, i.e. the unreality of time. A theory which
takes time to be a kind of fourth dimension of space must, it
seems, regard the future as something already given, as
indubitably fixed as the past. 18 Time as a free creative movement
has no meaning for the theory. It does not pass. Events do not
happen; we simply meet them. It must not, however, be
forgotten that the theory neglects certain characteristics of time
as experienced by us; and it is not possible to say that the nature
of time is exhausted by the characteristics which the theory does
note in the interests of a systematic account of those aspects of
Nature which can be mathematically treated. Nor is it possible
for us laymen to understand what the real nature of Einstein's
time is. It is obvious that Einstein's time is not Bergson's pure
duration. Nor can we regard it as serial time. Serial time is the
essence of causality as defined by Kant. The cause and its effect
are mutually so related that the former is chronologically prior
to the latter, so that if the former is not, the latter cannot be. If
mathematical time is serial time, then on the basis of the theory it
is possible, by a careful choice of the velocities of the observer
32 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
and the system in which a given set of events is happening, to
make the effect precede its cause. 19 It appears to me that time
regarded as a fourth dimension of space really ceases to be time.
A modem Russian writer, Ouspensky, in his book called Tertium
Organum, conceives the fourth dimension to be the movement of
a three-dimensional figure in a direction not contained in itself. 20
Just as the movement of the point, the line and the surface in a direction
not contained in them gives us the ordinary three dimensions of
space, in the same way the movement of the three-dimensional figure
in a direction not contained in itself must give us the fourth
dimension of space. And since time is the distance separating events
in order of succession and binding them in different wholes, it is
obviously a distance lying in a direction not contained in the
three-dimensional space. As a new dimension this distance,
separating events in the order of succession, is incommensurable
with the dimensions of three-dimensional space, as a year is
incommensurable with st. Petersburg. It is perpendicular to all
directions of three-dimensional space, and is not parallel to any
of them. Elsewhere in the same book Ouspensky describes our
time-sense as a misty space-sense and argues, on the basis of our
psychic constitution, that to one-, two-, or three-dimensional
beings the higher dimension must always appear as succession
in time. This obviously means that what appears to us three-
dimensional beings as time is in reality an imperfectly sensed
space-dimension which in its own nature does not differ from
the perfectly sensed dimensions of Euclidean space. In other
words, time is not a genuine creative movement; and that what
we call future events are not fresh happenings, but things
already given and located in an unknown space. Yet in his
search for a fresh direction, other than the three Euclidean
dimensions, Ouspensky needs a real serial time, i.e. a distance
separating events in the order of succession. Thus time which
was needed and consequently viewed as succession for the
purposes of one stage of the argument is quietly divested, at a
later stage, of its serial character and reduced to what does not
differ in anything from the other lines and dimensions of space.
It is because of the serial character of time that Ouspensky was
able to regard it as a genuinely new direction in space. If this
characteristic is in reality an illusion, how can it fulfil
Ouspensky's requirements of an original dimension?
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 33
Passing now to other levels of experience- life and consciousness.
Consciousness may be imagined as a deflection from life. Its
function is to provide a luminous point in order to enlighten the
forward rush of life. 21 It is a case of tension, a state of self
concentration, by means of which life manages to shut out all
memories and associations which have no bearing on a present
action. It has no well-defined fringes; it shrinks and expands as
the occasion demands. To describe it as an epiphenomenon of
the processes of matter is to deny it as an independent activity,
and to deny it as an independent activity is to deny the validity
of all knowledge which is only a systematized expression of
consciousness. Thus consciousness is a variety of the purely
spiritual principle of life which is not a substance, but an
organizing principle, a specific mode of behaviour essentially
different to the behaviour of an externally worked machine.
Since, however, we cannot conceive of a purely spiritual energy,
except in association with a definite combination of sensible
elements through which it reveals itself, we are apt to take this
combination as the ultimate ground of spiritual energy. The
discoveries of Newton in the sphere of matter and those of Darwin
in the sphere of Natural History reveal a mechanism. All problems,
it was believed, were really the problems of physics. Energy and
atoms, with the properties self-existing in them, could explain
everything including life, thought, will, and feeling. The concept
of mechanism- a purely physical concept- claimed to be the all-
embracing explanation of Nature. And the battle for and against
mechanism is still being fiercely fought in the domain of Biology.
The question, then, is whether the passage to Reality through the
revelations of sense-perception necessarily leads to a view of Reality
essentially opposed to the view that religion takes of its ultimate
character. Is Natural Science finally committed to materialism?
There is no doubt that the theories of science constitute
trustworthy knowledge, because they are verifiable and enable us
to predict and control the events of Nature. But we must not forget
that what is called science is not a single systematic view of
Reality. It is a mass of sectional views of Reality- fragments of a
total experience which do not seem to fit together. Natural
Science deals with matter, with life, and with mind; but the moment
you ask the question how matter, life, and mind are mutually
related, you begin to see the sectional character of the various
34 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
sciences that deal with them and the inability of these sciences,
taken singly, to furnish a complete answer to your question. In
fact, the various natural sciences are like so many vultures
falling on the dead body of Nature, and each running away with
a piece of its flesh. Nature as the subject of science is a highly
artificial affair, and this artificiality is the result of that selective
process to which science must subject her in the interests of
precision. The moment you put the subject of science in the total
of human experience it begins to disclose a different character.
Thus religion, which demands the whole of Reality and for this
reason must occupy a central place in any synthesis of all the
data of human experience, has no reason to be afraid of any
sectional views of Reality. Natural Science is by nature sectional;
it cannot, if it is true to its own nature and function, set up its
theory as a complete view of Reality. The concepts we use in the
organization of knowledge are, therefore, sectional in character,
and their application is relative to the level of experience to
which they are applied. The concept of "cause", for instance, the
essential feature of which is priority to the effect, is relative to
the subject-matter of physical science which studies one special
kind of activity to the exclusion of other forms of activity
observed by others. When we rise to the level of life and mind
the concept of cause fails us, and we stand in need of concepts of
a different order of thought. The action of living organisms,
initiated and planned in view of an end, is totally different to
causal action. The subject-matter of our inquiry, therefore,
demands the concepts of "end" and "purpose", which act from
within unlike the concept of cause which is external to the effect
and acts from without. No doubt, there are aspects of the activity
of a living organism which it shares with other objects of Nature.
In the observation of these aspects the concepts of physics and
chemistry would be needed; but the behaviour of the organism
is essentially a matter of inheritance and incapable of sufficient
explanation in terms of molecular physics. However, the concept
of mechanism has been applied to life and we have to see how
far the attempt has succeeded. Unfortunately, I am not a
biologist and must turn to biologists themselves for support.
After telling us that the main difference between a living
organism and a machine is that the former is self-maintaining
and self-reproducing, J. S. Haldane says:22
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 35
It is thus evident that although we find within the living body many
phenomena which, so long as we do not look closely, can be
interpreted satisfactorily as physical and chemical mechanism, there
are side by side other phenomena [i.e. self-maintenance and
reproduction] for which the possibility of such interpretation seems
to be absent. The mechanists assume that the bodily mechanisms are
so constructed as to maintain, repair, and reproduce themselves. In
the long process of natural selection, mechanisms of this sort have,
they suggest, been evolved gradually.
Let us examine this hypothesis. When we state an event in
mechanical terms we state it as a necessary result of certain simple
properties of separate parts which interact in the event.... The
essence of the explanation or re-statement of the event is that after
due investigation we have assumed that the parts interacting in the
event have certain simple and definite properties, so that they
always react in the same way under the same conditions. For a
mechanical explanation the reacting parts must first be given.
Unless an arrangement of parts with definite properties is given, it is
meaningless to speak of mechanical explanation.
To postulate the existence of a self-producing or self-maintaining
mechanism is, thus, to postulate something to which no meaning
can be attached. Meaningless terms are sometimes used by
physiologists; but there is none so absolutely meaningless as the
expression "mechanism of reproduction". Any mechanism there
may be in the parent organism is absent in the process of
reproduction, and must re-constitute itself at each generation, since
the parent organism is reproduced from a mere tiny speck of its own
body. There can be no mechanism of reproduction. The idea of a
mechanism which is constantly maintaining or reproducing its own
structure is self-contradictory. A mechanism which reproduced
itself would be a mechanism without parts, and, therefore, not a
mechanism.
Life is, then, a unique phenomenon and the concept of
mechanism is inadequate for its analysis. Its "factual wholeness", to
use an expression of Driesch- another notable biologist- is a
kind of unity which, looked at from another point of view, is
also a plurality. In all the purposive processes of growth and
adaptation to its environment, whether this adaptation is
secured by the formation of fresh or the modification of old
habits, it possesses a career which is unthinkable in the case of a
machine. And the possession of a career means that the sources
of its activity cannot be explained except in reference to a remote
past, the origin of which, therefore, must be sought in a spiritual
36 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
reality revealable in, but non-discoverable by, any analysis of
spatial experience. It would, therefore, seem that life is
foundational and anterior to the routine of physical and
chemical processes which must be regarded as a kind of fixed
behaviour formed during a long course of evolution. Further, the
application of the mechanistic concepts to life, necessitating the
view that the intellect itself is a product of evolution, brings
science into conflict with its own objective principle of
investigation. On this point I will quote a passage from Wildon
Carr, who has given a very pointed expression to this conflict: 23
If intellect is a product of evolution the whole mechanistic concept
of the nature and origin of life is absurd, and the principle which
science has adopted must clearly be revised. We have only to state it
to see the self-contradiction. How can the intellect, a mode of
apprehending reality, be itself an evolution of something which only
exists as an abstraction of that mode of apprehending, which is the
intellect? If intellect is an evolution of life, then the concept of the life
which can evolve intellect as a particular mode of apprehending
reality must be the concept of a more concrete activity than that of
any abstract mechanical movement which the intellect can present
to itself by analyzing its apprehended content. And yet further, if
the intellect be a product of the evolution of life, it is not absolute
but relative to the activity of the life which has evolved it; how then,
in such case, can science exclude the subjective aspect of the
knowing and build on the objective presentation as an absolute?
Clearly the biological sciences necessitate a reconsideration of the
scientific principle.
I will now try to reach the primacy of life and thought by
another route, and carry you a step farther in our examination of
experience. This will throw some further light on the primacy of
life and will also give us an insight into the nature of life as a
psychic activity. We have seen, that Professor Whitehead
describes the universe, not as something static, but as a structure
of events possessing the character of a continuous creative flow.
This quality of Nature's passage in time is perhaps the most
significant aspect of experience which the Qur' an especially
emphasizes and which, as I hope to be able to show in the
sequel, offers the best clue to the ultimate nature of Reality. To
some of the verses (3: 190-91; 2: 164; 24: 44)24 bearing on the point
I have already drawn your attention. In view of the great
importance of the subject I will add here a few more:
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 37
Verily, in the alternations of night and of day and in all that God
hath created in the Heavens and in the earth are signs to those who
fear him (10: 6).
And it is He Who hath ordained the night and the day to succeed
one another for those who desire to think on God or desire to be
thankful (25:62).
Seest thou not that God causeth the night to come in upon the day,
and the day to come in upon the night; and that He hath subjected
the sun and the moon to laws by which each speedeth along to an
appointed goal (31: 29).
It is of Him that the night returneth on the day, and that the day
returneth on the night (39: 5).
And of Him is the change of the night and of the day (23: 80).
There is another set of verses which, indicating the relativity
of our reckoning of time, suggests the possibility of unknown
levels of consciousness;25 but I will content myself with a
discussion of the familiar, yet deeply significant, aspect of
experience alluded to in the verses quoted above. Among the
representatives of contemporary thought, Bergson is the only
thinker who has made a keen study of the phenomenon of
duration in time. I will first briefly explain to you his view of
duration and then point out the inadequacy of his analysis in
order fully to bring out the implications of a completer view of
the temporal aspect of existence. The ontological problem before
us is how to define the ultimate nature of existence. That the
universe persists in time is not open to doubt. Yet, since it is
external to us, it is possible to be sceptical about its existence. In
order completely to grasp the meaning of this persistence in time
we must be in a position to study some privileged case of
existence which is absolutely unquestionable and gives us the
further assurance of a direct vision of duration. Now my
perception of things that confront me is superficial and external;
but my perception of my own self is internal, intimate, and
profound. It follows, therefore, that conscious experience is that
privileged case of existence in which we are in absolute contact
with Reality, and an analysis of this privileged case is likely to
throw a flood of light on the ultimate meaning of existence.
What do I find when I fix my gaze on my own conscious
experience? In the words of Bergson: 26
I pass from state to state. I am warm or cold. I am merry or sad, I
work or I do nothing, I look at what is around me or I think of
something else. Sensations, feelings, volitions, ideas- such are the
38 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
changes into which my existence is divided and which colour it in
turns. I change then, without ceasing.
Thus, there is nothing static in my inner life; all is a constant
mobility, an unceasing flux of states, a perpetual flow in which
there is no halt or resting place. Constant change, however, is
unthinkable without time. On the analogy of our inner
experience, then, conscious existence means life in time. A
keener insight into the nature of conscious experience, however,
reveals that the self in its inner life moves from the centre
outwards. It has, so to speak, two sides which may be described
as appreciative and efficient. On its efficient side it enters into
relation with what we call the world of space. The efficient self is
the subject of associationist psychology- the practical self of
daily life in its dealing with the external order of things which
determine our passing states of consciousness and stamp on
these states their own spatial feature of mutual isolation. The self
here lives outside itself as it were, and, while retaining its unity
as a totality, discloses itself as nothing more than a series of
specific and consequently numberable states. The time in which
the efficient self lives is, therefore, the time of which we
predicate long and short. It is hardly distinguishable from space.
We can conceive it only as a straight line composed of spatial
points which are external to one another like so many stages in a
journey. But time thus regarded is not true time, according to
Bergson. Existence in spacialized time is spurious existence. A
deeper analysis of conscious experience reveals to us what I have
called the appreciative side of the self. With our absorption in
the external order of things, necessitated by our present
situation, it is extremely difficult to catch a glimpse of the
appreciative self. In our constant pursuit after external things we
weave a kind of veil round the appreciative self which thus
becomes completely alien to us. It is only in the moments of
profound meditation, when the efficient self is in abeyance, that
we sink into our deeper self and reach the inner centre of
experience. In the life-process of this deeper ego the states of
consciousness melt into each other. The unity of the appreciative
ego is like the unity of the germ in which the experiences of its
individual ancestors exist, not as a plurality, but as a unity in
which every experience permeates the whole. There is no
numerical distinctness of states in the totality of the ego, the
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 39
multiplicity of whose elements is, unlike that of the efficient self,
wholly qualitative. There is change and movement, but change
and movement are indivisible; their elements interpenetrate and
are wholly non-serial in character. It appears that the time of the
appreciative-self is a single "now" which the efficient self, in its
traffic with the world of space, pulverizes into a series of "nows"
like pearl beads in a thread. Here is, then, pure duration
unadulterated by space. The Qur'an with its characteristic
simplicity alludes to the serial and non-serial aspects of duration
in the following verses:
And put thou thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not, and
celebrate His praise Who in six days created the Heavens and the
earth, and what is between them, then mounted His Throne; the
God of mercy (25: 58-59).
All things We have created with a fixed destiny: Our command was
but one, swift as the twinkling of an eye (54: 49-50).
If we look at the movement embodied in creation from the
outside, that is to say, if we apprehend it intellectually, it is a
process lasting through thousands of years; for one Divine day,
in the terminology of the Qur' an, as of the Old Testament, is
equal to one thousand years. 27 From another point of view, the
process of creation, lasting through thousands of years, is a
single indivisible act, "swift as the twinkling of an eye". It is,
however, impossible to express this inner experience of pure
duration in words, for language is shaped on the serial time of
our daily efficient self. Perhaps an illustration will further
elucidate the point. According to physical science, the cause of
your sensation of red is the rapidity of wave motion the
frequency of which is 400 billions per second. If you could
observe this tremendous frequency from the outside, and count
it at the rate of 2,000 per second, which is supposed to be the
limit of the perceptibility of light, it will take you more than six
thousand years to finish the enumeration. 28 Yet in the single
momentary mental act of perception you hold together a
frequency of wave motion which is practically incalculable. That
is how the mental act transforms succession into duration. The
appreciative self, then, is more or less corrective of the efficient
self, inasmuch as it synthesizes all the "heres" and" nows" - the small
changes of space and time, indispensable to the efficient self- into the
coherent wholeness of personality. Pure time, then, as revealed
40 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
by a deeper analysis of our conscious experience, is not a string
of separate, reversible instants; it is an organic whole in which
the past is not left behind, but is moving along with, and
operating in, the present. And the future is given to it not as
lying before, yet to be traversed; it is given only in the sense that
it is present in its nature as an open possibility.29 It is time regarded
as an organic whole that the Qur'an describes as Taqdir or the
destiny- a word which has been so much misunderstood both in and
outside the world of Islam. Destiny is time regarded as prior to the
disclosure of its possibilities. It is time freed from the net of causal
sequence- the diagrammatic character which the logical
understanding imposes on it. In one word, it is time as felt and
not as thought and calculated. If you ask me why the Emperor
Humayfm and Shah Tahmasp of Persia were contemporaries, I
can give you no causal explanation. The only answer that can
possibly be given is that the nature of Reality is such that among
its infinite possibilities of becoming, the two possibilities known as
the lives of Hurnayiin and Shah Tahrnasp should realize themselves
together. Time regarded as destiny forms the very essence of things.
As the Qur' an says: God created all things and assigned to each its
11

destiny."3o The destiny of a thing then is not an unrelenting fate

working from without like a task master; it is the inward reach
of a thing, its realizable possibilities which lie within the depths
of its nature, and serially actualize themselves without any
feeling of external compulsion. Thus the organic wholeness of
duration does not mean that full-fledged events are lying, as it were,
in the womb of Reality, and drop one by one like the grains of sand
from the hour-glass. If time is real, and not a mere repetition of
homogeneous moments which make conscious experience a
delusion, then every moment in the life of Reality is Original, giving
birth to what is absolutely novel and unforeseeable. "Everyday doth
some new work employ Him",31 says the Qur'an. To exist in real time is
not to be bound by the fetters of serial time, but to create it from
moment to moment and to be absolutely free and original in
creation. In fact, all creative activity is free activity. Creation is
opposed to repetition which is a characteristic of mechanical
action. That is why it is impossible to explain the creative activity of
life in terms of mechanism. Science seeks to establish uniformities
of experience, i.e. the laws of mechanical repetition. Life with its
intense feeling of spontaneity constitutes a centre of indetermi-
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 41
nation, and thus falls outside the domain of necessity. Hence
science cannot comprehend life. The biologist who seeks a
mechanical explanation of life is led to do so because he confines
his study to the lower forms of life whose behaviour discloses
resemblances to mechanical action. If he studies life as
manifested in himself, i.e. his own mind freely choosing,
rejecting, reflecting, surveying the past and the present, and
dynamically imagining the future, he is sure to be convinced of
the inadequacy of his mechanical concepts.
On the analogy of our conscious experience, then, the
universe is a free creative movement. But how can we conceive a
movement independent of a concrete thing that moves? The
answer is that the notion of "thing" is derivative. We can derive
"things" from movement; we cannot derive movement from
immobile things. If, for instance, we suppose material atoms,
such as the atoms of Democritus, to be the original Reality we
must import movement into them from the outside as something
alien to their nature. Where as if we take movement as original,
static things may be derived from it. In fact, physical science has
reduced all things to movement. The essential nature of the atom
in modern science is electricity and not something electrified.
Apart from this, things are not given in immediate experience as
things already possessing definite contours, for immediate
experience is a continuity without any distinctions in it. What we
call things are events in the continuity of Nature which thought
spatializes and thus regards as mutually isolated for purposes of
action. The universe which seems to us to be a collection of
things is not a solid stuff occupying a void. It is not a thing but
an act. The nature of thought according to Bergson is serial; it
cannot deal with movement, except by viewing it as a series of
stationary points. It is, therefore, the operation of thought,
working with static concepts, that gives the appearance of a
series of immobilities to what is essentially dynamic in its
nature. The co-existence and succession of these immobilities is
the source of what we call space and time.
According to Bergson, then, Reality is a free unpredictable,
creative, vital impetus of the nature of volition which thought
spatializes and views as a plurality of "things". A full criticism of
this view cannot be undertaken here. Suffice it to say that the
vitalism of Bergson ends in an insurmountable dualism of will
and thought. This is really due to the partial view of intelligence
42 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
that he takes. Intelligence, according to him, is a spatializing
activity; it is shaped on matter alone, and has only mechanical
categories at its disposal. But, as I pointed out in my first lecture,
thought has a deeper movement also. 32 While it appears to break
up Reality into static fragments, its real function is to synthesize
the elements of experience by employing categories suitable to the
various levels which experience presents. It is as much organic as life.
The movement of life, as an organic growth, involves a progressive
synthesis of its various stages. Without this synthesis it will cease
to be organic growth. It is determined by ends, and the presence of
ends means that it is permeated by intelligence. Nor is the
activity of intelligence possible without the presence of ends. In
conscious experience life and thought permeate each other. They
form a unity. Thought, therefore, in its true nature, is identical
with life. Again, in Bergson's view the forward rush of the vital
impulse in its creative freedom is unilluminated by the light of an
immediate or a remote purpose. It is not aiming at a result; it is wholly
arbitrary, undirected, chaotic, and unforeseeable in its behaviour. It is
mainly here that Bergson's analysis of our conscious experience
reveals its inadequacy. He regards conscious experience as the
past moving along with and operating in the present. He ignores that
the unity of consciousness has a forward looking aspect also. Life is
only a series of acts of attention, and an act of attention is inexplicable
without reference to a purpose, conscious or unconscious. Even our
acts of perception are determined by our immediate interests and
purposes. The Persian poet 'Urfi has given a beautiful expression
to this aspect of human perception. He says:33
J:.} I.:JfJJ. JP ;
J.ll "':"'V ;f J .:;) J
If your heart is not deceived by the mirage, be not proud of the
sharpness of your understanding;
for your freedom from this optical illusion is due to your
imperfect thirst.
The poet means to say that if you had a vehement desire for
drink, the sands of the desert would have given you the
impression of a lake. Your freedom from the illusion is due to
the absence of a keen desire for water. You have perceived the
thing as it is because you were not interested in perceiving it as it
is not. Thus ends and purposes, whether they exist as conscious or
subconscious tendencies, form the warp and woof of our
conscious experience. And the notion of purpose cannot be
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 43
understood except in reference to the future. The past, no doubt,
abides and operates in the present; but this operation of the past
in the present is not the whole of consciousness. The element of
purpose discloses a kind of forward look in consciousness.
Purposes not only colour our present states of consciousness, but
also reveal its future direction. In fact, they constitute the
forward push of our life, and thus in a way anticipate and
influence the states that are yet to be. To be determined by an
end is to be determined by what ought to be. Thus past and
future both operate in the present state of consciousness, and the
future is not wholly undetermined as Bergson's analysis of our
conscious experience shows. A state of attentive consciousness
involves both memory and imagination as operating factors. On
the analogy of our conscious experience, therefore, Reality is not
a blind vital impulse wholly unilluminated by idea. Its nature is
through and through teleological.
Bergson, however, denies the teleological character of Reality
on the ground that teleology makes time unreal. According to him
"the portals of the future must remain wide open to Reality." Otherwise,
it will not be free and creative. No doubt, if teleology means the
working out of a plan in view of a predetermined end or goal, it
does make time unreal. It reduces the universe to a mere temporal
reproduction of a pre-existing eternal scheme or structure in which
individual events have already found their proper places, waiting,
as it were, for their respective turns to enter into the temporal
sweep of history. All is already given somewhere in eternity; the
temporal order of events is nothing more than a mere imitation
of the eternal mould. Such a view is hardly distinguishable from
mechanism which we have already rejected. 34 In fact, it is a kind of
veiled materialism in which fate or destiny takes the place of rigid
determinism, leaving no scope for human or even Divine
freedom. The world regarded as a process realizing a
preordained goal is not a world of free, responsible moral
agents; it is only a stage on which puppets are made to move by
a kind of pull from behind. There is, however, another sense of
teleology. From our conscious experience we have seen that to
live is to shape and change ends and purposes and to be
governed by them. Mental life is teleolOgical in the sense that,
while there is no far-off distant goal towards which we are
moving, there is a progressive formation of fresh ends, purposes,
and ideal scales of value as the process of life grows and
44 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
expands. We become by ceasing to be what we are. Life is a
passage through a series of deaths. But there is a system in the
continuity of this passage. Its various stages, in spite of the
apparently abrupt changes in our evaluation of things, are
organically related to one another. The life-history of the individual
is, on the whole, a unity and not a mere series of mutually ill-
adapted events. The world-process, or the movement of the
universe in time, is certainly devoid of purpose, if by purpose
we mean a foreseen end- a far-off fixed destination to which the
whole creation moves. To endow the world-process with
purpose in this sense is to rob it of its originality and its creative
character. Its ends are terminations of a career; they are ends to
come and not necessarily premeditated. A time-process cannot
be conceived as a line already drawn. It is a line in the drawing-
an actualization of open possibilities. It is purposive only in this
sense that it is selective in character, and brings itself to some
sort of a present fulfilment by actively preserving and
supplementing the past. To my mind nothing is more alien to the
Qur' anic outlook than the idea that the universe is the temporal
working out of a preconceived plan. As I have already pointed
out, the universe, according to the Qur' an, is liable to increase. 35
It is a growing universe and not an already completed product
which left the hand of its maker ages ago, and is now lying
stretched in space as a dead mass of matter to which time does
nothing, and consequently is nothing.
We are now, I hope, in a position to see the meaning of the
verse- And it is He Who hath ordained the night and the day to
II

succeed one another for those who desire to think on God or desire to be
thankful." 36 A critical interpretation of the sequence of time as
revealed in our selves has led us to a notion of the Ultimate Reality as
pure duration in which thought, life, and purpose interpenetrate
to form an organic unity. We cannot conceive this unity except as
the unity of a self- an all-embracing concrete self- the ultimate source
of all individual life and thought. I venture to think that the error
of Bergson consists in regarding pure time as prior to self, to
which alone pure duration is predicable. Neither pure space nor
pure time can hold together the multiplicity of objects and
events. It is the appreciative act of an enduring self only which
can seize the multiplicity of duration- broken up into an infinity
of instants- and transform it to the organic wholeness of a
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 45
synthesis. To exist in pure duration is to be a self, and to be a self
is to be able to say "I am". Only that truly exists which can say "I
am". It is the degree of the intuition of "l-amness" that
determines the place of a thing in the scale of being. We too say
"I am". But our "l-amness" is dependent and arises out of the
distinction between the self and the not-self. The Ultimate Self,
in the words of the Qur' an, "can afford to dispense with all the
worlds."37 To Him the not-self does not present itself as a
confronting other", or else it would have to be, like our finite
II

self, in spatial relation with the confronting other". What we

II

call Nature or the not-self is only a fleeting moment in the life of

God. His "l-amness" is independent, elemental, absolute. 38 Of
such a self it is impossible for us to form an adequate conception.
As the Qur'an says, "Naught is like Him"; yet "He hears and sees."39
Now a self is unthinkable without a character, i.e. a uniform
mode of behaviour. Nature, as we have seen, is not a mass of pure
materiality occupying a void. It is a structure of events, a systematic
mode of behaviour, and as such organic to the Ultimate Self.
Nature is to the Divine Self as character is to the human self. In
the picturesque phrase of the Qur' an it is the habit of Allah. 4o
From the human point of view it is an interpretation which, in
our present situation, we put on the creative activity of the
Absolute Ego. At a particular moment in its forward movement
it is finite; but since the self to which it is organic is creative, it is
liable to increase, and is consequently boundless in the sense that
no limit to its extension is final. Its boundlessness is potential,
not actual. Nature, then, must be understood as a living, ever-
growing organism whose growth has no final external limits. Its
only limit is internal, i.e. the immanent self which animates and
sustains the whole. As the Qur'an says: "And verily unto thy Lord
is the limit." (53: 42) Thus the view that we have taken gives a
fresh spiritual meaning to physical science. The knowledge of
Nature is the knowledge of God's behaviour. In our observation
of Nature we are virtually seeking a kind of intimacy with the
Absolute Ego; and this is only another form of worship. 41
The above discussion takes time as an essential element in the
Ultimate Reality. The next point before us, therefore, is to
consider the late Doctor McTaggart's argument relating to the
unreality of time. 42 Time, according to Doctor McTaggart, is
unreal because every event is past, present, and future. Queen
46 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
Anne's death, for instance, is past to us; it was present to her
contemporaries and future to William III. Thus the event of
Anne's death combines characteristics which are incompatible
with each other. It is obvious that the argument proceeds on the
assumption that the serial nature of time is final. If we regard
past, present, and future as essential to time, then we picture
time as a straight line, part of which we have travelled and left
behind, and part lies yet untravelled before us. This is taking
time, not as a living creative moment, but as a static absolute, holding
the ordered multiplicity of fully-shaped cosmic events, revealed
serially, like the pictures of a film, to the outside observer. We
can indeed say that Queen Anne's death was future to William
III, if this event is regarded as already fully shaped, and lying in the
future, waiting for its happening. But a future event, as Broad justly
points out, cannot be characterized as an event. 43 Before the death
of Anne the event of her death did not exist at all. During Anne's
life the event of her death existed only as an unrealized
possibility in the nature of Reality which included it as an event
only when, in the course of its becoming, it reached the point of
the actual happening of that event. The answer to Doctor
McTaggart's argument is that the future exists only as an open
possibility, and not as a reality. Nor can it be said that an event
combines incompatible characteristics when it is described both
as past and present. When an event X does happen it enters into an
unalterable relation with all the events that have happened before it.
These relations are not at all affected by the relations of X with other
events which happen after X by the further becoming of Reality. No
true or false proposition about these relations will ever become
false or true. Hence there is no logical difficulty in regarding an
event as both past and present. It must be confessed, however,
that the point is not free from difficulty and requires much further
thinking. It is not easy to solve the mystery of time. 44 Augustine's
profound words are as true today as they were when they were
uttered: "If no one questions me of time, I know it: if I would
explain to a questioner I know it not."45 Personally, I am inclined
to think that time is an essential element in Reality. But real time
is not serial time to which the distinction of past, present, and
future is essential; it is pure duration, i.e. change without
succession, which McTaggart's argument does not touch. Serial
time is pure duration pulverized by thought- a kind of device by
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 47
which Reality exposes its ceaseless creative activity to
quantitative measurement. It is in this sense that the Qur' an
says: "And of Him is the change of the night and of the day." 46
But the question you are likely to ask is- "Can change be
predicated of the Ultimate Ego?" We, as human beings, are
functionally related to an independent world-process. The
conditions of our life are mainly external to us. The only kind of
life known to us is desire, pursuit, failure, or attainment- a continuous
change from one situation to another. From our point of view life
is change, and change is essentially imperfection. At the same time,
since our conscious experience is the only point of departure for all
knowledge, we cannot avoid the limitation of interpreting facts
in the light of our own inner experience. An anthropomorphic
conception is especially unavoidable in the apprehension of life;
for life can be apprehended from within only. As the poet Nasir
,All of Sirhind imagines the idol saying to the Brahmin:
J!.} '/
.,., '1:J.
'i .71 t;/ .. ? )1
Thou hast made me after Thine own image!
After all what hast Thou seen beyond Thyself?47
It was the fear of conceiving Divine life after the image of
human life that the Spanish Muslim theologian Ibn Hazm
hesitated to predicate life of God, and ingeniously suggested that
God should be described as living, not because He is living in
the sense of our experience of life, but only because He is so
described in the Qur' an. 48 Confining himself to the surface of our
conscious experience and ignoring its deeper phases, Ibn Hazm
must have taken life as a serial change, a succession of attitudes
towards an obstructing environment. Serial change is obviously
a mark of imperfectioni and, if we confine ourselves to this view
of change, the difficulty of reconciling Divine perfection with
Divine life becomes insuperable. Ibn Hazm must have felt that
the perfection of God can be retained only at the cost of His life.
There is, however, a way out of the difficulty. The Absolute Ego,
as we have seen, is the whole of Reality. He is not so situated as
to take a perspective view of an alien universe; consequently, the
phases of His life are wholly determined from within. Change,
therefore, in the sense of a movement from an imperfect to a
relatively perfect state, or vice versa, is obviously inapplicable to
His life. But change in this sense is not the only possible form of
48 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
life. A deeper insight into our conscious experience shows that
beneath the appearance of serial duration there is true duration.
The Ultimate Ego exists in pure duration wherein change ceases
to be a succession of varying attitudes, and reveals its true
character as continuous creation, "untouched by weariness"49 and
unseizable "by slumber or sleep".50 To conceive the Ultimate Ego
as changeless in this sense of change is to conceive Him as utter
inaction, a motiveless, stagnant neutrality, an absolute nothing.
To the Creative Self change cannot mean imperfection. The
perfection of the Creative Self consists, not in a mechanistically
conceived immobility, as Aristotle might have led Ibn Hazm to
think. It consists in the vaster basis of His creative activity and
the infinite scope of His creative vision. God's life is self-
revelation, not the pursuit of an ideal to be reached. The "not-
yet" of man does mean pursuit and may mean failure; the "not-
yet" of God means unfailing realization of the infinite creative
possibilities of His being which retains its wholeness throughout
the entire process.
In the Endless, self-repeating
flows for evermore The Same.
Myriad arches, springing, meeting,
hold at rest the mighty frame.
Streams from all things love of living,
grandest star and humblest clod.
All the straining, all the striving
is eternal peace in GOd. 51 (Goethe)

Thus a comprehensive philosophical criticism of all the facts

of experience on its efficient as well as appreciative side brings
us to the conclusion that the Ultimate Reality is a rationally
directed creative life. To interpret this life as an ego is not to
fashion God after the image of man. It is only to accept the
simple fact of experience that life is not a formless fluid, but an
organizing principle of unity, a synthetic activity which holds
together and focalizes the dispersing dispositions of the living
organism for a constructive purpose. The operation of thought
which is essentially symbolic in character veils the true nature of
life, and can picture it only as a kind of universal current flowing
through all things. The result of an intellectual view of life, therefore,
is necessarily pantheistic. But we have a first-hand knowledge of
The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience 49
the appreciative aspect of life from within. Intuition reveals life
as a centralizing ego. This knowledge, however imperfect as
giving us only a point of departure, is a direct revelation of the
ultimate nature of Reality. Thus the facts of experience justify the
inference that the ultimate nature of Realty is spiritual, and must
be conceived as an ego. But the aspiration of religion soars
higher than that of philosophy. Philosophy is an intellectual
view of things; and, as such, does not care to go beyond a
concept which can reduce all the rich variety of experience to a
system. It sees Reality from a distance as it were. Religion seeks a
closer contact with Reality. The one is theory; the other is living
experience, association, intimacy. In order to achieve this
intimacy thought must rise higher than itself, and find its
fulfilment in an attitude of mind which religion describes as
prayer- one of the last words on the lips of the Prophet of
Islam. 52
50 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

III

THE CONCEPTION OF GOD AND THE

MEANING OF PRAYER

WE have seen that the judgment based upon religious

experience fully satisfies the intellectual test. The more
important regions of experience, examined with an eye on a
synthetic view, reveal, as the ultimate ground of all experience, a
rationally directed creative will which we have found reasons to
describe as an ego. In order to emphasize the individuality of the
Ultimate Ego the Qur' an gives Him the proper name of Allah,
and further defines Him as follows:

Say: Allah is One:

All things depend on Him;
He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;
And there is none like unto Him (112: 1-4)

But it is hard to understand what exactly is an individual. As

Bergson has taught us in his Creative Evolution, individuality is a
matter of degrees and is not fully realized even in the case of the
apparently closed off unity of the human being. 1 "In particular,
it may be said of individuality", says Bergson: 2

that while the tendency to individuate is everywhere present in the

organized world, it is everywhere opposed by the tendency towards
reproduction. For the individuality to be perfect, it would be
necessary that no detached part of the organism could live
separately. But then reproduction would be impossible. For what is
reproduction but the building up of a new organism with a
detached fragment of the old? Individuality, therefore, harbours its
own enemy at home.

In the light of this passage it is clear that the perfect individual,

closed off as an ego, peerless and unique, cannot be conceived as
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 51
harbouring its own enemy at home. It must be conceived as
superior to the antagonistic tendency of reproduction. This
characteristic of the perfect ego is one of the most essential
elements in the Qur' anic conception of God; and the Qur' an
mentions it over and over again, not so much with a view to
attack the current Christian conception as to accentuate its own
view of a perfect individual.3 It may, however, be said that the
history of religious thought discloses various ways of escape
from an individualistic conception of the Ultimate Reality which
is conceived as some vague, vast, and pervasive cosmic
element, 4 such as light. This is the view that Farnell has taken in
his Gifford Lectures on the Attributes of God. I agree that the
history of religion reveals modes of thought that tend towards
pantheism; but I venture to think that in so far as the Qur' anic
identification of God with light is concerned Farnell's view is
incorrect. The full text of the verse of which he quotes a portion
only is as follows: 5
God is the light of the Heavens and of the earth. His light is like a
niche in which is a lamp- the lamp encased in a glass- the glass, as
it were, a star (24: 35).
No doubt, the opening sentence of the verse gives the
impression of an escape from an individualistic conception of
God. But when we follow the metaphor of light in the rest of the
verse, it gives just the opposite impression. The development of
the metaphor is meant rather to exclude the suggestion of a
formless cosmic element by centralizing the light in a flame
which is further individualized by its encasement in a glass
likened unto a well-defined star. Personally, I think the
description of God as light, in the revealed literature of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, must now be interpreted differently. The
teaching of modern physics is that the velocity of light cannot be
exceeded and is the same for all observers whatever their own
system of movement. Thus, in the world of change, light is the
nearest approach to the Absolute. The metaphor of light as
applied to God, therefore, must, in view of modern knowledge,
be taken to suggest the Absoluteness of God and not His
Omnipresence which easily lends itself to a pantheistic
interpretation.
There is, however, one question which will be raised in this
connexion. Does not individuality imply finitude? If God is an
52 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
ego and as such an individual, how can we conceive Him as
infinite? The answer to this question is that God cannot be
conceived as infinite in the sense of spatial infinity. In matters of
spiritual valuation mere immensity counts for nothing.
Moreover, as we have seen before, temporal and spatial infinities
are not absolute. Modern science regards Nature not as
something static, situated in an infinite void, but a structure of
interrelated events out of whose mutual relations arise the
concepts of space and time. And this is only another way of
saying that space and time are interpretations which thought
puts upon the creative activity of the Ultimate Ego. Space and
time are possibilities of the Ego, only partially realized in the
shape of our mathematical space and time. Beyond Him and
apart from His creative activity, there is neither time nor space to
close Him off in reference to other egos. The Ultimate Ego is,
therefore, neither infinite in the sense of spatial infinity nor finite
in the sense of the space-bound human ego whose body closes
him off in reference to other egos. The infinity of the Ultimate
Ego consists in the infinite inner possibilities of His creative
activity of which the universe, as known to us, is only a partial
expression. In one word God's infinity is intensive, not
extensive. 6 It involves an infinite series, but is not that series.
The other important elements in the Qur' anic conception of
God, from a purely intellectual point of view, are Creativeness,
Knowledge, Omnipotence, and Eternity. I shall deal with them serially.
Finite minds regard Nature as a confronting" other" existing
per se, which the mind knows but does not make. We are thus
apt to regard the act of creation as a specific past event, and the
universe appears to us as a manufactured article which has no
organic relation to the life of its maker, and of which the maker
is nothing more than a mere spectator. All the meaningless
theological controversies about the idea of creation arise from
this narrow vision of the finite mind. 7 Thus regarded the
universe is a mere accident in the life of God and might not have
been created. The real question which we are called upon to
answer is this: Does the universe confront God as His "other",
with space intervening between Him and it? The answer is that,
from the Divine point of view, there is no creation in the sense of
a specific event having a "before" and an "after". The universe
cannot be regarded as an independent reality standing in
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 53
opposition to Him. This view of the matter will reduce both God
and the world to two separate entities confronting each other in
the empty receptacle of an infinite space. We have seen before
that space, time, and matter are interpretations which thought
puts on the free creative energy of God. 8 They are not
independent realities existing per se, but only intellectual modes
of apprehending the life of God. The question of creation once
arose among the disciples of the well-known saint Ba Yazid of
Bistam. One of the disciples very pointedly put the common-
sense view saying: "There was a moment of time when God
existed and nothing else existed beside Him." The saint's reply
was equally pointed. "It is just the same now", said he, "as it was
then." The world of matter, therefore, is not a stuff co-eternal
with God, operated upon by Him from a distance as it were. It is,
in its real nature, one continuous act which thought breaks up
into a plurality of mutually exclusive things. Professor Eddington has
thrown further light on this important point, and I take the
liberty to quote from his book, Space, Time and Gravitation: 9
We have a world of point-events with their primary interval-
relations. Out of these an unlimited number of more complicated
relations and qualities can be built up mathematically, describing
various features of the state of the world. These exist in nature in the
same sense as an unlimited number of walks exist on an open moor.
But the existence is, as it were, latent unless someone gives
significance to the walk by following it; and in the same way the
existence of anyone of these qualities of the world only acquires
significance above its fellows if a mind singles it out for recognition.
Mind filters out matter from the meaningless jumble of qualities, as the
prism filters out the colours of the rainbow from the chaotic pulsations of
white light. Mind exalts the permanent and ignores the transitory;
and it appears from the mathematical study of relations that the
only way in which mind can achieve her object is by picking out one
particular quality as the permanent substance of the perceptual
world, partitioning a perceptual time and space for it to be
permanent in, and, as a necessary consequence of this Hobson's
choice, the laws of gravitation and mechanics and geometry have to
be obeyed. Is it too much to say that the mind's search for
permanence has created the world of physics?
The last sentence in this passage is one of the deepest things
in Professor Eddington's book. The physicist has yet to discover
by his own methods that the passing show of the apparently
permanent world of physics which the mind has created in its
54 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
search for permanence is rooted in something more permanent,
conceivable only as a self which alone combines the opposite
attributes of change and permanence, and can thus be regarded
as both constant and variable.
There is, however, one question which we must answer
before we proceed further. In what manner does the creative
activity of God proceed to the work of creation? The most
orthodox and still popular school of Muslim theology, I mean
the Ash' arite, hold that the creative method of Divine energy is
atomic; and they appear to have based their doctrine on the
following verse of the Qur' an:

And no one thing is here, but with Us are its store-houses; and We
send it not down but in fixed quantities. (15: 21).

The rise and growth of atomism in Islam- the first important

indication of an intellectual revolt against the Aristotelian idea of
a fixed universe- forms one of the most interesting chapters in
the history of Muslim thought. The views of the school of Basrah
were first shaped by Abu Hashim 10 (A. D. 933) and those of the
school of Baghdad by that most exact and daring theological
thinker, Abu Bakr Baqillani:ll (A. D. 1013). Later in the beginning
of the thirteenth century we find a thoroughly systematic
description in a book called the Guide of the Perplexed by Moses
Maimonides- a Jewish theologian who was educated in the
Muslim universities of Spain. 12 A French translation of this book
was made by Munk in 1866, and recently Professor Macdonald
of America has given an excellent account of its contents in the
Isis from which Dr. Zwemer has reprinted it in The Moslem World
of January 1928.13 Professor Macdonald, however, has made no
attempt to discover the psychological forces that determined the
growth of atomistic kalam in Islam. He admits that there is
nothing like the atomism of Islam in Greek thought, but,
unwilling as he is to give any credit for original thought to
Muslim thinkers,14 and finding a surface resemblance between
the Islamic theory and the views of a certain sect of Buddhism,
he jumps to the conclusion that the origin of the theory is due to
Buddhistic influences on the thought of Islam. 15 Unfortunately, a
full discussion of the sources of this purely speculative theory is
not possible in this lecture. I propose only to give you some of its
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 55
more salient features, indicating at the same time the lines on
which the work of reconstruction in the light of modern physics
ought, in my opinion, to proceed.
According to the Ash' arite school of thinkers, then, the world
is compounded of what they call jawiihir- infinitely small parts
or atoms which cannot be further divided. Since the creative
activity of God is ceaseless the number of the atoms cannot be
finite. Fresh atoms are coming into being every moment, and the
universe is therefore constantly growing. As the Qur' an says:
"God adds to His creation what He wills." 16 The essence of the atom
is independent of its existence. This means that existence is a
quality imposed on the atom by God. Before receiving this
quality the atom lies dormant, as it were, in the creative energy
of God, and its existence means nothing more than Divine
energy become visible. The atom in its essence, therefore, has no
magnitude; it has its position which does not involve space. It is
by their aggregation that atoms become extended and generate
spaceY Ibn Hazm, the critic of atomism, acutely remarks that
the language of the Qur' an makes no difference in the act of
creation and the thing created. What we call a thing, then, is in
its essential nature an aggregation of atomic acts. Of the concept
of "atomic act", however, it is difficult to form a mental picture.
Modern physics too conceives as action the actual atom of a
certain physical quantity. But, as Professor Eddington has
pointed out, the precise formulation of the Theory of Quanta of
action has not been possible so far; though it is vaguely believed
that the atomicity of action is the general law and that the
appearance of electrons is in some way dependent on it. 18
Again we have seen that each atom occupies a position which
does not involve space. That being so, what is the nature of motion
which we cannot conceive except as the atom's passage through
space? Since the Ash'arites regarded space as generated by the
aggregation of atoms, they could not explain movement as a body's
passage through all the points of space intervening between the point
of its start and destination. Such an explanation must necessarily
assume the existence of void as an independent reality. In order,
therefore, to get over the difficulty of empty space, Nazzam resorted to
the notion of Tafrah or jump; and imagined the moving body, not as
passing through all the discrete positions in space, but as jumping
over the void between one position and another. Thus, according to
56 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
him, a quick motion and a slow motion possess the same speed;
but the latter has more points of rest. 19 I confess I do not quite
understand this solution of the difficulty. It may, however, be
pointed out that modern atomism has found a similar difficulty
and a similar solution has been suggested. In view of the
experiments relating to Planck's Theory of Quanta, we cannot
imagine the moving atom as continuously traversing its path in
space. "One of the most hopeful lines of explanation", says
Professor Whitehead in his Science and the Modem World, 20

is to assume that an electron does not continuously traverse its path

in space. The alternative notion as to its mode of existence is that it
appears at a series of discrete positions in space which it occupies
for successive durations of time. It is as though an automobile,
moving at the average rate of thirty miles an hour along a road, did
not traverse the road continuously, but appeared successively at the
successive milestones, remaining for two minutes at each milestone.

Another feature of this theory of creation is the doctrine of

accident, on the perpetual creation of which depends the
continuity of the atom as an existent. If God ceases to create the
accidents, the atom ceases to exist as an atom. 21 The atom
possesses inseparable positive or negative qualities. These exist
in opposed couples, as life and death, motion and rest, and
possess practically no duration. Two propositions follow from
this: (i) Nothing has a stable nature. (ii) There is a single order of
atoms, i.e. what we call the soul is either a finer kind of matter,
or only an accident.
I am inclined to think that in view of the idea of continuous
creation which the Ash' arite intended to establish there is an
element of truth in the first proposition. I have said before that in
my opinion the spirit of the Qur' an is on the whole
anticlassical. 22 I regard the Ash'arite thought on this point as a
genuine effort to develop on the basis of an Ultimate Will or
Energy a theory of creation which, with all its shortcomings, is
far more true to the spirit of the Qur' an than the Aristotelian
idea of a fixed universe.23 The duty of the future theologians of
Islam is to reconstruct this purely speculative theory, and to
bring it into closer contact with modern science which appears to
be moving in the same direction.
The second proposition looks like pure materialism. It is my
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 57
belief that the Ash' arite view that the Nafs is an accident is
opposed to the real trend of their own theory which makes the
continuous existence of the atom dependent on the continuous
creation of accidents in it. It is obvious that motion is inconceivable
without time. And since time comes from psychic life, the latter
is more fundamental than motion. No psychic life, no time: no time,
no motion. Thus it is really what the Ash' arite call the accident
which is responsible for the continuity of the atom as such. The
atom becomes or rather looks spatialized when it receives the
quality of existence. Regarded as a phase of Divine energy, it is
essentially spiritual. The Nafs is the pure act; the body is only the
act become visible and hence measurable. In fact the Ash' arite
vaguely anticipated the modem notion of point-instant; but they
failed rightly to see the nature of the mutual relation between the
point and the instant. The instant is the more fundamental of the
two; but the point is inseparable from the instant as being a
necessary mode of its manifestation. The point is not a thing, it is
only a sort of looking at the instant. Rumi: is far more true to the
spirit of Islam than Ghazall when he says:24

,;1 L j;
Reality is, therefore, essentially spirit. But, of course, there are
degrees of spirit. In the history of Muslim thought the idea of degrees
of Reality appears in the writings of Shihabuddln Suhrawardl
Maqtul. In modem times we find it worked out on a much larger
scale in Hegel and, more recently, in the late Lord Haldane's Reign
of Relativity, which he published shortly before his death.25 I
have conceived the Ultimate Reality as an Ego; and I must add
now that from the Ultimate Ego only egos proceed. The creative
energy of the Ultimate Ego, in whom deed and thought are
identical, functions as ego-unities. The world, in all its details,
from the mechanical movement of what we call the atom of matter
to the free movement of thought in the human ego, is the self-
revelation of the "Great I am".26 Every atom of Divine energy,
however low in the scale of existence, is an ego. But there are degrees
in the expression of egohood. Throughout the entire gamut of being
runs the gradually rising note of egohood until it reaches its perfection
in man. That is why the Qur' an declares the Ultimate Ego to be
"nearer to man than his own neck-vein."27 Like pearls do we live
58 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
and move and have our being in the perpetual flow of Divine
life.
Thus a criticism, inspired by the best traditions of Muslim
thought, tends to turn the Ash' arite scheme of atomism into a
spiritual pluralism, the details of which will have to be worked
out by the future theologians of Islam. It may, however, be asked
whether atomicity has a real seat in the creative energy of God,
or presents itself to us as such only because of our finite mode of
apprehension. From a purely scientific point of view I cannot say
what the final answer to this question will be. From the
psychological point of view one thing appears to me to be
certain. Only that is, strictly speaking, real which is directly
conscious of its own reality. The degree of reality varies with the
degree of the feeling of egohood. The nature of the ego is such
that, in spite of its capacity to respond to other egos, it is self-
centred and possesses a private circuit of individuality excluding
all egos other than itself.28 In this alone consists its reality as an
ego. Man, therefore, in whom egohood has reached its relative
perfection, occupies a genuine place in the heart of Divine
creative energy, and thus possesses a much higher degree of
reality than things around him. Of all the creations of God he
alone is capable of consciously participating in the creative life of
his Maker. 29 Endowed with the power to imagine a better world,
and to mould what is into what ought to be, the ego in him
aspires, in the interests of an increasingly unique and
comprehensive individuality, to exploit all the various
environments on which he may be called upon to operate during
the course of an endless career. But I would ask you to wait for a
fuller treatment of this point till my lecture on the Immortality
and Freedom of the Ego. In the meantime, I want to say a few
words about the doctrine of atomic time which I think is the
weakest part of the Ash' arite theory of creation. It is necessary to
do so for a reasonable view of the Divine attribute of Eternity.
The problem of time has always drawn the attention of Muslim
thinkers and mystics. This seems to be due partly to the fact that,
according to the Qur' an, the alternation of day and night is one of the
greatest signs of God, and partly to the Prophet's identification of
God with Dahr (time) in a well-known tradition referred to before. 30
Indeed, some of the greatest Muslim Sufis believed in the mystic properties
of the word Dahr. According to Muhyiddin Ibn al-' Arabi, Dahr is
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 59
one of the beautiful names of God, and Razi tells us in his
commentary on the Qur' an that some of the Muslim saints had
taught him to repeat the word Dahr, Daihitr, or Daihar. The
Ash' arite theory of time is perhaps the first attempt in the
history of Muslim thought to understand it philosophically.
Time, according to the Ash' arite, is a succession of individual
"nows". From this view it obviously follows that between every
two individual "nows" or moments of time, there is an
unoccupied moment of time, that is to say, a void of time. The
absurdity of this conclusion is due to the fact that they looked at
the subject of their inquiry from a wholly objective point of view.
They took no lesson from the history of Greek thought, which
had adopted the same point of view and had reached no results.
In our own time Newton described time as "something which in
itself and from its own nature flows equally."31 The metaphor of
stream implied in this description suggests serious objections to
Newton's equally objective view of time. We cannot understand
how a thing is affected on its immersion in this stream, and how
it differs from things that do not participate in its flow. Nor can
we form any idea of the beginning, the end, and the boundaries
of time if we try to understand it on the analogy of a stream.
Moreover, if flow, movement, or "passage" is the last word as to
the nature of time, there must be another time to time the
movement of the first time, and another which times the second
time, and so on to infinity. Thus the notion of time as something
wholly objective is beset with difficulties. It must, however, be
admitted that the practical Arab mind could not regard time as
something unreal like the Greeks. Nor can it be denied that, even
though we possess no sense-organ to perceive time, it is a kind
of flow and has, as such, a genuine objective, that is to say,
atomic aspect. In fact, the verdict of modern science is exactly the
same as that of the Ash' aritei for recent discoveries in physics
regarding the nature of time assume the discontinuity of matter.
The following passage from Professor Rougier's Philosophy and
New Physics is noteworthy in this connexion: 32
Contrary to the ancient adage, natura nihil tacit per saltum (nature
hates all sudden changes. Ed.) it becomes apparent that the universe
varies by sudden jumps and not by imperceptible degrees. A
physical system is capable of only a finite number of distinct states ..
. . Since between two different and immediately consecutive states
60 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
the world remains motionless, time is suspended, so that time itself
is discontinuous: there is an atom of time.
The point, however, is that the constructive endeavour of the
Ash' arite, as of the moderns, was wholly lacking in
psychological analysis, and the result of this shortcoming was
that they altogether failed to perceive the subjective aspect of
time. It is due to this failure that in their theory the systems of
material atoms and time-atoms lie apart, with no organic relation
between them. It is clear that if we look at time from a purely
objective point of view serious difficulties arise; for we cannot
apply atomic time to God and conceive Him as a life in the
making, as Professor Alexander appears to have done in his
Lectures on Space, Time, and Deity.33 Later Muslim theologians
fully realized these difficulties. Mulla Jalaluddln Dawwani in a
passage of his Zaura, which reminds the modern student of
Professor Royce's view of time, tells us that if we take time to be
a kind of span which makes possible the appearance of events as
a moving procession and conceive this span to be a unity, then
we cannot but describe it as an original state of Divine activity,
encompassing all the succeeding states of that activity. But the
Mulla takes good care to add that a deeper insight into the
nature of succession reveals its relativity, so that it disappears in
the case of God to Whom all events are present in a single act of
perception. The Sufi poet 'IraqI34 has a similar way of looking at
the matter. He conceives infinite varieties of time, relative to the
varying grades of being, intervening between materiality and
pure spirituality. The time of gross bodies which arises from the
revolution of the heavens is divisible into past, present, and future;
and its nature is such that as long as one day does not pass away
the succeeding day does not come. The time of immaterial beings is
also serial in character, but its passage is such that a whole year in
the time of gross bodies is not more than a day in the time of an
immaterial being. Rising higher and higher in the scale of
immaterial beings we reach Divine time- time which is absolutely
free from the quality of passage, and consequently does not admit
of divisibility, sequence, and change. It is above eternity; it has
neither beginning nor end. The eye of God sees all the visibles,
and His ear hears all the audibles in one indivisible act of
perception. The priority of God is not due to the priority of time;
on the other hand, the priority of time is due to God's priority.35
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 61
Thus Divine time is what the Qur' an describes as the "Mother of
Books"36 in which the whole of history, freed from the net of
causal sequence, is gathered up in a single super-eternal "now".
Of all the Muslim theologians, however, it is Fakhruddin Razi
who appears to have given his most serious attention to the
problem of time. In his Eastern Discussions, Razi subjects to a
searching examination all the contemporary theories of time. He
too is, in the main, objective in his method and finds himself
unable to reach any definite conclusions. "Until now," he says,

I have not been able to discover anything really true with regard to
the nature of time; and the main purpose of my book is to explain
what can possibly be said for or against each theory without any
spirit of partisanship, which I generally avoid, especially in
connexion with the problem of time. 37
The above discussion makes it perfectly clear that a purely
objective point of view is only partially helpful in our under-
standing of the nature of time. The right course is a careful
psychological analysis of our conscious experience which alone
reveals the true nature of time. I suppose you remember the
distinction that I drew in the two aspects of the self, appreciative
and efficient. The appreciative self lives in pure duration, i.e.
change without succession. The life of the self consists in its
movement from appreciation to efficiency, from intuition to
intellect, and atomic time is born out of this movement. Thus the
character of our conscious experience our point of departure in
all knowledge- gives us a clue to the concept which reconciles
the opposition of permanence and change, of time regarded as
an organic whole or eternity, and time regarded as atomic. If
then we accept the guidance of our conscious experience, and
conceive the life of the all-inclusive Ego on the analogy of the
finite ego, the time of the Ultimate Ego is revealed as change
without succession, i.e. an organic whole which appears atomic
because of the creative movement of the ego. This is what Mir
Muhammad Baqir Damad 38 means when they say that time is
born with the act of creation by which the Ultimate Ego realizes
and measures, so to speak, the infinite wealth of His own
undetermined creative possibilities. On the one hand, therefore,
the ego lives in eternity, by which term I mean non-successional
change; on the other, it lives in serial time, which I conceive as
62 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
organically related to eternity in the sense that it is a measure of
non-successional change. In this sense alone it is possible to
understand the Qur'anic verse: "To God belongs the alternation of
day and night."39 But on this difficult side of the problem I have
said enough in my preceding lecture. It is now time to pass on to
the Divine attributes of Knowledge and Omnipotence.
The word "knowledge", as applied to the finite ego, always
means discursive knowledge- a temporal process which moves round
a veritable "other", supposed to exist per se and confronting the
knowing ego. In this sense knowledge, even if we extend it to the
point of omniscience, must always remain relative to its confronting
"other", and cannot, therefore, be predicated of the Ultimate Ego
who, being all-inclusive, cannot be conceived as having a perspective
like the finite ego. The universe, as we have seen before, is not an
"other" existing per se in opposition to God. It is only when we
look at the act of creation as a specific event in the life-history of
God that the universe appears as an independent" other". From
the standpoint of the all-inclusive Ego there is no "other". In Him
thought and deed, the act of knowing and the act of creating, are
identical. It may be argued that the ego, whether finite or infinite,
is inconceivable without a confronting non-ego, and if there is
nothing outside the Ultimate Ego, the Ultimate Ego cannot be
conceived as an ego. The answer to this argument is that logical
negations are of no use in forming a positive concept which must be
based on the character of Reality as revealed in experience. Our
criticism of experience reveals the Ultimate Reality to be a
rationally directed life which, in view of our experience of life,
cannot be conceived except as an organic whole, a something closely
knit together and possessing a central point of reference. 4o This
being the character of life, the ultimate life can be conceived only as
an ego. Knowledge, in the sense of discursive knowledge, however
infinite, cannot, therefore, be predicated of an ego who knows, and,
at the same time, forms the ground of the object known.
Unfortunately, language does not help us here. We possess no word
to express the kind of knowledge which is also creative of its object.
The alternative concept of Divine knowledge is omniscience in the
sense of a single indivisible act of perception which makes God
immediately aware of the entire sweep of history, regarded as an
order of specific events, in an eternal "now". This is how
Jalaluddin Dawwani, 'Iraqi, and Professor Royce in our own
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 63
times conceived God's knowledge. 41 There is an element of truth
in this conception. But it suggests a closed universe, a fixed
futurity, a predetermined, unalterable order of specific events
which, like a superior fate, has once for all determined the
directions of God's creative activity. In fact, Divine knowledge
regarded as a kind of passive omniscience is nothing more than
the inert void of pre-Einsteinian physics, which confers a
semblance of unity on things by holding them together, a sort of
mirror passively reflecting the details of an already finished
structure of things which the finite consciousness reflects in
fragments only. Divine knowledge must be conceived as a living
creative activity to which the objects that appear to exist in their
own right are organically related. By conceiving God's knowledge
as a kind of reflecting mirror, we no doubt save His fore-
knowledge of future events; but it is obvious that we do so at the
expense of His freedom. The future certainly pre-exists in the organic
whole of God's creative life, but it pre-exists as an open possibility,
not as a fixed order of events with definite outlines. An
illustration will perhaps help us in understanding what I mean.
Suppose, as sometimes happens in the history of human thought, a
fruitful idea with a great inner wealth of applications emerges into
the light of your consciousness. You are immediately aware of the
idea as a complex whole; but the intellectual working out of its
numerous bearings is a matter of time. Intuitively all the possibilities
of the idea are present in your mind. If a specific possibility, as
such, is not intellectually known to you at a certain moment of time, it
is not because your knowledge is defective, but because there is yet
no possibility to become known. The idea reveals the possibilities of
its application with advancing experience, and sometimes it takes
more than one generation of thinkers before these possibilities
are exhausted. Nor is it possible, on the view of Divine knowledge
as a kind of passive omniscience, to reach the idea of a creator. If
history is regarded merely as a gradually revealed photo of a
predetermined order of events, then there is no room in it for
novelty and initiation. Consequently, we can attach no meaning to
the word "creation", which has a meaning for us only in view of
our own capacity for original action. The truth is that the whole
theological controversy relating to predestination is due to pure
speculation with no eye on the spontaneity of life, which is a fact
of actual experience. No doubt, the emergence of egos endowed
64 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
with the power of spontaneous and hence unforeseeable action
is, in a sense, a limitation on the freedom of the all-inclusive Ego.
But this limitation is not externally imposed. It is born out of His
own creative freedom whereby He has chosen finite egos to be
participators of His life, power, and freedom.
But how, it may be asked, is it possible to reconcile limitation
with Omnipotence? The word "limitation" needs not frighten us.
The Qur' an has no liking for abstract universals. It always fixes
its gaze on the concrete which the theory of Relativity has only
recently taught modem philosophy to see. All activity, creational
or otherwise, is a kind of limitation without which it is
impossible to conceive God as a concrete operative Ego.
Omnipotence, abstractly conceived, is merely a blind,
capricious power without limits. The Qur' an has a clear and
definite conception of Nature as a cosmos of mutually related
forces. 42 It, therefore, views Divine omnipotence as intimately
related to Divine wisdom, and finds the infinite power of God
revealed, not in the arbitrary and the capricious, but in the
recurrent, the regular, and the orderly. At the same time, the
Qur'an conceives God as "holding all goodness in His hands."43 If,
then, the rationally directed Divine will is good, a very serious
problem arises. The course of evolution, as revealed by modem
science, involves almost universal suffering and wrongdoing. No
doubt, wrongdoing is confined to man only. But the fact of pain
is almost universal, though it is equally true that men can suffer
and have suffered the most excruciating pain for the sake of
what they have believed to be good. Thus the two facts of moral
and physical evil stand out prominent in the life of Nature. Nor
can the relativity of evil and the presence of forces that tend to
transmute it be a source of consolation to us; for, in spite of all
this relativity and transmutation, there is something terribly
positive about it. How is it, then, possible to reconcile the
goodness and omnipotence of God with the immense volume of
evil in His creation? This painful problem is really the crux of
Theism. No modem writer has put it more accurately than
Naumann in his Briefe iiberg Religion. "We possess", he says: 44
a knowledge of the world which teaches us a God of power and
strength, who sends out life and death as simultaneously as shadow
and light, and a revelation, a faith as to salvation which declares the
same God to be father. The following of the world-God produces the
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 65
morality of the struggle for existence, and the service of the Father of
Jesus Christ produces the morality of compassion. And yet they are not
two gods, but one God. Somehow or other, their arms intertwine.
Only no mortal can say where and how this occurs.
To the optimist Browning all is well with the world;45 to the
pessimist Schopenhauer the world is one perpetual winter
wherein a blind will expresses itself in an infinite variety of
living things which bemoan their emergence for a moment and
then disappear forever. 46 The issue thus raised between
optimism and pessimism cannot be finally decided at the present
stage of our knowledge of the universe. Our intellectual
constitution is such that we can take only a piecemeal view of
things. We cannot understand the full import of the great cosmic
forces which work havoc, and at the same time sustain and
amplify life. The teaching of the Qur'an, which believes in the
possibility of improvement in the behaviour of man and his
control over natural forces, is neither optimism nor pessimism. It
is meliorism, which recognizes a growing universe and is
animated by the hope of man's eventual victory over evil.
But the clue to a better understanding of our difficulty is
given in the legend relating to what is called the Fall of Man. In
this legend the Qur' an partly retains the ancient symbols, but the
legend is materially transformed with a view to put an entirely
fresh meaning into it. The Qur' anic method of complete or
partial transformation of legends in order to besoul them with
new ideas, and thus to adapt them to the advancing spirit of
time, is an important point which has nearly always been
overlooked both by Muslim and non-Muslim students of Islam.
The object of the Qur' an in dealing with these legends is seldom
historical; it nearly always aims at giving them a universal moral
or philosophical import. And it achieves this object by omitting
the names of persons and localities which tend to limit the
meaning of a legend by giving it the colour of a specific
historical event, and also by deleting details which appear to
belong to a different order of feeling. This is not an uncommon
method of dealing with legends. It is common in non-religious
literature. An instance in point is the legend of Faust,47 to which
the touch of Goethe's genius has given a wholly new meaning.
Turning to the legend of the Fall we find it in a variety of
forms in the literatures of the ancient world. It is, indeed,
66 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
impossible to demarcate the stages of its growth, and to set out
clearly the various human motives which must have worked in
its slow transformation. But confining ourselves to the Semitic
form of the myth, it is highly probable that it arose out of the
primitive man's desire to explain to himself the infinite misery of
his plight in an uncongenial environment, which abounded in
disease and death and obstructed him on all sides in his
endeavour to maintain himself. Having no control over the
forces of Nature, a pessimistic view of life was perfectly natural
to him. Thus, in an old Babylonian inscription, we find the
serpent (phallic symbol), the tree, and the woman offering an
apple (symbol of virginity) to the man. The meaning of the myth
is clear- the fall of man from a supposed state of bliss was due to
the original sexual act of the human pair. The way in which the
Qur' an handles this legend becomes clear when we compare it
with the narration of the Book of Genesis. 48 The remarkable
points of difference between the Qur' anic and the Biblical
narrations suggest unmistakably the purpose of the Qur'anic
narration.
1. The Qur'an omits the serpent and the rib-story altogether.
The former omission is obviously meant to free the story from its
phallic setting and its original suggestion of a pessimistic view of
life. The latter omission is meant to suggest that the purpose of
the Qur' anic narration is not historical, as in the case of the Old
Testament, which gives us an account of the origin of the first
human pair by way of a prelude to the history of Israel. Indeed,
in the verses which deal with the origin of man as a living being,
the Qur' an uses the words Bashar or Insan, not Adam, which it
reserves for man in his capacity of God's vicegerent on earth. 49
The purpose of the Qur' an is further secured by the omission of
proper names mentioned in the Biblical narration- Adam and
Eve. 5o The word Adam is retained and used more as a concept
than as the name of a concrete human individual. This use of the
word is not without authority in the Qur' an itself. The following
verse is clear on the point:
We created you; then fashioned you; then said We to the angels, 'prostrate
yourself unto Adam' (7: 11).

2. The Qur' an splits up the legend into two distinct

episodes- the one relating to what it describes simply as the If
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 67
tree"51 and the other relating to the" tree of eternity" and the
"kingdom that faileth not." 52 The first episode is mentioned in the
7th and the second in the 20th Siirah of the Qur' an. According to
the Qur' an, Adam and his wife, led astray by Satan whose
function is to create doubts in the minds of men, tasted the fruit
of both the trees, whereas according to the Old Testament man
was driven out of the Garden of Eden immediately after his first
act of disobedience, and God placed, at the eastern side of the
garden, angels and a flaming sword, turning on all sides, to keep
the way to the tree of life. 53
3. The Old Testament curses the earth for Adam's act of
disobedience;54 the Qur' an declares the earth to be the" dwelling
place" of man and a "source of profit" to him 55 for the possession
of which he ought to be grateful to God.
And We have established you on the earth and given you therein the
supports o/life. How little do ye give thanks! (7: 10).56
Nor is there any reason to suppose that the word Jannat (garden)
as used here means the supersensual paradise from which man
is supposed to have fallen on this earth. According to the
Qur' an, man is not a stranger on this earth. "And We have caused
you to grow from the earth", says the Qur' an. 57 The Jannat,
mentioned in the legend, cannot mean the eternal abode of the
righteous. In the sense of the eternal abode of the righteous,
Jannat is described by the Qur' an to be the place "wherein the
righteous will pass to one another the cup which shall engender no
light discourse, no motive to sin."58 It is further described to be the
place "wherein no weariness shall reach the righteous, nor forth from
it shall they be cast."59 In the Jannat mentioned in the legend,
however, the very first event that took place was man's sin of
disobedience followed by his expulsion. In fact, the Qur' an itself
explains the meaning of the word as used in its own narration. In
the second episode of the legend the garden is described as a
place "where there is neither hunger, nor thirst, neither heat nor
nakedness."6o I am, therefore, inclined to think that the Jannat in
the Qur'anic narration is the conception of a primitive state in
which man is practically unrelated to his environment and
consequently does not feel the sting of human wants the birth of
which alone marks the beginning of human culture.
Thus we see that the Qur' anic legend of the Fall has nothing
to do with the first appearance of man on this planet. Its purpose
is rather to indicate man's rise from a primitive state of
68 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
instinctive appetite to the conscious possession of a free self, capable
of doubt and disobedience. The Fall does not mean any moral
depravity; it is man's transition from simple consciousness to the
first flash of self-consciousness, a kind of waking from the dream
of nature with a throb of personal causality in one's own being.
Nor does the Qur'an regard the earth as a torture-hall where an
elementally wicked humanity is imprisoned for an original act of
sin. Man's first act of disobedience was also his first act of free
choice; and that is why, according to the Qur'anic narration,
Adam's first transgression was forgiven. 61 Now goodness is not
a matter of compulsion; it is the self's free surrender to the moral
ideal and arises out of a willing co-operation of free egos. A
being whose movements are wholly determined like a machine
cannot produce goodness. Freedom is thus a condition of
goodness. But to permit the emergence of a finite ego who has
the power to choose, after considering the relative values of
several courses of action open to him, is really to take a great
risk; for the freedom to choose good involves also the freedom to
choose what is the opposite of good. That God has taken this risk
shows His immense faith in man; it is for man now to justify this
faith. Perhaps such a risk alone makes it possible to test and
develop the potentialities of a being who was created of the
"goodliest fabric" and then "brought down to be the lowest of the
low."62 As the Qur' an says: "And for trial will We test you with evil
and with good" (21: 35).63 Good and evil, therefore, though
opposites, must fall within the same whole. There is no such
thing as an isolated fact; for facts are systematic wholes the
elements of which must be understood by mutual reference.
Logical judgement separates the elements of a fact only to reveal
their interdependence.
Further, it is the nature of the self to maintain itself as a self.
For this purpose it seeks knowledge, self-multiplication, and
power, or, in the words of the Qur'an, "the kingdom that never
faileth." The first episode in the Qur'anic legend relates to man's
desire for knowledge, the second to his desire for self-
multiplication and power. In connexion with the first episode it
is necessary to point out two things. Firstly, the episode is
mentioned immediately after the verses describing Adam's
superiority over the angels in remembering and reproducing the
names of things. 64 The purpose of these verses, as I have shown
before, is to bring out the conceptual character of human
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 69
knowledge. 65 Secondly, Madame Blavatsky 66 who possessed a
remarkable knowledge of ancient symbolism, tells us in her
book, called Secret Doctrine, that with the ancients the tree was a
cryptic symbol for occult knowledge. Adam was forbidden to
taste the fruit of this tree obviously because his finitude as a self,
his sense-equipment, and his intellectual faculties were, on the
whole, attuned to a different type of knowledge, i.e. the type of
knowledge which necessitates the toil of patient observation and
admits only of slow accumulation. Satan, however, persuaded
him to eat the forbidden fruit of occult knowledge and Adam
yielded, not because he was elementally wicked, but because
being "asty" ('AjUl) 67 by nature he sought a short cut to
knowledge. The only way to correct this tendency was to place
him in an environment which, however painful, was better
suited to the unfolding of his intellectual faculties. Thus Adam's
insertion into a painful physical environment was not meant as a
punishment; it was meant rather to defeat the object of Satan
who, as an enemy of man, diplomatically tried to keep him
ignorant of the joy of perpetual growth and expansion. But the
life of a finite ego in an obstructing environment depends on the
perpetual expansion of knowledge based on actual experience.
And the experience of a finite ego to whom several possibilities
are open expands only by method of trial and error. Therefore,
error which may be described as a kind of intellectual evil is an
indispensable factor in the building up of experience.
The second episode of the Qur' anic legend is as follows:

But Satan whispered him (Adam); said he, 0 Adam! shall I show thee the
tree of Eternity and the Kingdom that faileth not? And they both ate
thereof, and their nakedness appeared to them, and they began to sew of the
leaves of the garden to cover them, and Adam disobeyed his Lord, and went
astray. Afterwards his Lord chose him for Himself, and was turned towards
him, and guided him. (20: 120-22).

The central idea here is to suggest life's irresistible desire for

a lasting dominion, an infinite career as a concrete individual. As
a temporal being, fearing the termination of its career by death,
the only course open to it is to achieve a kind of collective
immortality by self-multiplication. The eating of the forbidden
fruit of the tree of eternity is life's resort to sex-differentiation by
which it multiplies itself with a view to circumvent total
70 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
extinction. It is as if life says to death: "If you sweep away one
generation of living things, I will produce another". The Qur'an
rejects the phallic symbolism of ancient art, but suggests the
original sexual act by the birth of the sense of shame disclosed in
Adam's anxiety to cover the nakedness of his body. Now to live
is to possess a definite outline, a concrete individuality. It is in
the concrete individuality, manifested in the countless varieties
of living forms that the Ultimate Ego reveals the infinite wealth
of His Being. Yet the emergence and multiplication of indi-
vidualities, each fixing its gaze on the revelation of its own
possibilities and seeking its own dominion, inevitably brings in
its wake the awful struggle of ages. "Descend ye as enemies of one
another", says the Qur' an. 68 This mutual conflict of opposing
individualities is the world-pain which both illuminates and
darkens the temporal career of life. In the case of man in whom
individuality deepens into personality, opening up possibilities
of wrongdoing, the sense of the tragedy of life becomes much
more acute. But the acceptance of selfhood as a form of life
involves the acceptance of all the imperfections that flow from
the finitude of selfhood. The Qur' an represents man as having
accepted at his peril the trust of personality which the heavens,
the earth, and the mountains refused to bear:

Verily We proposed to the heavens and to the earth and to the mountains to
receive the "trust" but they refused the burden and they feared to receive it.
Man undertook to bear it, but hath proved unjust, senseless! (33: 72).

Shall we, then, say no or yes to the trust of personality with

all its attendant ills? True manhood, according to the Qur' an,
consists in "patience under ills and hardships."69 At the present
stage of the evolution of selfhood, however, we cannot
understand the full import of the discipline which the driving
power of pain brings. Perhaps it hardens the self against a
possible dissolution. But in asking the above question we are
passing the boundaries of pure thought. This is the point where faith
in the eventual triumph of goodness emerges as a religious doctrine.
"God is equal to His purpose, but most men know it not." (12: 21).
I have now explained to you how it is possible philosophically
to justify the Islamic conception of God. But as I have said
before, religious ambition soars higher than the ambition of
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 71
philosophy.70 Religion is not satisfied with mere conception; it
seeks a more intimate knowledge of and association with the
object of its pursuit. The agency through which this association
is achieved is the act of worship or prayer ending in spiritual
illumination. The act of worship, however, affects different
varieties of consciousness differently. In the case of the prophetic
consciousness it is in the main creative, i.e. it tends to create a
fresh ethical world wherein the Prophet, so to speak, applies the
pragmatic test to his revelations. I shall further develop this
point in my lecture on the meaning of Muslim Culture.71 In the
case of the mystic consciousness it is in the main cognitive. It is
from this cognitive point of view that I will try to discover the
meaning of prayer. And this point of view is perfectly justifiable
in view of the ultimate motive of prayer. I would draw your
attention to the following passage from the great American
psychologist, Professor William James: 72

It seems probable that in spite of all that "science" may do to the

contrary, men will continue to pray to the end of time, unless their
mental nature changes in a manner which nothing we know should
lead us to expect. The impulse to pray is a necessary consequence of
the fact that whilst the innermost of the empirical selves of a man is
a Self of the social sort, it yet can find its only adequate Socius [its
"great companion"] in an ideal world .
.... most men, either continually or occasionally, carry a reference to it
in their breast. The humblest outcast on this earth can feel himself to
be real and valid by means of this higher recognition. And, on the
other hand, for most of us, a world with no such inner refuge when
the outer social self failed and dropped from us would be the abyss
of horror. I say "for most of us", because it is probable that
individuals differ a good deal in the degree in which they are
haunted by this sense of an ideal spectator. It is a much more
essential part of the consciousness of some men than of others.
Those who have the most of it are possibly the most religious men.
But I am sure that even those who say they are altogether without it
deceive themselves, and really have it in some degree.

Thus you will see that, psychologically speaking, prayer is

instinctive in its origin. The act of prayer as aiming at knowledge
resembles reflection. Yet prayer at its highest is much more than
abstract reflection. Like reflection it too is a process of
assimilation, but the assimilative process in the case of prayer
72 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
draws itself closely together and thereby acquires a power
unknown to pure thought. In thought the mind observes and
follows the working of Reality; in the act of prayer it gives up its
career as a seeker of slow-footed universality and rises higher
than thought to capture Reality itself with a view to become a
conscious participator in its life. There is nothing mystical about
it. Prayer as a means of spiritual illumination is a normal vital
act by which the little island of our personality suddenly
discovers its situation in a larger whole of life. Do not think I am
talking of auto-suggestion. Auto-suggestion has nothing to do
with the opening up of the sources of life that lie in the depths of
the human ego. Unlike spiritual illumination which brings fresh
power by shaping human personality, it leaves no permanent
life-effects behind. Nor am I speaking of some occult and special
way of knowledge. All that I mean is to fix your attention on a
real human experience which has a history behind it and a
future before it. Mysticism has, no doubt, revealed fresh regions
of the self by making a special study of this experience. Its
literature is illuminating; yet its set phraseology shaped by the
thought-forms of a worn-out metaphysics has rather a
deadening effect on the modern mind. The quest after a
nameless nothing, as disclosed in Neo-Platonic mysticism- be it
Christian or Muslim- cannot satisfy the modern mind which,
with its habits of concrete thinking, demands a concrete living
experience of God. And the history of the race shows that the
attitude of the mind embodied in the act of worship is a
condition for such an experience. In fact, prayer must be
regarded as a necessary complement to the intellectual activity
of the observer of Nature. The scientific observation of Nature
keeps us in close contact with the behaviour of Reality, and thus
sharpens our inner perception for a deeper vision of it. I cannot
help quoting here a beautiful passage from the mystic poet Rumi
in which he describes the mystic quest after Reality:

J" JJ 7-

(..J .Jt'l JY" JI;

The Sufi's book is not composed of ink and letters

it is not but a heart white as snow.
The scholar's possession is pen-marks
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 73
What is the Sufi's possession?- foot-marks. 73
;t'i .( , -!;J ,..1 (f ;(:;1 ,"-Y ,"-J\-f' J;

.,:...--1 /oil ,.., Jj 1;)1)1 Pi .,:...--1 ;j JJ ,.., ( ( J"(

"';I} J (f J.r )1 ;j Li. .( .J --f ?;
The Sufi stalks the game like a hunter
he sees the musk-deer's track and follows the footprints.
For some while the track of the deer is the proper clue for him
but afterwards it is the musk-gland of the deer that is his guide.
To go one stage guided by the scent of the musk-gland
is better than a hundred stages of following the track and
roaming about. 74
The truth is that all search for knowledge is essentially a form
of prayer. The scientific observer of Nature is a kind of mystic
seeker in the act of prayer. Although at present he follows only
the footprints of the musk-deer, and thus modestly limits the
method of his quest, his thirst for knowledge is eventually sure
to lead him to the point where the scent of the musk-gland is a
better guide than the footprints of the deer. This alone will add
to his power over Nature and give him that vision of the total-
infinite which philosophy seeks but cannot find. Vision without
power does bring moral elevation but cannot give a lasting culture.
Power without vision tends to become destructive and inhuman.
Both must combine for the spiritual expansion of humanity.
The real object of prayer, however, is better achieved when the
act of prayer becomes congregational. The spirit of all true prayer is
social. Even the hermit abandons the society of men in the hope
of finding, in a solitary abode, the fellowship of God. A congregation is
an association of men who, animated by the same aspiration,
concentrate themselves on a single object and open up their inner
selves to the working of a single impulse. It is a psychological truth
that association multiplies the normal man's power of perception,
deepens his emotion, and dynamizes his will to a degree unknown
to him in the privacy of his individuality. Indeed, regarded as a
psychological phenomenon, prayer is still a mystery; for psychology
has not yet discovered the laws relating to the enhancement of
human sensibility in a state of association. With Islam, however,
this socialization of spiritual illumination through associative
prayer is a special point of interest. As we pass from the
74 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
daily congregational prayer to the annual ceremony round
the central mosque of Mecca, you can easily see how the Islamic
institution of worship gradually enlarges the sphere of human
association.
Prayer, then, whether individual or associative, is an
expression of man's inner yearning for a response in the awful
silence of the universe. It is a unique process of discovery
whereby the searching ego affirms itself in the very moment of
self-negation, and thus discovers its own worth and justification
as a dynamic factor in the life of the universe. True to the
psychology of mental attitude in prayer, the form of worship in
Islam symbolizes both affirmation and negation. Yet, in view of
the fact bome out by the experience of the race that prayer, as an inner
act, has found expression in a variety of forms, the Qur' an says:

To every people have we appointed ways of worship which they observe.

Therefore let them not dispute this matter with thee, but bid them to thy
Lord for thou art on the right way: but if they debate with thee, then say:
God best knoweth what ye do! He will judge between you on the Day of
Resurrection, as to the matters wherein ye differ (22: 67-69).

The form of prayer ought not to become a matter of dispute.7 5

Which side you turn your face is certainly not essential to the
spirit of prayer. The Qur'an is perfectly clear on this point:

The East and West is God's: therefore whichever way ye tum, there is the
face of God. (2: 115).

There is no piety in turning your faces towards the East or the West, but he
is pious who believeth in God, and the Last Day, and the angels, and the
scriptures, and the prophets; who for the love of God disburseth his wealth
to his kindred, and to the orphans, and the needy, and the wayfarer, and
those who ask, and for ransoming; who observeth prayer, and payeth the
legal alms, and who is of those who are faithful to their engagements when
they have engaged in them; and patient under ills and hardships, in time of
trouble: those are they who are just, and those are they who fear the Lord
(2: 177).

Yet we cannot ignore the important consideration that the

posture of the body is a real factor in determining the attitude of
the mind. The choice of one particular direction in Islamic
The Conception of God and the Meaning of Prayer 75
worship is meant to secure the unity of feeling in the
congergation, and its form in general creates and fosters the
sense of social equality inasmuch as it tends to destroy the
feeling of rank or race superiority in the worshippers. What a
tremendous spiritual revolution will take place, practically in no
time, if the proud aristocratic Brahmin of South India is daily
made to stand shoulder to shoulder with the untouchable! From
the unity of the all-inclusive Ego who creates and sustains all
egos follows the essential unity of all mankind. 76 The division of
mankind into races, nations, and tribes, according to the Qur' an,
is for purposes of identification only.77 The Islamic form of
association in prayer, therefore, besides its cognitive value, is
further indicative of the aspiration to realize this essential unity
of mankind as a fact in life by demolishing all barriers which
stand between man and man.
76 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

IV

THE HUMAN EGO- HIS FREEDOM AND

IMMORTALITY

THE Qur' an in its simple, forceful manner emphasizes the

individuality and uniqueness of man, and has, I think, a definite
view of his destiny as a unity of life. 1 It is in consequence of this
view of man as a unique individuality which makes it
impossible for one individual to bear the burden of another,2
and entitles him only to what is due to his own personal effort,3
that the Qur' an is led to reject the idea of redemption. Three
things are perfectly clear from the Qur' an:
(i) That man is the chosen of God:
Afterwards his Lord chose him [Adam] for himself and turned towards
him, and guided him. (20: 122).

(ii) That man, with all his faults, is meant to be the

representative of God on earth:
When thy Lord said to the angels, "Verily I am about to place one in my
stead on Earth", they said, "Wilt Thou place there one who will do ill
therein and shed blood, when we celebrate Thy praise and extol Thy
holiness?" God said, "Verily I know what you know not." (2: 30).
And it is He Who hath made you His representatives on the Earth,
and hath raised some of you above others by various grades, that He
may try you by His gifts. (6: 165)

(iii) That man is the trustee of a free personality which he

accepted at his peril:
Verily we proposed to the Heavens, and to the Earth, and to the
mountains to receive the "trust", but they refused the burden and
they feared to receive it. Man undertook to bear it, but hath proved
unjust, senseless! (33: 72).
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 77
Yet it is surprising to see that the unity of human consciousness
which constitutes the centre of human personality never really
became a point of interest in the history of Muslim thought. The
Mutakallimun regarded the soul as a finer kind of matter or a
mere accident which dies with the body and is re-created on the
Day of Judgement. The philosophers of Islam received inspiration
from Greek thought. In the case of other schools, it must be remembered
that the expansion of Islam brought within its fold peoples
belonging to different creed-communities, such as Nestorians,
Jews, Zoroastrians, whose intellectual outlook had been formed by
the concepts of a culture which had long dominated the whole of
middle and western Asia. This culture, on the whole Magian in its
origin and development, has a structurally dualistic soul-picture
which we find more or less reflected in the theological thought of
Islam. 4 Devotional Sufism alone tried to understand the meaning
of the unity of inner experience which the Qur' an declares to be
one of the three sources of knowledge,S the other two being History
and Nature. The development of this experience in the religious life
of Islam reached its culmination in the well-known words of Halhlj-
"I am the creative truth." The contemporaries of Hallaj, as well
as his successors, interpreted these words pantheistically; but the
fragments of Hallaj, collected and published by the French
Orientalist, L. Massignon, leave no doubt that the martyr-saint
could not have meant to deny the transcendence of God. 6 The
true interpretation of his experience, therefore, is not the drop
slipping into the sea, but the realization and bold affirmation in
an undying phrase of the reality and permanence of the human
ego in a profounder personality. The phrase of Hallaj seems
almost a challenge flung against the Mutakallimun. The
difficulty of modem students of religion, however, is that this
type of experience, though perhaps perfectly normal in its
beginnings, points, in its maturity, to unknown levels of
consciousness. Ibn Khaldun, long ago, felt the necessity of an
effective scientific method to investigate these levels. 7 Modem
psychology has only recently realized the necessity of such a
method, but has not yet been able to go beyond the discovery of the
characteristic features of the mystic levels of consciousness. 8 Not
being yet in possession of a scientific method to deal with the
type of experience on which such judgements as that of Hallaj
are based, we cannot avail ourselves of its possible capacity as a
78 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
knowledge-yielding experience. Nor can the concepts of theological
systems, draped in the terminology of a practically dead
metaphysics, be of any help to those who happen to possess a
different intellectual background. The task before the modem
Muslim is, therefore, immense. He has to rethink the whole system
of Islam without completely breaking with the past. Perhaps the
first Muslim who felt the urge of a new spirit in him was Shah Wall
Allah of Delhi. The man, however, who fully realized the importance
and immensity of the task, and whose deep insight into the inner
meaning of the history of Muslim thought and life, combined with a
broad vision engendered by his wide experience of men and
manners, would have made him a living link between the past and
the future, was Jamaluddm Afghani:. If his indefatigable but
divided energy could have devoted itself entirely to Islam as a
system of human belief and conduct, the world of Islam, intellectually
speaking, would have been on a much more solid ground today. The
only course open to us is to approach modem knowledge with a
respectful but independent attitude and to appreciate the
teachings of Islam in the light of that knowledge, even though
we may be led to differ from those who have gone before us. This I
propose to do in regard to the subject of the present lecture.
In the history of modem thought it is Bradley who furnishes
the best evidence for the impossibility of denying reality to the
ego. In his Ethical Studies 9 he assumes the reality of the self; in his
Logic 10 he takes it only as a working hypothesis. It is in his
Appearance and Reality that he subjects the ego to a searching
examination. ll Indeed, his two chapters on the meaning and
reality of the self may be regarded as a kind of modem
Upanishad on the unreality of the Jivatma. 12 According to him,
the test of reality is freedom from contradiction and since his
criticism discovers the finite centre of experience to be infected
with irreconcilable oppositions of change and permanence, unity
and diversity, the ego is a mere illusion. Whatever may be our
view of the self- feeling, self-identity, soul, will- it can be
examined only by the canons of thought which in its nature is
relational, and all "relations involve contradictions." Yet, in spite
of the fact that his ruthless logic has shown the ego to be a mass
of confusion, Bradley has to admit that the self must be "in some
sense real," "in some sense an indubitable fact." 13 We may easily
grant that the ego, in its finitude, is imperfect as a unity of life.
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 79
Indeed, its nature is wholly aspiration after a unity more
inclusive, more effective, more balanced, and unique. Who
knows how many different kinds of environment it needs for its
organization as a perfect unity? At the present stage of its
organization it is unable to maintain the continuity of its tension
without constant relaxation of sleep. An insignificant stimulus
may sometimes disrupt its unity and nullify it as a controlling
energy. Yet, however thought may dissect and analyze, our
feeling of egohood is ultimate and is powerful enough to extract
from Professor Bradley the reluctant admission of its reality.
The finite centre of experience, therefore, is real, even though
its reality is too profound to be intellectualized. What then is the
characteristic feature of the ego? The ego reveals itself as a unity
of what we call mental states. Mental states do not exist in
mutual isolation. They mean and involve one another. They exist
as phases of a complex whole, called mind. The organic unity,
however, of these interrelated states or, let us say, events is a
special kind of unity. It fundamentally differs from the unity of a
material thing; for the parts of a material thing can exist in
mutual isolation. Mental unity is absolutely unique. We cannot
say that one of my beliefs is situated on the right or left of my
other belief. Nor is it possible to say that my appreciation of the
beauty of the Taj varies with my distance from Agra. My
thought of space is not spatially related to space. Indeed, the ego
can think of more than one space-order. The space of waking
consciousness and dream-space have no mutual relation. They
do not interfere with or overlap each other. For the body there
can be but a single space. The ego, therefore, is not space-bound
in the sense in which the body is space bound. Again, mental
and physical events are both in time, but the time-span of the
ego is fundamentally different to the time-span of the physical
event. The duration of the physical event is stretched out in
space as a present fact; the ego's duration is concentrated within
it and linked with its present and future in a unique manner. The
formation of a physical event discloses certain present marks
which show that it has passed through a time-duration; but these
marks are merely emblematic of its time-duration; not time-
duration itself. True time-duration belongs to the ego alone.
Another important characteristic of the unity of the ego is its
essential privacy which reveals the uniqueness of every ego. In
80 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
order to reach a certain conclusion all the premises of a
syllogism must be believed in by one and the same mind. If I
believe in the proposition "all men are mortal", and another mind
believes in the proposition "Socrates is a man", no inference is
possible. It is possible only if both the propositions are believed in
by me. Again, my desire for a certain thing is essentially mine.
Its satisfaction means my private enjoyment. If all mankind
happen to desire the same thing, the satisfaction of their desire
will not mean the satisfaction of my desire when I do not get the
thing desired. The dentist may sympathize with my toothache,
but cannot experience the feeling of my toothache. My
pleasures, pains, and desires are exclusively mine, forming a
part and parcel of my private ego alone. My feelings, hates and
loves, judgements and resolutions, are exclusively mine. God
Himself cannot feel, judge, and choose for me when more than
one course of action are open to me. Similarly, in order to
recognize you, I must have known you in the past. My
recognition of a place or person means reference to my past
experience, and not the past experience of another ego. It is this
unique interrelation of our mental states 14 that we express by the
word '1', and it is here that the great problem of psychology
begins to appear. What is the nature of this 'I'?
To the Muslim school of theology of which Ghazali: is the
chief exponent, 15 the ego is a simple, indivisible, and
immutable soul-substance, entirely different from the group of
our mental states and unaffected by the passage of time. Our
conscious experience is a unity, because our mental states are
related as so many qualities to this simple substance which persists
unchanged during the flux of its qualities. My recognition of you is
possible only if I persist unchanged between the original perception
and the present act of memory. The interest of this school,
however, was not so much psychological as metaphysical. But
whether we take the soul-entity as an explanation of the facts of our
conscious experience, or as a basis for immortality, I am afraid it
serves neither psychological nor metaphysical interest. Kant's
fallacies of pure reason are well known to the student of modern
philosophy.16 The "I think", which accompanies every thought
is, according to Kant, a purely formal condition of thought, and
the transition from a purely formal condition of thought to
ontological substance is logically illegitimate. 17 Even apart from
Kant's way of looking at the subject of experience, the
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 81
indivisibility of a substance does not prove its indestructibility;
for the indivisible substance, as Kant himself remarks, may
gradually disappear into nothingness like an intensive quality or
cease to exist all of a sudden. 18 Nor can this static view of
substance serve any psychological interest. In the first place, it is
difficult to regard the elements of our conscious experience as
qualities of a soul-substance in the sense in which, for instance,
the weight of a physical body is the quality of that body.
Observation reveals experience to be particular acts of reference,
and as such they possess a specific being of their own. They
constitute, as Laird acutely remarks, "a new world and not
merely new features in an old world." Secondly, even if we
regard experiences as qualities, we cannot discover how they
inhere in the soul-substance. Thus we see that our conscious
experience can give us no clue to the ego regarded as a soul-
substance; for by hypothesis the soul-substance does not reveal
itself in experience. And it may further be pointed out that in
view of the improbability of different soul-substances controlling
the same body at different times, the theory can offer no
adequate explanation of phenomena such as alternating
personality, formerly explained by the temporary possession of
the body by evil spirits.
Yet the interpretation of our conscious experience is the only
road by which we can reach the ego, if at all. Let us, therefore,
turn to modern psychology and see what light it throws on the
nature of the ego. William James conceives consciousness as "a
stream of thought" - a conscious flow of changes with a felt
continuity.19 He finds a kind of gregarious principle working in
our experiences which have, as it were, "hooks" on them, and
thereby catch up one another in the flow of mental life. 20 The ego
consists of the feelings of personal life, and is, as such, part of the
system of thought. Every pulse of thought, present or perishing,
is an indivisible unity which knows and recollects. The
appropriation of the passing pulse by the present pulse of
thought, and that of the present by its successor, is the ego. 21
This description of our mental life is extremely ingenious; but
not, I venture to think, true to consciousness as we find it in
ourselves. Consciousness is something single, presupposed in all
mental life, and not bits of consciousness, mutually reporting to
one another. This view of consciousness, far from giving us any
clue to the ego, entirely ignores the relatively permanent
82 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
element in experience. There is no continuity of being between
the passing thoughts. When one of these is present, the other has
totally disappeared; and how can the passing thought, which is
irrevocably lost, be known and appropriated by the present
thought? I do not mean to say that the ego is over and above the
mutually penetrating multiplicity we call experience. Inner
experience is the ego at work. We appreciate the ego itself in the
act of perceiving, judging, and willing. The life of the ego is a
kind of tension caused by the ego invading the environment and
the environment invading the ego. The ego does not stand
outside this arena of mutual invasion. It is present in it as a
directive energy and is formed and disciplined by its own
experience. The Qur' an is clear on this directive function of the
ego:

And they ask thee of the soul. Say: the soul proceeded from my Lord's Arm
[Command}: but of knowledge, only a little to you is given' (17: 85).

In order to understand the meaning of the word Amr, we

must remember the distinction which the Qur' an draws between
Amr and Khalq. Pringle-Pattison deplores that the English
language possesses only one word- "creation"- to express the
relation of God and the universe of extension on the one hand,
and the relation of God and the human ego on the other. The
Arabic language is, however, more fortunate in this respect. It
has two words, Khalq and Amr, to express the two ways in which
the creative activity of God reveals itself to us. Khalq is creation;
Amr is direction. As the Qur'an says: liTo Him belong creation and
direction."22 The verse quoted above means that the essential
nature of the soul is directive, as it proceeds from the directive
energy of God, though we do not know how Divine Amr
functions as ego-unities. The personal pronoun used in the
expression Rabbi (liMy Lord") throws further light on the nature
and behaviour of the ego. It is meant to suggest that the soul
must be taken as something individual and specific, with all the
variations in the range, balance, and effectiveness of its unity.
IIEvery man acteth after his own manner: but your Lord well
knoweth who is best guided in the path" (17: 84). Thus my real
personality is not a thing; it is an act. My experience is only a
series of acts, mutually referring to one another, and held
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 83
together by the unity of a directive purpose. My whole reality
lies in my directive attitude. You cannot perceive me like a thing
in space, or a set of experiences in temporal order; you must
interpret, understand, and appreciate me in my judgements, in
my will-attitudes, aims, and aspirations.
The next question is: How does the ego emerge within the
spatio-temporal order?23 The teaching of the Qur' an is perfectly
clear on this point:

Now offine clay have We created man: Then We placed him, a moist germ,
in a safe abode; then made We the moist germ a clot of blood: Then made the
clotted blood into a piece of flesh; then made the piece of flesh into bones:
and We clothed the bones with flesh: Then brought forth man of yet
another make. Blessed, therefore, be God- the most excellent of makers.
(23: 12-14).

The "yet another make" of man develops on the basis of

physical organism- that colony of sub-egos through which a
profounder Ego constantly acts on me, and thus permits me to
build up a systematic unity of experience. Are then the soul and
its organism two things in the sense of Descartes, independent of
each other, though somehow mysteriously united? I am inclined
to think that the hypothesis of matter as an independent
existence is perfectly gratuitous. It can be justified only on the
ground of our sensation of which matter is supposed to be at
least a part cause, other than myself This something other than
myself is supposed to possess certain qualities, called primary
which correspond to certain sensations in me; and I justify my
belief in those qualities on the ground that the cause must have
some resemblance with the effect. But there need be no
resemblance between cause and effect. If my success in life
causes misery to another man, my success and his misery have
no resemblance with each other. Yet everyday experience and
physical science proceed on the assumption of an independent
existence of matter. Let us, therefore, provisionally assume that
body and soul are two mutually independent, yet in some
mysterious way united, things. It was Descartes who first stated
the problem, and I believe his statement and final view of the
problem were largely influenced by the Manichaean inheritance
of early Christianity. However, if they are mutually
independent and do not affect each other, then the changes of
84 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
both run on exactly parallel lines, owing to some kind of pre-
established harmony, as Leibniz thought. This reduces the soul
to a merely passive spectator of the happenings of the body. If,
on the other hand, we suppose them to affect each other, then we
cannot find any observable facts to show how and where exactly
their interaction takes place, and which of the two takes the
initiative. The soul is an organ of the body which exploits it for
physiological purposes, or the body is an instrument of the soul,
are equally true propositions on the theory of interaction.
Lange's theory of emotion tends to show that the body takes the
initiative in the act of interaction. 24 There are, however, facts to
contradict this theory, and it is not possible to detail these facts
here. Suffice it to indicate that even if the body takes the initiative,
the mind does enter as a consenting factor at a definite stage in
the development of emotion, and this is equally true of other
external stimuli which are constantly working on the mind.
Whether an emotion will grow further, or that a stimulus will continue
to work, depends on my attending to it. It is the mind's consent which
eventually decides the fate of an emotion or a stimulus.
Thus parallelism and interaction are both unsatisfactory. Yet
mind and body become one in action. When I take up a book
from my table, my act is single and indivisible. It is impossible to
draw a line of cleavage between the share of the body and that of
the mind in this act. Somehow they must belong to the same
system, and according to the Qur' an they do belong to the same
system. 25 "To Him belong Khalq (creation) and Amr (direction)."26
How is such a thing conceivable? We have seen that the body is
not a thing situated in an absolute void; it is a system of events
or acts. 27 The system of experiences we call soul or ego is also a
system of acts. This does not obliterate the distinction of soul
and body; it only brings them closer to each other. The
characteristic of the ego is spontaneity; the acts composing the
body repeat themselves. The body is accumulated action or habit
of the soul; and as such undetachable from it. It is a permanent
element of consciousness which, in view of this permanent
element, appears from the outside as something stable. What
then is matter? A colony of egos of a low order out of which
emerges the ego of a higher order, when their association and
interaction reach a certain degree of coordination. It is the world
reaching the point of self-guidance wherein the Ultimate
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 85
Reality, perhaps, reveals its secret, and furnishes a clue to its
ultimate nature. The fact that the higher emerges out of the
lower does not rob the higher of its worth and dignity. It is not
the origin of a thing that matters, it is the capacity, the
significance, and the final reach of the emergent that matters.
Even if we regard the basis of soul-life as purely physical, it by
no means follows that the emergent can be resolved into what
has conditioned its birth and growth. The emergent, as the
advocates of the Emergent Evolution teach us, is an un-
foreseeable and novel fact on its own plane of being, and cannot
be explained mechanistically. Indeed the evolution of life shows
that, though in the beginning the mental is dominated by the
physical, the mental, as it grows in power, tends to dominate the
physical and may eventually rise to a position of complete
independence. Nor is there such a thing as a purely physical
level in the sense of possessing a materiality, elementally
incapable of evolving the creative synthesis we call life and
mind, and needing a transcendental Deity to impregnate it with
the sentient and the mental. The Ultimate Ego that makes the
emergent emerge is immanent in Nature, and is described by the
Qur' an, as the First and the Last, the Visible and the Invisible." 28
1/

This view of the matter raises a very important question. We

have seen that the ego is not something rigid. It organizes itself
in time, and is formed and disciplined by its own experience. It
is further clear that streams of causality flow into it from Nature
and from it to Nature. Does the ego then determine its own activity?
If so, how is the self-determination of the ego related to the determinism
of the spatia-temporal order? Is personal causality a special kind
of causality, or only a disguised form of the mechanism of Nature?
It is claimed that the two kinds of determinism are not mutually
exclusive and that the scientific method is equally applicable to
human action. The human act of deliberation is understood to be
a conflict of motives which are conceived, not as the ego's own
present or inherited tendencies of action or inaction, but as so many
external forces fighting one another, gladiator-like, on the arena of
the mind. Yet the final choice is regarded as a fact determined by
the strongest force, and not by the resultant of contending
motives, like a purely physical effect.29 I am, however, firmly of
the opinion that the controversy between the advocates of
Mechanism and Freedom arises from a wrong view of intelligent
86 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
action which modern psychology, unmindful of its own inde-
pendence as a science, possessing a special set of facts to
observe, was bound to take on account of its slavish imitation of
physical sciences. The view that ego-activity is a succession of
thoughts and ideas, ultimately resolvable to units of sensations,
is only another form of atomic materialism which forms the basis
of modern science. Such a view could not but raise a strong
presumption in favour of a mechanistic interpretation of
consciousness. There is, however, some relief in thinking that the
new German psychology, known as Configuration Psychology,3D
may succeed in securing the independence of Psychology as a
science, just as the theory of Emergent Evolution may eventually
bring about the independence of Biology. This newer German
psychology teaches us that a careful study of intelligent
behaviour discloses the fact of 'insight' over and above the mere
succession of sensations. 31 This "insight" is the ego's
appreciation of temporal, spatial, and causal relation of things-
the choice, that is to say of data, in a complex whole, in view of
the goal or purpose which the ego has set before itself for the
time being. It is this sense of striving in the experience of
purposive action and the success which I actually achieve in
reaching my "ends" that convinces me of my efficiency as a
personal cause. The essential feature of a purposive act is its
vision of a future situation which does not appear to admit any
explanation in terms of Physiology. The truth is that the causal
chain wherein we try to find a place for the ego is itself an
artificial construction of the ego for its own purposes. The ego is
called upon to live in a complex environment, and he cannot
maintain his life in it without reducing it to a system which
would give him some kind of assurance as to the behaviour of
things around him. The view of his environment as a system of
cause and effect is thus an indispensable instrument of the ego,
and not a final expression of the nature of Reality. Indeed in
interpreting Nature in this way the ego understands and masters
its environment, and thereby acquires and amplifies its
freedom. 32
Thus the element of guidance and directive control in the
ego's activity clearly shows that the ego is a free personal
causality. He shares in the life and freedom of the Ultimate Ego
who, by permitting the emergence of a finite ego, capable of
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 87
private initiative, has limited this freedom of His own free will.
This freedom of conscious behaviour follows from the view of
ego-activity which the Qur' an takes. There are verses which are
unmistakably clear on this point:

And say: The truth is from your Lord: Let him, then, who will,
believe; and let him who will, be an unbeliever. (18: 29).
If ye do well to your own behoof will ye do well; and if ye do evil
against yourselves will ye do it. (17: 7).
Indeed Islam recognizes a very important fact of human
psychology, i.e. the rise and fall of the power to act freely, and is
anxious to retain the power to act freely as a constant and
undiminished factor in the life of the ego. The timing of the daily
prayer which, according to the Qur' an, restores" self-possession"
to the ego by bringing it into closer touch with the ultimate
source of life and freedom, is intended to save the ego from the
mechanizing effects of sleep and business. Prayer in Islam is the
ego's escape from mechanism to freedom.
It cannot, however, be denied that the idea of destiny runs
throughout the Qur' an. This point is worth considering, more
especially because Spengler in his Decline of the West seems to
think that Islam amounts to a complete negation of the ego. 33 I
have already explained to you my view of Taqdlr (destiny) as we
find it in the Qur' an. 34 As Spengler himself points out, there are
two ways of making the world our own. The one is intellectual;
the other, for want of a better expression, we may call vital. The
intellectual way consists in understanding the world as a rigid
system of cause and effect. The vital is the absolute acceptance of
the inevitable necessity of life, regarded as a whole which in
evolving its inner richness creates serial time. This vital way of
appropriating the universe is what the Qur' an describes as Iman.
Iman is not merely a passive belief in one or more propositions of
a certain kind; it is living assurance begotten of a rare
experience. Strong personalities alone are capable of rising to
this experience and the higher "Fatalism" implied in it.
Napoleon is reported to have said: "I am a thing, not a person."
This is one way in which unitive experience expresses itself. In
the history of religious experience in Islam which, according to
the Prophet, consists in the "creation of Divine attributes in
man," this experience has found expression in such phrases as "I
88 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
am the creative truth" (Hallaj), "I am Time" (Muhammad), "I am
the speaking Qur' an" (,All), "Glory to me" (Ba Yazid). In the
higher Sufism of Islam unitive experience is not the finite ego
effacing its own identity by some sort of absorption into the
Infinite Ego; it is rather the Infinite passing into the loving
embrace of the finite. 35 As Rumi says:

Divine knowledge is lost in the knowledge of the saint! And how is

it possible for people to believe in such a thing?'

The fatalism implied in this attitude is not negation of the ego

as Spengler seems to think; it is life and boundless power which
recognizes no obstruction, and can make a man calmly offer his
prayers when bullets are showering around him.
But is it not true, you will say, that a most degrading type of
Fatalism has prevailed in the world of Islam for many centuries?
This is true, and has a history behind it which requires separate
treatment. It is sufficient here to indicate that the kind of
Fatalism which the European critics of Islam sum up in the word
Qismat was due partly to philosophical thought, partly to
political expediency, and partly to the gradually diminishing
force of the life-impulse, which Islam originally imparted to its
followers. Philosophy, searching for the meaning of cause as
applied to God, and taking time as the essence of the relation
between cause and effect, could not but reach the notion of a
transcendent God, prior to the universe, and operating upon it
from without. God was thus conceived as the last link in the
chain of causation, and, consequently, the real author of all that
happens in the universe. Now the practical materialism of the
opportunist U mayyad rulers of Damascus needed a peg on
which to hang their misdeeds at Karbala, and to secure the fruits
of Amlr Mu' aWiyah' s revolt against the possibilities of a popular
rebellion. Ma'bad is reported to have said to Hasan of Basra that
the Umayyads killed Muslims, and attributed their acts to the
decrees of God. "These enemies of God", replied Hasan, "are
liars".36 Thus arose, in spite of open protests by Muslim divines,
a morally degrading Fatalism, and the constitutional theory
known as the" accomplished fact" 37 in order to support vested
interests. This is not at all surprising. In our own times
philosophers have furnished a kind of intellectual justification
for the finality of the present capitalistic structure of society.
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 89
Hegel's view of Reality as an infinitude of reason from which
follows the essential rationality of the real, and Auguste Comte's
society as an organism in which specific functions are eternally
assigned to each organ, are instances in point. The same thing
appears to have happened in Islam. But since Muslims have
always sought the justification of their varying attitudes in the
Qur' an, even though at the expense of its plain meaning, the
fatalistic interpretation has had very far-reaching effects on
Muslim peoples. I could, in this connexion, quote several instances of
obvious misinterpretation; but the subject requires special treatment,
and it is time now to turn to the question of immortality.
No age has produced so much literature on the question of
immortality as our own, and this literature is continually
increasing in spite of the victories of modern Materialism. Purely
metaphysical arguments, however, cannot give us a positive
belief in personal immortality. In the history of Muslim thought
Ibn Rushd approached the question of immortality from a
purely metaphysical point of view, and, I venture to think,
achieved no results. He drew a distinction between sense and
intelligence probably because of the expressions, Nafs and Riih,
used in the Qur' an. These expressions, apparently suggesting a
conflict between two opposing principles in man, have misled
many a thinker in Islam. However, if Ibn Rushd's dualism was
based on the Qur' an, then I am afraid he was mistaken; for the
word Nafs does not seem to have been used in the Qur' an in any
technical sense of the kind imagined by Muslim theologians.
Intelligence, according to Ibn Rushd, is not a form of the body; it
belongs to a different order of being, and transcends
individuality. It is, therefore, one, universal, and eternal. This
obviously means that, since unitary intellect transcends
individuality, its appearance as so many unities in the
multiplicity of human persons is a mere illusion. The eternal
unity of intellect may mean, as Renan thinks, the everlastingness
of humanity and civilization; it does not surely mean personal
immortality.38 In fact Ibn Rushd's view looks like William
James's suggestion of a transcendental mechanism of
consciousness which operates on a physical medium for a while,
and then gives it up in pure sport. 39
In modern times the line of argument for personal immor-
tality is on the whole ethical. But ethical arguments, such as that
90 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
of Kant, and the modern revisions of his arguments, depend on a
kind of faith in the fulfilment of the claims of justice, or in the
irreplaceable and unique work of man as an individual pursuer
of infinite ideals. With Kant immortality is beyond the scope of
speculative reason; it is a postulate of practical reason, an axiom
of man's moral consciousness. Man demands and pursues the
supreme good which comprises both virtue and happiness. But
virtue and happiness, duty and inclination, are, according to Kant,
heterogeneous notions. Their unity cannot be achieved within
the narrow span of the pursuer's life in this sensible world. We are,
therefore, driven to postulate immortal life for the person's
progressive completion of the unity of the mutually exclusive
notions of virtue and happiness, and the existence of God
eventually to effectuate this confluence. It is not clear, however,
why the consummation of virtue and happiness should take infinite
time, and how God can effectuate the confluence between mutually
exclusive notions. This inconclusiveness of metaphysical arguments
has led many thinkers to confine themselves to meeting the
objections of modern Materialism which rejects immortality,
holding that consciousness is merely a function of the brain, and
therefore ceases with the cessation of the brain-process. William
James thinks that this objection to immortality is valid only if the
function in question is taken to be productive. 4o The mere fact
that certain mental changes vary concomitantly with certain bodily
changes, does not warrant the inference that mental changes are produced
by bodily changes. The function is not necessarily productive; it may
be permissive or transmissive like the function of the trigger of a
crossbow or that of a reflecting lens.41 This view which suggests
that our inner life is due to the operation in us of a kind of
transcendental mechanism of consciousness, somehow choosing
a physical medium for a short period of sport, does not give us
any assurance of the continuance of the content of our actual
experience. I have already indicated in these lectures the proper
way to meet Materialism. 42 Science must necessarily select for
study certain specific aspects of Reality only and exclude others.
It is pure dogmatism on the part of science to claim that the
aspects of Reality selected by it are the only aspects to be
studied. No doubt man has a spatial aspect; but this is not the
only aspect of man. There are other aspects of man, such as
evaluation, the unitary character of purposive experience, and
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 91
the pursuit of truth which science must necessarily exclude from
its study, and the understanding of which requires categories
other than those employed by science. 43
There is, however, in the history of modern thought one
positive view of immortality- I mean Nietzsche's doctrine of
Eternal Recurrence. 44 This view deserves some consideration,
not only because Nietzsche has maintained it with a prophetical
fervour, but also because it reveals a real tendency in the modern
mind. The idea occurred to several minds about the time when it
came to Nietzsche like a poetic inspiration, and the germs of it
are also found in Herbert Spencer. 45 It was really the power of
the idea rather than its logical demonstration that appealed to
this modern prophet. This, in itself, is some evidence of the fact
that positive views of ultimate things are the work rather of
Inspiration than Metaphysics. However, Nietzsche has given his
doctrine the form of a reasoned out theory, and as such I think
we are entitled to examine it. The doctrine proceeds on the
assumption that the quantity of energy in the universe is
constant and consequently finite. Space is only a subjective form;
there is no meaning in saying that the world is in space in the
sense that it is situated in an absolute empty void. In his view of
time, however, Nietzsche parts company with Kant and
Schopenhauer. Time is not a subjective form; it is a real and infinite
process which can be conceived only as "periodic".46 Thus it is
clear that there can be no dissipation of energy in an infinite
empty space. The centres of this energy are limited in number,
and their combination perfectly calculable. There is no beginning
or end of this ever-active energy, no equilibrium, no first or last
change. Since time is infinite, therefore all possible combinations
of energy-centres have already been exhausted. There is no new
happening in the universe; whatever happens now has happened
before an infinite number of times, and will continue to happen an
infinite number of times in the future. On Nietzsche's view the
order of happenings in the universe must be fixed and
unalterable; for since an infinite time has passed, the energy-
centres must have, by this time, formed certain definite modes of
behaviour. The very word "Recurrence" implies this fixity.
Further, we must conclude that a combination of energy-centres
which has once taken place must always return; otherwise there
would be no guarantee for the return even of the superman. 47
92 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
Everything has returned: Sirius and the spider, and thy thoughts at
this moment and this last thought of thine that all things will
return ... Fellow-man! your whole life, like a sand-glass, will always
be reversed, and will ever run out again. This ring in which you are
but a grain will glitter afresh forever.
Such is Nietzsche's Eternal Recurrence. It is only a more rigid
kind of mechanism, based not on an ascertained fact but only on
a working hypothesis of science. Nor does Nietzsche seriously
grapple with the question of time. He takes it objectively and
regards it merely as an infinite series of events returning to itself
over and over again. Now time, regarded as a perpetual circular
movement, makes immortality absolutely intolerable. Nietzsche
himself feels this, and describes his doctrine, not as one of
immortality, but rather as a view of life which would make
immortality endurable. 48 And what makes immortality bearable,
according to Nietzsche? It is the expectation that a recurrence of
the combination of energy-centres which constitutes my
personal existence is a necessary factor in the birth of that ideal
combination which he calls "superman". But the superman has
been an infinite number of times before. His birth is inevitable;
how can the prospect give me any aspiration? We can aspire
only for what is absolutely new, and the absolutely new is
unthinkable on Nietzsche's view which is nothing more than a
Fatalism worse than the one summed up in the word Qismat.
Such a doctrine, far from keying up the human organism for the
fight of life, tends to destroy its action-tendencies and relaxes the
tension of the ego. 49

Passing now to the teachings of the Qur' an. The Qur' anic
view of the destiny of man is partly ethical, partly biological. I
say partly biological because the Qur' an makes in this connexion
certain statements of a biological nature which we cannot
understand without a deeper insight into the nature of life. It
mentions, for instance, the fact of Barzakh 50 - a state, perhaps of
some kind of suspense between Death and Resurrection.
Resurrection, too, appears to have been differently conceived.
The Qur'an does not base its possibility, like Christianity, on the
evidence of the actual resurrection of an historic person. It seems
to take and argue resurrection as a universal phenomenon of life,
in some sense, true even of birds and animals (6: 38).
Before, however, we take the details of the Qur' anic doctrine of
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 93
personal immortality we must note three things which are
perfectly clear from the Qur' an and regarding which there is, or
ought to be, no difference of opinion:
(i) That the ego has a beginning in time, and did not pre-exist
its emergence in the spatia-temporal order. This is clear from the
verse which I cited a few minutes ago. 51
(ii) That according to the Qur'anic view, there is no possibility
of return to this earth. This is clear from the following verses:
When death overtaketh one of them, he saith, "Lord! send me back again,
that I may do the good that I have left undone!" By no means, these are the
very words which he shall speak. But behind them is a barrier (Barzakh),
until the day when they shall be raised again. (23: 99-100).
And by the moon when at her full, that from state to state shall ye be surely
carried onward. (84: 18-19).
The germs of life- Is it ye who create them? Or are we their Creator? It is
We Who have decreed that death should be among you; yet We are not
thereby hindered from replacing you with others, your likes, or from
creating you again in forms which ye know not! (56: 58-61).
(iii) That finitude is not a misfortune:
Verily there is none in the heavens and in the earth but shall approach the
God of Mercy as a servant. He hath taken note of them and numbered them
with exact numbering: and each of them shall come to Him on the Day
of Resurrection as a single individual. (19: 93-95).52

This is a very important point and must be properly

understood with a view to secure a clear insight into the Islamic
theory of salvation. It is with the irreplaceable singleness of his
individuality that the finite ego will approach the infinite ego to
see for himself the consequences of his past action and to judge
the possibilities of his future.

And every man's fate have we fastened about his neck: and on the Day of
Resurrection will We bring forthwith to him a book which shall be proffered
to him wide open: "Read thy book: there needeth none but thyself to make
out an account against thee this day. (17: 13-14).

Whatever may be the final fate of man it does not mean the
loss of individuality. The Qur'an does not contemplate complete
liberation from as the highest state of human bliss. The
"unceasing reward" 53 of man consists in his gradual growth in
self-possession, in uniqueness, and intensity of his activity as an
94 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
ego. Even the scene of "Universal Destruction" immediately
preceding the Day of Judgement 54 cannot affect the perfect calm
of a full-grown ego:
And there shall be a blast on the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens
and all who are in the earth shall faint away, save those in whose case God
wills otherwise. (39: 68).55
Who can be the subject of this exception but those in whom
the ego has reached the very highest point of intensity? And the
climax of this development is reached when the ego is able to
retain full self-possession, even in the case of a direct contact
with the all-embracing Ego. As the Qur' an says of the Prophet's
vision of the Ultimate Ego: "His eye turned not aside, nor did it
wander." (53: 17).
This is the ideal of perfect manhood in Islam. Nowhere has it
found a better literary expression than in a Persian verse which
speaks of the Holy Prophet's experience of Divine illumination:
.,;.,\P..P ":;).J J J1 ; ifyo
t.5-" .JJ uf d .,;.,fj ;

Moses fainted away by a mere surface illumination of Reality:

Thou seest the very substance of Reality with a smile!56
Pantheistic Sufism obviously cannot favour such a view, and
suggests difficulties of a philosophical nature. How can the
Infinite and the finite egos mutually exclude each other? Can the
finite ego, as such, retain its finitude besides the Infinite Ego?
This difficulty is based on a misunderstanding of the true nature
of the Infinite. True infinity does not mean infinite extension
which cannot be conceived without embracing all available finite
extensions. Its nature consists in intensity and not extensity; and
the moment we fix our gaze on intensity, we begin to see that the
finite ego must be distinct, though not isolated, from the Infinite.
Extensively regarded I am absorbed by the spatio-temporal
order to which I belong. Intensively regarded I consider the
same spatio-temporal order as a confronting "other" wholly
alien to me. I am distinct from and yet intimately related to that
on which I depend for my life and sustenance.
With these three points clearly grasped, the rest of the
doctrine is easy to conceive. It is open to man, according to the Qur' an,
to belong to the meaning of the universe and become immortal.
Thinketh man that he shall be left as a thing of no use? Was he not a mere embryo?
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 95
Then he became thick blood of which God formed him and fashioned him;
and made him twain, male and female. Is not God powerful enough to
quicken the dead? (75 36-40).

It is highly improbable that a being whose evolution has

taken millions of years should be thrown away as a thing of no
use. But it is only as an ever-growing ego that he can belong to
the meaning of the universe:
By the soul and He Who hath balanced it, and hath shown to it the ways of
wickedness and piety, blessed is he who hath made it grow and undone is he
who hath corrupted it. (91: 7-10).

And how to make the soul grow and save it from corruption?
By action:

Blessed be He in Whose hand is the Kingdom! And over all things is He

potent, who hath created death and life to test which of you is the best in
point of deed; and He is the Mighty and Forgiving. (67: 1-2).57

Life offers a scope for ego-activity, and death is the first test
of the synthetic activity of the ego. There are no pleasure-giving
and pain-giving acts; there are only ego-sustaining and ego-
dissolving acts. It is the deed that prepares the ego for
dissolution, or disciplines him for a future career. The principle
of the ego-sustaining deed is respect for the ego in myself as well
as in others. Personal immortality, then, is not ours as of right; it
is to be achieved by personal effort. Man is only a candidate for
it. The most depressing error of Materialism is the supposition
that finite consciousness exhausts its object. Philosophy and
science are only one way of approaching that object. There are
other ways of approach open to us; and death, if present action
has sufficiently fortified the ego against the shock that physical
dissolution brings, is only a kind of passage to what the Qur' an
describes as Barzakh. The records of Sufistic experience indicate
that Barzakh is a state of consciousness characterized by a change
in the ego's attitude towards time and space. There is nothing
improbable in it. It was Helmholtz who first discovered that
nervous excitation takes time to reach consciousness. 58 If this is
so, our present physiological structure is at the bottom of our
present view of time, and if the ego survives the dissolution of this
96 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
structure, a change in our attitude towards time and space seems
perfectly natural. Nor is such a change wholly unknown to us.
The enormous condensation of impressions which occurs in our
dream-life, and the exaltation of memory, which sometimes
takes place at the moment of death, disclose the ego's capacity
for different standards of time. The state of Barzakh, therefore,
does not seem to be merely a passive state of expectation; it is a
state in which the ego catches a glimpse of fresh aspects of
Reality, and prepares himself for adjustment to these aspects. It
must be a state of great psychic unhingement, especially in the
case of full-grown egos who have naturally developed fixed
modes of operation on a specific spatio-temporal order, and may
mean dissolution to less fortunate ones. However, the ego must
continue to struggle until he is able to gather himself up, and
win his resurrection. The resurrection, therefore, is not an
external event. It is the consummation of a life-process within
the ego. Whether individual or universal it is nothing more than
a kind of stock-taking of the ego's past achievements and his
future possibilities. The Qur'an argues the phenomenon of re-
emergence of the ego on the analogy of his first emergence:

Man saith: "What! After I am dead, shall I in the end be brought forth
alive?" Doth not man bear in mind that We made him at first when he was
naught? (19: 66-67).
It is we who have decreed that death should be among you. Yet We are not
thereby hindered from replacing you with others your likes, or from
producing you in a form which ye know not! Ye have known the first
creation: will you not reflect? (56: 60-62).

How did man first emerge? This suggestive argument

embodied in the last verses of the two passages quoted above
did in fact open a new vista to Muslim philosophers. It was Jahiz
(d. 255 A.H.) who first hinted at the changes in animal life
caused by migrations and environment generally. 59 The
association known as the "Brethren of Purity" further amplified
the views of Jahiz. 6o Ibn Maskawaih (d. 421 A.H.), however, was
the first Muslim thinker to give a clear and in many respects
thoroughly modern theory of the origin of man. 61 It was only
natural and perfectly consistent with the spirit of the Qur' an, that
RumI regarded the question of immortality as one of biological
The Human Ego- His Freedom and Immortality 97
evolution, and not a problem to be decided by arguments of
purely metaphysical nature, as some philosophers of Islam had
thought. The theory of evolution, however, has brought despair
and anxiety, instead of hope and enthusiasm for life, to the
modern world. The reason is to be found in the unwarranted
modern assumption that man's present structure, mental as well
as physiological, is the last word in biological evolution, and that
death, regarded as a biological event, has no constructive
meaning. The world of today needs a Riim} to create an attitude
of hope, and to kindle the fire of enthusiasm for life. His
inimitable lines may be quoted here:
First man appeared in the class of inorganic things,
Next he passed there from into that of plants.
For years he lived as one of the plants,
Remembering naught of his inorganic state so different;
And when he passed from the vegetive to the animal state
He had no remembrance of his state as a plant,
Except the inclination he felt to the world of plants,
Especially at the time of spring and sweet flowers.
Like the inclination of infants towards their mothers,
Which know not the cause of their inclination to the breast...
Again the great Creator, as you know,
Drew man out of the animal into the human state.
Thus man passed from one order of nature to another,
Till he became wise and knowing and strong as he is now.
Of his first souls he has now no remembrance.
And he will be again changed from his present soul. 62
The point, however, which has caused much difference of
opinion among Muslim philosophers and theologians is whether
the re-emergence of man involves the re-emergence of his former
physical medium. Most of them, including Shah WaH Allah, the
last great theologian of Islam, are inclined to think that it does
involve at least some kind of physical medium suitable to the
ego's new environment. It seems to me that this view is mainly
due to the fact that the ego, as an individual, is inconceivable
without some kind of local reference or empirical background.
The following verses, however, throw some light on the point:
What! when dead and turned to dust, shall we rise again? 'Remote is such
a return. Now know We what the Earth consumeth of them and with Us is
a book in which account is kept. (50: 3-4).63
To my mind these verses clearly suggest that the nature of the
universe is such that it is open to it to maintain in some other way
98 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
the kind of individuality necessary for the final working out of
human action, even after the disintegration of what appears to
specify his individuality in his present environment. What that
other way is we do not know. Nor do we gain any further
insight into the nature of the" second creation"64 by associating it
with some kind of body, however subtle it may be. The analogies
of the Qur' an, only suggest it as a fact; they are not meant to
reveal its nature and character. Philosophically speaking,
therefore, we cannot go farther than this- that in view of the past
history of man it is highly improbable that his career should
come to an end with the dissolution of his body.
However, according to the teachings of the Qur'an the ego's
re-emergence brings him a "sharp sight" (50: 22) whereby he
clearly sees his self-built "fate fastened round his neck."65 Heaven
and Hell are states, not localities. Their descriptions in the
Qur'an are visual representations 66 of an inner fact, i.e. character.
Hell, in the words of the Qur'an, is "God's kindled fire which
mounts above the hearts"67- the painful realization of one's failure
as a man. Heaven is the joy of triumph over the forces of
disintegration. There is no such thing as eternal damnation in
Islam. The word "eternity" used in certain verses, relating to
Hell, is explained by the Qur' an itself to mean only a period of
time (78: 23). Time cannot be wholly irrelevant to the
development of personality. Character tends to become
permanent; its reshaping must require time. Hell, therefore, as
conceived by the Qur' an, is not a pit of everlasting torture 68
inflicted by a revengeful God; it is a corrective experience 69
which may make a hardened ego once more sensitive to the
living breeze of Divine Grace. Nor is Heaven a holiday. Life is
one and continuous. Man marches always onward to receive
ever fresh illuminations from an Infinite Reality which" every
moment appears in a new glory".70 And the recipient of Divine
illumination is not merely a passive recipient. Every act of a free
ego creates a new situation, and thus offers further opportunities
of creative unfolding.
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 99

v
THE SPIRIT OF MUSLIM CULTURE

"MUHAMMAD of Arabia ascended the highest Heaven and

returned. I swear by God that if I had reached that point, I
should never have returned."l These are the words of a great
Muslim saint, 'Abd al-Quddus of Gangoh. In the whole range of
Sufi literature it will be probably difficult to find words which,
in a single sentence, disclose such an acute perception of the
psychological difference between the prophetic and the mystic
types of consciousness. The mystic does not wish to return from
the repose of "unitary experience"; and even when he does
return, as he must, his return does not mean much for mankind
at large. The prophet's return is creative. He returns to insert
himself into the sweep of time with a view to control the forces
of history, and thereby to create a fresh world of ideals. For the
mystic the repose of "unitary experience" is something final; for
the prophet it is the awakening, within him, of world-shaking
psychological forces, calculated to completely transform the
human world. The desire to see his religious experience
transformed into a living world-force is supreme in the prophet.
Thus his return amounts to a kind of pragmatic test of the value
of his religious experience. In its creative act the prophet's will
judges both itself and the world of concrete fact in which it
endeavours to objectify itself. In penetrating the impervious
material before him the prophet discovers himself for himself,
and unveils himself to the eye of history. Another way of judging
the value of a prophet's religious experience, therefore, would be
to examine the type of manhood that he has created, and the
cultural world that has sprung out of the spirit of his message. In
this lecture I want to confine myself to the latter alone. The idea
is not to give you a description of the achievements of Islam in
the domain of knowledge. I want rather to fix your gaze on some
of the ruling concepts of the culture of Islam in order to gain an
insight into the process of ideation that underlies them, and thus
100 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
to catch a glimpse of the soul that found expression through
them. Before, however, I proceed to do so it is necessary to
understand the cultural value of a great idea in Islam- I mean
the finality of the institution of prophethood. 2
A prophet may be defined as a type of mystic consciousness
in which "unitary experience" tends to overflow its boundaries,
and seeks opportunities of redirecting or refashioning the forces
of collective life. In his personality the finite centre of life sinks
into his own infinite depths only to spring up again, with fresh
vigour, to destroy the old, and to disclose the new directions of
life. This contact with the root of his own being is by no means
peculiar to man. Indeed the way in which the word Wahy
(inspiration) is used in the Qur' an shows that the Qur' an regards
it as a universal property of life;3 though its nature and character
are different at different stages of the evolution of life. The plant
growing freely in space, the animal developing a new organ to
suit a new environment, and a human being receiving light from
the inner depths of life, are all cases of inspiration varying in
character according to the needs of the recipient, or the needs of
the species to which the recipient belongs. Now during the minority
of mankind psychic energy develops what I call prophetic
consciousness- a mode of economizing individual thought and
choice by providing ready-made judgements, choices, and ways
of action. With the birth of reason and critical faculty, however, life,
in its own interest, inhibits the formation and growth of non-
rational modes of consciousness through which psychic energy
flowed at an earlier stage of human evolution. Man is primarily
governed by passion and instinct. Inductive reason which alone
makes man master of his environment, is an achievement; and
when once born it must be reinforced by inhibiting the growth of
other modes of knowledge. There is no doubt that the ancient
world produced some great systems of philosophy at a time when
man was comparatively primitive and governed more or less by
suggestion. But we must not forget that this system-building in
the ancient world was the work of abstract thought which cannot
go beyond the systematization of vague religious beliefs and
traditions, and gives us no hold on the concrete situations of life.
Looking at the matter from this point of view, then, the
Prophet of Islam seems to stand between the ancient and the
modern world. In so far as the source of his revelation is
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 101
concerned he belongs to the ancient world; in so far as the spirit
of his revelation is concerned he belongs to the modern world. In
him life discovers other sources of knowledge suitable to its new
direction. The birth of Islam, as I hope to be able presently to prove
to your satisfaction, is the birth of inductive intellect. In Islam
prophecy reaches its perfection in discovering the need of its own
abolition. 4 This involves the keen perception that life cannot for
ever be kept in leading strings; that, in order to achieve full self-
consciousness, man must finally be thrown back on his own
resources. The abolition of priesthood and hereditary kingship in
Islam, the constant appeal to reason and experience in the Qur' an,
and the emphasis that it lays on Nature and History as sources
of human knowledge, are all different aspects of the same idea of
finality. The idea, however, does not mean that mystic experience,
which qualitatively does not differ from the experience of the
prophet, has now ceased to exist as a vital fact. Indeed the Qur' an
regards both Anfus (self) and Afiiq (world) as sources of
knowledge. 5 God reveals His signs in inner as well as outer
experience, and it is the duty of man to judge the knowledge-
yielding capacity of all aspects of experience. The idea of finality,
therefore, should not be taken to suggest that the ultimate fate of
life is complete displacement of emotion by reason. Such a thing
is neither possible nor desirable. The intellectual value of the
idea is that it tends to create an independent critical attitude
towards mystic experience by generating the belief that all
personal authority, claiming a supernatural origin, has come to
an end in the history of man. This kind of belief is a
psychological force which inhibits the growth of such authority.
The function of the idea is to open up fresh vistas of knowledge
in the domain of man's inner experience. Just as the first half of
the formula of Islam 6 has created and fostered the spirit of a
critical observation of man's outer experience by divesting the
forces of Nature of that Divine character with which earlier
cultures had clothed them. Mystic experience, then, however
unusual and abnormal, must now be regarded by a Muslim as a
perfectly natural experience, open to critical scrutiny like other
aspects of human experience. This is clear from the Prophet's
own attitude towards Ibn Sayyad's psychic experiences. 7 The
function of Sufism in Islam has been to systematize mystic
experience; though it must be admitted that Ibn Khaldiin was
102 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
the only Muslim who approached it in a thoroughly scientific
spirit. 8
But inner experience is only one source of human knowledge.
According to the Qur' an, there are two other sources of
knowledge- Nature and History; and it is in tapping these
sources of knowledge that the spirit of Islam is seen at its best.
The Qur'an sees signs of the Ultimate Reality in the "sun", the
"moon", "the lengthening out of shadows", "the alternation of day and
night", 'the variety of human colour and tongues", "the alternation of
the days of success and reverse among peoples" - in fact in the whole
of Nature as revealed to the sense-perception of man. And the
Muslim's duty is to reflect on these signs and not to pass by
them" as if he is dead and blind", for he "who does not see these signs
in this life will remain blind to the realities of the life to come."9 This
appeal to the concrete combined with the slow realization that,
according to the teachings of the Qur' an, the universe is dynamic in
its origin, finite and capable of increase, eventually brought Muslim
thinkers into conflict with Greek thought which, in the beginning
of their intellectual career, they had studied with so much
enthusiasm. Not realizing that the spirit of the Qur' an was
essentially anti-classical, and putting full confidence in Greek
thinkers, their first impulse was to understand the Qur' an in the
light of Greek philosophy. In view of the concrete spirit of the Qur'an,
and the speculative nature of Greek philosophy which enjoyed
theory and was neglectful of fact, this attempt was foredoomed to
failure. And it is what follows their failure that brings out the
real spirit of the culture of Islam, and lays the foundation of
modem culture in some of its most important aspects.
This intellectual revolt against Greek philosophy manifests
itself in all departments of thought. I am afraid I am not
competent enough to deal with it as it discloses itself in
Mathematics, Astronomy, and Medicine. It is clearly visible in
the metaphysical thought of the Ash'arite, but appears as a most
well-defined phenomenon in the Muslim criticism of Greek
Logic. This was only natural; for dissatisfaction with purely
speculative philosophy means the search for a surer method of
knowledge. It was, I think, Nazzam who first formulated the
principle of "doubt" as the beginning of all knowledge. Ghazall
further amplified it in his Revivification of the Sciences of Religion, 10
and prepared the way for Descartes' Method'. But Ghazall
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 103
remained on the whole a follower of Aristotle in Logic.
In his Qistas he puts some of the Qur' anic arguments in the
form of Aristotelian figures,11 but forgets the Qur' anic Surah
known as Shu'ara' where the proposition that retribution follows
the gainsaying of prophets is established by the method of
simple enumeration of historical instances. It was IshraqP2 and
Ibn Taymiyyah who undertook a systematic refutation of Greek
Logic 13 Abu Bakr Razl was perhaps the first to criticize
Aristotle's first figure I4 and in our own times his objection,
conceived in a thoroughly inductive spirit, has been re-
formulated by John Stuart Mill. Ibn Hazm, in his Scope of Logic lS
emphasizes sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and Ibn
Taymiyyah in his Refutation of Logic, shows that induction is the
only form of reliable argument. Thus arose the method of
observation and experiment. It was not a merely theoretical
affair. AI-BIrun!'s discovery of what we call reaction-time and
AI-Kind!' s discovery that sensation is proportionate to the
stimulus, are instances of its application in psychology.16 It is a
mistake to suppose that the experimental method is a European
discovery. Duhring tells us that Roger Bacon's conceptions of
science are more just and clear than those of his celebrated
namesake. And where did Roger Bacon receive his scientific
training?- in the Muslim universities of Spain. Indeed Part V of
his Opus Majus which is devoted to "perspective" is practically a
copy of Ibn Haitham's OptiCS. 17 Nor is the book, as a whole,
lacking in evidences of Ibn Hazm's influence on its author.18
Europe has been rather slow to recognize the Islamic origin of
her scientific method. But full recognition of the fact has at last
come. Let me quote one or two passages from Briffault's Making
of Humanity:
.. it was under their successors at that Oxford school that Roger
Bacon learned Arabic and Arabic science. Neither Roger Bacon nor
his later namesake has any title to be credited with having
introduced the experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more
than one of the apostles of Muslim science and method to Christian
Europe; and he never wearied of declaring that a knowledge of
Arabic and Arabian science was for his contemporaries the only way
to true knowledge. Discussions as to who was the originator of the
experimental method ... are part of the colossal misrepresentation of
the origins of European civilization. The experimental method of the
Arabs was by Bacon's time widespread and eagerly cultivated
104 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
throughout Europe. (pp. 200-01) ...
Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab civilization
to the modem world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. Not until
long after Moorish culture had sunk back into darkness did the
giant to which it had given birth rise in his might. It was not science
which brought Europe back to life. Other and manifold influences
from the civilization of Islam communicated its first glow to
European life. (p. 202).
For although there is not a single aspect of European growth in
which the decisive influence of Islamic culture is not traceable,
nowhere is it so clear and momentous as in the genesis of that
power which constitutes the paramount distinctive force of the
modem world, and the supreme source of its victory- natural
science and the scientific spirit. (p. 190).
The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in
startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great
deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence. The ancient world
was, as we saw, pre-scientific. The astronomy and mathematics of
the Greeks were a foreign importation never thoroughly
acclimatized in Greek culture. The Greeks systematized,
generalized, and theorized, but the patient ways of investigation, the
accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science,
detailed and prolonged observation, experimental inquiry, were
altogether alien to the Greek temperament. Only in Hellenistic
Alexandria was any approach to scientific work conducted in the
ancient classical world. What we call science arose in Europe as a
result of a new spirit of inquiry, of new methods of investigation, of
the method of experiment, observation, measurement, of the
development of mathematics in a form unknown to the Greeks. That
spirit and those methods were introduced into the European world
by the Arabs. (p. 191).
The first important point to note about the spirit of Muslim
culture then is that, for purposes of knowledge, it fixes its gaze
on the concrete, the finite. It is further clear that the birth of the
method of observation and experiment in Islam was due not to a
compromise with Greek thought but to a prolonged intellectual
warfare with it. In fact, the influence of the Greeks who, as
Briffault says, were interested chiefly in theory, not in fact,
tended rather to obscure the Muslims' vision of the Qur' an, and
for at least two centuries kept the practical Arab temperament
from asserting itself and coming to its own. I want, therefore,
definitely to eradicate the misunderstanding that Greek thought,
in any way, determined the character of Muslim culture. Part of
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 105
my argument you have seen; part you will see presently.
Knowledge must begin with the concrete. It is the intellectual
capture of and power over the concrete that makes it possible for
the intellect of man to pass beyond the concrete. As the Qur'an
says:

o company of Jinn and men, if you can overpass the bounds of the Heaven
and the earth, then overpass them. But by power alone shall ye overpass
them. (55: 33).

But the universe, as a collection of finite things, presents itself

as a kind of island situated in a pure vacuity to which time,
regarded as a series of mutually exclusive moments, is nothing
and does nothing. Such a vision of the universe leads the
reflecting mind nowhere. The thought of a limit to perceptual
space and time staggers the mind. The finite, as such, is an idol
obstructing the movement of the mind; or, in order to overpass
its bounds, the mind must overcome serial time and the pure
vacuity of perceptual space. "And verily towards thy God is the
limit", says the Qur' an. 19 This verse embodies one of the deepest
thoughts in the Qur' an; for it definitely suggests that the
ultimate limit is to be sought not in the direction of stars, but in
an infinite cosmic life and spirituality. Now the intellectual
journey towards this ultimate limit is long and arduous; and in
this effort, too, the thought of Islam appears to have moved in a
direction entirely different to the Greeks. The ideal of the Greeks,
as Spengler tells us, was proportion, not infinity. The physical
presentness of the finite with its well-defined limits alone
absorbed the mind of the Greeks. In the history of Muslim
culture, on the other hand, we find that both in the realms of
pure intellect and religious psychology, by which term I mean
higher Sufism, the ideal revealed is the possession and
enjoyment of the Infinite. In a culture, with such an attitude, the
problem of space and time becomes a question of life and death.
In one of these lectures I have already given you some idea of
the way in which the problem of time and space presented itself
to Muslim thinkers, especially the Ash' arite. One reason why the
atomism of Democritus never became popular in the world of
Islam is that it involves the assumption of an absolute space. The
Ash' arite were, therefore, driven to develop a different kind of
106 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
atomism, and tried to overcome the difficulties of perceptual
space in a manner similar to modern atomism. On the side of
Mathematics it must be remembered that since the days of
Ptolemy (A. D. 87-165) till the time of NasIr Tiisl (A. D. 1201-74)
nobody gave serious thought to the difficulties of demonstrating
the certitude of Euclid's parallel postulate on the basis of
perceptual space. 20 It was Tiisl who first disturbed the calm
which had prevailed in the world of Mathematics for a thousand
years; and in his effort to improve the postulate realized the
necessity of abandoning perceptual space. He thus furnished a
basis, however slight, for the hyperspace movement of our
time. 21 It was, however, AI-Blriini who, in his approach to the
modern mathematical idea of function saw, from a purely
scientific point of view, the insufficiency of a static view of the
universe. This again is a clear departure from the Greek view.
The function-idea introduces the element of time in our world-
picture. It turns the fixed into the variable, and sees the universe
not as being but as becoming. Spengler thinks that the
mathematical idea of function is the symbol of the West of which
"no other culture gives even a hint." 22 In view of AI-Blriinl's
generalizing Newton's formula of interpolation from trignometrical
function to any function whatever,23 Spengler'S claim has no
foundation in fact. The transformation of the Greek concept of
number from pure magnitude to pure relation really began with
KhwarizmIs movement from Arithmetic to Algebra. 24
AI-Blriini took a definite step forward towards what Spengler
describes as chronological number which signifies the mind's
passage from being to becoming. Indeed, more recent
developments in European mathematics tend rather to deprive
time of its living historical character, and to reduce it to a mere
representation of space. That is why Whitehead's view of
Relativity is likely to appeal to Muslim students more than that
of Einstein in whose theory time loses its character of passage
and mysteriously translates itself into utter space.
Side by side with the progress of mathematical thought in
Islam we find the idea of evolution gradually shaping itself. It was
Jahiz who was the first to note the changes in bird-life caused by
migrations. later Ibn Maskawaih who was a contemporary of Al-BlrUn'i
gave it the shape of a more definite theory, and adopted it in his theological
work AI-Fauz aI-Asghar. I reproduce here the substance of his evolutionary
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 107
hypothesis, not because of its scientific value, but because of the
light which it throws on the direction in which Muslim thought
was moving.
According to Ibn Maskawaih plant-life at the lowest stage of
evolution does not need any seed for its birth and growth. Nor
does it perpetuate its species by means of the seed. This kind of
plant-life differs from minerals only in some little power of
movement which grows in higher forms, and reveals itself
further in that the plant spreads out its branches, and
perpetuates its species by means of the seed. The power of
movement gradually grows farther until we reach trees which
possess a trunk, leaves, and fruit. At a higher stage of evolution
stand forms of plant-life which need better soil and climate for
their growth. The last stage of development is reached in vine
and date-palm which stand, as it were, on the threshold of
animal life. In the date-palm a clear sex-distinction appears.
Besides roots and fibres it develops something which functions
like the animal brain, on the integrity of which depends the life
of the date-palm. This is the highest stage in the development of
plant-life, and a prelude to animal life. The first forward step
towards animal life is freedom from earth-rootedness which is
the germ of conscious movement. This is the initial stage of
animality in which the sense of touch is the first, and the sense of
sight is the last to appear. With the development of the senses
the animal acquires freedom of movement, as in the case of
worms, reptiles, ants, and bees. Animality reaches its perfection
in the horse among quadrupeds and the falcon among birds, and
finally arrives at the frontier of humanity in the ape which is just
a degree below man in the scale of evolution. Further evolution
brings physiological changes with a growing power of
discrimination and spirituality until humanity passes from
barbarism to civilization.25
But it is really religious psychology, as in 'Iraqi: and
Khawajah Muhammad ParSa,26 which brings us much nearer to
our modern ways of looking at the problem of space and time.
'Iraqi's view of time-stratifications I have given you before. 27 I
will now give you the substance of his view of space.
According to 'Iraqi: the existence of some kind of space in
relation to God is clear from the following verses of the Qur'an:
Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the heavens and all
108 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
that is in the earth? Three persons speak not privately together, but He
is their fourth; nor five, but He is their sixth; nor fewer nor more, but
wherever they be He is with them. (58: 7)
Ye shall not be employed in affairs, nor shall ye read a text out of the
Qur'an, nor shall ye do any work, but We will be witness over you when
you are engaged therein; and the weight of an atom on earth or in heaven
escapeth not thy Lord; and nor is there aught28 that is less than this or
greater, but it is in the Perspicuous Book. (10: 61).
We created man, and we know what his soul whispereth to him, and we are
closer to him than his neck-vein. (50: 16)

But we must not forget that the words proximity, contact,

and mutual separation which apply to material bodies do not
apply to God. Divine life is in touch with the whole universe on
the analogy of the soul's contact with the body.29 The soul is
neither inside nor outside the body; neither proximate to nor
separate from it. Yet its contact with every atom of the body is
real, and it is impossible to conceive this contact except by
positing some kind of space which befits the subtleness of the
soul. The existence of space in relation to the life of God,
therefore, cannot be denied;30 only we should carefully define
the kind of space which may be predicated of the Absoluteness
of God. Now, there are three kinds of space- the space of material
bodies, the space of immaterial beings, and the space of GOd. 31
The space of material bodies is further divided into three kinds.
First, the space of gross bodies of which we predicate roominess.
In this space movement takes time, bodies occupy their
respective places and resist displacement. Secondly, the space of
subtle bodies, e.g. air and sound. In this space too bodies resist
each other, and their movement is measurable in terms of time
which, however, appears to be different to the time of gross bodies.
The air in a tube must be displaced before other air can enter into
it; and the time of sound-waves is practically nothing compared
to the time of gross bodies. Thirdly, we have the space of light.
The light of the sun instantly reaches the remotest limits of the
earth. Thus in the velocity of light and sound time is reduced
almost to zero. It is, therefore, clear that the space of light is
different to the space of air and sound. There is, however, a more
effective argument than this. The light of a candle spreads in all
directions in a room without displacing the air in the room; and
this shows that the space of light is more subtle than the space of
The Spirit of Muslim Culture 109
air which has no entry into the space of light. 32 In view of the
close proximity of these spaces, however, it is not possible to
distinguish the one from the other except by purely intellectual
analysis and spiritual experience. Again, in the hot water the two
opposites- fire and water- which appear to interpenetrate each
other cannot, in view of their respective natures, exist in the
same space. 33 The fact cannot be explained except on the
supposition that the spaces of the two substances, though closely
proximate to each other, are nevertheless distinct. But while the
element of distance is not entirely absent, there is no possibility
of mutual resistance in the space of light. The light of a candle
reaches up to a certain point only, and the lights of a hundred candles
intermingle in the same room without displacing one another.
Having thus described the spaces of physical bodies
possessing various degrees of subtleness 'Iraqi proceeds briefly
to describe the main varieties of space operated upon by the
various classes of immaterial beings, e.g. angels. The element of
distance is not entirely absent from these spaces; for immaterial
beings, while they can easily pass through stone walls, cannot
altogether dispense with motion which, according to 'Iraqi, is
evidence of imperfection in spirituality. 34 The highest point in
the scale of spatial freedom is reached by the human soul which,
in its unique essence, is neither at rest nor in motion. 35 Thus
passing through the infinite varieties of space we reach the
Divine space which is absolutely free from all dimensions and
constitutes the meeting point of all infinities. 36
From this summary of 'Iraqi's view you will see how a
cultured Muslim Sufi intellectually interpreted his spiritual
experience of time and space in an age which had no idea of the
theories and concepts of modern Mathematics and Physics. 'Iraqi
is really trying to reach the concept of space as a dynamic
appearance. His mind seems to be vaguely struggling with the
concept of space as an infinite continuum; yet he was unable to
see the full implications of his thought partly because he was not
a mathematician and partly because of his natural prejudice in
favour of the traditional Aristotelian idea of a fixed universe.
Again, the interpenetration of the super-spatial "here" and
super-etemal"now" in the Ultimate Reality suggests the modern
notion of space-time which Professor Alexander, in his lectures
on Space, Time, and Deity, regards as the matrix of all
110 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
things. 37 A keener insight into the nature of time would have led
'IraqI to see that time is more fundamental of the two; and that it
is not a mere metaphor to say, as Professor Alexander does say,
that time is the mind of space. 38 'IraqI conceives God's relation to
the universe on the analogy of the relation of the human soul to
the body;39 but, instead of philosophically reaching this position
through a criticism of the spatial and temporal aspects of
experience, he simply postulates it on the basis of his spiritual
experience. It is not sufficient merely to reduce space and time to
a vanishing point-instant. The philosophical path that leads to
God as the omnipsyche of the universe lies through the
discovery of living thought as the ultimate principle of space-
time. 'IraqI's mind, no doubt, moved in the right direction, but
his Aristotelian prejudices, coupled with a lack of psychological
analysis, blocked his progress. With his view that Divine Time is
utterly devoid of change 40 a view obviously based on an
inadequate analysis of conscious experience- it was not possible
for him to discover the relation between Divine Time and serial
time, and to reach, through this discovery, the essentially Islamic
idea of continuous creation which means a growing universe.
Thus all lines of Muslim thought converge on a dynamic
conception of the universe. This view is further reinforced by Ibn
Maskawaih's theory of life as an evolutionary movement, and
Ibn Khaldun's view of history. History or, in the language of the
Qur' an, the days of God", is the third source of human
II

know ledge according to the Qur' an. It is one of the most

essential teachings of the Qur' an that nations are collectively
judged, and suffer for their misdeeds here and now. 41 In order to
establish this proposition, the Qur'an constantly cites historical
instances, and urges upon the reader to reflect on the past and
present experience of mankind. 42

Of old did we send Moses with Our signs, and said to him: "Bring forth
thy people from the darkness into the light, and remind them of the days of
God." Verily, in this are signs for every patient, grateful person. (14: 5)
And among those whom we had created are a people who guide others with
truth and in accordance therewith act justly. But as for those who treat
Our signs as lies, We gradually bring them down by means of which
they know not; and though I lengthen their days, verily, My
stratagem is effectual. (7: 181-83)
The Spirit of Muslim Culture III
Already, before your time, have precedents been made. Traverse the
earth then and see what hath been the end of those who falsify the
signs of God. (3: 137)
If a wound hath befallen you, a wound like it hath already befallen others;
We alternate the days of successes and reverses among peoples. (3: 140)
Every nation hath its fixed period. (7: 34)

The last verse is rather an instance of a more specific

historical generalization which, in its epigrammatic formulation,
suggests the possibility of a scientific treatment of the life of
human societies regarded as organisms. It is, therefore, a gross
error to think that the Qur' an has no germs of a historical
doctrine. The truth is that the whole spirit of the Prolegomena of
Ibn Khaldun appears to have been mainly due to the inspiration
which the author must have received from the Qur' an. Even in
his judgements of character he is, in no small degree, indebted to
the Qur' an. An instance in point is his long paragraph devoted
to an estimate of the character of the Arabs as a people. The
whole paragraph is a mere amplification of the following verses
of the Qur' an:

The Arabs of the desert are most stout in unbelief and dissimulation; and
likelier it is that they should be unaware of the laws which God hath sent
down to His Apostle; and God is Knowing, Wise.
Of the Arabs of the desert there are some who reckon what they expend in
the cause of God as tribute, and wait for some change of fortune to befall
you: a change for evil shall befall them! God is the Hearer, the Knower. (9:
97-98)

However, the interest of the Qur'an in history, regarded as a

source of human knowledge, extends farther than mere
indications of historical generalizations. It has given us one of
the most fundamental principles of historical criticism. Since
accuracy in recording facts which constitute the material of
history is an indispensable condition of history as a science, and
an accurate knowledge of facts ultimately depends on those who
report them, the very first principle of historical criticism is that
the reporter's personal character is an important factor in
judging his testimony. The Qur'an says: "0 believers! if any bad
112 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
man comes to you with a report, clear it up at once. (49: 6)
It is the application of the principle embodied in this verse to
the reporters of the Prophet's traditions out of which were
gradually evolved the canons of historical criticism. The growth
of historical sense in Islam is a fascinating subject. 43 The Qur' anic
appeal to experience, the necessity to ascertain the exact sayings
of the Prophet, and the desire to furnish permanent sources of
inspiration to posterity- all these forces contributed to produce
such men as Ibn Ishaq,44 Tabari,45 and Mas'ud1. 46 But history, as
an art of firing the reader's imagination, is only a stage in the
development of history as a genuine science. The possibility of a
scientific treatment of history means a wider experience, a
greater maturity of practical reason, and finally a fuller
realization of certain basic ideas regarding the nature of life and
time. These ideas are in the main two; and both form the
foundation of the Qur' anic teachings.
1. The Unity of Human Origin. "And we have created you all
from one breath of life", says the Qur' an. 47 But the perception of
life as an organic unity is a slow achievement, and depends for
its growth on a people's entry into the main current of world-
events. This opportunity was brought to Islam by the rapid
development of a vast empire. No doubt, Christianity, long
before Islam, brought the message of equality to mankind; but
Christian Rome did not rise to the full apprehension of the idea
of humanity as a single organism. As Flint rightly says, "No
Christian writer and still less, of course, any other in the Roman
Empire, can be credited with having had more than a general
and abstract conception of human unity." And since the days of
Rome the idea does not seem to have gained much in depth and
rootage in Europe. On the other hand, the growth of territorial
nationalism, with its emphasis on what is called national
characteristics, has tended rather to kill the broad human element in
the art and literature of Europe. It was quite otherwise with Islam.
Here the idea was neither a concept of philosophy nor a dream
of poetry. As a social movement the aim of Islam was to make
the idea a living factor in the Muslim's daily life, and thus
silently and imperceptibly to carry it towards fuller fruition.
2. A Keen Sense of the Reality of Time, and the Concept of Life as
a Continuous Movement in Time. It is this conception of life and
time which is the main point of interest in Ibn Khaldun's view of
The Spirit of Muslim Culture I 13
history, and which justifies Flint's eulogy that "Plato, Aristotle,
and Augustine were not his peers, and all others were unworthy
of being even mentioned along with him."48 From the remarks
that I have made above I do not mean to throw doubt on the
originality of Ibn Khaldiin. All that I mean to say is that,
considering the direction in which the culture of Islam had
unfolded itself, only a Muslim could have viewed history as a
continuous, collective movement, a real inevitable development
in time. The point of interest in this view of history is the way in
which Ibn Khaldiin conceives the process of change. His
conception is of infinite importance because of the implication
that history, as a continuous movement in time, is a genuinely
creative movement and not a movement whose path is already
determined. Ibn Khaldiin was not a metaphysician. Indeed he
was hostile to Metaphysics. 49 But in view of the nature of his
conception of time he may fairly be regarded as a forerunner of
Bergson. I have already discussed the intellectual antecedents of
this conception in the cultural history of Islam. The Qur' anic
view of the alternation of day and night"SO as a symbol of the
II

Ultimate Reality which appears in a fresh glory every moment,"S1

II

the tendency in Muslim Metaphysics to regard time as objective,

Ibn Maskawaih's view of life as an evolutionary movement,52
and lastly AI-Blriini's definite approach to the conception of
Nature as a process of becomingS3- all this constituted the
intellectual inheritance of Ibn Khaldiin. His chief merit lies in his
acute perception of, and systematic expression to, the spirit of
the cultural movement of which he was a most brilliant product.
In the work of this genius the anti-classical spirit of the Qur'an
scores its final victory over Greek thought; for with the Greeks
time was either unreal, as in Plato and Zeno, or moved in a
circle, as in Heraclitus and the Stoics. 54 Whatever may be the
criterion by which to judge the forward steps of a creative movement,
the movement itself, if conceived as cyclic, ceases to be creative.
Eternal recurrence is not eternal creation; it is eternal repetition.
We are now in a position to see the true significance of the
intellectual revolt of Islam against Greek philosophy. The fact
that this revolt originated in a purely theological interest shows
that the anti-classical spirit of the Qur' an asserted itself in spite
of those who began with a desire to interpret Islam in the light of
Greek thought.
114 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
It now remains to eradicate a grave misunderstanding
created by Spengler's widely read book, The Decline of the West.
His two chapters devoted to the problem of Arabian culture 55
constitute a most important contribution to the cultural history
of Asia. They are, however, based on a complete misconception
of the nature of Islam as a religious movement, and of the
cultural activity which it initiated. Spengler's main thesis is that
each culture is a specific organism, having no point of contact
with cultures that historically precede or follow it. Indeed,
according to him, each culture has its own peculiar way of
looking at things which is entirely inaccessible to men belonging
to a different culture. In his anxiety to prove this thesis he
marshals an overwhelming array of facts and interpretations to
show that the spirit of European culture is through and through
anti-classical. And this anti-classical spirit of European culture is
entirely due to the specific genius of Europe, and not to any
inspiration she may have received from the culture of Islam
which, according to Spengler, is thoroughly "Magian" in spirit
and character. Spengler's view of the spirit of modern culture is,
in my opinion, perfectly correct. I have, however, tried to show
in these lectures that the anti-classical spirit of the modern world
has really arisen out of the revolt of Islam against Greek
thought. 56 It is obvious that such a view cannot be acceptable to
Spengler; for, if it is possible to show that the anti-classical spirit
of modern culture is due to the inspiration which it received
from the culture immediately preceding it, the whole argument
of Spengler regarding the complete mutual independence of
cultural growths would collapse. I am afraid Spengler's anxiety
to establish this thesis has completely perverted his vision of
Islam as a cultural movement.
By the expression "Magian culture" Spengler means the common
culture associated with what he calls "Magian group of religions" ,57
i.e. Judaism, ancient Chaldean religion, early Christianity, Zoroas-
trianism, and Islam. That a Magian crust has grown over Islam, I
do not deny. Indeed my main purpose in these lectures has been to
secure a vision of the spirit of Islam as emancipated from its Magian
overlayings which, in my opinion, have misled Spengler. His
ignorance of Muslim thought on the problem of time, as well as of
the way in which the "I", as a free centre of experience, has found
expression in the religious experience of Islam, is simply appalling. 58
The Spirit of Muslim Culture lIS
Instead of seeking light from the history of Muslim thought and
experience, he prefers to base his judgement on vulgar beliefs as
to the beginning and end of time. Just imagine a man of
overwhelming learning finding support for the supposed
fatalism of Islam in such Eastern expressions and proverbs as the
"vault of time",59 and "everything has a time!"60 However, on
the origin and growth of the concept of time in Islam, and on the
human ego as a free power, I have said enough in these lectures.
It is obvious that a full examination of Spengler's view of Islam,
and of the culture that grew out of it, will require a whole
volume. In addition to what I have said before, I shall offer here
one more observation of a general nature. Spengler says: 61
The kernel of the prophetic teaching is already Magian. There is one
God- be He called Yahweh, Ahuramazda, or Marduk-Baal- who is
the principle of good, and all other deities are either impotent or
evil. To this doctrine there attached itself the hope of a Messiah, very
clear in Isaiah, but also bursting out everywhere during the next
centuries, under pressure of an inner necessity. It is the basic idea of
Magian religion, for it contains implicitly the conception of the
world-historical struggle between Good and Evil, with the power of
Evil prevailing in the middle period, and the Good finally
triumphant on the Day of Judgement.
If this view of the prophetic teaching is meant to apply to
Islam it is obviously a misrepresentation. The point to note is
that the Magians admitted the existence of false gods; only they
did not turn to worship them. Islam denies the very existence of
false gods. In this connexion Spengler fails to appreciate the
cultural value of the idea of the finality of prophethood in Islam.
No doubt, one important feature of Magian culture is a
perpetual attitude of expectation, a constant looking forward to
the coming of Zoroaster's unborn sons, the Messiah, or the
Paraclete of the fourth gospel. I have already indicated the
direction in which the student of Islam should seek the cultural
meaning of the doctrine of finality in Islam. It may further be
regarded as a psychological cure for the Magian attitude of
constant expectation which tends to give a false view of history.
Ibn Khaldun, seeing the spirit of his own view of history, has
fully criticized and, I believe, finally demolished the alleged
revelational basis in Islam of an idea similar, at least in its
psychological effects, to the original Magian idea which had
reappeared in Islam under the pressure of Magian thought. 62
116 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

VI

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOVEMENT IN THE

STRUCTURE OF ISLAM

As a cultural movement Islam rejects the old static view of

the universe, and reaches a dynamic view. As an emotional
system of unification it recognizes the worth of the individual as
such, and rejects blood-relationship as a basis of human unity.
Blood-relationship is earth-rootedness. The search for a purely
psycho-logical foundation of human unity becomes possible
only with the perception that all human life is spiritual in its
origin. 1 Such a perception is creative of fresh loyalties without
any ceremonials to keep them alive, and makes it possible for
man to emancipate himself from the earth. Christianity which
had originally appeared as a monastic order was tried by
Constantine as a system of unification. 2 Its failure to work as
such a system drove the Emperor Julian 3 to return to the old
gods of Rome on which he attempted to put philosophical
interpretations. A modern historian of civilization has thus
depicted the state of the civilized world about the time when
Islam appeared on the stage of History: 4
It seemed then that the great civilization that it had taken four
thousand years to construct was on the verge of disintegration, and
that mankind was likely to return to that condition of barbarism
where every tribe and sect was against the next, and law and order
were unknown ... The old tribal sanctions had lost their power.
Hence the old imperial methods would no longer operate. The
new sanctions created by Christianity were working division and
destruction instead of unity and order. It was a time fraught with
tragedy. Civilization, like a gigantic tree whose foliage had
overarched the world and whose branches had borne the
golden fruits of art and science and literature, stood tottering,
its trunk no longer alive with the flowing sap of devotion and
reverence, but rotted to the core, riven by the storms of war, and
held together only by the cords of ancient customs and laws, that
might snap at any moment. Was there any emotional culture that
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 117
could be brought in, to gather mankind once more into unity and to
save civilization? This culture must be something of a new type, for
the old sanctions and ceremonials were dead, and to build up others
of the same kind would be the work of centuries.

The writer then proceeds to tell us that the world stood in

need of a new culture to take the place of the culture of the
throne, and the systems of unification which were based on
blood-relationship. It is amazing, he adds, that such a culture
should have arisen from Arabia just at the time when it was
most needed. There is, however, nothing amazing in the
phenomenon. The world-life intuitively sees its own needs, and
at critical moments defines its own direction. This is what, in the
language of religion, we call prophetic revelation. It is only
natural that Islam should have flashed across the consciousness
of a simple people untouched by any of the ancient cultures, and
occupying a geographical position where three continents meet
together. The new culture finds the foundation of world-unity in
the principle of Tawhid. 5 Islam, as a polity, is only a practical
means of making this principle a living factor in the intellectual
and emotional life of mankind. It demands loyalty to God, not to
thrones. And since God is the ultimate spiritual basis of all life,
loyalty to God virtually amounts to man's loyalty to his own
ideal nature. The ultimate spiritual basis of all life, as conceived
by Islam, is eternal and reveals itself in variety and change. A
society based on such a conception of Reality must reconcile, in
its life, the categories of permanence and change. It must possess
eternal principles to regulate its collective life, for the eternal gives
us a foothold in the world of perpetual change. But eternal principles
when they are understood to exclude all possibilities of change
which, according to the Qur'an, is one of the greatest "signs" of
God, tend to immobilize what is essentially mobile in its nature.
The failure of Europe in political and social sciences illustrates
the former principle, the immobility of Islam during the last five
hundred years illustrates the latter. What then is the principle of
movement in the structure of Islam? This is known as Ijtihiid.
The word literally means to exert. In the terminology of
Islamic law it means to exert with a view to form an independent
judgement on a legal question. The idea, I believe, has its origin
in a well-known verse of the Qur' an- "And to those who exert
118 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
We show Our path." 6 We find it more definitely adumbrated in a
tradition of the Holy Prophet. When Ma' adh was appointed
ruler of Yemen, the Prophet is reported to have asked him as to
how he would decide matters coming up before him. "I will
judge matters according to the Book of God," said Ma'adh. "But
if the Book of God contains nothing to guide you? "Then I will
act on the precedents of the Prophet of God." "But if the precedents
fai1?" "Then I will exert to form my own judgement."7 The student
of the history of Islam, however, is well aware that with the
political expansion of Islam systematic legal thought became an
absolute necessity, and our early doctors of law, both of Arabian
and non-Arabian descent, worked ceaselessly until all the
accumulated wealth of legal thought found a final expression in
our recognized schools of Law. These schools of Law recognize
three degrees of Ijtihtid: (1) complete authority in legislation
which is practically confined to the founders of the schools, (2)
relative authority which is to be exercised within the limits of a
particular school, and (3) special authority which relates to the
determining of the law applicable to a particular case left
undetermined by the founders. 8 In this paper I am concerned
with the first degree of Ijtihtid only, i.e. complete authority in
legislation. The theoretical possibility of this degree of Ijtihtid is
admitted by the Sunnls, but in practice it has always been denied
ever since the establishment of the schools, inasmuch as the idea
of complete Ijtihtid is hedged round by conditions which are
well-nigh impossible of realization in a single individual. Such
an attitude seems exceedingly strange in a system of law based
mainly on the groundwork provided by the Qur' an which
embodies an essentially dynamic outlook on life. It is, therefore,
necessary, before we proceed farther, to discover the causes of
this intellectual attitude which has reduced the Law of Islam
practically to a state of immobility. Some European writers think
that the stationary character of the Law of Islam is due to the
influence of the Turks. This is an entirely superficial view, for the
legal schools of Islam had been finally established long before
the Turkish influence began to work in the history of Islam. The
real causes are, in my opinion, as follows:
1. We are all familiar with the Rationalist movement which
appeared in the church of Islam during the early days of the
Abbasids and the bitter controversies which it raised. Take for
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 119
instance the one important point of controversy between the two
camps- the conservative dogma of the eternity of the Qur' an.
The Rationalists denied it because they thought that this was
only another form of the Christian dogma of the eternity of the
Word; on the other hand, the conservative thinkers whom the
later Abbasides, fearing the political implications of Rationalism,
gave their full support, thought that by denying the eternity of
the Qur' an the Rationalists were undermining the very
foundations of Muslim society. 9 Nazzam, for instance,
practically rejected the traditions, and openly declared Abu
Hurairah to be an untrustworthy reporter. lO Thus, partly owing
to a misunderstanding of the ultimate motives of Rationalism,
and partly owing to the unrestrained thought of particular
Rationalists, conservative thinkers regarded this movement as a
force of disintegration, and considered it a danger to the stability
of Islam as a social polity.l1 Their main purpose, therefore, was
to preserve the social integrity of Islam, and to realize this the
only course open to them was to utilize the binding force of
Shari' ah, and to make the structure of their legal system as
rigorous as possible.
The rise and growth of ascetic Sufism, which gradually
developed under influences of a non-Islamic character, a purely
speculative side, is to a large extent responsible for this attitude.
On its purely religious side Sufism fostered a kind of revolt against
the verbal quibbles of our early doctors. The case of Sufyan Thawri is
an instance in point. He was one of the acutest legal minds of his
time, and was nearly the founder of a school of law,l2 but being also
intensely spiritual, the dry-as-dust subtleties of contemporary
legists drove him to ascetic Sufism. On its speculative side which
developed later, Sufism is a form of free thought and in alliance
with Rationalism. The emphasis that it laid on the distinction of
ziihir and blitin (Appearance and Reality) created an attitude of
indifference to all that applies to Appearance and not to Reality. 13
This spirit of total other-worldliness in later Sufism obscured
men's vision of a very important aspect of Islam as a social
polity, and, offering the prospect of unrestrained thought on its
speculative side, it attracted and finally absorbed the best minds
in Islam. The Muslim state was thus left generally in the hands
of intellectual mediocrities, and the unthinking masses of Islam,
having no personalities of a higher calibre to guide them, found
120 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
their security only in blindly following the schools.
3. On the top of all this came the destruction of Baghdad- the
centre of Muslim intellectual life- in the middle of the thirteenth
century. This was indeed a great blow, and all the contemporary
historians of the invasion of Tartars describe the havoc of
Baghdad with a half-suppressed pessimism about the future of
Islam. For fear of further disintegration, which is only natural in
such a period of political decay, the conservative thinkers of
Islam focused all their efforts on the one point of preserving a
uniform social life for the people by a jealous exclusion of all
innovations in the law of SharI' ah as expounded by the early
doctors of Islam. Their leading idea was social order, and there is
no doubt that they were partly right, because organization does
to a certain extent counteract the forces of decay. But they did
not see, and our modern Ulema do not see, that the ultimate fate
of a people does not depend so much on organization as on the
worth and power of individual men. In an over-organized
society the individual is altogether crushed out of existence. He
gains the whole wealth of social thought around him and loses
his own soul. Thus a false reverence for past history and its
artificial resurrection constitute no remedy for a people's decay.
"The verdict of history," as a modern writer has happily put it,
"is that worn-out ideas have never risen to power among a
people who have worn them out." The only effective power,
therefore, that counteracts the forces of decay in a people is the
rearing of self-concentrated individuals. Such individuals alone
reveal the depth of life. They disclose new standards in the light
of which we begin to see that our environment is not wholly
inviolable and requires revision. The tendency to over-
organization by a false reverence of the past, as manifested in the
Ie gists of Islam in the thirteenth century and later, was contrary
to the inner impulse of Islam, and consequently invoked the
powerful reaction of Ibn Taimiyyah, one of the most
indefatigable writers and preachers of Islam, who was born in
1263, five years after the destruction of Baghdad.
Ibn Taimiyyah was brought up in Hanbalite tradition.
Claiming freedom of Ijtihtid for, himself he rose in revolt against
the finality of the schools, and went back to first principles in
order to make a fresh start. Like Ibn Hazm- the founder of
Zahiri school of law- 14 he rejected the Hanafite principle of
reasoning by analogy and Ijmti' as understood by older legists;15
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 121
for he thought agreement was the basis of all superstition. 16 And
there is no doubt that, considering the moral and intellectual
decrepitude of his times, he was right in doing so. In the
sixteenth century SuYUtl claimed the same privilege of Ijtihad to
which he added the idea of a renovator at the beginning of each
century.17 But the spirit of Ibn Taimlyyah's teaching found a
fuller expression in a movement of immense potentialities which
arose in the eighteenth century, from the sands of Nejd, described
by Macdonald as the "cleanest spot in the decadent world of
Islam." It is really the first throb of life in modem Islam. To the
inspiration of this movement are traceable, directly or indirectly,
nearly all the great modem movements of Muslim Asia and Africa,
e.g. the Sanusl movement, the Pan-Islamic movement,18 and the
Babl movement, which is only a Persian reflex of Arabian
Protestantism. The great puritan reformer, Muhammad Ibn Abd al-I

Wahhab, who was born in 1700,19 studied in Medina, travelled in

Persia, and finally succeeded in spreading the fire of his restless soul
throughout the whole world of Islam. He was similar in spirit to
Ghazall's disciple, Muhammad Ibn Tumart 20 - the Berber puritan
reformer of Islam who appeared amidst the decay of Muslim
Spain, and gave her a fresh inspiration. We are, however, not
concerned with the political career of this movement which was
terminated by the armies of Muhammad 'All Pasha. The
essential thing to note is the spirit of freedom manifested in it,
though inwardly this movement, too, is conservative in its own
fashion. While it rises in revolt against the finality of the schools,
and vigorously asserts the right of private judgement, its vision
of the past is wholly uncritical, and in matters of law it mainly
falls back on the traditions of the Prophet.
Passing on to Turkey, we find that the idea of Ijtihad,
reinforced and broadened by modem philosophical ideas, has
long been working in the religious and political thought of the
Turkish nation. This is clear from Halim Sabit's new theory of
Muhammadan Law, grounded on modem sociological concepts.
If the renaissance of Islam is a fact, and I believe it is a fact, we
too one day, like the Turks, will have to re-evaluate our
intellectual inheritance. And if we cannot make any original
contribution to the general thought of Islam, we may, by healthy
conservative criticism, serve at least as a check on the rapid
movement of liberalism in the world of Islam.
122 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
I now proceed to give you some idea of religio-political
thought in Turkey which will indicate to you how the power of
Ijtihtid is manifested in recent thought and activity in that
country. There were, a short time ago, two main lines of thought
in Turkey represented by the Nationalist Party and the Party of
Religious Reform. The point of supreme interest with the
Nationalist Party is above all the State and not Religion. With these
thinkers religion as such has no independent function. The state
is the essential factor in national life which determines the character
and function of all other factors. They, therefore, reject old ideas
about the function of State and Religion, and accentuate the
separation of Church and State. Now the structure of Islam as a
religio-political system, no doubt, does permit such a view, though
personally I think it is a mistake to suppose that the idea of state is more
dominant and rules all other ideas embodied in the system of
Islam. In Islam the spiritual and the temporal are not two
distinct domains, and the nature of an act, however secular in its
import, is determined by the attitude of mind with which the
agent does it. It is the invisible mental background of the act
which ultimately determines its character.21 An act is temporal
or profane if it is done in a spirit of detachment from the infinite
complexity of life behind it; it is spiritual if it is inspired by that
complexity. In Islam it is the same reality which appears as
Church looked at from one point of view and State from another.
It is not true to say that Church and State are two sides or facets
of the same thing. Islam is a single unanalysable reality which is
one or the other as your point of view varies. The point is
extremely far-reaching and a full elucidation of it will involve us
in a highly philosophical discussion. Suffice it to say that this
ancient mistake arose out of the bifurcation of the unity of man
into two distinct and separate realities which somehow have a
point of contact, but which are in essence opposed to each other.
The truth, however, is that matter is spirit in space-time reference.
The unity called man is body when you look at it as acting in
regard to what we call the external world; it is mind or soul
when you look at it as acting in regard to the ultimate aim and
ideal of such acting. The essence of Tawhid, as a working idea, is
equality, solidarity, and freedom. The state, from the Islamic
standpoint, is an endeavour to transform these ideal principles
into space-time forces, an aspiration to realize them in a definite
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 123
human organization. It is in this sense alone that the state in
Islam is a theocracy, not in the sense that it is headed by a
representative of God on earth who can always screen his
despotic will behind his supposed infallibility. The critics of
Islam have lost sight of this important consideration. The
Ultimate Reality, according to the Qur'an, is spiritual, and its life
consists in its temporal activity. The spirit finds its opportunities
in the natural, the material, the secular. All that is secular is,
therefore, sacred in the roots of its being. The greatest service
that modern thought has rendered to Islam, and as a matter of
fact to all religion, consists in its criticism of what we call
material or natural- a criticism which discloses that the merely
material has no substance until we discover it rooted in the
spiritual. There is no such thing as a profane world. All this immensity
of matter constitutes a scope for the self-realization of spirit. All
is holy ground. As the Prophet so beautifully puts it: liThe whole
of this earth is a mosque. 22 The State, according to Islam, is only
II

an effort to realize the spiritual in a human organization. But in

this sense all state, not based on mere domination and aiming at
the realization of ideal principles, is theocratic.
The truth is that the Turkish Nationalists assimilated the idea
of the separation of Church and State from the history of
European political ideas. Primitive Christianity was founded,
not as a political or civil unit, but as a monastic order in a
profane world, having nothing to do with civil affairs, and
obeying the Roman authority practically in all matters. The
result of this was that when the State became Christian, State
and Church confronted each other as distinct powers with
interminable boundary disputes between them. Such a thing
could never happen in Islam; for Islam was from the very
beginning a civil society, having received from the Qur' an a set
of simple legal principles which, like the twelve tables of the
Romans, carried, as experience subsequently proved, great
potentialities of expansion and development by interpretation.
The Nationalist theory of state, therefore, is misleading
inasmuch as it suggests a dualism which does not exist in Islam.
The Religious Reform Party, on the other hand, led by Sa'id
Halim Pasha, insisted on the fundamental fact that Islam is a
harmony of idealism and positivism; and, as a unity of the
eternal verities of freedom, equality, and solidarity, has no
124 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
fatherland. "As there is no English Mathematics, German
Astronomy or French Chemistry," says the Grand Vizier, "so
there is no Turkish, Arabian, Persian or Indian Islam. Just as the
universal character of scientific truths engenders varieties of
scientific national cultures which in their totality represent
human knowledge, much in the same way the universal
character of Islamic verities creates varieties of national, moral
and social ideals." Modem culture based as it is on national
egoism is, according to this keen-sighted writer, only another
form of barbarism. It is the result of an over-developed
industrialism through which men satisfy their primitive instincts
and inclinations. He, however, deplores that during the course of
history the moral and social ideals of Islam have been gradually
deislamized through the influence of local character, and pre-
Islamic superstitions of Muslim nations. These ideals today are
more Iranian, Turkish, or Arabian than Islamic. The pure brow
of the principle of Tawhid has received more or less an impress of
heathenism, and the universal and impersonal character of the
ethical ideals of Islam has been lost through a process of
localization. The only alternative open to us, then, is to tear off
from Islam the hard crust which has immobilized an essentially
dynamic outlook on life, and to rediscover the original verities of
freedom, equality, and solidarity with a view to rebuild our
moral, social, and political ideals out of their original simplicity
and universality. Such are the views of the Grand Vizier of
Turkey. You will see that following a line of thought more in
tune with the spirit of Islam, he reaches practically the same
conclusion as the Nationalist Party, that is to say, the freedom of
Ijtihiid with a view to rebuild the laws of Sharl'ah in the light of
modem thought and experience.
Let us now see how the Grand National Assembly has exercised
this power of Ijtihiid in regard to the institution of Khilafat. According
to Sunni Law, the appointment of an Imam or Khallfah is
absolutely indispensable. The first question that arises in this connexion
is this- Should the Caliphate be vested in a single person? Turkey's
Ijtihad is that according to the spirit of Islam the Caliphate or
Imamate can be vested in a body of persons, or an elected Assembly.
The religious doctors of Islam in Egypt and India, as far as I know,
have not yet expressed themselves on this point. Personally, I believe
the Turkish view is perfectly sound. It is hardly necessary to argue
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 125
this point. The republican form of government is not only
thoroughly consistent with the spirit of Islam, but has also
become a necessity in view of the new forces that are set free in
the world of Islam.
In order to understand the Turkish view let us seek the guidance
of Ibn Khaldun- the first philosophical historian of Islam. Ibn
Khaldun, in his famous Prolegomena, mentions three distinct
views of the idea of Universal Caliphate in Islam:23 (1) That Universal
Imamate is a Divine institution, and is consequently indispensable.
(2) That it is merely a matter of expediency. (3) That there is no
need of such an institution. The last view was taken by the
Khawarij.24 It seems that modem Turkey has shifted from the
first to the second view, i.e. to the view of the Mu'tazilah who
regarded Universal Imamate as a matter of expediency only. The
Turks argue that in our political thinking we must be guided by
our past political experience which points unmistakably to the
fact that the idea of Universal Imamate has failed in practice. It
was a workable idea when the Empire of Islam was intact. Since
the break-up of this Empire independent political units have
arisen. The idea has ceased to be operative and cannot work as a
living factor in the organization of modem Islam. Far from
serving any useful purpose it has really stood in the way of a
reunion of independent Muslim States. Persia has stood aloof
from the Turks in view of her doctrinal differences regarding the
Khilafat; Morocco has always looked askance at them, and
Arabia has cherished private ambition. And all these rupture in
Islam for the sake of a mere symbol of a power which departed
long ago. Why should we not, he can further argue, learn from
experience in our political thinking? Did not Qadi Abu Bakr
Baqillani drop the condition of Qarshiyyat in the Khalifah in
view of the facts of experience, i.e. the political fall of the
Quraysh and their consequent inability to rule the world of
Islam? Centuries ago Ibn Khaldun, who personally believed in
the condition of Qarshiyat in the Khalifah, argued much in the
same way. Since the power of the Quraysh, he says, has gone,
there is no alternative but to accept the most powerful man as
Imam in the country where he happens to be powerful. Thus Ibn
Khaldun, realizing the hard logic of facts, suggests a view which
may be regarded as the first dim vision of an International Islam fairly
in sight today. Such is the attitude of the modem Turk, inspired
126 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
as he is by the realities of experience, and not by the scholastic
reasoning of jurists who lived and thought under different
conditions of life.
To my mind these arguments, if rightly appreciated, indicate
the birth of an International ideal which, though forming the
very essence of Islam, has been hitherto overshadowed or rather
displaced by Arabian Imperialism of the earlier centuries of
Islam. This new ideal is clearly reflected in the work of the great
nationalist poet Ziya whose songs, inspired by the philosophy of
Auguste Comte, have done a great deal in shaping the present
thought of Turkey. I reproduce the substance of one of his
poems from Professor Fischer's German translation:25

In order to create a really effective political unity of Islam, all

Muslim countries must first become independent: and then in their
totality they should range themselves under one Caliph. Is such a
thing possible at the present moment? If not today, one must wait.
In the meantime the Caliph must reduce his own house to order and
lay the foundations of a workable modem State.
In the International world the weak find no sympathy; power alone
deserves respect.

These lines clearly indicate the trend of modern Islam. For the
present every Muslim nation must sink into her own deeper self,
temporarily focus her vision on herself alone, until all are strong
and powerful to form a living family of republics. A true and
living unity, according to the nationalist thinkers, is not so easy
as to be achieved by a merely symbolical overlordship. It is truly
manifested in a multiplicity of free independent units whose
racial rivalries are adjusted and harmonized by the unifying
bond of a common spiritual aspiration. It seems to me that God
is slowly bringing home to us the truth that Islam is neither
Nationalism nor Imperialism but a League of Nations which
recognizes artificial boundaries and racial distinctions for facility
of reference only,26 and not for restricting the social horizon of its
members.
From the same poet the following passage from a poem
called "Religion and Science" will throw some further light on
the general religious outlook which is being gradually shaped in
the world of Islam today: 27
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 127
"Who were the first spiritual leaders of mankind? Without doubt
the prophets and holy men. In every period religion has led
philosophy; from it alone morality and art receive light. But then
religion grows weak, and loses her original ardour! Holy men
disappear, and spiritual leadership becomes, in name, the heritage
of the Doctors of Law! The leading star of the Doctors of Law is
tradition; they drag religion with force on this track; but philosophy
says: "My leading star is reason: you go right, I go left."
"Both religion and philosophy claim the soul of man and draw it on
either side!"
"When this struggle is going on" pregnant experience delivers up
positive science, and this young leader of thought says, "Tradition is
history and Reason is the method of history! Both interpret and
desire to reach the same indefinable something!"
"But what is this something?"
"Is it a spiritualized heart?"
"If so, then take my last word- Religion is positive science, the
purpose of which is to spiritualize the heart of man!"

It is clear from these lines how beautifully the poet has

adopted the Comtian idea of the three stages of man's
intellectual development, i.e. theological, metaphysical, and
scientific- to the religious outlook of Islam. And the view of
religion embodied in these lines determines the poet's attitude
towards the position of Arabic in the educational system of
Turkey. He says:28

The land where the call to prayer resounds in Turkish; where those
who pray understand the meaning of their religion; the land where
the Qur' an is learnt in Turkish; where every man, big or small,
knows full well the command of God; O! Son of Turkey! that land is
thy fatherland!

If the aim of religion is the spiritualization of the heart, then it

must penetrate the soul of man, and it can best penetrate the
inner man, according to the poet, only if its spiritualizing ideas
are clothed in his mother tongue. Most people in India will
condemn this displacement of Arabic by Turkish. For reasons
which will appear later the poet's Ijtihad is open to grave
objections, but it must be admitted that the reform suggested by
him is not without a parallel in the past history of Islam. We find
that when Muhammad Ibn Tiimart- the Mahdi of Muslim
128 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
Spain- who was Berber by nationality, came to power, and
established the pontifical rule of the Muwahhidiin, he ordered
for the sake of the illiterate Berbers, that the Qur' an should be
translated and read in the Berber language; that the call to prayer
should be given in Berber;29 and that all the functionaries of the
Church must know the Berber language.
In another passage the poet gives his ideal of womanhood. In
his zeal for the equality of man and woman he wishes to see
radical changes in the family law of Islam as it is understood and
practised today:
"There is the woman, my mother, my sister, or my daughter; it is
she who calls up the most sacred emotions from the depths of my
life! There is my beloved, my sun, my moon and my star; it is she
who makes me understand the poetry of life! How could the Holy
Law of God regard these beautiful creatures as despicable beings?
Surely there is an error in the interpretation of the Qur' an by the
leamed."30
"The foundation of the nation and the state is the family!
As long as the full worth of the woman is not realized, national life
remains incomplete."
"The upbringing of the family must correspond with justice;
Therefore equality is necessary in three things- in divorce, in
separation, and in inheritance."
"As long as the woman is counted half the man as regards
inheritance and one-fourth of man in matrimony, neither the family
nor the country will be elevated. For other rights we have opened
national courts of justice."
"The family, on the other hand, we have left in the hands of
schools."
"I do not know why we have left the woman in the lurch?"
"Does she not work for the land? Or, will she tum her needle into a
sharp bayonet to tear off her rights from our hands through a
revolution." 31
The truth is that among the Muslim nations of today, Turkey
alone has shaken off its dogmatic slumber, and attained to self-
consciousness. She alone has claimed her right of intellectual freedom;
she alone has passed from the ideal to the real- a transition
which entails keen intellectual and moral struggle. To her the
growing complexities of a mobile and broadening life are sure to
bring new situations suggesting new points of view, and necessitating
fresh interpretations of principles which are only of an academic interest
to a people who have never experienced the joy of spiritual expansion.
It is, I think, the English thinker Hobbes who makes this acute
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 129
observation that to have a succession of identical thoughts and
feelings is to have no thoughts and feelings at all. Such is the lot
of most Muslim countries today. They are mechanically
repeating old values, whereas the Turk is on the way to creating
new values. He has passed through great experiences which
have revealed his deeper self to him. In him life has begun to
move, change, and amplify, giving birth to new desires, bringing
new difficulties and suggesting new interpretations. The question
which confronts him today, and which is likely to confront other
Muslim countries in the near future is whether the Law of Islam
is capable of evolution- a question which will require great
intellectual effort, and is sure to be answered in the affirmative,
provided the world of Islam approaches it in the spirit of 'Umar-
the first critical and independent mind in Islam who, at the last
moments of the Prophet, had the moral courage to utter these
remarkable words: liThe Book of God is sufficient for US." 32
We heartily welcome the liberal movement in modem Islam,
but it must also be admitted that the appearance of liberal ideas
in Islam constitutes also the most critical moment in the history
of Islam. Liberalism has a tendency to act as a force of
disintegration, and the race-idea which appears to be working in
modem Islam with greater force than ever may ultimately wipe
off the broad human outlook which Muslim people have
imbibed from their religion. Further, our religious and political
reformers in their zeal for liberalism may overstep the proper
limits of reform in the absence of check on their youthful
fervour. We are today passing through a period similar to that of
the Protestant revolution in Europe, and the lesson which the
rise and outcome of Luther's movement teaches should not be
lost on us. A careful reading of history shows that the Reformation
was essentially a political movement, and the net result of it in
Europe was a gradual displacement of the universal ethics of
Christianity by systems of national ethics. 33 The result of this
tendency we have seen with our own eyes in the Great European
War which, far from bringing any workable synthesis of the two
opposing systems of ethics, has made the European situation still
more intolerable. It is the duty of the leaders of the world of
Islam today to understand the real meaning of what has
happened in Europe, and then to move forward with self-
control and a clear insight into the ultimate aims of Islam as a
130 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
social polity.
I have given you some idea of the history and working of
Ijtihiid in modern Islam. I now proceed to see whether the history
and structure of the Law of Islam indicate the possibility of any
fresh interpretation of its principles. In other words, the question
that I want to raise is- Is the Law of Islam capable of evolution?
Horten, Professor of Semitic Philology at the University of Bonn,
raises the same question in connexion with the Philosophy and
Theology of Islam. Reviewing the work of Muslim thinkers in
the sphere of purely religious thought he points out that the
history of Islam may aptly be described as a gradual interaction,
harmony, and mutual deepening of two distinct forces, i.e. the
element of Aryan culture and knowledge on the one hand, and a
Semitic religion on the other. A Muslim has always adjusted his
religious outlook to the elements of culture which he assimilated
from the peoples that surrounded him. From 800 to 1100, says
Horten, not less than one hundred systems of theology appeared
in Islam, a fact which bears ample testimony to the elasticity of
Islamic thought as well as to the ceaseless activity of our early
thinkers. Thus, in view of the revelations of a deeper study of
Muslim literature and thought, this living European Orientalist
has been driven to the following conclusion:

The spirit of Islam is so broad that it is practically boundless. With

the exception of atheistic ideas alone it has assimilated all the
attainable ideas of surrounding peoples, and given them its own
peculiar direction of development.

The assimilative spirit of Islam is even more manifest in the

sphere of law. Says Professor Hurgronje- the Dutch critic of
Islam:

When we read the history of the development of Mohammedan Law

we find that, on the one hand, the doctors of every age, on the
slightest stimulus, condemn one another to the point of mutual
accusations of heresy; and, on the other hand, the very same people,
with greater and greater unity of purpose, try to reconcile the
similar quarrels of their predecessors.

These views of modern European critics of Islam make it

The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 131
perfectly clear that, with the return of new life, the inner
catholicity of the spirit of Islam is bound to work itself out in
spite of the rigorous conservatism of our doctors. And I have no
doubt that a deeper study of the enormous legal literature of
Islam is sure to rid the modem critic of the superficial opinion
that the Law of Islam is stationary and incapable of
development. Unfortunately, the conservative Muslim public of
this country is not yet quite ready for a critical discussion of Fiqh,
which, if undertaken, is likely to displease most people, and
raise sectarian controversies; yet I venture to offer a few remarks
on the point before us.
1. In the first place, we should bear in mind that from the
earliest times, practically up to the rise of the Abbasids, there
was no written law of Islam apart from the Qur'an.
2. Secondly, it is worthy of note that from about the middle
of the first century up to the beginning of the fourth not less than
nineteen schools of law and legal opinion appeared in Islam. 34
This fact alone is sufficient to show how incessantly our early
doctors of law worked in order to meet the necessities of a
growing civilization. With the expansion of conquest and the
consequent widening of the outlook of Islam these early legists
had to take a wider view of things, and to study local conditions
of life and habits of new peoples that came within the fold of
Islam. A careful study of the various schools of legal opinion, in
the light of contemporary social and political history, reveals
that they gradually passed from the deductive to the inductive
attitude in their efforts at interpretation. 35
3. Thirdly, when we study the four accepted sources of
Muhammadan Law and the controversies which they invoked,
the supposed rigidity of our recognized schools evaporates and
the possibility of a further evolution becomes perfectly clear. Let
us briefly discuss these sources.
(a) The Qur'an. The primary source of the Law of Islam is the
Qur' an. The Qur' an, however, is not a legal code. Its main
purpose, as I have said before, is to awaken in man the higher
consciousness of his relation with God and the universe. 36 No
doubt, the Qur' an does lay down a few general principles and
rules of a legal nature, especially relating to the family 37 - the
ultimate basis of social life. But why are these rules made part of
a revelation the ultimate aim of which is man's higher life? The
132 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
answer to this question is furnished by the history of
Christianity which appeared as a powerful reaction against the
spirit of legality manifested in Judaism. By setting up an ideal of
other-worldliness it no doubt did succeed in spiritualizing life,
but its individualism could see no spiritual value in the
complexity of human social relations. "Primitive Christianity",
says Naumann in his Briefe iiber Religion, "attached no value to
the preservation of the State, law, organization, production. It
simply does not reflect on the conditions of human society." And
Naumann concludes: "Hence we either dare to aim at being
without a state, and thus throwing ourselves deliberately into
the arms of anarchy, or we decide to possess, alongside of our
religious creed, a political creed as well."38 Thus the Qur'an
considers it necessary to unite religion and state, ethics and
politics in a single revelation much in the same way as Plato
does in his Republic.
The important point to note in this connexion, however, is the
dynamic outlook of the Qur'an. I have fully discussed its origin
and history. It is obvious that with such an outlook the Holy
Book of Islam cannot be inimical to the idea of evolution. Only
we should not forget that life is not change, pure and simple. It
has within it elements of conservation also. While enjoying his
creative activity, and always focusing his energies on the
discovery of new vistas of life, man has a feeling of uneasiness in
the presence of his own unfoldment. In his forward movement
he cannot help looking back to his past, and faces his own
inward expansion with a certain amount of fear. The spirit of
man in its forward movement is restrained by forces which seem
to be working in the opposite direction. This is only another way
of saying that life moves with the weight of its own past on its
back, and that in any view of social change the value and
function of the forces of conservatism cannot be lost sight of. It is
with this organic insight into the essential teachings of the
Qur' an that modern Rationalism ought to approach our existing
institutions. No people can afford to reject their past entirely, for
it is their past that has made their personal identity. And in a
society like Islam the problem of a revision of old institutions
becomes still more delicate, and the responsibility of the
reformer assumes a far more serious aspect. Islam is non-
territorial in its character, and its aim is to furnish a model for
the final combination of humanity by drawing its adherents
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 133
from a variety of mutually repellent races, and then
transforming this atomic aggregate into a people possessing a
self-consciousness of their own. This was not an easy task to
accomplish. Yet Islam, by means of its well-conceived
institutions, has succeeded to a very great extent in creating
something like a collective will and conscience in this heteroge-
neous mass. In the evolution of such a society even the
immutability of socially harmless rules relating to eating and
drinking, purity or impurity, has a life-value of its own,
inasmuch as it tends to give such society a specific inwardness,
and further secures that external and internal uniformity which
counteracts the forces of heterogeneity always latent in a society
of a composite character. The critic of these institutions must,
therefore, try to secure, before he undertakes to handle them, a
clear insight into the ultimate significance of the social
experiment embodied in Islam. He must look at their structure,
not from the standpoint of social advantage or disadvantage to
this or that country, but from the point of view of the larger
purpose which is being gradually worked out in the life of
mankind as a whole.
Turning now to the groundwork of legal principles in the
Qur' an, it is perfectly clear that far from leaving no scope for
human thought and legislative activity the intensive breadth of
these principles virtually acts as an awakener of human thought.
Our early doctors of law taking their clue mainly from this
groundwork evolved a number of legal systems; and the student
of Muhammadan history knows very well that nearly half the
triumphs of Islam as a social and political power were due to the
legal acuteness of these doctors. "Next to the Romans," says von
Kremer, "there is no other nation besides the Arabs which could
call its own a system of law so carefully worked out." But with
all their comprehensiveness these systems are after all individual
interpretations, and as such cannot claim any finality. I know the
Ulema of Islam claim finality for the popular schools of
Muhammadan Law, though they never found it possible to deny
the theoretical possibility of a complete Ijtihiid. I have tried to
explain the causes which, in my opinion, determined this
attitude of the Ulema; but since things have changed and the
world of Islam is confronted and affected today by new forces
set free by the extraordinary development of human thought in
all its directions, I see no reason why this attitude should be
134 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
maintained any longer. Did the founders of our schools ever
claim finality for their reasoning's and interpretations? Never.
The claim of the present generation of Muslim liberals to
reinterpret the foundational legal principles, in the light of their
own experience and the altered conditions of modern life is, in
my opinion, perfectly justified. The teachings of the Qur' an that
life is a process of progressive creation necessitates that each
generation, guided but unhampered by the work of its
predecessors, should be permitted to solve its own problems.
You will, I think, remind me here of the Turkish poet Ziya
whom I quoted a moment ago, and ask whether the equality of
man and woman demanded by him, equality, that is to say, in
point of divorce, separation and inheritance, is possible
according to Muhammadan Law. I do not know whether the
awakening of women in Turkey has created demands which
cannot be met with without a fresh interpretation of
foundational principles. In the Punjab, as everybody knows,
there have been cases in which Muslim women wishing to get
rid of undesirable husbands have been driven to apostasy.39
Nothing could be more distant from the aims of a missionary
religion. The Law of Islam, says the great Spanish jurist Imam
SMtibl in his Al-Muwafaqat, aims at protecting five things- Din,
Najs, 'Aql, Mal, and Nasl. 40 Applying this test I venture to ask:
"Does the working of the rule relating to apostasy, as laid down
in the Hidaya, tend to protect the interests of the Faith in this
country?" 41 In view of the intense conservatism of the Muslims
of India, Indian judges cannot but stick to what are called
standard works. The result is that while the peoples are moving
the law remains stationary.
With regard to the Turkish poet's demand, I am afraid he
does not seem to know much about the family law of Islam. Nor
does he seem to understand the economic significance of the Qur'anic
rule of inheritance. 42 Marriage, according to Muhammadan Law,
is a civil contract. 43 The wife at the time of marriage is at liberty
to get the husband's power of divorce delegated to her on stated
conditions, and thus secure equality of divorce with her husband.
The reform suggested by the poet relating to the rule of inheritance is
based on a misunderstanding. From the inequality of their legal shares
it must not be supposed that the rule assumes the superiority of males
over females. Such an assumption would be contrary to the spirit of
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 135
Islam. The Qur' an says: "And for women are rights over men similar
to those for men over women." (2: 228).

The share of the daughter is determined not by any

inferiority inherent in her, but in view of her economic
opportunities, and the place she occupies in the social structure
of which she is a part and parcel. Further, according to the poet's
own theory of society, the rule of inheritance must be regarded
not as an isolated factor in the distribution of wealth, but as one
factor among others working together for the same end. While
the daughter, according to Muhammadan Law, is held to be full
owner of the property given to her by both the father and the
husband at the time of her marriage; while, further, she
absolutely owns her dower-money which may be prompt or
deferred according to her own choice, and in lieu of which she
can hold possession of the whole of her husband's property till
payment, the responsibility of maintaining her throughout her
life is wholly thrown on the husband. If you judge the working
of the rule of inheritance from this point of view, you will find
that there is no material difference between the economic
position of sons and daughters, and it is really by this apparent
inequality of their legal shares that the law secures the equality
demanded by the Turkish poet. The truth is that the principles
underlying the Qur' anic law of inheritance- this supremely
original branch of Muhammadan Law as von Kremer describes
it- have not yet received from Muslim lawyers the attention they
deserve. 44 Modern society with its bitter class-struggles ought to
set us thinking; and if we study our laws in reference to the
impending revolution in modern economic life, we are likely to
discover, in the foundational principles, hitherto unrevealed
aspects which we can work out with a renewed faith in the
wisdom of these principles.
(b) The Hadith. The second great source of Muhammadan
Law is the traditions of the Holy Prophet. These have been the
subject of great discussion both in ancient and modern times.
Among their modern critics Professor Goldziher has subjected
them to a searching examination in the light of modern canons of
historical criticism, and arrives at the conclusion that they are, on
the whole, untrustworthy!45 Another European writer,
136 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
after exammmg the Muslim methods of determining the
genuineness of a tradition, and pointing out the theoretical
possibilities of error, arrives at the following conclusion:

It must be said in conclusion that the preceding considerations

represent only theoretical possibilities and that the question whether
and how far these possibilities have become actualities is largely a
matter of how far the actual circumstances offered inducements for
making use of the possibilities. Doubtless, the latter, relatively
speaking, were few and affected only a small proportion of the
entire sunnah. It may therefore be said that ... for the most part the
collections of sunnah considered by the Moslems as canonical are
genuine records of the rise and early growth of Islam
(Mohammedan Theories of Finance).46

For our present purposes, however, we must distinguish

traditions of a purely legal import from those which are of a non-
legal character. With regard to the former, there arises a very
important question as to how far they embody the pre-Islamic
usages of Arabia which were in some cases left intact, and in
others modified by the Prophet. It is difficult to make this
discovery, for our early writers do not always refer to pre-
Islamic usages. Nor is it possible to discover that usages, left
intact by express or tacit approval of the Prophet, were intended
to be universal in their application. Shah Wall Allah has a very
illuminating discussion on the point. I reproduce here the
substance of his view. The prophetic method of teaching,
according to Shah Wall Allah, is that, generally speaking, the law
revealed by a prophet takes especial notice of the habits, ways,
and peculiarities of the people to whom he is specifically sent.
The prophet who aims at all-embracing principles, however, can
neither reveal different principles for different peoples, nor
leaves them to work out their own rules of conduct. His method
is to train one particular people, and to use them as a nucleus for
the building up of a universal Shari:' ah. In doing so he
accentuates the principles underlying the social life of all
mankind, and applies them to concrete cases in the light of the
specific habits of the people immediately before him. The
SharI'ah values (Ahkiim) resulting from this application (e.g.
rules relating to penalties for crimes) are in a sense specific to
that people; and since their observance is not an end in itself they
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 137
cannot be strictly enforced in the case of future generations. 47 It
was perhaps in view of this that Abu Hanj:fah, who had a keen
insight into the universal character of Islam, made practically no
use of these traditions. The fact that he introduced the principle
of Istihsiin, i.e. juristic preference, which necessitates a careful
study of actual conditions in legal thinking, throws further light
on the motives which determined his attitude towards this
source of Muhammadan Law. It is said that Abu Hanjfah made
no use of traditions because there were no regular collections in
his day. In the first place, it is not true to say that there were no
collections in his day, as the collections of 'Abd aI-Malik and
Zuhrj were made not less than thirty years before the death of
Abu Hanlfah. But even if we suppose that these collections never
reached him, or that they did not contain traditions of a legal
import, Abu Hanlfah, like Malik and Ahmad Ibn Hanbal after
him, could have easily made his own collection if he had
deemed such a thing necessary. On the whole, then, the attitude
of Abu Hanlfah towards the traditions of a purely legal import is
to my mind perfectly sound; and if modern Liberalism considers
it safer not to make any indiscriminate use of them as a source of
law, it will be only following one of the greatest exponents of
Muhammadan Law in Sunnj Islam. It is, however, impossible to
deny the fact that the traditionists, by insisting on the value of
the concrete case as against the tendency to abstract thinking in
law, have done the greatest service to the Law of Islam. And a
further intelligent study of the literature of traditions, if used as
indicative of the spirit in which the Prophet himself interpreted
his Revelation, may still be of great help in understanding the
life-value of the legal principles enunciated in the Qur' an. A
complete grasp of their life-value alone can equip us in our
endeavour to reinterpret the foundational principles.
(c) The Ijmii'. The third source of Muhammadan Law is Ijmii'
which is, in my opinion, perhaps the most important legal notion
in Islam. It is, however, strange that this important notion, while
invoking great academic discussions in early Islam, remained
practically a mere idea, and rarely assumed the form of a
permanent institution in any Muhammadan country. Possibly its
transformation into a permanent legislative institution was
contrary to the political interests of the kind of absolute
monarchy that grew up in Islam immediately after the
138 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
fourth Caliph. It was, I think, favourable to the interest of the
Umayyad and the Abbaside Caliphs to leave the power of Ijtihad
to individual Mujtahids rather than encourage the formation of a
permanent assembly which might become too powerful for
them. It is, however, extremely satisfactory to note that the
pressure of new world-forces and the political experience of
European nations are impressing on the mind of modem Islam
the value and possibilities of the idea of Ijma'. The growth of
republican spirit and the gradual formation of legislative
assemblies in Muslim lands constitute a great step in advance.
The transfer of the power of Ijtihad from individual
representatives of schools to a Muslim legislative assembly
which, in view of the growth of opposing sects, is the only
possible form Ijma' can take in modem times, will secure
contributions to legal discussion from laymen who happen to
possess a keen insight into affairs. In this way alone can we stir
into activity the dormant spirit of life in our legal system, and
give it an evolutionary outlook. In India, however, difficulties
are likely to arise for it is doubtful whether a non-Muslim
legislative assembly can exercise the power of Ijtihad.
But there are one or two questions which must be raised and
answered in regard to Ijma'. Can Ijma' repeal the Qur'an? It is
unnecessary to raise this question before a Muslim audience, but
I consider it necessary to do so in view of a very misleading
statement by a European critic in a book called Mohammedan
Theories of Finance- published by the Columbia University. The
author of this book says, without citing any authority, that
according to some Hanafi and Mu'tazilah writers the Ijma' can
repeal the Qur' an. 48 There is not the slightest justification for
such a statement in the legal literature of Islam. Not even a
tradition of the Prophet can have any such effect. It seems to me
that the author is misled by the word Naskh in the writings of
our early doctors to whom, as Imam Shatibl points out in Al-
Muwafiqat, vol. iii, p. 65, this word, when used in discussions
relating to the Ijma' of the companions, meant only the power to
extend or limit the application of a Qur'anic rule of law, and not
the power to repeal or supersede it by another rule of law.
And even in the exercise of this power the legal theory, as
Amidl- a Shafi'l doctor of law who died about the middle of the
seventh century, and whose work is recently published in
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 139
Egypt- tells us, is that the companions must have been in
possession of a Shari'ah value (Hukm) entitling them to such a
limitation or extension. 49
But supposing the companions have unanimously decided a
certain point, the further question is whether later generations
are bound by their decision. Shaukam has fully discussed this
point, and cited the views held by writers belonging to different
schools. 50 I think it is necessary in this connexion to discriminate
between a decision relating to a question of fact and the one
relating to a question of law. In the former case, as for instance,
when the question arose whether the two small Surahs known as
Mu'awwidhatiin 51 formed part of the Qur'an or not, and the
companion's unanimously decided that they did, we are bound
by their decision, obviously because the companions alone were
in a position to know the fact. In the latter case the question is one of
interpretation only, and I venture to think, on the authority of
Karkhl, that later generations are not bound by the decision of
the companions. Says Karkhi:: "The Sunnah of the companions is
binding in matters which cannot be cleared up by Qiyiis, but it is
not so in matters which can be established by Qiyiis." 52
One more question may be asked as to the legislative activity
of a modern Muslim assembly which must consist, at least for
the present, mostly of men possessing no knowledge of the
subtleties of Muhammadan Law. Such an assembly may make
grave mistakes in their interpretation of law. How can we
exclude or at least reduce the possibilities of erroneous
interpretation? The Persian constitution of 1906 provided a
separate ecclesiastical committee of Ulema- "conversant with
the affairs of the world" - having power to supervise the
legislative activity of the Mejliss. This, in my opinion, dangerous
arrangement is probably necessary in view of the Persian constitutional
theory. According to that theory, I believe, the king is a mere custodian
of the realm which really belongs to the Absent Imam. The Ulema,
as representatives of the Imam, consider themselves entitled to
supervise the whole life of the community, though I fail to
understand how, in the absence of an apostolic succession, they
establish their claim to represent the Imam. But whatever may be
the Persian constitutional theory, the arrangement is not free
from danger, and may be tried, if at all, only as a temporary
measure in Sunni countries. 53 The Ulema should form a vital part
140 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
of a Muslim legislative assembly helping and guiding free
discussion on questions relating to law. The only effective
remedy for the possibilities of erroneous interpretations is to
reform the present system of legal education in Muhammadan
countries, to extend its sphere, and to combine it with an
intelligent study of modern jurisprudence. 54
(d) The Qiyiis. The fourth basis of Fiqh is Qiyiis, i.e. the use of
analogical reasoning in legislation. In view of different social and
agricultural conditions prevailing in the countries conquered by
Islam, the school of Abu Hanifah seem to have found, on the
whole, little or no guidance from the precedents recorded in the
literature of traditions. The only alternative open to them was to
resort to speculative reason in their interpretations. The
application of Aristotelian logic, however, though suggested by
the discovery of new conditions in Iraq, was likely to prove
exceedingly harmful in the preliminary stages of legal
development. The intricate behaviour of life cannot be subjected
to hard and fast rules logically deducible from certain general
notions. Yet, looked at through the spectacles of Aristotle's logic,
it appears to be a mechanism pure and simple with no internal
principle of movement. Thus, the school of Abu Hanifah tended
to ignore the creative freedom and arbitrariness of life, and
hoped to build a logically perfect legal system on the lines of
pure reason. The legists of Hijaz, however, true to the practical
genius of their race, raised strong protests against the scholastic
subtleties of the Ie gists of Iraq, and their tendency to imagine
unreal cases which they rightly thought would turn the Law of
Islam into a kind of lifeless mechanism. These bitter
controversies among the early doctors of Islam led to a critical
definition of the limitations, conditions, and correctives of Qiyiis
which, though originally appeared as a mere disguise for the
Mujtahid's personal opinion, eventually became a source of life
and movement in the Law of Islam. The spirit of the acute
criticism of Malik and Shafi'i: on Abu Hanlfah's principle of
Qiyiis, as a source of law, constitutes really an effective Semitic
restraint on the Aryan tendency to seize the abstract in
preference to the concrete, to enjoy the idea rather than the
event. This was really a controversy between the advocates of
deductive and inductive methods in legal research. The legists of
Iraq originally emphasized the eternal aspect of the notion" , 1/

while those of Hijaz laid stress on its temporal aspect. The latter,
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam 141
however, did not see the full significance of their own position,
and their instinctive partiality to the legal tradition of Hijaz
narrowed their vision to the "precedents" that had actually
happened in the days of the Prophet and his companions. No
doubt they recognized the value of the concrete, but at the same
time they eternalized it, rarely resorting to Qiyiis based on the
study of the concrete as such. Their criticism of Abu Hanifah and
his school, however, emancipated the concrete as it were, and
brought out the necessity of observing the actual movement and
variety of life in the interpretation of juristic principles. Thus the
school of Abu Hanlfah which fully assimilated the results of this
controversy is absolutely free in its essential principle and
possesses much greater power of creative adaptation than any
other school of Muhammadan Law. But, contrary to the spirit of
his own school, the modern Hanafl legist has eternalized the
interpretations of the founder or his immediate followers much
in the same way as the early critics of Abu Hamfah eternalized
the decisions given on concrete cases. Properly understood and
applied, the essential principle of this school, i.e. Qiyiis, as Shafi'i
rightly says, is only another name for Ijtihiid 55 which, within the
limits of the revealed texts, is absolutely free; and its importance
as a principle can be seen from the fact that, according to most of
the doctors, as Qadi Shaukani tells us, it was permitted even in
the lifetime of the Holy Prophet. 56 The closing of the door of
Ijtihiid is pure fiction suggested partly by the crystallization of
legal thought in Islam, and partly by that intellectual laziness
which, especially in the period of spiritual decay, turns great
thinkers into idols. If some of the later doctors have upheld this
fiction, modern Islam is not bound by this voluntary surrender
of intellectual independence. Zarkashi writing in the eighth
century of the Hijrah rightly observes: 57

If the upholders of this fiction mean that the previous writers had
more facilities, while the later writers had more difficulties, in their
way, it is, nonsense; for it does not require much understanding to
see that ijtihad for later doctors is easier than for the earlier doctors.
Indeed the commentaries on the Koran and sunnah have been
compiled and multiplied to such an extent that the mujtahid of today
has more material for interpretation than he needs.

This brief discussion, I hope, will make it clear to you that

142 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
neither in the foundational principles nor in the structure of our
systems, as we find them today, is there anything to justify the
present attitude. Equipped with penetrative thought and fresh
experience the world of Islam should courageously proceed to the
work of reconstruction before them: This work of reconstruction,
however, has a far more serious aspect than mere adjustment to
modem conditions of life. The Great European War bringing in its
wake the awakening of Turkey- the element of stability in the world
of Islam- as a French writer has recently described her, and the
new economic experiment tried in the neighbourhood of Muslim
Asia, must open our eyes to the inner meaning and destiny of
Islam. 58 Humanity needs three things today- a spiritual
interpretation of the universe, spiritual emancipation of the
individual, and basic principles of a universal import directing the
evolution of human society on a spiritual basis. Modem Europe has,
no doubt, built idealistic systems on these lines, but experience shows
that truth revealed through pure reason is incapable of bringing that
fire of living conviction which personal revelation alone can
bring. This is the reason why pure thought has so little
influenced men, while religion has always elevated individuals,
and transformed whole societies. The idealism of Europe never
became a living factor in her life, and the result is a perverted
ego seeking itself through mutually intolerant democracies whose
sole function is to exploit the poor in the interest of the rich. Believe
me, Europe today is the greatest hindrance in the way of man's
ethical advancement. The Muslim, on the other hand, is in possession
of these ultimate ideas on the basis of a revelation, which, speaking
from the inmost depths of life, internalizes its own apparent
externality. With him the spiritual basis of life is a matter of
conviction for which even the least enlightened man among us
can easily lay down his life; and in view of the basic idea of Islam
that there can be no further revelation binding on man, we ought to
be spiritually one of the most emancipated peoples on earth. Early
Muslims emerging out of the spiritual slavery of pre-Islamic Asia
were not in a position to realize the true significance of this basic
idea. Let the Muslim of today appreciate his position, reconstruct his
social life in the light of ultimate principles, and evolve, out of the
hitherto partially revealed purpose of Islam, that spiritual democracy
which is the ultimate aim of Islam. 59
Is Religion Possible? 143

VII

Is RELIGION POSSIBLE? 1
BROADLY speaking religious life may be divided into three
periods. These may be described as the periods of "Faith",
"Thought", and "Discovery." In the first period religious life
appears as a form of discipline which the individual or a whole
people must accept as an unconditional command without any
rational understanding of the ultimate meaning and purpose of
that command. This attitude may be of great consequence in the
social and political history of a people, but is not of much
consequence in so far as the individual's inner growth and
expansion are concerned. Perfect submission to discipline is
followed by a rational understanding of the discipline and the
ultimate source of its authority. In this period religious life seeks
its foundation in a kind of metaphysics- a logically consistent
view of the world with God as a part of that view. In the third
period metaphysics is displaced by psychology, and religious
life develops the ambition to come into direct contact with the
Ultimate Reality. It is here that religion becomes a matter of
personal assimilation of life and power; and the individual
achieves a free personality, not by releasing himself from the
fetters of the law, but by discovering the ultimate source of the
law within the depths of his own consciousness. As in the words
of a Muslim Sufi- "no understanding of the Holy Book is
possible until it is actually revealed to the believer just as it was
revealed to the Prophet." 2 It is, then, in the sense of this last
phase in the development of religious life that I use the word
religion in the question that I now propose to raise. Religion in
this sense is known by the unfortunate name of Mysticism,
which is supposed to be a life-denying, fact-avoiding attitude of
mind directly opposed to the radically empirical outlook of our times.
Yet higher religion, which is only a search for a larger life, is
essentially experience and recognized the necessity of experience
144 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
as its foundation long before science learnt to do so. It is a
genuine effort to clarify human consciousness, and is, as such, as
critical of its level of experience as Naturalism is of its own level.

As we all know, it was Kant who first raised the question: "Is
metaphysics possible?" 3 He answered this question in the
negative; and his argument applies with equal force to the
realities in which religion is especially interested. The manifold
of sense, according to him, must fulfil certain formal conditions
in order to constitute knowledge. The thing-in-itself is only a
limiting idea. Its function is merely regulative. If there is some
actuality corresponding to the idea, it falls outside the
boundaries of experience, and consequently its existence cannot
be rationally demonstrated. This verdict of Kant cannot be easily
accepted. It may fairly be argued that in view of the more recent
developments of science, such as the nature of matter as
"bottled-up light waves", the idea of the universe as an act of
thought, finiteness of space and time and Heisenberg's principle
of indeterminacy 4 in Nature, the case for a system of rational
theology is not so bad as Kant was led to think. But for our
present purposes it is unnecessary to consider this point in
detail. As to the thing-in-itself, which is inaccessible to pure
reason because of its falling beyond the boundaries of
experience, Kant's verdict can be accepted only if we start with
the assumption that all experience other than the normal level of
experience is impossible. The only question, therefore, is
whether the normal level is the only level of knowledge-yielding
experience. Kant's view of the thing-in-itself and the thing as it
appears to us very much determined the character of his
question regarding the possibility of metaphysics. But what if
the position, as understood by him, is reversed? The great
Muslim Sufi philosopher, MuhyiddIn Ibn al-' ArabI of Spain, has
made the acute observation that God is a percept, the world is a
concept. s Another Muslim Sufi thinker and poet, 'IraqI,
insists on the plurality of space-orders and time-orders and
speaks of a Divine Time and a Divine Space. 6 It may be that
what we call the external world is only an intellectual
construction, and that there are other levels of human
experience capable of being systematized by other orders of
Is Religion Possible? 145
space and time- levels in which concept and analysis do not play
the same role as they do in the case of our normal experience. It
may, however, be said that the level of experience to which
concepts are inapplicable cannot yield any knowledge of a
universal character, for concepts alone are capable of being
socialized. The standpoint of the man who relies on religious
experience for capturing Reality must always remain individual
and income-municable. This objection has some force if it is meant
to insinuate that the mystic is wholly ruled by his traditional ways,
attitudes, and expectations. Conservatism is as bad in religion as in
any other department of human activity. It destroys the ego's
creative freedom and closes up the paths of fresh spiritual
enterprise. This is the main reason why our medieval mystic
techniques can no longer produce original discoveries of ancient
Truth. The fact, however, that religious experience is
incommunicable does not mean that the religious man's pursuit is
futile. Indeed, the incommunicability of religious experience
gives us a clue to the ultimate nature of the ego. In our daily social
intercourse we live and move in seclusion, as it were. We do not care
to reach the inmost individuality of men. We treat them as mere
functions, and approach them from those aspects of their identity
which are capable of conceptual treatment. The climax of religious
life, however, is the discovery of the ego as an individual deeper
than his conceptually describable habitual self-hood. It is in contact
with the Most Real that the ego discovers its uniqueness, its
metaphysical status, and the possibility of improvement in that
status. Strictly speaking, the experience which leads to this
discovery is not a conceptually manageable intellectual fact; it is
a vital fact, an attitude consequent on an inner biological
transformation which cannot be captured in the net of logical
categories. It can embody itself only in a world-making or world-
shaking act; and in this form alone the content of this timeless
experience can diffuse itself in the time-movement, and make
itself effectively visible to the eye of history. It seems that the
method of dealing with Reality by means of concepts is not at all
a serious way of dealing with it. Science does not care whether
its electron is a real entity or not. It may be a mere symbol, a
mere convention. Religion, which is essentially a mode of actual
living, is the only serious way of handling Reality. As a form of
higher experience it is corrective of our concepts of philosophical
146 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
theology or at least makes us suspicious of the purely rational
process which forms these concepts. Science can afford to ignore
metaphysics altogether, and may even believe it to be "a justified
form of poetry",7 as Lange defined it, or "a legitimate play of
grown-ups", as Nietzsche described it. But the religious expert
who seeks to discover his personal status in the constitution of
things cannot, in view of the final aim of his struggle, be satisfied
with what science may regard as a vital lie, a mere "as-if"s to
regulate thought and conduct. In so far as the ultimate nature of
Reality is concerned, nothing is at stake in the venture of science;
in the religious venture the whole career of the ego as an
assimilative personal centre of life and experience is at stake.
Conduct, which involves a decision of the ultimate fate of the
agent cannot be based on illusions. A wrong concept misleads the
understanding; a wrong deed degrades the whole man, and may
eventually demolish the structure of the human ego. The mere
concept affects life only partially; the deed is dynamically related to
Reality and issues from a generally constant attitude of the whole
man towards reality. No doubt the deed, i.e. the control of
psychological and physiological processes with a view to tune up the
ego for an immediate contact with the Ultimate Reality is, and
cannot but be, individual in form and content; yet the deed, too, is
liable to be socialized when others begin to live through it with a
view to discover for themselves its effectiveness as a method of
approaching the Real. The evidence of religious experts in all ages
and countries is that there are potential types of consciousness lying
close to our normal consciousness. If these types of consciousness
open up possibilities of life-giving and knowledge-yielding
experience, the question of the possibility of religion as a form of
higher experience is a perfectly legitimate one and demands our
serious attention.
But, apart from the legitimacy of the question, there are
important reasons why it should be raised at the present
moment of the history of modern culture. In the first place, the
scientific interest of the question. It seems that every culture has
a form of Naturalism peculiar to its own world-feeling; and it
further appears that every form of Naturalism ends in some sort
of Atomism. We have Indian Atomism, Greek Atomism, Muslim
Atomism, and Modern Atomism. 9 Modern Atomism is,
however, unique. Its amazing mathematics, which sees the
Is Religion Possible? 147
universe as an elaborate differential equation; and its physics
which, following its own methods, has been led to smash some
of the old gods of its own temple, have already brought us to the
point of asking the question whether the causality-bound aspect
of Nature is the whole truth about it? Is not the Ultimate Reality
invading our consciousness from some other direction as well? Is
the purely intellectual method of overcoming Nature the only
method? "We have acknowledged", says Professor Eddington: 10

that the entities of physics can from their very nature form only a
partial aspect of the reality. How are we to deal with the other part?
It cannot be said that other part concerns us less than the physical
entities. Feelings, purpose, values, make up our consciousness as
much as sense-impressions. We follow up the sense-impressions
and find that they lead into an external world discussed by science;
we follow up the other elements of our being and find that they
lead- not into a world of space and time, but surely somewhere.

In the second place we have to look to the great practical

importance of the question. The modern man with his
philosophies of criticism and scientific specialism finds himself
in a strange predicament. His Naturalism has given him an
unprecedented control over the forces of Nature, but has robbed
him of faith in his own future. It is strange how the same idea
affects different cultures differently. The formulation of the
theory of evolution in the world of Islam brought into being
Riimi's tremendous enthusiasm for the biological future of man.
No cultured Muslim can read such passages as the following
without a thrill of joy:

Low in the earth

I lived in realms of ore and stone;
And then I smiled in many-tinted flowers;
Then roving with the wild and wandering hours,
0' er earth and air and ocean's zone,
In a new birth,
I dived and flew,
And crept and ran,
And all the secret of my essence drew
Within a form that brought them all to view- And 10, a Man!
148 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
And then my goal,
Beyond the clouds, beyond the sky,
In realms where none may change or die-
In angel form; and then away
Beyond the bounds of night and day,
And Life and Death, unseen or seen,
Where all that is hath ever been,
As One and Whole.
(Rumi:: Thadanj's Translation.) 11
On the other hand, the formulation of the same view of
evolution with far greater precision in Europe has led to the
belief that "there now appears to be no scientific basis for the
idea that the present rich complexity of human endowment will
ever be materially exceeded." That is how the modern man's
secret despair hides itself behind the screen of scientific
terminology. Nietzsche, although he thought that the idea of
evolution did not justify the belief that man was unsurpassable,
cannot be regarded as an exception in this respect. His
enthusiasm for the future of man ended in the doctrine of eternal
recurrence- perhaps the most hopeless idea of immortality ever
formed by man. This eternal repetition is not eternal "becoming"; it
is the same old idea of "being" masquerading as "becoming."
Thus, wholly overshadowed by the results of his intellectual
activity, the modern man has ceased to live soulfully, i.e. from
within. In the domain of thought he is living in open conflict
with himself; and in the domain of economic and political life he
is living in open conflict with others. He finds himself unable to
control his ruthless egoism and his infinite gold-hunger which is
gradually killing all higher striving in him and bringing him
nothing but life-weariness. Absorbed in the "fact", that is to say,
the optically present source of sensation, he is entirely cut off
from the unplumbed depths of his own being. In the wake of his
systematic materialism has at last come that paralysis of energy
which Huxley apprehended and deplored. The condition of
things in the East is no better. The technique of medieval
mysticism by which religious life, in its higher manifestations,
developed itself both in the East and in the West has now
practically failed. And in the Muslim East it has, perhaps, done
far greater havoc than anywhere else. Far from reintegrating the
forces of the average man's inner life, and thus preparing him
Is Religion Possible? 149
for participation in the march of history, it has taught him a false
renunciation and made him perfectly contented with his
ignorance and spiritual thraldom. No wonder then that the
modem Muslim in Turkey, Egypt, and Persia is led to seek fresh
sources of energy in the creation of new loyalties, such as patriotism
and nationalism which Nietzsche described as "sickness and
unreason", and "the strongest force against culture".12 Disappointed
of a purely religious method of spiritual renewal which alone
brings us into touch with the everlasting fountain of life and power
by expanding our thought and emotion, the modem Muslim
fondly hopes to unlock fresh sources of energy by narrowing
down his thought and emotion. Modem atheistic socialism, which
possesses all the fervour of a new religion, has a broader outlook;
but having received its philosophical basis from the Hegelians of
the left wing, it rises in revolt against the very source which
could have given it strength and purpose. Both nationalism and
atheistic socialism, at least in the present state of human adjustments,
must draw upon the psychological forces of hate, suspicion, and
resentment which tend to impoverish the soul of man and close
up his hidden sources of spiritual energy. Neither the technique
of medieval mysticism, nor nationalism, nor atheistic socialism can
cure the ills of a despairing humanity. Surely the present moment is
one of great crisis in the history of modem culture. The modem
world stands in need of biological renewal. And religion, which
in its higher manifestations is neither dogma, nor priesthood,
nor ritual, can alone ethically prepare the modem man for the
burden of the great responsibility which the advancement of
modem science necessarily involves, and restore to him that
attitude of faith which makes him capable of winning a personality
here and retaining it hereafter. It is only by rising to a fresh
vision of his origin and future, his whence and whither, that man
will eventually triumph over a society motivated by an inhuman
competition, and a civilization which has lost its spiritual unity
by its inner conflict of religious and political values.
As I have indicated before,13 religion as a deliberate
enterprise to seize the ultimate principle of value and thereby to
reintegrate the forces of one's own personality, is a fact which
cannot be denied. The whole religious literature of the world,
including the records of specialists' personal experiences, though
perhaps expressed in the thought-forms of an out-of-date
150 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
psychology, is a standing testimony to it. These experiences are
perfectly natural, like our normal experiences. The evidence is
that they possess a cognitive value for the recipient, and, what is
much more important, a capacity to centralize the forces of the
ego and thereby to endow him with a new personality. The view that
such experiences are neurotic or mystical will not finally settle the
question of their meaning or value. If an outlook beyond physics is
possible, we must courageously face the possibility, even though
it may disturb or tend to modify our normal ways of life and thought.
The interests of truth require that we must abandon our present
attitude. It does not matter in the least if the religious attitude is
originally determined by some kind of physiological disorder.
George Fox may be a neurotic; but who can deny his purifying
power in England's religious life of his day? Muhammad, we are
told, was a psychopath. 14 Well, if a psychopath has the power to give
a fresh direction to the course of human history, it is a point of the
highest psychological interest to search his original experience
which has turned slaves into leaders of men, and has inspired
the conduct and shaped the career of whole races of mankind.
Judging from the various types of activity that emanated from
the movement initiated by the Prophet of Islam, his spiritual
tension and the kind of behaviour which issued from it, cannot
be regarded as a response to a mere fantasy inside his brain. It is
impossible to understand it except as a response to an objective
situation generative of new enthusiasms, new organizations,
new starting-points. If we look at the matter from the standpoint
of anthropology it appears that a psychopath is an important
factor in the economy of humanity's social organization. His way
is not to classify facts and discover causes: he thinks in terms of
life and movement with a view to create new patterns of
behaviour for mankind. No doubt he has his pitfalls and
illusions just as the scientist who relies on sense-experience has
his pitfalls and illusions. A careful study of his method,
however, shows that he is not less alert than the scientist in the
matter of eliminating the alloy of illusion from his experience.
The question for us outsiders is to find out an effective method
of inquiry into the nature and significance of this extraordinary
experience. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, who laid the
foundations of modern scientific history, was the first to seriously
approach this side of human psychology and reached what we
Is Religion Possible? 151
now call the idea of the subliminal self. Later, Sir William
Hamilton in England and Leibniz in Germany interested
themselves in some of the more unknown phenomena of the
mind. lung, however, is probably right in thinking that the
essential nature of religion is beyond the province of analytic
psychology. In his discussion of the relation of analytic
psychology to poetic art, he tells us that the process of artistic
form alone can be the object of psychology. The essential nature
of art, according to him, cannot be the object of a psychological
method of approach. "A distinction", says Jung: 15

must also be made in the realm of religion; there also a

psychological consideration is permissible only in respect of the
emotional and symbolical phenomena of a religion, where the
essential nature of religion is in no way involved, as indeed it cannot
be. For were this possible, not religion alone, but art also could be
treated as a mere sub-division of psychology.

Yet Jung has violated his own principle more than once in his
writings. The result of this procedure is that, instead of giving us
a real insight into the essential nature of religion and its meaning
for human personality, our modern psychology has given us
quite a plethora of new theories which proceed on a complete
misunderstanding of the nature of religion as revealed in its
higher manifestations, and carry us in an entirely hopeless
direction. The implication of these theories, on the whole, is that
religion does not relate the human ego to any objective reality
beyond himself; it is merely a kind of well-meaning biological
device calculated to build barriers of an ethical nature round
human society in order to protect the social fabric against the
otherwise unrestrainable instincts of the ego. That is why,
according to this newer psychology, Christianity has already
fulfilled its biological mission, and it is impossible for the
modern man to understand its original significance. Jung
concludes: 16
Most certainly we should still understand it, had our customs even a
breath of ancient brutality, for we can hardly realize in this day the
whirlwinds of the unchained libido which roared through the ancient
Rome of the Caesars. The civilized man of the present day seems
very far removed from that. He has become merely neurotic. So for us
the necessities which brought forth Christianity have actually been lost,
152 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
since we no longer understand their meaning. We do not know against
what it had to protect us. For enlightened people, the so-called
religiousness has already approached very close to a neurosis. In the
past two thousand years Christianity has done its work and has
erected barriers of repression, which protect us from the sight of our
own sinfulness.

This is missing the whole point of higher religious life. Sexual

self-restraint is only a preliminary stage in the ego's evolution.
The ultimate purpose of religious life is to make this evolution
move in a directiC?n far more important to the destiny of the ego
than the moral health of the social fabric which forms his present
environment. The basic perception from which religious life
moves forward is the present slender unity of the ego, his
liability to dissolution, his amenability to reformation and the
capacity for an ampler freedom to create new situations in
known and unknown environments. In view of this fundamental
perception, higher religious life fixes its gaze on experiences
symbolic of those subtle movements of Reality which seriously
affect the destiny of the ego as a pOSSibly permanent element in
the constitution of Reality. If we look at the matter from this
point of view, modern psychology has not yet touched even the
outer fringe of religious life, and is still far from the richness and
variety of what is called religious experience. In order to give
you an idea of its richness and variety I quote here the substance
of a passage from a great religious genius of the seventeenth
century- Shaikh Ahmad of Sirhind- whose fearless analytical
criticism of contemporary Sufism resulted in the development of
a new technique. All the various systems of Sufi technique in
India came from Central Asia and Arabia; his is the only
technique which crossed the Indian border and is still a living
force in the Punjab, Afghanistan, and Asiatic Russia. I am afraid
it is not possible for me to expound the real meaning of this
passage in the language of modern psychology; for such
language does not yet exist. Since, however, my object is simply
to give you an idea of the infinite wealth of experience which the
ego in his Divine quest has to sift and pass through, I do hope
you will excuse me for the apparently outlandish terminology
which possesses a real substance of meaning, but which was
formed under the inspiration of a religious psychology
developed in the atmosphere of a different culture. Coming now to
Is Religion Possible? 153
the passage. The experience of one 'Abd al-Mu'min was
described to the Shaikh as follows: 17
Heavens and Earth and God's Throne and Hell and Paradise have
all ceased to exist for me. When I look round I find them nowhere.
When I stand in the presence of somebody I see nobody before me:
nay even my own being is lost to me. God is infinite. Nobody can
encompass Him; and this is the extreme limit of spiritual experience.
No saint has been able to go beyond this.

On this the Shaikh replied:

The experience which is described has its origin in the ever varying
life of the Qalb; and it appears to me that the recipient of it has not
yet passed even one fourth of the innumerable "Stations" of the
Qalb. The remaining three-fourths must be passed through in order
to finish the experiences of this first "Station" of spiritual life.
Beyond this "Station" there are other "Stations" known as Rith, Sirr-
i-Khafi, and Sirr-i-Akhfii, each of these "Stations" which together
constitute what is technically called 'Alam-i Amr, has its own
characteristic states and experiences. After having passed through
these "Stations" the seeker of truth gradually receives the
illuminations of "Divine Names" and "Divine Attributes" and
finally the illuminations of the Divine Essence.

Whatever may be the psychological ground of the

distinctions made in this passage it gives us at least some idea of
a whole universe of inner experience as seen by a great reformer
of Islamic Sufism. According to him this 'Alam-i- Amr, i.e. lithe
world of directive energy", must be passed through before one
reaches that unique experience which symbolizes the purely
objective. This is the reason why I say that modern psychology
has not yet touched even the outer fringe of the subject.
Personally, I do not at all feel hopeful of the present state of
things in either biology or psychology. Mere analytical criticism
with some understanding of the organic conditions of the
imagery in which religious life has sometimes manifested itself is
not likely to carry us to the living roots of human personality.
Assuming that sex-imagery has played a role in the history of
religion, or that religion has furnished imaginative means of
escape from, or adjustment to, an unpleasant reality- these ways
of looking at the matter cannot, in the least, affect the ultimate
154 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
aim of religious life, that is to say, the reconstruction of
the finite ego by bringing him into contact with an eternal life-
process, and thus giving him a metaphysical status of which we
can have only a partial understanding in the half-choking
atmosphere of our present environment. If, therefore, the science
of psychology is ever likely to possess a real significance for the
life of mankind, it must develop an independent method
calculated to discover a new technique better suited to the
temper of our times. Perhaps a psychopath endowed with a
great intellect- the combination is not an impossibility- may give
us a clue to such a technique. In modern Europe, Nietzsche,
whose life and activity form, at least to us Easterns, an
exceedingly interesting problem in religious psychology, was
endowed with some sort of a constitutional equipment for such
an undertaking. His mental history is not without a parallel in
the history of Eastern Sufism. That a really "imperative" vision
of the Divine in man did come to him, cannot be denied. 1 call
his vision "imperative" because it appears to have given him a
kind of prophetic mentality which, by some kind of technique,
aims at turning its visions into permanent life-forces. Yet
Nietzsche was a failure; and his failure was mainly due to his
intellectual progenitors such as Schopenhauer, Darwin, and
Lange whose influence completely blinded him to the real
significance of his vision. Instead of looking for a spiritual rule
which would develop the Divine even in a plebeian and thus
open up before him an infinite future, Nietzsche was driven to
seek the realization of his vision in such schemes as aristocratic
radicalism. 18 As I have said of him elsewhere: 19
The "I am" which he seeketh,
Lieth beyond philosophy, beyond knowledge.
The plant that groweth only from the invisible soil of the
heart of man,
Groweth not from a mere heap of clay!
Thus failed a genius whose vision was solely determined by
his internal forces, and remained unproductive for want of
expert external guidance in his spiritual life,20 and the irony of
fate is that this man, who appeared to his friends as if he had
II

come from a country where no man lived", was fully conscious

of his great spiritual need. "I confront alone", he says, "an immense
problem: it is as if I am lost in a forest, a primeval one. I need
Is Religion Possible? 155
help. I need disciples: I need a master.21 It would be so sweet to
obey." And again:
Why do I not find among the living men who see higher than I do
and have to look down on me? Is it only that I have made a poor
search? And I have so great a longing for such.
The truth is that the religious and the scientific processes,
though involving different methods, are identical in their final
aim. Both aim at reaching the most real. In fact, religion, for
reasons which I have mentioned before, is far more anxious to
reach the ultimately real than science. 22 And to both the way to
pure objectivity lies through what may be called the purification
of experience. In order to understand this we must make a
distinction between experience as a natural fact, significant of
the normally observable behaviour of reality, and experience as
significant of the inner nature of reality. As a natural fact it is
explained in the light of its antecedents, psychological and
physiological; as significant of the inner nature of reality we
shall have to apply criteria of a different kind to clarify its
meaning. In the domain of science we try to understand its
meaning in reference to the external behaviour of reality; in the
domain of religion we take it as representative of some kind of
Reality and try to discover its meanings in reference mainly to
the inner nature of that Reality. The scientific and the religious
processes are in a sense parallel to each other. Both are really
descriptions of the same world with this difference only that in
the scientific process the ego's standpoint is necessarily
exclusive, whereas in the religious process the ego integrates its
competing tendencies and develops a single inclusive attitude
resulting in a kind of synthetic transfiguration of his experiences.
A careful study of the nature and purpose of these really
complementary processes shows that both of them are directed
to the purification of experience in their respective spheres. An
illustration will make my meaning clear. Hume's criticism of our
notion of cause must be considered as a chapter in the history of
science rather than that of philosophy. True to the spirit of
scientific empiricism we are not entitled to work with any
concepts of a subjective nature. The point of Hume's criticism is
to emancipate empirical science from the concept of force which,
as he urges, has no foundation in sense-experience. This was the
156 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
first attempt of the modern mind to purify the scientific process.
Einstein's mathematical view of the universe completes the
process of purification started by Hume, and, true to the spirit of
Hume's criticism, dispenses with the concept of force
altogether. 23 The passage I have quoted from the great Indian
saint shows that the practical student of religious psychology
has a similar purification in view. His sense of objectivity is as
keen as that of the scientist in his own sphere of objectivity. He
passes from experience to experience, not as a mere spectator,
but as a critical sifter of experience who by the rules of a peculiar
technique, suited to his sphere of inquiry, endeavours to
eliminate all subjective elements, psychological or physiological,
in the content of his experience with a view finally to reach what
is absolutely objective. This final experience is the revelation of a
new life-process- original, essential, spontaneous. The eternal
secret of the ego is that the moment he reaches this final
revelation he recognizes it as the ultimate root of his being
without the slightest hesitation. Yet in the experience itself there
is no mystery. Nor is there anything emotional in it. Indeed with
a view to secure a wholly non-emotional experience the
technique of Islamic Sufism at least takes good care to forbid the
use of music in worship, and to emphasize the necessity of daily
congregational prayers in order to counteract the possible anti-
social effects of solitary contemplation. Thus the experience
reached is a perfectly natural experience and possesses a
biological significance of the highest importance to the ego. It is
the human ego rising higher than mere reflection, and mending
its transiency by appropriating the eternal. The only danger to
which the ego is exposed in this Divine quest is the possible
relaxation of his activity caused by his enjoyment of and
absorption in the experiences that precede the final experience.
The history of Eastern Sufism shows that this is a real danger.
This was the whole point of the reform movement initiated by
the great Indian saint from whose writings I have already quoted a
passage. And the reason is obvious. The ultimate aim of the ego
is not to see something, but to be something. It is in the ego's effort to
be something that he discovers his final opportunity to sharpen his
objectivity and acquire a more fundamental "I am" which finds
evidence of its reality not in the Cartesian "I think" but in the
Kantian "I can." The end of the ego's quest is not emancipation
Is Religion Possible? 157
from the limitations of individuality; it is, on the other hand, a more
precise definition of it. The final act is not an intellectual act, but
a vital act which deepens the whole being of the ego, and
sharpens his will with the creative assurance that the world is
not something to be merely seen or known through concepts, but
something to be made and re-made by continuous action. It is a
moment of supreme bliss and also a moment of the greatest trial
for the ego:
Art thou in the stage of "life", "death", or "death-in-life"
Invoke the aid of three witnesses to verify thy "Station."
The first witness is thine own consciousness-
See thyself, then, with thine own light.
The second witness is the consciousness of another ego-
See thyself, then, with the light of an ego other than thee.
The third witness is God's consciousness-
See thyself, then, with God's light.
If thou standest unshaken in front of this light,
Consider thyself as living and eternal as He!
That man alone is real who dares-
Dares to see God face to face!
What is" Ascension"? Only a search for a witness
Who may finally confirm thy reality-
A witness whose confirmation alone makes thee eternal.
No one can stand unshaken in His Presence;
And he who can, verily, he is pure gold.
Art thou a mere particle of dust?
Tighten the knot of thy ego;
And hold fast to thy tiny being!
How glorious to burnish one's ego.
And to test its lustre in the presence of the Sun!
Re-chisel, then, thine ancient frame;
And build up a new being.
Such being is real being;
Or else thy ego is a mere ring of smoke!
'avid Niimah 24
158 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

NOTES AND REFERENCES

Lecture 1: Knowledge and Religious Experience

1 Reference here is to the following verse from the mystical allegorical
work: Mantiq al-Tair (p. 243, verse, 5), generally considered the magnum
opus of one of the greatest Sufi poets and thinkers, Fari"d aI-DIn' Attar
(d. c. 618/1220). Also available in English translation, see, Peter Avery,
Speech of the Birds, Islamic Text SOciety, Cambridge, England, 2004. The
verse reads as follows:
-tJ 0-1 V';; J"'! ( Vi ..y
-tJ fl (J/ .(
2 A. N. Whitehead, Religion in the Making, p. 5.
3 Ibid., p. 73.
4 Cf. H. L. Bergson, Creative Evolution, pp. 187-88.
5 Allahumma arina haqa'iq al-ashya'i kama hiya, a tradition, though not
cited in the six canonical Hadith Collections, is to be found in the well-
known Sufi works in one form or other, for example, 'Ali b. 'Uthman al-
Hujwi"ri (d. c. 465/1072), Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 166; MawIana Jalal aI-Din
Rumi" (d. 672/1273), Mathnawi-i Ma'nawi, ii, 466-67; iv, 3567-68; v, 1765;
Mahmud Sbahistari" (d. 720/1320), Gulshan-i Raz, verse 200, and' Abd al-
Rahman Jami (d. 898/1492), Lawii'ih, p. 3.
6 Qur'an, 16: 68-69.
7 Ibid., 2: 164; 24: 43-44; 30: 48; 35: 9; 45: 5.
8 Ibid., 15: 16; 25: 6; 37: 6; 41: 12; 50: 6; 67: 5; 85: 1.
9 Ibid., 21: 33; 36: 40.
10 Cf. F. M. Cornford, Plato's Theory of Knowledge, pp. 29-109; also
Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, chapter: 'Knowledge and
Perception in Plato.'
11 Qur' an, 16: 78; 23: 78; 32: 9; 67: 23.
12 Ibid., 17: 36. References here as also at other places in the Lectures to a
dozen Qur' anic verses in two sentences bespeak of what is uppermost
in Allama Iqbal's mind, i.e. Qur'anic empiricism which by its very
nature gives rise to a Weltanschauung of the highest religious order. He
tells us, for example, that the general empirical attitude of the Qur'an
engenders a feeling of reverence for the actual and that one way of
entering into relation with Reality is through reflective observation and
control of its perceptually revealed symbols (cf. below, pp. 11-12, italics
Notes and References 159

mine; also Lecture V, p. 102, note 9).

13 For anti-classicism of the Qur' an d. Mazheruddin Siddiqi, Concept of
Muslim Culture in Iqbal, pp. 13-25; also Lecture V, note 21.
14 Cf. R. A. Tsanoff, The Problem of Immortality, pp. 75-77, and B. H.
Zedler, 'Averroes and Immortality', New Scholasticism (1954), pp. 436-53.
It is to be noted that Tsanoff marshals the views of S. Munk (Melanges de
philosoph ie, pp. 454 ff.), E. Renan (Averroes et I' averroisme, pp. 152, 158),
A. Stockl (Geschichte der Philosophie des Mitte/alters, II, 117, 119), de Boer
(Geschichte der Philosophie, p. 173) and M. Horten (Die Hauptlehren des
Averroes, pp. 244 ff.) as against those of Carra de Vaux as presented by
him in his work Avicenne, pp. 233 ff., as well as in the article: 'Averroes'
in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 264-65, and clinches the matter
thus: "certainly- and this is more Significant for our purpose- it was as
a denier of personal immortality that scholasticism received and
criticised Averroes" (p. 77, lines, 16-19). For a recent and more balanced
view of Ibn Rushd's doctrine of immortality, d. Roger Arnaldez and A.
Z. Iskander, 'Ibn Rushd', Dictionary of Scientific Biography, XII, 7a-7b.
15 Cf. Tsanoff, op. cit., pp. 77-84, and M. YOnus Farangi Mahalli, Ibn
Rushd (Urdu; partly based on Renan's Averroes et /' averroisme), pp. 347-
59.
16 See Lecture IV, pp. 93-98, and Lecture VII, pp. 156-57.
17 Reference is to the expression lawh al-mahfUz used in the Qur' anic
verse 85: 22.
18 This comes quite close to the contemporary French philosopher Louis
Rougier's statement in his Philosophy and the New Physics, p. 146, lines.
17-21. This work, listed at S. No. 15 in the Descriptive Catalogue of Allama
Iqbal's Personal Library, is cited in Lecture III, p. 59.
19 Reference here is to Tevfik Fikret, pseudonym of Mehmed Tevfik, also
known as Tevfik Nazmi, and not to Tawfik Fitrat as it got printed in the
previous editions of the present work. Fikret, widely considered the
founder of the modern school of Turkish poetry and remembered
among other works for his collection of poems: Rubab-i Shikeste (The
Broken Lute), died in Istanbul on 18 August 1915 at the age of forty-
eight. For an account of Fikret's literary career and his anti-religious
views, d. Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey, pp.
300-2 and 338-39; also Haydar Ali Dirioz's brief paper in Turkish on
Fikret's birth-centenary translated by Dr. M. H. Notqi for the Journal of
the Regional Cultural Institute, 1/4 (Autumn 1968), 12-15.
It is for Turkish-Persian scholars to determine the extent to which Fikret
made use of the great poet-thinker Bedil (d. 1133/1721) for "the anti-
religious and especially anti-Islamic propaganda in Central Asia."
Among very many works on both Bedil and Fikret that have appeared
since Allama's days and are likely to receive the scholars' attention,
160 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

mention must be made of Allama's own short perceptive study: "Bedil

in the Light of Bergson", an essay in Allama's hand (20 folios) preserved
in the Allama Iqbal Museum (Lahore), d. Dr .. Ahmad Nabi Khan, Relics
of Allama Iqbal (Catalogue), 1, 25, with photographic reproduction of the
first sheet, see Iqbal Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 1982. It is now available
in print in an annotated edition, see Tehsin Firaqi, (Ed.), Bedil in the Light
of Bergson, Iqbal Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 1994.
20 Cf. John Oxenford (Ir.), Conversations of Goethe with Eckermann and
Sorret, p. 41.
21 The Qur'an criticises monasticism; see 57: 27; 2: 201 and 28: 77. Cf.
also 1. A. Sherwani, (Ed.), Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, Iqbal
Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 1977, p. 7, for Allama Iqbal's observations
on the respective attitudes of Christianity and Islam towards the
problems of life leading to his keenly profound pronouncement: "The
religious ideal of Islam, therefore, is organically related to the social
order which it has created."
22 Qur'an, 44: 38-39. There are many verses of the Qur'an wherein it has
been maintained that the universe has not been created in sport (Ia'ibin)
or in vain (bati/an) but for a serious end or with truth (bi 'I-haqq). These
are respectively: (a) 21: 16 (b) 3: 191; 38: 27 (c) 10: 5; 14: 19: 15: 85: 16: 3;
29: 44; 30: 8; 39: 5; 45: 22; 46:3: and 64: 3.
23 See also the Qur'anic verse 51: 47 wherein the phrase inna la-miisi'iin
has been interpreted to clearly foreshadow the modern notion of the
"expanding universe" (d. M. Asad, The Message of the Qur'an, p. 80S,
note 31).
24 Reference here is in particular to the Prophetic tradition worded as: la
tasubbu 'I-dahr fa inn Allah huwa 'I-dahr, (Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, V,
299 and 311). Cf. also BukhaIi, Sahih, 'Tafslr'; 45; 'Tawhld' 35; , Adclb'
101; and Muslim, Sahih, 'Alfaz' 2-4; for other variants of the hadtth see,
Sahifa Hammam Ibn Munabbih (ed. Dr. M. Hamidullah), hadlth 117, gives
one of its earliest recorded texts.
In an exceedingly important section captioned AI-Waqtu Saifun (Time is
a Sword) of his celebrated Asrar-i Khudi (Secrets of the Self>, Allama Iqbal
has referred to the above hadlth thus:
..::,...-1 /oj, /oJ;I
fl.. ..
")""';IIr.'U"
Life is of Time and Time is of Life;
'Do not abuse Time!' was the command of the Prophet.
(trans. Nicholson)
25 Reference is to the Qur'anic verse 70: 19 which says: "Man has been
created restless (halii'an)."
26 This is very close to the language of the Qur' an which speaks of the
Notes and References 161

hardening of the hearts, so that they were like rocks: see 2: 74, 5: 13; 6:
43; 39: 22; and 57: 16.
This shows that Allama Iqbal, through his keenly perceptive study of
the Qur' an, had psychically assimilated both its meanings and its
diction so much so that many of his visions, very largely found in his
poetical works, may be said to be born of this rare assimilation; d. Dr.
Ghul<im Mustafa Khan's voluminous Iqbiil aur Qur'an (Urdu), Iqbal
Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 1994. Also see Hamid Saeed Akhtar,
"Qur'an aur Iqbal", Iqbiiliyiit, Journal of the Iqbal Academy Pakistan,
Lahore, Vol. 43, No.1, 2002, pp. 17-28; T. H. Tanuli, "Fikr i Iqbal aur
Fehm i Qur'an ki Jihat", Iqbiiliyiit, Vol. 48, No.2, 2007, pp. 75-94.
27 Qur'an, 41: 53; also 51: 20-21.
28 Reference here is to the Mathnawi; ii, 52:

)) J J .:;.,1 (jl-\,I ) /
)4 J ;1 ,if
The bodily sense is eating the food of darkness
The spiritual sense is feeding from a sun.
(trans. Nicholson)
29 Qur'an, 53: 11-12.
30 Ibid., 22: 46.
31 Cf. Bukhari, Sahih, 'Jana'iz', 79, 'Shahadah' 3, 'Jihad', 160, 178;
Muslim, Sahih, 'Fitan', 95-96. D. J. Halperin's article: 'The Ibn Sayyad
Traditions and the Legend of al-Dajjal', Journal of the American Oriental
Society, XCII/ii (1976), 213-25, gives an atomistic analytic account of the
Hadith narratives listed by him.
32 In Arabic: law taraktuhu bayyana, an invariable part of the text of a
number of Hadith accounts about Ibn Sayyad; d. D. B. Macdonald, The
Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, pp. 35 ff.; this book, which represents
Macdonald's reputed Haskell Lectures on Comparative Religion at
Chicago University in 1906, seems to have attracted Allama's attention
in the present discussion. Also see Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, trans.
Rosenthall, Vol. III, Section vi, Discourse: 'The Science of Sufism'; D. B.
Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, pp. 165-74, and M. Syrier,
'Ibn Khaldun and Mysticism', Islamic Culture, XXI/ii (1947),264-302.
33 Cf. D. B. Macdonald, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, p. 36.
34 Cf. Lecture V, pp. 100 ff.
35 The term 'subliminal self' was coined by F. W. H. Myers in the 1890's
which soon became popular in 'religious psychology' to designate what
was believed to be the larger portion of the self lying beyond the level of
consciousness yet constantly influencing thought and behaviour as in
para-psychic phenomena. With William James the concept of subliminal
self came to stand for the area of human experience in which contact
162 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

with the Divine Life may occur (d. The Varieties of Religious Experience,
pp.511-15).
36 Macdonald, op. cit., p. 42.
37 Cf. Muhyiddin Ibn' Arabi's observation that 'God is a percept, the
world is a concept', referred to in Lecture VII, p. 144.
38 Ibid., p. 145, where it is observed: 'Indeed the incommunicability of
religious experience gives us a clue to the ultimate nature of the human
ego.'
39 W. E. Hocking, The Meaning of Cod in Human Experience, p. 66. It is
important to note here that according to Richard C. Gilman this concept
of the inextricable union of idea and feeling is 'the source of the strong
strain of mysticism in Hocking's philosophy, but it is a mysticism which
does not abandon the role of intellect in clarifying and correcting intuition;
d. article: 'Hocking, William Ernest', Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, IV, 47
(italics mine).
40 Reference here perhaps is to the hot and long-drawn controversy
between the Mu'tazilites (early Muslim rationalists) and the Ash'arties
(the orthodox scholastics) on the issue of Khalq al-Qur'an, i.e. the
createdness or the eternity of the Qur' an; for which see Lecture VI, note
9. The context of the passage, however, strongly suggests that Allama
Iqbal means to refer here to the common orthodox belief that the text of
the Qur'an is verbally revealed, i.e. the 'word' is as much revealed as
the 'meaning'. This has perhaps never been controverted and rarely if
ever discussed in the history of Muslim theology- one notable instance
of its discussion is that by Shah WaH Allah in Sata'at and Fuyud al-
Haramain. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that there is some
analogical empirical evidence in Allama's personal life in support of the
orthodox belief in verbal revelation. Once asked by Professor Lucas,
Principal of a local college, in a private discourse, whether, despite his
vast learning, he too subscribed to belief in verbal revelation, Allama
immediately replied that it was not a matter of belief with him but a
veritable personal experience for it was thus, he added, he composed
his poems under the spells of poetic inspiration- surely, Prophetic
revelations are far more exalted. Cf. 'Abdul Majid Salik, Dhikr-i Iqbal,
pp. 244-45 and Faq!r Sayyid Wahid-ud-Dln, Ruzgar-i Faqir, pp. 38-39.
After Allama's epoch-making Mathnawi: Asrar-i Khudi (Secrets of the
Self) was published in 1915 and it had given rise to some bitter
controversy because of his critique of Persianate Sufism and the great
Hafiz, he in a letter dated 14 April 1916 addressed to Maharaja Kishen
Parshad Shad confided strictly in a personal way: 'I did not compose
the mathnawi myself; I was made to (guided to), to do so'; d. M.
'Abdullah Quraishi, 'Nawadir-i Iqbal' (Chair Matbu'ah Khutut)" Sahifah,
Bazm i Iqbal, Lahore, 'Special Iqbal Issue' (October 1973), Letter No. 41,
Notes and References 163

p.168.
41 Cf. William James, op. cit., p. 15.
42 Ibid., p. 21.
43 The designation 'apostle' (rasul) is applied to bearers of divine
revelations which embody a new doctrinal system or dispensation; a
'prophet' (nabi), on the other hand, is said to be one whom God has
entrusted with enunciation and elucidation of ethical principles on the
basis of an already existing dispensation, or of principles common to all
dispensations. Hence, every apostle is a prophet as well, but every
prophet is not an apostle.
44 Cf. Lecture VII, pp. 143-44, where this point is reiterated.
45 E. W. Hocking, op. cit., pp. 106-07.

Lectures II: The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious

Experience
1 Cf. E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (trans.), The Philosophical Works of
Descartes, II, 57.
2 Cf. The Critique of Pure Reason, (trans.) N. Kemp Smith, p. 505.
3 The logical fallacy of assuming in the premises of that which is to be
proved in the conclusion.
4 Qur'an, 41: 53, also 51: 20-21.
5 Ibid., 57: 3.
6 Cf. R. F. A. Hoemle, Matter, Life, Mind and God, pp. 69-70.
7 Cf. H. Barker, article: 'Berkeley' in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
especially the section: 'Metaphysics of Immaterialism'; see also Lecture
IV, p. 83, for Allama Iqbal's acute observations in refutation of 'the
hypothesis of matter as an independent existence:
8 Cf. A. N. Whitehead, The Concept of Nature, p. 30. This is what
Whitehead has called the 'theory of bifurcation of Nature' based on the
dichotomy of 'simply located material bodies of Newtonian physics'
and the 'pure sensations' of Hume. According to this theory, Nature is
split up into two disparate or isolated parts; the one known to us
through our immediate experiences of colours, sounds, scents, etc., and
the other, the world of unperceived scientific entities of molecules,
atoms, electrons, ether, etc.- colourless, soundless, unscented- which so
act upon the mind through 'impact' as to produce in it the 'illusions' of
sensory experiences in which it delights. The theory thus divides
totality of being into a reality which does not appear and is thus a mere
'conjecture' and appearances which are not real and so are mere
'dream'. Whitehead outright rejects 'bifurcation' and insists that the red
glow of sunset is as much 'part of Nature' as the vibrations of molecules
and that the scientist cannot dismiss the red glow as a 'psychic addition'
if he is to have a coherent 'Concept of Nature'. This view of Whitehead,
the eminent mathematician, expounded by him in 1920 (Le. four years
164 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

before his appointment to the chair of Philosophy at Harvard at the age

of sixty-three) was widely accepted by the philosophers. Lord Richard
Burton Haldane, one of the leading neo-Hegelian British philosophers,
said to be the first philosophical writer on the Theory of Relativity, gave
full support to Whitehead's views on 'bifurcation' as well as on
'Relativity' in his widely-read Reign of Relativity to which Allama Iqbal
refers in Lecture III, p. 57, and tacitly also perhaps in Lecture V. The
way Lord Haldane has stated in this work his defence of Whitehead's
views on Relativity (enunciated by him especially in Concept of Nature)
as against those of Einstein, one is inclined to surmise that it was
perhaps Reign of Relativity (incidentally also listed at Sr. No. 276 in the
Descriptive Catalogue of Allama's Personal Library) more than any other
work that led Allama Iqbal to make the observation: 'Whitehead's view
of Relativity is likely to appeal to Muslim students more than that of
Einstein in whose theory time loses its character of passage and
mysteriously translates itself into utter space' (Lecture V, p. 106).
9 Bertrand Russell, The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell, Vol. 10, Taylor
and Francis, 2009, p. 215.
10 Allama Iqbal states here Zeno's first and third arguments; for all the
four arguments of Zeno on the unreality of motion, see John Burnet,
Greek Philosophy; Thales to Plato, p. 84; they generally go by names; the
'dichotomy'; the 'Achilles'; the 'arrow'; and the 'stadium'. It may be
added that our primary source for Zeno's famous and controversial
arguments is Aristotle's Physics (VI, 9. 239b) which is generally said to
have been first translated into Arabic by Ishaq b. Hunain (c. 845-
910/911), the son of the celebrated Hunain b. Ishaq. Aristotle's Physics is
also said to have been commented on later by the Christian Abu' Ali al-
Hasan b. al-Samh (c. 945-1027); cf. S. M. Stern, 'Ibn al-Samh', Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society (1956), pp. 31-44. Even so it seems that Zeno's
arguments as stated by Aristotle were known to the Muslim thinkers
much earlier, maybe through Christian-Syriac sources, for one finds the
brilliant Mu'tazilite Nazzam (d. 231/845) meeting Zeno's first argument
in terms of his ingenious idea of tafrah or jump referred to by Allama
Iqbal in Lecture III, pp. 55-56.
11 Cf. T. J. de Boer, article 'Atomic Theory (Muhammadan)', in
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 202-03; D. B. Macdonald,
Development of Muslim Theology, pp. 201 ff. and Majid Fakhry, Islamic
Occasionalism, pp. 33-43.
12 Cf. Kitrib al-Fisal, V, 92-102.
13 For Bergson's criticism of Zeno's arguments d. Creative Evolution, pp.
325-30, and also the earlier work Time and Free Will, pp. 113-15.
14 Cf. A. E. Taylor, article 'Continuity' in Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics, IV, especially pages 96b-98c focusing on Cantor.
Notes and References 165

15 Cf. Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World, pp. 169-88;
also Mysticism and Logic, pp. 84-91.
16 This is not Russell's own statement but that of H. Wildon Carr made
during the course of his exposition of Russell's views on the subject; see
Wildon Carr, The General Principle of Relativity, p. 36.
17 Views of H. Wildon Carr and especially of Sir T. Percy Nunn on
relativity in the present context are to be found in their symposium
papers on 'The Idealistic Interpretation of Einstein's Theory' published
in the Proceedings of the Artistotelian Society, N. S. XXII (1921-22),123-27
and 127-30. Wildon Carr's doctrine of Monadistic Idealism, however, is
to be found much more fully expounded in his General Principle of
Relativity (1920) and A Theory of Monads: Outlines of the Philosophy of the
Principle of Relativity (1922); passages from both of these books have
been quoted in the present Lecture (d. notes 16 and 23 below).
T. Percy Nunn, best known as an educationist, wrote little philosophy;
but whatever little he wrote, it made him quite influential with the
leading contemporary British philosophers: Whitehead, Samuel
Alexander, Russell, Broad, and others. He is said to have first
formulated the characteristic doctrines of neo-Realism, an important
philosophical school of the century which had its zealot and able
champions both in England and in the United States. His famous sym-
posium paper: 'Are Secondary Qualities Independent of Perception?'
read in a meeting of the Aristotelian Society in 1909 was widely studied
and discussed and as J. Passmore puts it: 'it struck Bertrand Russell's
roving fancy' (A Hundred Years of Philosophy, p. 258). It is significant to
note that Nunn's correction put on Wildon Carr's idealistic
interpretation of relativity in the present passage is to be found almost
in the same philosophical diction in Russell's valuable article:
'Relativity; Philosophical Consequences', in Encyclopaedia Britannica
(1953), XIX, 99d, Russell says: 'It is a mistake to suppose that relativity
adopts any idealistic picture of the world .... The "observer" who is
often mentioned in expositions of relativity need not be a mind, but
may be a photographic plate or any kind of recording instrument:
18 On this rather debatable interpretation of Einstein's theory of
relativity see Dr. M. Razi-ud-din Siddiqi, 'Iqbal's Conception of Time
and Space' in Iqbal as A Thinker" pp. 29-31, and Philipp Frank,
'Philosophical Interpretations and Misinterpretations of the Theory of
Relativity, in H. Feigel and Mary Brodbeck (eds.), Readings in the
Philosophy of Science, pp. 222-26, reprinted from his valuable work,
Interpretations and Misinterpretations of Modem Physics (1938).
19 Cf. Hans Reichenbach, 'The Philosophical Significance of the Theory
of Relativity', in P. A. Schilpp (ed.), Albert-Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist,
section iv.
166 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

20 Cf. Tertium Organum, p. 33f.

21 Compare this with Bergson's view of consciousness in Creative
Evolution, p. 189f.
22 This is a passage from J. S. Haldane's Symposium Paper: 'Are
Physical, Biological and Psychological Categories Irreducible?' read in
July 1918 at the joint session of the Aristotelian Society, the British
Psychological Society and the Mind Association; see Proceedings of the
Aristotelian Society, XVII, (1917-1918),423-24, reproduced in H. Wildon
Carr (ed.), Life and Finite Individuality, pp. 15-16.
23 A Theory of Monads, pp. 5-6.
24 Cf. Lecture I, pp. 8-11.
25 Cf. the Qur' anic verses quoted on p. 39; to these may be added 22: 47,
32: 5, and 70: 4- according to this last verse a day is of the measure of
fifty thousand years.
26 Creative Evolution, p. 1.
27 The Qur' an says: 'And behold a day with thy sustainer is as a thousand
years of your reckoning' (22: 47). So also, according to the Old Testament:
'One day is with the Lord as a thousand years' (Psalms, xc. 4).
28 According to Bergson, this period may be as long as 25,000 years; d.
Matter and Memory, pp. 272-73.
29 For further elucidation of future as an 'open possibility' d. Lecture III,
p.63.
30 See among others the Qur' anic verses 25: 2; 54: 49 and the earliest on
this subject in the chronological order of the surahs: 87: 2-3. These last
two short verses speak of four Divine ways governing all creation and
so also man, viz. God's creating a thing (khalaqa), making it complete (fa
sawwii), measuring out its attributes or determining its nature (qaddara)
and guiding it to its fulfilment (fa hadii).
Allama Iqbal's conception of destiny (taqdir) as 'the inward reach of a
thing, its realizable possibilities which lie within the depth of its nature, and
serially actualize themselves without any feeling of external
compulsion' [italics mine] understood in terms of the Divine ways
embodied in the above two short verses, seems to be singularly close to
the text and the unique thought-forms of the Qur'an. There is no place
in this conception of destiny for the doctrine of Fatalism as preached by
some Muslim scholastic theologians whose interpretation of the verses
of the Qur' an for this purpose is more often a palpable
misinterpretation (Lecture IV, p. 89); nor for the doctrine of
determinism as expounded by the philosophers who, cut off from the
inner life-impulse given by Islam, think of all things in terms of the
inexorable law of cause and effect which governs the human ego as
much as the' environment' in which it is placed. They fail to realize that
the origin of the law of 'cause and effect' lies in the depths of the
Notes and References 167

transcendental ego which has devised it or caused it under divine

guidance to realize its divinely assigned destiny of understanding and
mastering all things (p. 86); also d. Asrar-i Khudi, many verses especially
those in the earlier sections.
31 Qur'an, 55: 29.
32 Cf. Lecture I, p. 5.
33 See ShiblI Nu'manl, Shi'r al-'Ajam, III, 114.
34 This is a reference to pp. 33-36.
35 Cf. Lecture I, p. 8 and note 23.
36 The Qur'anic verse 25: 62 quoted on p. 37.
37 Reference is to the Qur'anic expression: Ghaniyyun 'ani 'l-'alamin
found in verses 3: 97 and 29: 6.
38 This is a reference to the Qur'anic verse 20: 14: 'Verily, 1- I alone- am
God; there is no deity save Me. Hence, worship Me alone, and be
constant in prayer, so as to remember Me.'
39 Qur' an, 42: 11.
40 The reference is to the Qur' anic expression sunnat Allah found in 33:
62; 35: 43; 40: 84-85; 48: 23, etc.
41 Cf. Lecture III, p. 13, where Allama Iqbal obverses: 'The scientific
observer of Nature is a kind of mystic seeker in the act of prayer:
42 McTaggart's argument referred to here was advanced by him in his
article; 'The Unreality of Time' in Mind (N. 5.), XVII/68 (October 1908),
457-74, re-produced later in Nature of Existence, II, 9-31, as well as in the
posthumous Philosophical Studies, pp. 110-31. McTaggart has been called
'an outstanding giant in the discussion of the reality or unreality of
time' and his aforesaid article has been most discussed in recent
philosophical literature on Time. Of articles in defence of McTaggart's
position, mention may be made of Michael Dummett: 'A Defence of
McTaggaat's Proof of the Unreality of Time' in Philosophical Review, XIX
(1960), 497-504. But he was criticised by C. D. Broad, the greatest
expositor of his philosophy (d. his commentary: Examination of
McTaggart's Philosophy, Vol. I, 1933, and Vol. II in two parts, 1938), in
Scientific Thought, to which Allama Iqbal has referred in the present
discussion, as well as in his valuable article: 'Time' in Encyclopaedia of
Religion and Ethics, XII, 339a; and earlier than Broad by Reyburn in his
article 'Idealism and the Reality of Time' in Mind (Oct. 1913), pp. 493-
508 which has been briefly summarized by J. Alexander Gunn in
Problem of Time: A Historical and Critical Study, pp. 345-47.
43 Cf. C. D. Broad, Scientific Thought, p. 79.
44 This is much like Broad's admitting at the conclusion of his
examination of McTaggart's argument that time is the hardest knot in
the whole of philosophy', ibid., p. 84.
45 The Confessions of St. Augustine, xi, 17; d. O. Spengler, The Decline of the
168 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

West, I, 140, where Augustine's observation is quoted in connection

with' destiny'.
46 Reference is to the Qur' anic verse 23: 80 quoted on p. 37 above.
47 Cf. M. Afzal Sarkhwush, Kalimiit al-Shu'arii', p. 77, where this verse is
given as under:
15_:)i J}

,,)1
-: '/

fl5-!:J i j i )
48 Cf. Kitiib al-Fisal, II, 158; also I. Goldziher, The Ziihiris, pp. 113ff.
49 Qur' an, 50: 38.
50 Ibid., 2: 255.
51 Goethe, Alterswerke (Hamburg edition), I, 367, quoted by Spengler, op.
cit., on fly-leaf with translation on p. 140. For locating this passage in
Goethe's Alterswerke, I am greatly indebted to Professor Dr. Annemarie
Schimmel.
52 Reference here is to the Prophet's last words: al-saliitu, al-saliitu wa mii
malakat aimiinukum (meaning: be mindful of your prayers and be kind to
persons subject to your authority) reported through three different
chains of transmitters in Ahmad b. Hanbal's Musnad: VI, 290, 311 and
321.
Lecture III: The Conception of God
1 Cf. Creative Evolution, p. 13; also pp. 45-46.
2 Ibid., p. 14.
3 See Qur'an, for example, 2: 163,4: 171, 5: 73. 6: 19, 13: 16, 14: 48, 21: 108,
39: 4 and 40: 16, on the Unity of Allah and 4: 171, 6: 101, 10: 68, 17: 111,
19: 88-92 emphatically denying the Christian doctrine of His sonship.
4 Cf. 1. R. Farnell, The Attributes of God, p. 56.
5 The full translation here is 'a glistening star', as required by the nass of
the Qur'an, 'Kaukabun durriyun'.
6 On this fine distinction of God's infinity being intensive and not
extensive, see further Lecture IV, p. 94.
7 For the long-drawn controversy on the issue of the creation of the
universe, see, for instance, Ghazali, Tahiifatu al-Faliisifah, English
translation by S. A. Kamali: Incoherence of the Philosophers, pp. 13-53 and
Ibn Rushd, Tahiifatu al-Tahiifah, English translation by Simon van den
Bergh: The Incoherence of the Incoherence, pp. 1-69. A more accurate and
annotated translation with the critical text of the Tahiifatu al-Faliisifah
wsa made by Michael E. Marmura in his Incoherence of the Philosophers,
Bagham University Press, Rep. Suhail Academy, Lahore, 2007. Cf. also
G. F. Hourani, 'Alghazali and the Philosophers on the Origin of the
World', The Muslim World, XLVII/2(1958), 183-91,308-14 and M. Saeed
Sheikh, 'Al-Ghazali: Metaphysics', A History of Muslim Philosophy, ed.
Notes and References 169

M. M. Sharif, pp. 598-608.

8 Cf. Lecture II, pp. 28,49.
9 A. S. Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation, pp. 197-98 (italics by
Allama Iqbal).
10 For Abu Hashim's theory of atomism d. T. J. de Boer, 'Atomic Theory
(Muhammadan)" Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 202-03, De
Boer's account is based on AbU Rashid Sa'id's Kitiib al-Masii'il fi 'I-Khiliif,
edited and translated into German by Arthur Biram (Leyden, 1902).
11 Cf. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, English translation by F. Rosenthal, III,
50-51, where Baqillani is said to have introduced the conceptions of
atom (al-jawhar al fard), vacuum and accidents into the Ash'artie Kaliim.
R. J. McCarthy, who has edited and also translated some of Baqillani's
texts, however, considers this to be unwarranted; see his article 'al-
Bakillani', in the Encyclopaedia of Islam (New edition), I, 959. From the
account of Muslim atomism given in AI-Ash'ari's Maqiiliit al-Isliimiyfn.
This much has to be conceded that atomism was keenly discussed by
the Muslim scholastic theologians long before Baqillani.
12 For life and works of Maimonides and his relationship with Muslim
philosophy, d. S. Pines, The Guide of the Perplexed (new English
translation, Chicago University Press, 1963), 'Introduction' by the
translator and an 'Introductory Essay' by L. Strauss; also Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, II, 369-70, and 376-77.
13 D. B. Macdonald, 'Continuous Re-creation and Atomic Time in
Moslem Scholastic Theology', The Moslem World, XVIII/i (1928), 6-28;
reprinted from Isis, IX (1927), 326-44. This article is focussed on
Maimonides' well-known 'Twelve Propositions of the Kalam'.
14 Macdonald, 'Continuous Re-creation and Atomic Time .. .' op. cit., p.
24.
15 Ibid., pp. 25-28. See also The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, p. 320,
where Macdonald traces the pantheistic developments in later Sufi
schools to Buddhistic and Vedantic influences.
16 Qur'an, 35: 1.
17 Cf. de Boer, 'Atomic Theory (Muhammadan)" in op. cit, II, 203.
18 Cf. Eddington, op. cit., p. 200.
19 For an account of Nazzam's notion of al-tafrah or jump, see Ash'ari,
Maqiiliit al-Isliimiyfn, II, 18; Ibn Hazm, Kitiib al-Fisal. V, 64-65, and
Shahrastani, Kitiib al-Milal wa 'l-Nihal, pp. 38-39; d. also Isfra'ini, AI-
Tabsfr, p. 68, and Majid Fakhry, Islamic Occasionalism, p. 39.
20 A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modem World, p. 49.
21 A view, among others, held by Baqillani who bases it on the Qur'anic
verses 8: 67 and 46: 24 which speak of the transient nature of the things
of this world. Cf. Kitiib al-Tamhfd, p. 18.
22 Lecture I, p. 3; see also Lecture V, p. 102, note 21.
170 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

23 For Ash'arite's theory of the perpetual re-creation of the universe

basing it on the Absolute Power and Will of God, d. Majid Fakhry,
Islamic Occasionalism, pp. IS, 117 ff. and M. Saeed Sheikh, 'Al-GhazalI;
Metaphysics', in ap. cit., I, 603-08.
24 In R. A. Nicholson's edition of the Mathnawi this verse (i, 1812) reads
as under:
J;I L L .t- L;I

J;I LL .t- L;I

Wine became intoxicated with us, not we with it;
the body came into being from us, not we from it.
25 Viscount Richard Burton Haldane, the elder brother of John Scott
Haldane, from whose Symposium Paper Allama Iqbal has quoted at
length in Lecture II p. 35, was a leading neo-Hegelian British
philosopher and a distinguished statesman who died on 19 August
1928. Allama's using the expression 'the late Lord Haldane' is indicative
of the possible time of his writing the present Lecture which together
with the first two Lectures was delivered in Madras (5-8 Jan. 1929). The
'idea of degrees of reality and knowledge is very vigorously expounded
by Haldane in The Reign of Relativity (1921) as also in his earlier two-
volume Gifford Lectures: The Pathway to Reality (1903-04) in which he
also expounded the Principle of Relativity on purely philosophical
grounds even before the publication of Einstein's theory; d. Rudolf
Metz, A Hundred Years of British Philosaphy, p. 315.
26 This is reference to Qur'an, 20: 14.
27 Ibid., 50: 16.

28 For further elucidation of the privacy of the ego, see Lecture IV, pp.
79-80.
29 Cf. p. 64 where Iqbal says that God 'out of His own creative freedom
... has chosen finite egos to be participators of His life, power, and
freedom.'
30 The tradition: 'Do not vilify time, for time is God' referred to in
Lecture I, p. 8.
31 Cf. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosaphy, Vol. I, Definition
viii, Scholium i.
32 Cf. Louis Rougier, Philosaphy and the New Physics (An Essay on the
Relativity Theory and the Theory of Quanta), p. 143. The work belongs
to the earlier phase of Rougier's philosophical output, a phase in which
he was seized by the new discoveries of physicists and mathematicians
such as Henry Poincare (celestial mechanics and new geometry), Max
Planck (quantum theory) Nicolas L. Carnot (thermodynamics), Madame
Curie (radium and its compounds) and Einstein (principle of relativity).
This was followed by his critical study of theories of knowledge:
Notes and References 171

rationalism and scholasticism, ending in his thesis of the diversity of

'metaphysical temperaments' and the 'infinite plasticity' of the human
mind whereby it takes delight in 'quite varied forms of intelligibility'.
To the final phase of Rougier's philosophical productivity belongs La
Metaphysique et Ie langage (1960) in which he elaborated the conception
of plurality of language in philosophical discourse. Rougier also wrote
on history of ideas (scientific, philosophical, religious) and on
contemporary political and economical problems- his Les Mystiques
politiques et leurs incidences intemationales (1935) and Les Mystiques
economiques (1949) are noteworthy.
It is to be noted that both the name 'Louis Rougier' and the title of his
book 'Philosophy and the New Physics' cited in the passage quoted by
Allama Iqbal are given puzzlingly incorrectly in the previous editions of
Reconstruction including the one by Oxford University Press (London,
1934); and these were not noticed even by Madame Eva Meyerovitch in
her French translation: Reconstruire la pensee religieuse de l' Islam (Paris,
1955, p. 83). It would have been well-nigh impossible for me to find out
the author's name and title of the book correctly had I not received the
very kind help of the Dutch scholar the Reverend Dr. Jan Slomp and
MIle Mauricette Levasseur of Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, who also
supplied me with many useful particulars about the life and works of
Rougier. The last thing that I heard was that this French philosopher
who taught in various universities including the ones in Cairo and New
York and who participated in various Congresses and was the President
of the Paris International Congress of Scientific Philosophy in 1935,
passed away on 14 October 1982 at the age of ninety-three.
33 Cf. Space, Time and Deity, II, 396.98; also Allama Iqbal's letter dated 24
January 1921 addressed to R. A. Nicholson (Letters of Iqbal, ed. B. A. Dar,
pp. 141-42) where, while disagreeing with Alexander's view of God, he
observes: 'I believe there is a Divine tendency in the universe, but this
tendency will eventually find its complete expression in a higher man,
not in a God subject to Time, as Alexander implies in his discussion of
the subject.'
34 The Sufi poet named here as well as in Lectures V and VII as (Fakhr
aI-Din) 'Iraqi, we are told, is really 'Ain al-Qudat Abu 'l-Ma'ali:
'Abdullah b. Muhammad b. 'Ali: b. ai-Hasan b. 'All al-Miyanji: al-
Hamadani (492-525/1098-1131) whose tractate on space and time:
Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Diriiyat al-Makiin (54 pp.) has been edited by Rahim
Farmanish (Tehran, 1338 S/1959); d. English translation of the tractate
by A. H. Kamali, section captioned: 'Observations', pp. i-v; also B. A.
Dar, 'Iqbal aur Mas'alah-i Zaman-o-Makan' in Fikr-i Iqbal ke Munawwar
Goshay, ed. Salim Akhtar, pp. 149-51. Nadhr Sabiri, however, strongly
pleads that the real author of the tractate was Shaikh Taj aI-Din
172 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Mahmud b. Khudadad Ashnawi (d. c. 619/1222), as also hinted by

Allama Iqbal in his Presidential Address delivered at the Fifth Indian
Oriental Conference (1928) (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p.
137). Cf. Shaikh Mahmud Ashnawi's tractate: Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Ma'rifat
al-Zamiin wa 'l-Makiin (42 pp.) edited by Nadhr Sabiri (Campbellpur,
1401/1981), 'Introduction' embodying the editor's research about the
MSS of the tractate and the available data of its author; also Haji
Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunim, II, 1190, and A. Monzavi, A Catalogue of Persian
Manuscripts, Vol. II, Part I, MSS 7556-72. Cf. also Maulana Imtiaz 'Ali
Khan 'Arshi, 'Zaman-o-Makan ki Bahth ke Muta'alliq Allamah Iqbal ka
aik Makhadh: 'Iraqi ya Ashnawi', Maqiiliit: Iqbiil Alami Kiingras (Iqbal
Centenary Papers Presented at the International Congress on Allama
Mohammad Iqbal: 2-8 December 1977), IV, 1-10 wherein Maulana 'Arshi
traces a new MS of the tractate in the Rida Library, Rampur, and
suggests the possibility of its being the one used by Allama Iqbal in
these Lectures as well as in his Address: 'A Plea for Deeper Study of
Muslim Scientists'.
It may be added that there remains now no doubt as to the particular
MS of this unique Sufi tractate on 'Space and Time' used by Allama
Iqbal, for fortunately it is well preserved in the Allama Iqbal Museum,
Lahore (inaugurated by the President of Pakistan on 26 September
1984). The MS, according to a note in Allama's own hand dated 21
October 1935, was transcribed for him by the celebrated religious
scholar Sayyid Anwar Shah Kashmiri, Cf. Dr. Ahmad Nabi Khan, Relics
of Allama Iqbal (Catalogue), p. 12.
For purposes of present annotation we have referred to Rahim
Farmanish's edition of Hamadani's Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Diriiyat al-Makiin
(Tehran, 1338/1959) and to A. H. Kamali's English translation of it
(Karachi, 1971) where needed. This translation, however, is to be used
with caution.
35 Cf. 'Ain al-Qudat Hamadani, op. cit., p. 51; English translation, p. 36.
36 The Qur'anic expression umm al-kitiib occurs in 3: 7,13: 39 and 43: 4.
37 Cf. Al-Mabiihith al-Mashriqiyah, 1, 647; the Arabic text of the passage
quoted in English is as under:
L..,> J,.<JI .L..a.Q.::...1 yt:>J 1 l..i..o ,J' ..s::......I. ,)1..0)1 .,j l..A,A>- JI ..:...L..J 1..0 .),:/1 JI

SJ..l.i ...,......i...o .))• ...,.....u ) ')J. L,.::....i u,..::..J1 "Y'" ':/1 ....AJ,S:.; 1..01 ) "';1.>. JS" ,J' .)1

.a.u....J.1 •..i..o .,j t.....,.-. ) C:""'Ji1 ,J' p5 ..} .wI 'i

38 Iqbal's original words read "Mlr Damad and Mulla Baqir" which
refer to two different personalities, the former being a theologian and
Kalam scholar while the latter is the well known Shi'ite religiOUS scholar
Mulla Baqir Majlisi.
39 Reference here is in particular to the Qur' an 23: 80 quoted in
Notes and References 173

Lecture II, p. 37.

40 Cf. Lecture II, p. 49, where, summing up his philosophical
'criticism' of experience, Allama Iqbal says: 'facts of experience
justify the inference that the ultimate nature of Reality is spiritual
and must be conceived as an ego.'
41 Cf. 'Ain al-Qudat Hamadani, op. cit., p. 50; English translation, p.
36. For Royce's view of knowledge of all things as a whole at once
(totum simul), see his World and the Individual, 11,141.
42 About the cosmic harmony and unity of Nature the Qur'an says:
'Thou seest no incongruity in the creation of the Beneficent. Then look
again. Canst thou see any disorder? Then turn thy eye again and again-
thy look will return to thee confused while it is fatigued' (67: 3-4).
43 Qur'an, 3: 26 and 73; see also 57: 29.
44 Cf. Joseph Friedrich Naumann, Briefe uber Religion, p. 68; also
Lecture VI, note 38. The German text of the passage quoted in
English is as under:
'Wir haben eine Welterkenntnis, wie uns einen Gott
der Macht and Starke lehrt, der Tod und Leben wie
Schatten und Licht gleichzeitig versendet, und eine
Offenbarung, einen Heilsglauben, der von demselben
Gott sagt, dass er Vater sei. Die Nachfolge des
Weltgottes ergibt die Sittlichkeit des Kampfes urns
Dasn, und der Dienst des Vaters Jesu Christi ergibt die
Sittlichkeit der Barmherzigkeit. Es sind aber nicht zwei
Gotter, sondern einer. Irgendwie greifen ihre Arme
imeinander. Nur kann kein Sterblicher sagen, wo and wie
das geschicht.
45 Reference is to Browning's famous lines in 'Pippa Passes':
'God is in the heaven
All is right with the world:
46 Cf. Schopenhauer, World as Will and Idea, trans, R B, Haldane and
J. Kemp, Book iv, section 57.
47 For the origin and historical growth of the legend of Faust before
Goethe's masterly work on it, cf, Mary Beare's article 'Faust' in
Cassell's Encyclopaedia of Literature, 1, 217-19.
48 Cf. Genesis, chapter iii.
49 Strictly speaking, the word Adam for man in his capacity of God's
vicegerent on earth has been used in the Qur'an only in 2: 30-31.
50 Cf. Genesis, iii, 20.
51 Qur'an, 7: 19.
52 Ibid., 20: 120.
53 Cf. Genesis, iii, 24,
54 Ibid., iii, 17.
174 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

55 Qur'an, 2: 36 and 7: 24.

56 Cf. also verses 15: 19-20.
57 Ibid., 71: 17.
58 Ibid., 52: 23.
59 Ibid., 15: 48.
60 Ibid., 20: 118-119.
61 Ibid., 2: 35-37; also 20:120-122.
62 Ibid., 95: 4-5.
63 Cf. also verses 2: 155 and 90: 4.
64 Ibid., 2: 31-34.
65 Lecture I, pp. 10-11.
66 Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-1891) is a noted spiritualist
and theosophist of Russian birth, who in collaboration with Col. H. S.
Olcott and W. A. Judge founded Theosophical Society in New York in
November 1873. Later she transferred her activities to India where in
1879 she established the office of the Society in Bombay and in 1883 in
Adyar near Madras with the following three objects: (i) to form a
nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity; (ii) to promote the
study of comparative religion, philosophy and science, and (iii) to
investigate the unexplained laws of nature and powers latent in man.
The Secret Doctrine (1888) deals, broadly speaking, with 'Cosmogenesis'
and 'Anthropogenesis' in a ponderous way; though largely based on
Vedantic thought the 'secret doctrine' is claimed to carry in it the
essence of all religions.
For the mention of tree as'a cryptic symbol for occult knowledge' in The
Secret Doctrine, cf. I, 187: 'The Symbol for Sacred and Secret knowledge
in antiquity was universally a Tree, by which a scripture or a Record
was also meant'; III, 384: 'Ormzad ... is also the creator of the Tree' (of
Occult and Spiritual Knowledge and Wisdom) from which the mystic
and the mysterious Baresma is taken', and IV, 159: 'To the Eastern
Occultist the Tree of Knowledge (leads) to the light of the eternal
present Reality'.
It may be added that Allama Iqbal seems to have a little more than a
mere passing interest in the Theosophical Society and its activities for,
as reported by Dr. M. 'Abdullah Chaghata'i (Iqbal ki Suhbat Men, p. 330),
he, during his quite busy stay in Madras (5-8 Jan. 1929) in connection
with the present Lectures, found time to pay a visit to the head office of
the Society at Adyar. One may also note in Development of Metaphysics in
Persia (p. 10, note 2) reference to a small work Reincarnation by the
famous Annie Besant (President of the Theosophical Society, 1907-1933,
and the first and the only English woman who served as President of
the Indian National Congress in 1917) and added to this are the two
books published by the Theosophical Society in Allama's personal
Notes and References 175

library (cf. Descriptive Catalogue of Allama Iqbal's Personal Library, No. 81

and Relics of Allama Iqbal; Catalogue IV. 11). All this, however, does not
enable one to determine the nature of Allama Iqbal's interest in the
Theosophical Society.
67 Qur'an, 17: 11; also 21: 37. The tree which Adam was forbidden to
approach (2: 35 and 7: 19), according to Allama Iqbal's remarkably
profound and rare understanding of the Qur' an, is the tree of 'occult
knowledge', to which man in all ages has been tempted to resort in
unfruitful haste. This, in Allama's view, is opposed to the inductive
knowledge 'which is most characteristic of Islamic teachings.' He
indeed tells us in Lecture V (p. 101) that 'the birth of Islam is the birth of
Inductive intellect.' True, this second kind of knowledge is so toilsome
and painfully slow: yet this knowledge alone unfolds man's creative
intellectual faculties and makes him the master of his environment and
thus God's true vicegerent on earth. If this is the true approach to
knowledge, there is little place in it for Mme Blavatsky's occult
spiritualism or theosophism. Allama Iqbal was in fact opposed to all
kinds of occultism. In one of his dialogues, he is reported to have said
that 'the forbidden tree' (shajr-i mamnu'ah) of the Qur'an is no other than
the occultistic tasawwuf which prompts the patient to seek some charm
or spell rather than take the advice of a physician. The tasawwuf, he
added, which urges us to close our eyes and ears and instead to
concentrate on the inner vision and which teaches us to leave the
arduous ways of conquering Nature and instead take to some easier
spiritual ways, has done the greatest harm to science. ref. Dr. Abu '1-
Laith Siddiqi (ed.), MaljUzat-i Iqbal, pp. 138-39]. It must, however, be
added that Allama Iqbal does speak of a genuine or higher kind of
tasawwuf which soars higher than all sciences and all philosophies. In it
the human ego so to say discovers himself as an individual deeper than
his conceptually describable habitual selfhood. This happens in the
ego's contact with the Most Real which brings about in it a kind of
'biological transformation', the description of which surpasses all
ordinary language and all usual categories of thought. 'This experience
can embody itself only in a world-making or world-shaking act, and in
this form alone', we are told, 'can this timeless experience .... make itself
visible to the eye of history' (Lecture VII, p. 145).
68 Qur'an, 2: 36, 7: 24; 20: 123.
69 Ibid., 2: 177; 3: 200.
70 Lecture II, p. 58.
71 Lecture V, pp. 119 ff.
72 The Principles of Psychology, 1,316.
73 Cf. R. A. Nicholson (ed. and tr.), The Mathnawi of lalal ai-Din Rumi,
Vol. IV (Books i and ii- text), ii, verses 159-162 and 164.
176 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

74 Cf. ibid., Vol. IV, 2 (Books i and ii- translation), p. 230. It is to be noted
that quite a few minor changes made by Allama Iqbal in Nicholson's
English translation of the verses quoted here from the Mathnawl are due
to his dropping Nicholson's parentheses used by him for keeping his
translation literally as close to the text as it was possible. Happily,
Allama's personal copies of Volumes 2-5 and 7 of Nicholson's edition of
the Mathnawi are preserved in Allama Iqbal Museum (Lahore) and it
would be rewarding to study his usual marginal marks and jottings on
these volumes.
75 Cf. the Qur'anic verse 3: 19 where so far as private prayers are
concerned the faithful ones are spoken of remembering God standing
and sitting and lying on their sides.
76 The Qur'an speaks of all mankind as 'one community'; see verses 2:
213,10: 19.
77Ibid., 49: 13.
Lecture IV: The Human Ego-His Freedom and Immortality
1 Cf. Qur'an, 6:94, 19:80 and 19:93-95; see also p. 93 where Allama Iqbal,
referring to these last verses, affirms that in the life hereafter the finite
ego will approach the Infinite Ego 'with the irreplaceable singleness of
his individuality.'
2 This is, in fact, translation of the Qur' anic text: wa Iii taziru wiiziratan
wizra ukhrii which appears in verses 6: 164; 17: 15; 35: 18; 39: 7 and 53: 38.
Chronologically the last verse 53: 38 is the earliest on the subject. The
implication of this supreme ethical principle or law is three-fold: a
categorical rejection of the Christian doctrine of the 'original sin',
refutation of the idea of 'vicarious atonement or redemption', and
denial of the possibility of mediation between the sinner and God (d.
M. Asad, The Message of the Qur'an, p. 816, note 31).
3 Again, translation of the Qur'anic verse 53:39 which is in continuation
of the verse last referred to above.
4 Cf. O. Spengler, The Decline of the West, 1, 306-07. Also Lecture V, p. 114
where Allama Iqbal makes the important statement: 'Indeed my main
purpose in these lectures has been to secure a vision of the spirit of
Islam as emancipated from its Magian overlaying' (italics mine). This
may be read in conjunction with Allama's reply to a Parsi gentleman's
letter published in Statesman. This reply makes it clear that: 'Magian
thought and religious experience very much permeate Muslim
theology, philosophy and Sufism. Indeed, there is evidence to show that
certain schools of Sufism known as Islamic have only repeated the
Magian type of religious experience ... There is definite evidence in the
Qur' an itself to show that Islam aimed at opening up new channels not
only of thought but the religious experience as well. Our Magian
inheritance, however, has stifled the life of Islam and never allowed the
Notes and References 177

development of its real spirit and aspirations' (Speeches, Writings and

Statements of Iqbal, ed. L. A. Sherwani, p. 170). It is important to note
that, according to Allama Iqbal, Bahaism and Qadianism are 'the two
forms which the modem revival of pre-Islamic Magianism has
assumed'; d. his article 'Qadianis and Orthodox Muslims', ibid., p. 162.
This is reiterated in 'Introduction to the Study of Islam', a highly
valuable synopsis of a book that Allama contemplated to write. Under
section 'E' Sub-section (iii) one of the topics of this proposed book is:
'Babi, Ahmadiyya, etc. Prophecies, All More or Less Magian' (Letters and
Writings of Iqbal, p. 93; italics mine). Earlier on pp. 87-88 there is an
enlightening passage which reads: 'Empire brought men belonging to
earlier ascetic cultures, which Spengler describes as Magian, within the
fold of Islam. The result was the conversion of Islam to a pre-Islamic
creed with all the philosophical controversies of these creeds: RUb, Nafs;
Qur'an: Hadith or Qadim. Real Islam had very little chances.' This may
be compared with Allama's impassioned statement in his article: 'Islam
and Mysticism' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 122): 'The
Moslems of Spain, with their Aristotelian spirit, and away from the
enervating influences of the thought of Western and Central Asia, were
comparatively much closer to the spirit of Islam than the Moslem races
of Asia, who let Arabian Islam pass through all the solvents of 'Ajam
and finally divested it of its original character. The conquest of Persia
meant not the conversion of Persia to Islam, but the conversion of Islam
to Persianism. Read the intellectual history of the Moslems of Western
and Central Asia from the 10th century downwards, and you will find
therein verified every word that I have written above.' And Allama
Iqbal wrote this, be it noted, in July 1917, i.e. before Spengler'S magnum
opus, The Decline of the West was published (Vol. I. 1918, revised 1923,
Vol. II, 1922; English translation, Vol. I, 23 April 1926, Vol. II, 9
November 1928) and before the expressions such as 'Magian Soul',
'Magian Culture' and 'Magian Religion' came to be used by the
philosophers of history and culture.
S Cf. the Qur'anic verses 41: 53 and 51: 20-21, which make it incumbent
all Muslims to study the signs of God in themselves as much as those in
the world around them.
6 Cf. Husain b. Mansiir al-Hallaj, Kitab al-Tawawsin, English translation
by 'Aisha 'Abd Ar-Rahman, Diwan Press. Also by Gilani Kamran (Ana
al-Haqq Reconsidered, pp. 55-108), Tasin VI, 23, containing Al-Hallij's
ecstatic utterance: ana' al-Haqq, and L. Massignon's explanatory notes on
it translated by R. A. Butler in his article 'Kitab al-Tawasin of al-Hallaj',
Journal of the University of Baluchistan, 1/2 (Autumn 1981), 79-85; d. also
A. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, pp. 66 ff.
lt may be noted that Allama Iqbal in his, in many ways a very valuable,
178 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

article 'McTaggart's Philosophy' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of

Iqbal, pp. 143-51), compares McTaggart to Hallaj (pp. 148-49). In the
system of this 'philosopher-saint', 'mystical intuition, as a source of
knowledge, is much more marked than in the system of Bradley .... In
the case of McTaggart the mystic revelation of Reality came to him as a
confirmation of his thought... When the mystic Sultan Abu Sa'Id met the
philosopher Abu' Ali ibn Sina, he is reported to have said, 'I see what he
knows.' McTaggart both knew and saw (pp. 145-46). The key to
McTaggart's system, indeed, is his mysticism as is borne out from the
concluding sentence of his first work Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic: 'All
true philosophy must be mystical, not indeed in its methods, but in its
final conclusions.'
This in-depth article on 'McTaggart's Philosophy' also contains Allama
Iqbal's own translation of two passages from his poem The New Garden
of Mystery (Gulshan-i Riiz Jadid) dealing with Questions VI and VIII; the
latter Question probes into the mystery of Hallaj's ecstatic utterance: 'I
am the Truth'. Cf. B. A. Dar (tr.), Iqbal's Gulshan-i Riiz Jadid and Bandagi
Namah, pp. 42-43, 51-54.
7 Cf. The Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosenthal, II, 76-103.
8 Note Iqbal's trenchant observation that 'modern psychology has not
yet touched even the outer fringe of religious life and is still far from the
richness and variety of what is called religious experience' (Lecture VII,
p.152).
9 Cf. Ethical Studies (1876), pp. 80 f.
10 Cf. The Principles of Logic (1883), Vol. II, chapter ii.
11 Cf. Appearance and Reality (1893), pp. 90-103.
12 Jivatma is the individual mind or consciousness of man or his soul
distinguished from the cosmic mind, cosmic consciousness or world-
soul; d. ' Atman', Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 195, also XII, 597.
13 Cf. Appearance and Reality, p. 89; also' Appendix', p. 497.
14 Misprinted as 'mutual' states in the previous editions.
15 For GhazalI's conception of the soul, d. M. Saeed Sheikh, ' Al-
GhazalI: Mysticism', A History of Muslim Philosophy, ed. M. M.
Sharif, I, 619-21.
16 Reference here is to what Kant named 'Paralogisms of Pure
Reason', i.e. fallacious arguments which allege to prove
substantiality, simplicity, numerical identity and eternality of the
human soul; d. Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 328-83.
17 Ibid., pp. 329-30.
18 Ibid., pp. 372-73; this is, in fact, Kant's argument in refutation of the
German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn's 'Proof of the
Permanence of the Soul'; d. Kemp Smith, Commentary to Kant's
Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 470-71.
Notes and References 179

19 Cf. Principles of Psychology, Vol. t chapter ix, especially pp. 237-48.

20 Ibid., p. 340.
21 Ibid., p. 339; d. Critique of Pure Reason, p. 342, note (a) where Kant
gives an illustration of a series of elastic balls in connection with
the third paralogism to establish the numerical identity of the ego.
Kemp Smith in his Commentary p. 461, has rightly observed that
William James's psychological description of self-consciousness is
simply an extension of this illustration.
22 Qur'an, 7: 54.
23 Cf. pp. 84-85, where Allama Iqbal gives a philosophical answer to this
question in terms. of contemporary theory of emergent evolution as
expounded by S. Alexander (Space, Time and Deity, 2 vols., 1920) and C.
L. Morgan (Emergent Evolution, 1923). The theory distinguishes between
two kinds of effects: 'resultants' which are the predictable outcome of
previously existing conditions and 'emergents' which are specifically
new and not completely predictable. According to Alexander, who in
his original conception of emergence was indebted to Morgan (d. Space,
Time and Deity, II, 14), mind is 'an "emergent" from life, and life an
emergent from a lower physicochemical level of existence' (ibid.). When
physicochemical processes attain a certain degree of Gestalt-like
structural complexity, life emerges out of it. Life is not an
epiphenomenon, nor is it an entelechy as with Hans Driesch but an
'emergent' - there is no cleft between life and matter. At the next stage of
'configurations' when neural processes in living organisms attain a
certain level of structural complexity, mind appears as a novel
emergent. By reasonable extrapolation it may be assumed that there are
emergents (or 'qualities') higher than mind.
This is very close to Maulana Rum!' s 'biological future of man', ' Abd al-
Karim al-Jili's 'Perfect Man' and Nietzsche's 'Superman'. No wonder
that Allama Iqbal in his letter dated 24 January 1921 to R. A. Nicholson
(Letters of Iqbal, pp. 141-42), while taking a strict notice of E. M. Forster's
review of The Secrets of the Self (translation of his epoch-making Asrar-i
Khudf) and particularly of the Nietzschean allegation against him (d.
Forster's review in Dr. Riffat Hassan, The Sword and the Sceptre, p. 284)
writes: 'Nor does he rightly understand my idea of the Perfect Man
which he confounds with the German thinker's Super-man. I wrote on
the Sufi doctrine of the Perfect Man more than twenty years ago, long
before I had read or heard anything of Nietzsche ... The English reader
ought to approach this idea, not through the German thinker, but
through an English thinker of great merit (italics mine)- I mean
Alexander- whose Gifford Lectures (1916-18) delivered at Glasgow
were published last year.' This is followed by a quotation from
Alexander's chapter on 'Deity and God' (op. cit., II, 347, 11. 1-8) ending
180 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

in a significant admission: 'Alexander's thought is much bolder than mine'

(italics mine).
24 More generally known as James-Lange theory of emotions. This
theory was propounded by the Danish phYSician and psychologist. Carl
George Lange in a pamphlet Om sindsbevaegelser in 1885, while William
James had already set forth similar views in an article published in Mind
in 1884. For a full statement of the theory, see William James, Principles
of Psychology, II, 449 ff. and for its refutation (as hinted at by Allama
Iqbal), Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v., XII, 885-86.
25 For Iqbal's very dear and definitive verdict on body-mind dualism, d.
Lecture VI, p. 122.
26 Reference is to the Qur'anic verse (7: 54) quoted on p. 82.
27 Cf. Lecture II, p. 28.
28 Qur'an, 57: 3.
29 Cf. William James, op. cit. II, 549.
30 More generally known as Gestalt Psychology, this German school of
psychology was the result of the combined work of M. Wertheimer, K.
Koffka and W. Ktihler during 1912-14. It came as a reaction against the
psychic elements of analytic or associationistic psychology, insisting
upon the concept of gestalt, configuration, or organized whole which, if
analyzed, it was averred, would lose its distinctive quality. Thus it is
impossible to consider the phenomenon of perception as in any way
made up of a number of isolable elements, sensory or of any other
origin, for what we perceive are 'forms', 'shapes' or 'configurations'.
From 'perception' the gestalt-principle has been extended throughout
psychology and into biology and physics. Important for Iqbal scholars
are the suggestions recently made to discern some 'points of contact'
between the Gestalt and the philosophies of J. c. Smuts (holism) and
A.N. Whitehead (philosophy of organism); d. K. Koffka, 'Gestalt',
Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, VI, 642-46; also J. c. Smuts, Holism',
Encyclopaedia Britannica, XI, 643.
31 The concept of 'insight' was first elaborately expounded by W. Ktihler
in his famous work: The Mentality of Apes (first English translation in
1924 of his IntelligerpruJiingen an Menschenaffen, 1917); d. C. S. Peyser,
'Ktihler, Wolfgang (1887-1967)" Encyclopaedia of Psychology, II, 271.
32 In the history of Islamic thought, this is one of the finest arguments to
resolve the age-long controversy between determinism and
indeterminism and to establish the soundest basis for self-determinism.
33 Cf. The Decline of the West, II, 240, where Spengler says: 'But it is
precisely the impossibility of an Ego as a free power in the face of the
divine that constitutes Islam' (italics by Spengler); earlier on p. 235
speaking of Magian religions (and for him Islam is one of them)
Spengler observes: 'the impossibility of a thinking, believing, and
Notes and References 181

knowing Ego is the presupposition inherent in all the fundamentals of

all these religions' .
34 Cf. Lecture II, p. 40.
35 Cf. Introduction to the Secrets of the Self (English translation of Allama
Iqbal's 'philosophical poem': Asrlir-i Khudi), pp. xviii-xix.
36 See Ibn Qutaibah, Kitlib al-Ma'lirif ed. 'Ukashah, p. 441; cf. also J.
Obermann, 'Political Theology in Early Islam: Hasan al-Basri's, Treatise on
Qadar, Journal of the American Oriental Society, LV (1935), 138-62.
37 Cf. D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, pp. 123-24, for a
brief mention of 'the origin of the theory of the accomplished fact' with
reference to the political attitude of the Murji'ites, also Khuda Bukhsh,
Politics in Islam, p. 150, for Ibn Jama'ah's view on the subject as
contained in his work on constitutional law of Islam: Tahrir al-Ahklim fi
Tadbir Ahl ai-Islam (ed. Hans Kofler), p. 357. It may be added that
Allama Iqbal did take notice of Ibn Jama'ah's view (of bai'ah through
force) and observed: 'This opportunist view has no support in the law
of Islam:' cf. his article 'Political Thought in Islam', Sociological Review, I
(1908), 256, lines 15-16; reproduced in Speeches, Writings and Statements
of Iqbal, ed. L. A. Sherwani, p. 115.
38 Cf. Renan, Averr6es et I averroisme (pp. 136 f.) as quoted in R. A.
Tsanoff, The Problem of Immortality, p. 76.
39 Cf. William James, Human Immortality, p. 32.
40 Ibid., p. 28.
41 Ibid., p. 29.
42 Cf. Lecture II, pp. 26-28; also p. 83.
43 This passage in its entire import seems to be quite close to the one
quoted from Eddington's widely read Nature of the Physical World (p.
323) in Lecture VII, p. 147.
44 Cf. R. A. Tsanoff, op. cit., pp. 143-78, for a commendable account of
Nietzsche's doctrine of Eternal Recurrence.
45 Cf. H. Spencer, First Principles, pp. 549 ff.
46 Cf. Tsanoff, op. cit., pp. 162-63.
47 Cf. Oscar Levy (ed.), Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, XIV, 248
and 250, quoted in Tsanoff, op. cit., p. 163.
48 Cf. Levy, op. cit., XVI, 274, and Tsanoff, op. cit., p. 177.
49 Cf. Lecture V, p. 113, where Iqbal says: 'Whatever may be the criterion
by which to judge the forward steps of creative movement, the
movement itself, if conceived as cyclic, ceases to be creative. Eternal
recurrence is not eternal creation, it is eternal repetition'.
50 Barzakh, according to Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon, means 'a thing
that intervenes between any two things, or a bar, an obstruction, or a
thing that makes a separation between two things.' As signifying the
state between death and resurrection the word barzakh occurs in the
182 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Qur'an, 23: 100.

51 Reference is to the Qur'anic verses 23: 12-14 quoted on p. 83.
52 See also verses 6: 94 and 19: 80.

53 Translation of the Qur'anic expression ajrun ghairu mamnun- is found

in verses 41: 8; 84: 25 and 95: 6.
54 Reference here among others is to the Qur'anic verses 69: 13-18; 77: 8-
11.
55 Cf. also the Qur'anic verses 20: 112; 21: 103; 101: 6-7.
56 This alludes to the difference of the Prophet's encounter with God as
stated in the Qur'anic verse 53: 17 from that of Prophet Moses' as given
in verses 7: 143. Referring to the Persian verse (ascribed by some to the
Sufi poet Jamall of Delhi who died in 942/1535), Iqbal in his letter to Dr.
Hadi Hasan of Aligarh Muslim University observes: 'In the whole range
of Muslim literature there is not one verse like it and these two lines
enclose a whole infinitude of ideas.' See B. A. Dar (ed.), Letters and
Writings of Iqbal, pp. 2-3.
57 So important is 'action' or 'deed' according to the Qur'an that there
are more than one hundred verses urging the believers to act
righteously-hence, the opening line of Allama Iqbal's Preface to the
Lectures; d. M. Fu' ad 'Abd al-BaqI's AI-Mu 'jam al-Mufahras Ii Alfaz al-
Qur'an ai-Karim: '.m.l, s.l.h and h.s.n.
58 This, according to Helmholtz, one of the greatest scientists of the
nineteenth century, was about thirty metres per second. Before
Helmholtz the conduction of neural impulse was thought to be
instantaneous, too fast to be measured. After he had demonstrated its
measurement through his experimental studies; his researches came to
be used in experiments on reaction time (d. Gardner Murphy, Historical
Introduction to Modern Psychology, p. 138 and N. A. Haynie's article:
'Helmholtz, Hermann von (1821-1894), in Encyclopaedia of Psychology,
II, 103. Allama Iqbal's hypothetical statement with reference to
Helmholtz's discovery: 'If this is so, our present physiological structure
is at the bottom of our present view of time' is highly suggestive of new
physiological or biological studies of time. It is to be noted that some
useful research in this direction seems to have been undertaken already;
d. articles: 'Time' and 'Time Perception' in The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica (Macropaedia), XVIII, 420-22.
59 See George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, I, 597, where
it is said that the Kitab al-Hayawan of AI-Jahiz contains the germs of
many later theories: evolution adaptation, animal psychology. Cf. also M.
Plessner, AI-Jahiz' in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VII, 63-65.
I

60 For a statement of the views of 'Brethren of Purity' with regard to the

hypothesis of evolution, d. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to
Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, pp. 72-74
Notes and References 183

61 See Lecture V, p. 107, for Ibn Maskawaih's very clear conception of

biological evolution, which later found expression in the 'inimitable lines'
of 'the excellent Rumi' quoted in the next passage as well as in Lecture
VII, pp. 147--48.
62 Cf. E. H. Whinfield (tr.), Masnavi, pp. 216-17; this is translation of

verses 3637--41 and 3646--48 of Book iv of Rumi's Mathnawi- d. Allama

Iqbal's observation on these verses in his Development of Metaphysics in
Persia, p. 91.
63 For the keeping of a book or record of whatever man does in life here,
there is repeated mention in the Qur'an; see, for example, verses 18: 49;
21: 94; 43: 80 and 45: 29.
64 Reference seems here to be to the Qur'anic verse 29: 20 though 'second

creation' is also alluded to in such verses as 10: 4; 27: 64; 30: 11. See also
56: 61.
65 Qur'an, 17: 13.
66 Reference here is to the Qur' anic description of life hereafter such as is

to be found in verses 37: 41--49 and 44: 51-55 for the state of life promised
to the righteous, and 37: 62-68 and 44: 43--49 for the kind of life to be
suffered by the wicked. See also 32: 17.
67 Qur'an, 104: 6-7.
68 Reference is to the Qur'anic expression hiiwiyah (for hell) in 101: 9.

69 See the Qur' anic verse 57: 15 where the fire of hell is spoken of as man's
friend (mawlii), i.e. 'the only thing by which he may hope to be purified
and redeemed' (d. M. Asad, The Message of the Qur'an, p. 838, note 21).
70 Qur'an, 55: 29.

Lecture V: The Spirit of Muslim Culture

1 Cf. 'Abd al-Quddus of Gangoh, Latii'if-i Quddusi, ed. Shaikh Rukn al-
Din, 'LatIfah' 79; the Persian text rendered into English here is:
\ ill, , .:;)) jJI ,II;/: j..,-I$ )J r .I
Reference may also be made here to very pithy and profound jottings of
Allama Iqbal on the back cover of his own copy of William James's
Varieties of Religious Experience, especially to those under the sub-
heading: 'Mystical and Prophetic Consciousness' with an explicit
mention of 'Abd al-Quddus Gangohi; see Muhammad Siddiq,
Descriptive Catalogue of Allama Iqbal's Personal Library, Plate No.8.
2 This great idea is embodied in the Qur'anic verse 33: 40, i.e.
'Muhammad is Allah's Apostle and the Seal of all Prophets' (Rasul Allah
wa khiitaman nabiyyin), and has also been variously enunciated in the
Hadith literature: (i) yii Muhammad anta rasul Ulltihi wa khtitam al-anbiyti:
'0 Muhammad! You are Allah's Apostle and the Seal of all Prophets';
this is what other Prophets would proclaim on the Day of Resurrection
(Bukhari, AI-Sahih, 'Tafsir': 17). (ii) Wa ana khtitamun nabiyyin: 'And I am
184 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

the last of the Prophets' (ibid., 'Mamlqib': 7; Muslim, Al-Sahih, Iman:

327). (iii) Laysa nabiyya ba'di: 'There is no Prophet after me' (Bukhari,
'Maghazl': 77). (iv) Lii nabiyya ba'di: 'There is no Prophet after me' (ibid.,
'Anbiya": 50; Muslim, 'Imarah': 44; Fadii'i/ al-Sahiibah: 30-31). (v) Wa Iii
nabiyya ba'dahu: 'And there is no Prophet after him', said so by Abu
Awfa as narrated by Isma'H (Bukhari, 'Adab': 109). (vi) Lii nubuwwah
ba'di: 'There is no prophethood after me' (Muslim, Fadii'il al-Sahiibah: 30-
32).
3 Though wahy matluww (revelation which is recited or worded
revelation) is specific to the Prophets, the Qur' an speaks of revelation in
connection with earth (99: 5), heavens (41: 12), honey-bee (16: 68-69),
angels (8: 12), mother of Moses (28: 7) and disciples of Jesus (5: 111). As
to the different modes of revelation see 42: 51.
4 Reference here is to the last but one passage of the Qur' anic verse 5: 3
which reads: 'This day have I perfected your religion for you and
completed My favour unto you and have chosen for you as religion al-
Isliim'. This passage, according to all available ahiidith on the testimony
of the Prophet's contemporaries, was revealed at 'Arafat in the
afternoon of Friday, the 9th of Dhu 'l-Hijjah 10 AH., the year of the
Prophet's last pilgrimage to Makkah (cf. Bukhari, 'Iman': 34, where this
fact is authenticated by 'Vmar b. al-Khattab). It is to be noted that the
Prophet's death took place eighty-one or eighty-two days after the
revelation of this verse and as it speaks of the perfection of religion in
Islam, no precept of legal import whatsoever was revealed after it; cf.
Razi, AI-Tafsir al-Kabir.
5 Qur'an, 41: 53.
6 The first half of the formula of Islam is: Iii iliih ill Alliih, i.e. there is no
god but God, or nothing whatever is worthy of worship except Allah.
The other half is: Muhammadu Rasululliih, i.e. Muhammad is the
Messenger of Allah. The expression 'formula of Islam' signifies that by
bearing witness to the truth of these two simple propositions a man
enters the fold of Islam.
7 Cf. Bukhari, 'Jana'iz': 78; 'Shahadah': 3, and 'Jihad': 160 and 178 (Eng.
trans. M. Muhsin Khan, II, 244-45; III, 488-89, and IV, 168-69 and 184-86)
and Muslim: 'Fitan': 95-96 (Eng. trans. A H. Siddiqi, IV, 1510-15).
8 Cf. Muqaddimah, trans. Rosenthall, Vol. III, Section vi, Discourse: 'The
Science of Sufism'; D. B. Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam,
pp. 165-74, and M. Syrier, 'Ibn Khaldun and Mysticism', Islamic Culture,
XXljii (1947), 264-302.
9 Reference here is to the Qur'anic verses: 41: 37; 25: 45; 10: 6; 30: 22 and
3: 140 bearing on the phenomena of Nature which have quite often been
named in the Qur' an as iiyiit Allah, i.e. the 'apparent signs of God'
(Raghib, AI-Mufradiit, pp. 32-33); this is followed by reference to verses
Notes and References 185

25: 73 and 17: 72 which in the present context clearly make it as much a
religious duty of the 'true servants of the Most Gracious God' to ponder
over these apparent signs of God 'as revealed to the sense-perception of
man' as to ponder over the Divine communications (iiyat al-Qur'an)
revealed to the Holy Prophet- this two-way God-consciousness alone
ensures man's physical and spiritual prosperity in this life as well as in
the life hereafter.
10 Cf. G. H. Lewes, The Biographical History of Philosophy (1857), p. 306, II.
4-8, where Lewes says: 'It is this work ("Revivification of the Sciences of
Religion") which M. Schmolders has translated. It bears so remarkable a
resemblance to the Discours de la methode of Descartes, that had any
translation of it existed in the days of Descartes, everyone would have
cried against the plagiarism'. The second sentence of this passage was
quoted by Allama Iqbal in his doctoral dissertation: The Development of
Metaphysics in Persia (1908), p. 73, note (1), in support of his statement
that GhazalI 'anticipated Descartes in his philosophical method'.
It is to be noted that Schmolders' Essai sur les ecoles philosophiques chez les
Arabes (Paris, 1842) was not the French translation of GhazaH's
voluminous 'Revivification' (Ihyii 'Ulum aI-Din in forty books) but that
of his autobiographical work AI-Munqidh min al-Daliil with its earliest
edited Arabic text. It seems that the remarkable originality and boldness
of GhazalI's thought in the French version of al-Munqidh led Lewes to
confuse it with the greater, the more famous 'Revivification' (Ihyii'). For
the 'amazing resemblance' between GhazaH's AI-Munqidh min al-(llliil
(Liberation from Error) and Descartes' Discourse de la methode (Discourse
on Method), see Professor M. M. Sharif, 'The Influence of Muslim
Thought on the West', 'Section: D', A History of Muslim Philosophy, II,
1382-84.
11 Cf. AI-Qistiis al-Mustaqim, trans. D. P. Brewster (The Just Balance),
chapters ii-vi and translator's Appendix III: 'AI-GhazaH and the
Syllogism', pp. 126-30; d. also Michael E. Marmura, 'GhazaH's Attitude
to the Secular Sciences and Logic', Essays on Islamic Philosophy and
Science, ed. G. F. Hourani, Section II, pp. 102-03, and Susanna Diwald's
detailed review on AI-Qistiis in Der Islam (1961), pp. 171-74.
12 Shihab aI-Din Suhrawardi Maqtiil.
13 For an account of Ishraqi's criticism of Greek logic contained in his
Hikmat al-Ishriiq, d. S. Hossein Nasr, 'Shihab ai-Din Suhrawardi Maqtiil',
A History of Muslim Philosophy, I, 384-85; a fuller account of Ishraqi's
logic, according to Nicholas Rescher, is to be found in his Kitiib al-
Talwihiit and Kitiib al-Lamahiit d. Development of Arabic Logic, p. 185). It is
to be noted that the earliest explanation of Ishraqi's disagreement with
Aristotle that logical definition is genus plus differentia, in terms of
modem (Bosanquet's) logic, was given by Allama Iqbal in his
186 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Developmen t of Metaphysics in Persia, pp. 97-98.

For an expose of Ibn Taymiyyah's logical masterpiece Al-Radd 'ala '1-
Mantiqiyin (,Refutation of the Logicians') cf. Serajul Haque, 'Ibn
Taimiyyah' in A History of Muslim Philosophy, II, 805-12; also Majid
Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy (pp. 352-53) for a lucid summing
up. A valuable study of Ibn Taymiyyah's logical ideas is that by 'Ali
Sami al-Nashshar in Manahij al-Bahth 'inda Mufakkiri 'I-Islam wa Naqd al-
Muslimin Iii Mantiq al-Aristatlisi, chapter III, sections ii and iii. AI-
Nashshar has also eidted Suyuti's Jahd al-Qannah fi Tajrid al-Nasihah, an
abridgment of Ibn Taymiyyah's AI-Radd 'ala 'I-Mantiqiyin.
14 Aristotle's first figure, al-shakl al-awwal or al-qiyas al-kamil of the
Muslim logicians, is a form of syllogism in which the middle term
occurs as a subject in the first premise and as a predicate in the second
premise. It is the only form of syllogism in which the conclusion
becomes available in the form of a general (universal) proposition
needed for scientific purposes; cf. M. Saeed Sheikh, A Dictionary of
Muslim Philosophy, s.v.
As to the criticism of the first figure referred to here, it is more rightly to
be ascribed to Fakhr aI-Din Razi (1149-1209), who, besides his own now
available logical works, wrote quite a few critical commentaries on the
works of Ibn Sina (980-1037), rather than to the eminent physician of
Islam, Abu Bakr Zakariyya Razi 1864-c. 925), none of whose short
treatises on some parts of the Aristotelian Organon seems to have
survived; cf. Nicholas Reacher, The Development of Arabic Logic, pp. 117-
18. Happily this stands confirmed by Allama Iqbal's Presidential
comments (almost all of which have been incorporated in the present
passage) on Khwajah Kamal's Lecture (in Urdu) on 'Islam and Modem
Sciences' in the third session of the All-India Muhammadan
Educational Conference, 1911, in Delhi; see S. A. Vahid (ed.), Maqalat-i
Iqbal, pp. 239-40; cf. also Allama's letter dated 1 February 1924 to Sayyid
Sulaiman Nadvi, Iqbalnamah, 1,127-28; reference in both cases is to Fakhr
aI-Din al-Razi and not to Abu Bakr RazL
It is to be noted that of all the writings of Allama Iqbal including his
more than 1200 letters Abu Bakr Razi is mentioned only in Development
of Metaphysics in Persia: 'as a physician and as a thinker who admitted
the eternity of matter, space and time and possibly looked upon light as
the first creation' (pp. 24, 96). In a significant passage on p. 96 of this
work Allama has listed about ten Muslim thinkers who were highly
critical either of Greek philosophy in general or Greek logic in
particular- Abo Bakr Razi's name does not appear in this list.
15 This is Ibn Hazm's Hudiid al-Mantiq referred to in his well-known
Kitab al-Fisal (I, 4 and 20; V, 70 and 128) under somewhat varied titles;
also mentioned by his contemporary and compatriot Sa'id b. Ahmad al-
Notes and References 187

Andall1si in his Tabaqiit al-Umam (p. 118) and later listed by

Brockelmann in GAL; Supplementbiinde (I, 696). C. van Arendonk,
however, in his article on 'Ibn Hazm' in The Encyclopaedia of Islam (II,
385) and 1. Goldziher, s.v. in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VII, 71
have declared that 'the work has not survived'. And certainly very little
was heard of this work until Dr. Ihsan 'Abbas of the University of
Khartoum discovered possibly the only MS and published it under the
title: AI-Taqrib li-Hadd al-Mantiq (The Approach to the Limits of Logic) in
1959. Allama's comments on Ibn Hazm's 'Scope of Logic' (Hudud al-
Mantiq), at a time when it was generally considered to have been lost is
a proof of Allama's extraordinary knowledge of Muslim writers and
their works.
16 Cf. Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1964), p. 64, where it is stated
that' Al-Birl1ni (d. 1048) and Ibn Haitham (d. 1038) ". anticipated
modern empirical psychology in recognizing what is called reaction-
time': in the two footnotes to this statement Allama Iqbal quotes from
de Boer's History of Philosophy in Islam, pp. 146 and 150, to establish the
positivism, i.e. sense-empiricism of AI-Birl1ni and Ibn Haitham. On pp.
151-52 of de Boer's work is a passage (possibly referred to by Allama
Iqbal here) which describes reaction-time very much in the modern
sense: 'not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change
localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also,
between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the per-
ception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the
transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves.'
As to Al-Kindi's discovery that sensation is proportionate to stimulus,
cf. de Boer, op. cit., p. 101, where he speaks of 'the proportional relation
existing between stimulus and sensation' in connection with Al-Kindi's
mathematized theory of compound remedies. This is given in Al-
Kindi's celebrated treatise: Risiilahfi Ma'rifah Quwwat 'l-Adwiyyiit al-
Murakkabah which was at least twice translated into Latin (Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, II, 342 and 896).
17 Cf. Opus Majus, trans. Robert Belle Burke, Vol. II, Part V (pp. 419-82).
It is important to note that Sarton's observation on Roger Bacon's work
on optics is very close to that of Allama Iqbal. 'His optics', says Sarton,
'was essentially based upon that of Ibn al-Haitham, with small
additions and practical applications' (op. cit., II, 957). As reported by Dr.
M. S. Naml1s, Allama Iqbal helped him in understanding the rotographs
of the only MS (No. 2460 in Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris) of Ibn
Haitham's Tahrfr al Maniizir for a number of days; cf. Ibn a/-Haitham:
Proceedings of the Celebrations of 1000th Anniversary (held in November
1969 under the auspices of Hamdard National Foundation Pakistan,
Karachi), p. 128.
188 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

See, however, Professor A. I. Sabra's scholarly article: 'Ibn al-Haytham'

in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VI, 189-210, especially p. 205 where
he gives up-to-date information about the MSS of Ibn Haitham's Kitab
Manazir. According to Professor Sabra, 'The reference in Brockelmann
to a recension of this work in the Paris MS, ar. 2460 (Brockelmann has
2640) is mistaken; the MS is a recension of Euclid's Optics which is
attributed on the title page to Hasan ibn (Musa ibn) Shakir'.
18 'Ibn Hazm' here is a palpable misprint for 'Ibn Haitham' - the context
of the passage more fittingly demands the latter rather than the former
name. Ibn Hazm's influence on Roger Bacon's Opus Majus, a
predominantly science-oriented work, looks somewhat odd. There
seems to be no evidence of it in the text of Opus Majus - Ibn Hazm is not
even so much as mentioned by name in this work. Sarton, despite his
great praise for Ibn Hazm's scholarship (I, 713), nowhere hints at his
contributions to 'science' or his influence on Roger Bacon, nor is this to
be found in other standard works, for example, in the sixteen-volume
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
19 Qur'an, 53: 42.
20 For Tusi's discussion of the parallel postulate (also named 'axiom of
parallelism'), see his' AI-Risalat al-Shafiyah 'an al-Shakk fi 'l-Khutut al-
Mutawaziyah' in (Tusi's) Rasa'il, Vol. II, Pt. viii, pp. 1-40. Commenting
on this work Sarton observes (op. cit. II, 1003): 'Nasir al-Din's discussion
was remarkably elaborate'. Cf. also Cajori, A History of Elementary
Mathematics, p. 127, Q. Hafiz b. Tauqan, Turath al-'Arab al-'lImi, pp. 97-
98, R. Bonola, Non-Euclidean Geometry, pp. 12-13 and 37-38 and Dr. S. H.
Nasr's article: 'Al-Tusi' in Dictionary of Scien tific Biography, XIII, 508-14
especially p. 510.
21 This passage may be read in conjunction with Allama Iqbal's
observation on Tusi in his Sectional Presidential Address (delivered at
the Fifth Oriental Conference, Lahore, on 20 November 1928): 'A Plea
for the Deeper Study of Muslim Scientists': 'It is Tusi's effort to improve
the parallel postulate of Euclid that is believed to have furnished a basis
in Europe for the problem of space which eventually led to the theories
of Gauss and Riemann' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 138).
Euclid's parallel postulate is Postulate V of the first book of his Elements.
What it means to say is that through a given point 'P' there can be only
one straight line 'L' parallel to a given straight line. It is to be noted that
to Euclid's successors this postulate had signally failed to appear seIf-
evident, and had equally failed to appear indemonstrable- hence,
Allama Iqbal's generalized statement that 'since the days of Ptolemy
(87-165 A. D.) till the time of Nasir Tusi (1201-1274 A. D.) nobody gave
serious thought to the postulate. Deeper and wider implication of the
postulate, however, cannot be denied. 'The innumerable attempts to
Notes and References 189

prove this fifth postulate on the one hand and the development of the
non-Euclidean geometries on the other are as many tributes to Euclid's
wisdom', says Sarton (ap. cit. I, 153). A long note on the postulate by
Spengler- well versed in mathematics- in his Decline of the West, 1,176,
admirably brings out its deep philosophical import.
These non-Euclidean geometries were developed in the nineteenth
century by certain European mathematicians: Gauss (1777-1855) in
Germany, Lobachevski (1792-1856) in Russia, Bolyai (1802-1860) in
Hungary and Riemann (1826-1866) in Germany. They abandoned the
attempt to prove Euclid's parallel postulate for they discovered that
Euclid's postulates of geometry were not the only possible postulates
and that other sets of postulates could be formulated arbitrarily and
self-consistent geometries based on them. They further discovered that
the space assumed in Euclidean geometry is only a special case of a
more general type. These non-Euclidean geometries assumed immense
scientific significance when it was found that the space-time continuum
required by Einstein's theory of gravitation is non-Euclidean.
This in short is the movement of the idea of parallel postulate from
Euclid to Einstein; Allama Iqbal with his seer-like vision for ideas was
very much perceptive of this 'movement' and also of the scientific and
philosophical significance of the non-Euclidean geometries. It is to be
noted that Allama's keenly perceptive mind took full notice of the
scientific developments of his days, for example, of anti-mechanistic
biologism (neo-vitalism) of Hans Driesch and J. S. Haldane and of
quantum theory as well as of relativity-physics especially as expounded
by Eddington, Louis Rougier, Lord Haldane, Wildon Carr and other
philosopher-scientists. Among other things, one may notice a score of
books on the 'Philosophy of Contemporary Science', more than half of
which are on relativity-physics (mostly published between 1920 and
1928) in his personal library alone. See M. Siddiq, Descriptive Catalogue of
Allama Iqbal's Personal Library, pp. 4-7 and 71-76, as well as Plates Nos.
22 and 23 giving the facsimiles of Allama's signatures dated July 1921
and September 1921 on his own copies of Einstein's work: Relativity: The
Special and the General Theory: A Papular Exposition (1920) and Edwin E.
Slosson's Easy Lessons in Einstein (1920); d. also Dr Ahmad Nabi Khan,
Relics of Allama Iqbal (Catalogue), books listed at IV. 41 and IV. 46. The
first book The Mystery of Space by Robert T. Browne by its very sub-title:
, A Study of the Hyperspace Movement in the Light of the Evolution of
New Psychic Faculties and an Inquiry into the Genesis and Essential
Nature of Space' suggests that it was probably this book which was
foremost in Allama's mind when he spoke of highly mathematical
notion of 'hyperspace movement' in connection with Tiisi's effort to
improve the parallel postulate here as well as in his 'Plea for Deeper
190 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Study' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 141). Allama's keen

interest in higher mathematics is evinced by his references in the
present rather compact discussion on Newton's interpolation formula,
recent developments in European mathematics and Whitehead's view
of relativity as distinguished from that of Einstein and more im-
portantly by the two long letters (preserved in Allama Iqbal Museum,
Lahore) of purely mathematical nature written to him by Fadl HamId
on 19 July 1928 and 27 July 1935; d. Dr. Ahmad Nabi Khan, op. cit.,
Letters II. 34 and II. 75.
22 Cf. a fairly long passage from Spengler'S Decline of the West (I, 75)
quoted in Allama's Address: 'A Plea for Deeper Study of the Muslim
Scientists' and an account of the way he went into the authentication of
Al-Blrfml's view of mathematical function (Speeches, Writings and
Statements of Iqbal, pp. 135-36). Allama's interest in 'mathematical idea of
function' seems to be two-fold: religio-philosophical and scientific. The
function-idea, he says, 'turns the fixed into the variable, and sees the
universe not as being but as becoming'. This is in full accord with the
Qur'anic view of the universe which God has built with power and it is
He Who is steadily expanding it (d. M. Asad, The Message of the Qur'an,
p. 805, note 31) and again 'He adds to His creation whatever He wills:
for verily, God has the power to will anything' (35: 1). The Qur'anic
view of the growing universe is thus 'a clear departure' from the
Aristotelian view of the fixed universe. Aristotle's doctrine of
potentiality passing into actuality fails to resolve the mystery of
becoming, in its living historicity and novelty or, as W. D. Ross has put
it: 'The conception of potentiality has often been used to cover mere
barrenness of thought' (d. his Aristotle, p. 176). Hence, Allama's
repeated pronouncements, that the spirit of the Qur' an is essentially
anti-classical. Philosophically speaking, time, which in the present
context has been linked up with the notion of functionality and rightly
so, is the most indispensable condition for the very possibility and
reality of human experience, cognitive or moral. This explains, partly at
least, why 'Time' is the recurring theme in Allama's works in both prose
and verse.
In mathematics function is a relationship of correspondence between
two variables called independent variable and dependent variable and
is expressed by saying 'y is a function of x' which means y changes with
x. so that for a certain value of x, y has a certain value (or values). In
Europe though the term 'function' in its full mathematical sense was
used by Leibniz in 1694, the theory of functions had already emerged
with the analytic geometry of Pierce Fermat in 1629 and that of the
father of modem philosophy Rene Descartes- Descartes' La Geometrie
appeared along with his better known Discours de la methode in 1637.
Notes and References 191

After that such rapid advances took place in mathematics that within,
say, fifty years it was completely metamorphosed into its modern form
or, as Spengler puts it: 'Once this immense creation found wings, its rise
was miraculous'. Being well versed in mathematics, Spengler gives an
exciting account of the new discoveries of the Western mathematicians
and their impact on European science and arts (op. cit., I, 74-90). Two of
his statements are to be noted. 'Not until the theory of functions was
fully evolved', says Spengler, 'could this mathematics be unreservedly
brought to bear in the parallel sphere of our dynamic Western physics'.
Generally speaking, this means that Nature speaks the subtle and
complex language of mathematics and that without the use of this
language the breath-taking progress of science in the West, since the
seventeenth century, would have been a sheer impossibility. Spengler,
however, did not care to know that the mathematical idea of function
originated, not in the West, but in the East, more particularly with the
most brilliant AI-BInlni's AI-Qanun al-Mas'udi in 1030, i.e. six hundred
years before Fermat and Descartes.
The second statement to be noted is that, according to Spengler, 'The
history of western knowledge is thus one of progressive emancipation
from classical thought' (op. cit, p. 76). As it is, Allama Iqbal has the least
quarrel with Spengler on the truth of this statement for he says: 'The
most remarkable phenomenon of modern history, however, is the
enormous rapidity with which the world of Islam is spiritually moving
towards the West. There is nothing wrong in this movement, for
European culture, on its intellectual side, is only a further development
of some of the most important phases of the culture of Islam' (Lecture I,
p. 6: italics mine). And further, 'Spengler's view of the spirit of modern
culture is, in my opinion, perfectly correct' (p. 114). What Allama Iqbal,
however, rightly insists is 'that the anticlassical spirit of the modern
world has really arisen out of the revolt of Islam against Greek thought'
(ibid.). This revolt consists in Islam's focussing its vision on 'the
concrete', 'the particular' and 'the becoming' as against the Greeks'
search for 'the ideal', 'the universal' and 'the being'. Spengler failed to
see these Islamic ingredients of modern culture because of his seJf-
evolved thesis 'that each culture is a specific organism, having no point
of contact with cultures that historically precede or follow it'. Spengler's
thesis has its roots, not in any scientifically established dynamics of
history, but in his uncompromising theory of cultural holism (note the
sub-title of the first volume of his work: Gestalt and Wirklichkeit). Cf. W.
H. Dray's article, 'Spengler, Oswald', in Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, VII,
527-30 for critical evaluation of Spengler's philosophical position.
23 Cf. M. A. Kazim, 'AI-BIrllni: and Trignometry', AI-Biruni
Commemoration Volume, esp. pp. 167-68, for the English translation of the
192 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

passage from AI-BiriurI's AI-Qanun al-Mas'udi (Vol. I, Maqalah III,

chapter 8, last article) wherein AI-Biruni generalizes his interpolation
formula 'from trignometrical function to any function whatever'. This is
likely the passage pointedly referred to by Allama Iqbal in his' A Plea
for Deeper Study of the Muslim Scientists' (Speeches, Writings and
Statements of Iqbal, p. 136). See, however, Professor E. S. Kennedy's
highly commendable article on 'al-Bironi' in Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, II, 147-58. He bases AI-Bironl's theory of function on his
'Treatise on Shadows' already translated by him.
24 Cf. M. R. Siddiqi, 'Mathematics and Astronomy', A History of Muslim
Philosophy, ed. M. M. Sharif, II, 1280, and Juan Vemet, 'Mathematics,
Astronomy, Optics', The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht and C. E.
Bosworth, pp. 466-68. According to Sarton, AI-Khawarizmi 'may be
called one of the founders of analysis or algebra as distinct from
geometry' and that his astronomical and trignometric tables were the
Muslim tables which contained, not simply the sine function, but also
the tangent' (op. cit., I, 563).
25 Cf. Al-Fauz ai-Asghar, pp. 78-83; also Development of Metaphysics in
Persia, p. 29 where an account of Ibn Maskawaih's theory of evolution is
given as summed up by Shibli: Nu'mani in his 'lim al-Kalam, pp. 141.43.
26 This is a reference to the views of Khwajah Muhammad Parsa (d.
822/ 1420) as contained in his short but valuable tractate on time and
space: Risalah dar Zaman-o-Makan, the only extant MS of which, perhaps,
is the one listed by A. Monzavi in his Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts,
Vol. II, Part I, p. 800. I am greatly indebted to Qazi Mahmud ul-Haq of
British Library, London, for the microfilm of this MS. This resulted as a
preliminary in the publication of Urdu translation of Khwajah
Muhammad Parsa's Risalah dar Zaman-o-Makan along with a brief
account of his life and works by Dr. Khwajah Hamid Yazdani in Al-
Ma'arif (Lahore), XVII/vii, July 1984), 31-42, 56. Cf. Nadhr Sabiri (ed.),
Ghayat al-Imkan fi Ma'rifat ai-Zaman by Shaikh Mahmud Ashnawi,
'Introduction', p. 'r' where it is alleged that Khwajah Parsa made an
extensive use of Ashnavi's said tractate on space and time, which is not
very unlikely seeing the close resemblance between the two tractates;
yet at places Khwajah Parsa's treatment of the subject is sufistically
more sophisticated.
27 Cf. Lecture III, pp. 60-61.
28 Misprinted as 'weight' in previous editions.
29 Cf. Ghayat al-Imkan fi Dirayat al-Makan, ed. Rahim Farmanish, pp. 16-
17; English trans. A. H. Kamali, p. 13. On the authorship of this sufistic
tractate on space and time, see note 34 in Lecture III.
30 Ibid., p. 17; English trans., p. 13.
31 Ibid., p. 23; English trans., p. 17.
Notes and References 193

32 Ibid., pp. 24-25; English trans., pp. 18-19.

33 Ibid., p. 25; English trans., p. 19.
34 Ibid., p. 17; English trans., pp. 20-21.
35 Ibid., pp. 27-28; English trans., p. 21.
36 Ibid., pp, 28-29; English trans., pp. 21-22.
37 Cf. Space, Time and Deity, 11,41; also R. Metz, A Hundred Years of British
Philosophy, pp. 634-38, and article'S. Alexander' in The Dictionary of
Philosophy, ed. D. D. Runes, wherein it is made clear that the term 'deity'
is not used by Alexander in any theological sense but in terms of his
doctrine of emergent evolution: 'The quality next above any given level
(of evolution) is deity to the beings on that level'.
38 Alexander's metaphor that time is mind of space is to be found in
statements such as this: 'It is that Time as a whole and in its parts bears
to space as a whole and its corresponding parts a relation analogous to
the relation of mind ... or to put the matter shortly that Time is the
mind of Space and Space the body of Time' (Space Time and Deity, II, 38).
Allama Iqbal's references to Alexander's Space, Time and Deity, in the
sufistic account of space and time in the present Lecture as also in his
address earlier: 'A Plea for Deeper Study of Muslim Scientists' (Speeches,
Writings and Statements, p. 142) coupled with his commendatory
observations on Alexander's work in his letter dated 24 January 1921
addressed to R. A. Nicholson (Letters of Iqbal, p. 141) are suggestive of
Allama's keen interest in the metaphysical views of Alexander.
Of all the British philosophers, contemporaries of Allama Iqbal,
Alexander can be singled out for laying equal emphasis on space and
time as central to all philosophy. 'All the vital problems of philosophy',
says Alexander, 'depend for their solution on the solution of the
problem what Space and Time are and, more particularly, in how they
are related to each other'. According to Allama Iqbal, 'In [Muslim] ...
culture the problem of space and time becomes a question of life and
death' (p. 105). 'Space and Time in Muslim Thought' was the subject
selected by Allama for his proposed Rhodes Memorial Lectures at
Oxford (1934-1935) (cf. Letters of Iqbal, pp. 135-36 and 183; also Relics of
Allama Iqbal: Catalogue, Letter II, 70 dated 27 May 1935 from Secretary,
Rhodes Trust) which very unfortunately he could not deliver owing to
his increasing ill health. A letter dated 6 May 1937 addressed to Dr.
Syed Zafarul Hasan of Aligarh Muslim University (author of the well-
known Realism, 1928), discovered only recently, shows that Allama
Iqbal had already gathered 'material' for his Rhodes Memorial Lectures;
cf. Rafi ai-Din Hashimi, 'Allamah Iqbal ke Chand Ghair Mudawwan
Khutut', Iqbal Review, XXIIIjiv Oanuary 1983), pp. 41-43.
Attention may be called here also to an obviously unfinished two-page
draft on 'The Problem of Time in Muslim Philosophy' in Allama's own
194 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

hand preserved in the Allama Iqbal Museum, Lahore; d. Dr. Ahmad

Nabi Khan, Relics of A llama Iqbal: Catalogue, 1. 37.
39 Cf. Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Diriiyat al Makiin, pp. 16-17; English trans., p. 13.
40 Ibid., p. 50; English trans., p. 36.
41 This is a reference to the Qur'anic verses: 6: 6; 9: 39; 17: 16-17; 18: 59;
21: 11; 22: 45-46; 36: 31. God's judgment on nations, also called
'judgment in history', according to the Qur'an, is said to be more
relentless than God's judgment on individuals- in the latter case God is
forgiving and compassionate. Nations are destroyed only for their
transgression and evil doings. And when a nation perishes, its good
members meet the same doom as its bad ones for the former failed to
check the spread of evil (11: 116); d. F. Rahman, Major Themes of the
Quran, p. 53.
42 See also Qur' anic verses 15: 5 and 23: 43.
43 For very special circumstances under which a keen sense of history
grew in Islam, see 1. H. Qureshi, 'Historiography', A History of Muslim
Philosophy, II, 1197-1203.
44 AbU 'Abdullah Muhammad b. Ishaq (d. c. 150/767) has the distinction
of being the first biographer of the Holy Prophet. His work Kitiib 5irat
Rasul Alliih ('The Life of the Apostle of God') has, however, been lost
and is now known only through Ibn Hisham's recension of it.
45 Abu Ja'far Muhammad b. Jar!r aI-Tabar! (225-311/839-923) is one of
the greatest Muslim historians. His remarkably accurate monumental
history Kitiib Akhbiir al-Rusul wa 'I-MulUk ('Annals of the Apostles and
the Kings'), the first comprehensive work in the Arabic language, has
been edited by M. J. de Goeje and others in 15 volumes (Leiden, 1879-
1901). AI-Tabar! is equally well known for his commendable
commentary on the Qur'an: Jiimi' al-Bayiin fi Tafsir al-Qur'an in 30
volumes- a primal work for the later commentators because of its
earliest and largest collection of the exegetical traditions.
46 Abu 'I-Hasan' Ali b. aI-Husain b. 'Ali al-Mas'ud! (d. c. 346/957), after
AI-Tabar!, is the next greatest historian in Islam- rightly named as the
'Herodotus of the Arabs'. He inaugurated a new method in the writing
of history: instead of grouping events around years (annalistic method)
he grouped them around kings, dynasties and topics (topical method); a
method adopted also by Ibn Khaldun. His historico-geographical work
Muruj al-Dhahab wa 'l-Ma'iidin al-Jawiihir ('Meadows of Gold and Mines
of Gems') also deals with Persian, Roman and Jewish history and
religion.
47 Reference is to the Qur' anic verses 4: 1; 6: 98; 7: 189; 39: 6.

48 See Robert Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, p. 86. Flint's

eulogy of Ibn Khaldun, expressive of his sentiment of a discovery of a
genius, now stands more or less confirmed by the realistic assessments
Notes and References 195

made of Ibn Khaldun by eminent scholars such as A. Toynbee, A Study

of History, III, 322; Sarton, op. cit., III, 1262; Gaston Bouthoul in his
Preface to de Slane's Les Prolegomenes d' Ibn Khaldoun (second edition,
Paris, 1934-38) and R. Brunschvig, La Berberie orientale sous les Hafsides,
II,391.
49 Cf. Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosenthal, III, 246-58, also M. Fakhry, A
History of Islamic Philosophy, pp. 361-64.
50 Phenomenon of the alternation of day and night is spoken of in many
verses of the Qur'an such as 2: 164; 3: 190; 10: 6; 23: 80; 45: 5.
51 Ibid., 55: 29.
52 Cf. p. 107.
53 Cf. p. 106.
54 On the notion of time as held by Zeno, Plato, Heraclitus and Stoics, cf.
A. J. Gunn, The Problem of Time, pp. 19-22.
55 Cf. O. Spengler, op. cit., II, 189-323.
56 Cf. Lecture I, p. 3, Lecture III, p. 56 and p. 102.
57 Cf. Spengler, op. cit., II, 248-55.
58 Ibid., pp. 235, 240; cf. also note 33 in Lecture IV.
59 Ibid., p. 238.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid., pp. 206-07.
62 Cf. Muqaddimah, Chapter III, section 51: 'The Fatimid ..... ', trans.
Rosenthal, II, 156-200. Ibn Khaldun recounts formally twenty-four
traditions bearing upon the belief in Mahdi (none of which is from
Bukhari or Muslim) and questions the authenticity of them all. Cf. also
the article 'al-Mahdi' in Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam and P. K. Hitti,
History of the Arabs, pp. 439-49, for the religio-political background of
the imam-Mahdi idea.
Reference may also be made to Allama Iqbal's letter dated 7 April 1932
to Muhammad Ahsan wherein, among other things, he states that,
according to his firm belief (,aqidah), all traditions relating to Mahdi,
masihiyyat and mujaddidiyyat are the product of Persian and non-Arab
imagination; and he adds that certainly they have nothing to do with
the true spirit of the Qur'an (Iqbalniimah, II, 231).
And finally it shall be rewarding to read this last paragraph in
conjunction with Allama's important notes on the back cover of his own
copy of Spengler's Decline of the West, facsimile of which is reproduced
in Descriptive Catalogue of A llama Iqbal's Personal Library. Plate No. 33.
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam
1 The Qur'an maintains the divine origin of man by affirming that God
breathed of His own spirit unto him as in verses 15: 29; 32: 9; and 38: 72.
2 Constantine the Great was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. He was
converted to Christianity, it is said, by seeing a luminous cross in the
196 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

sky. By his celebrated Edict of Toleration in 313 he raised Christianity to

equality with the public pagan cults in the Empire. For his attempt at
the unification of Christianity, cf. Will Durant, Caesar and Christ, pp. 655-
61, and The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 1, chapter i.
3 Flavius Claudius Julianus (331-363), nephew' of Constantine,
traditionally known as Julian the Apostate, ruled the Roman Empire
from 361 to 363. Studying in Athens in 355, he frequented pagan
Neoplatonist circles. As emperor, he at once proclaimed himself a
pagan, restored fiefdom of worship for pagans and began a campaign
against the orthodox church. Cf. Alice Gardner, Julian and the Last
Struggle of Paganism against Christianity, and Will Durant, The Age of
Faith, pp. 10-19.
4 See J. H. Denison, Emotion as the Basis of Civilization, pp. 267-68.
5 The principle of Divine Unity is embodied in the Qur' anic
proclamation: la ilaha ilIa Allah: there is no god except God. It is a
constant theme of the Qur' an and is repeatedly mentioned as the basic
principle not only of Islam but of every religion revealed by God.
6 Reference is to the Qur'anic verse 29: 69. During the course of his
conversation with one of his admirers, Allama Iqbal is reported to have
made the following general observation with reference to this verse: ' All
efforts in the pursuit of sciences and for attainment of perfections and
high goals in life which in one way or other are beneficial to humanity
are man's exerting in the way of Allah (MalJiizat-i Iqbal, ed. and
annotated Dr. Abu 'l-Laith Siddiqi, p. 67).
Translating this verse thus: 'But as for those who strive hard in Our
cause- We shall most certainly guide them onto paths that lead unto us',
Muhammad Asad adds in a footnote that the plural 'paths' for subul
used here is obviously meant to stress the fact- alluded to often in the
Qur'an- that there are many paths which lead to a cognizance (ma'rifah)
of God' (The Message of the Qur'an, p. 616, note 61).
7 Cf. Abu Dawud, Sun an, 'Aqdiya': 11; Tirmidhi, 'Ahkam': 3. and
Darimi, Kitab al-Sunan, I, 60; this hadith is generally regarded as the
very basis of ijtihad in Islam. On the view expressed by certain scholars
that this hadith is to be ranked as al-mursal, cf. 'Abd ai-Qadir, Nazarah
'Ammah fi Tarikh al-Fiqh al-Islami, 1, 70 and 210, and Sayyid Muhammad
Yusuf Binnori as quoted by Dr. Khalid Mas'ud, 'Khutubat-i Iqbal men
Ijtihad ki Ta'rif. Ijtihad ka Tarikhi Pas Manzar', Fikr-o-Nazar, XV lvii-viii
(Islamabad, Jan.-Feb. 1978), 50-51. See also Ahmad Hasan (tr.), Sunan
Abu Dawud, Ill, 109, note 3034 based on Shams al-Haqq, 'Awn al-
Ma'bud Ii halli Mushkilat Sunan Abi Dawud, III, 331.
8 These three degrees of legislation in the language of the later jurists of
Islam are: ijtihad fi 'I-shar', ijtihfid fi '/-madhhab and ijtihad fi 'I-masa'il; cf.
Subhi Mahmasani, Falsafat al-Tashri' fi 'I-Islam, English trans. F. J.
Notes and References 197

Ziadeh, p. 94, and N. P. Aghnides, Mohammeden Theories of Finance, pp.

121-22. For somewhat different schemes of gradation of the jurists (for
example the one laid down by the Ottoman scholar and Shaikh aI-Islam
Kemal Pashazadeh (d. 940/1534) in his Tabaqiit al-Fuqahii' and minor
differences in nomenclature in different schools of law (Hanafis, Shafi'i
and others), d. Zahid al-Kawthari, Husn al-Taqiidi fi Sirat al-Imiim abi
Yiisuf al-Qiidi, pp. 24-25.
It is the possibilities anew of the first degree of Ijtihad- complete
authority in legislation- that Allama Iqbal proposes to consider in what
he calls (and this is to be noted) 'this paper' rather than 'this lecture' as
everywhere else in the present work. This is a manifest reference to a
'paper on Ijtihad' that he read on 13 December 1924 at the annual
session of Anjuman-i Himayat-i Islam. Cf. M. Khalid Mas'Od, 'Iqbal's
Lecture on Ijtihad', Iqbal Review, XIX/iii (October 1978), p. 8. quoting in
English the announcement about this Lecture published in the Daily
Zamindiir, Lahore, 12 December 1924; and also S. M. Ikram, Modem
Muslim India and the Birth of Pakistan, p. 183, note 19 where the worthy
author tells us that he 'was present at this meeting as a young student'.
Among Allama Iqbal's letters discovered only recently are the four of
them addressed to Professor M. Muhammad Shafi' of University
Oriental College, Lahore (later Chairman: Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam).
These letters dating from 13 March 1924 to 1 May 1924, reproduced
with their facsimiles in Dr. Rana M. N. Ehsan Elahie, 'Iqbal on the
Freedom of Ijtihad", Oriental College Magazine. (Allama Iqbal Centenary
Number), LIII (1977),295-300, throw light, among other things, on the
authors and movements that Allama Iqbal thought it was necessary for
him to study anew for the writing of what he calls in one of these letters
a paper on the 'Freedom of Ijtihad in Modern Islam'. A few months later
when the courts were closed for summer vacation Allama Iqbal in his
letter dated 13 August 1924 to M. Sa'id aI-Din Ja'fari informed him that
he was writing an elaborate paper on 'The Idea of Ijtihad, in the Law of
Islam' (d. Auriiq-i Gumgashtah, ed. Rahim Bakhsh Shaheen, p. 118). This
is the paper which when finally written was read in the above-
mentioned session of the Anjuman-i Himayat-i Islam in December 1924;
the present Lecture, it is now generally believed, is a revised and
enlarged form of this very paper.
9 Cf. M. Hanif Nadvi, 'Mas'alah Khalq-i Qur'an' in Aqliyiit-i Ibn
Taimiyyah (Urdu), pp. 231-53, and A. J. Arberry, Revelation and Reason in
Islam, pp. 23-27.
References to this hotly debated issue of the eternity or createdness
of the Qur'an are also to be found in Allama Iqbal's private notes, for
example those on the back cover of his own copy of Spengler's Decline of
the West (d. Descriptive Catalogue of Allama Iqbal's Personal Library,
198 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Plate No. 33) or his highly valuable one-page private study notes
preserved in Allama Iqbal Museum, Lahore (d. Relics of Allama Iqbal:
Catalogue, I. 26). It is, however, in one of his greatest poems 'Iblis ki
Majlis-i Shura' ('Satan's Parliament') included in the posthumous
Armughiin-i Hijiiz that one is to find his final verdict on this baseless
scholastic controversy:
k .!.J\p. L ..ill (tf'
..:-If t.f.. '-;? if'f- J(j' /.=)I
t.f.. ml./lv,i J( L V
r;:.::..i;.-o,.::..u L .::..f'I-:
Are the words of the Qur'an created or untreated?
In which belief does lie the salvation of the ummah?
Are the idols of Uit and Manat chiselled by Muslim theology
Not sufficient for the Muslims of today?
10 Cf. Ibn Qutaibah, Ta'wil Mukhtalif al-Hadith, p. 19.
11 Cf. Development of Metaphysics in Persia, p. 54, where it is stated that
rationalism 'tended to disintegrate the solidarity of the Islamic Church';
also W. M. Watt, 'The Political Attitudes of the Mu'tazilah', Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, (1962), pp. 38-54.
12 Cf. Muhammad al-Khudari, Tiirikh al-Tashr!' al-Isliimi, Urdu trans.
'Abd aI-Salam Nadvi, p. 323; Ibn Qutaibah, Ma'iirif, p. 217, and J.
Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, p. 242. According to
A. J. Arberry, Sufyan al-Thauri's school of jurisprudence survived for
about two centuries; d. Muslim Saints and Mystics, p. 129 translator's
prefatory remarks.
13 On the distinction of ziihir and biitin, see Allama Iqbal's article "Ilm-i
Zahir wa 'Ilm-i Batin" (Anwiir-i Iqbiil, ed. B. A. Dar, pp. 268-77) and also
the following passage from Allama Iqbal's article captioned as 'Self in
the Light of Relativity' (Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal, ed. S. A. Vahid,
pp. 113-14): 'The mystic method has attracted some of the best minds in
the history of man-kind. Probably there is something in it. But I am
inclined to think that it is detrimental to some of the equally important
interests of life, and is prompted by a desire to escape from the arduous
task of the conquest of matter through intellect. The surest way to
realize the potentialities of the world is to associate with its shifting
actualities. I believe that Empirical Science- association with the visible-
is an indispensable stage in the life of contemplation. In the words of
the Qur'an, the Universe that confronts us is not biitil. It has its uses, and
the most important use of it is that the effort to overcome the
obstruction offered by it sharpens our insight and prepares us for an
insertion into what lies below the surface of phenomena.
Notes and References 199

14 The founder of Zahirl school of law was Dawud b. 'All b. Khalaf (c.
200-270/c. 815-884) who flourished in Baghdad; Ibn Hazm (384-
456/994-1064) was its founder in Muslim Spain and its most illustrious
representative in Islam. According to Goldziher, Ibn Hazm was the first
to apply the principles of the Zahirite school to dogmatics (The Ziihiris:
Their Doctrine and their History, p. 112); cf. also Goldziher's articles:
'Dawud B. 'All B. Khalf' and 'Ibn Hazm' in Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics, V, 406 b and VII, 71 a.
15 Cf. Serajul Haque, 'Ibn Taimiyya's Conception of Analogy and
Consensus', Islamic Culture, XVII (1943), 77-78; Ahmad Hasan, The
Doctrine of Ijmii' in Islam, pp. 189-92, and H. Laoust, 'Ibn Taymiyya',
Encyclopaedia of Islam (New edition), III, 954.
16 Cf. D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, p. 275.
17 SuyuU, Husn al-Muhadarah 1, 183; also' Abd al-Muta'al al-Sa'idl, Al-
Mujaddidun fi 'l-Isliim, pp. 8-12. Cf. also Allama Iqbal's 'Rejoinder to The
Light' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal. pp. 167-68) wherein,
commenting on the tradition that mujaddids appear at the head of every
century (AbU Dawud, Malahim: 1), he observed that the tradition 'was
probably popularised by Jalal-ud-Dln Suyuti in his own interest and
much importance cannot be attached to it.'
Reference may also be made here to Allama's letter dated 7 April 1932
addressed to Muhammad Ahsan wherein, among other things, he
observes that, according to his firm belief ('aqidah), all traditions relating
to mujaddidiyat are the product of Persian and non-Arab imagination
and they certainly are foreign to the true spirit of the Qur'an (cf.
Iqbiilniimah, II, 231).
18 For Allama Iqbal's statements issued from time to time in clarification
of meanings and intentions of pan-Islamic movement or pan-Islamism
see: Letters and Writings of Iqbal, pp. 55-57: Speeches, Writings and
Statements of Iqbal. p. 237; Guftiir-i Iqbiil, ed. M. Rafiq Afdal, pp. 177-79
and 226- the earliest of these statements is contained in Allama's letter
dated 22 August 1910 to Editor: Paisa Akhbiir reproduced in Riaz
Hussain, '1910 Men Dunya-i Islam ke Halat' (Political Conditions of the
Islamic World in 1910), Iqbal Review, XIX/ii Ouly 1978), 88-90.
In three of these statements Allama Iqbal has approvingly referred to
Professor E. G. Browne's well-grounded views on 'Pan-Islamism', the
earliest of which were published (s.v.) in Lectures on the History of the
Nineteenth Century, ed. F. Kirpatrick (Cambridge, 1904).
It may be added that Allama's article 'Political Thought in Islam',
Sociological Review, I (1908), 249-61 (reproduced in Speeches, Writings and
Statements, pp. 107-21), was originally a lecture delivered by him in a
meeting of the Pan-Islamic Society, London, founded by Abdullah
Suhrawardy in 1903- the Society also had its own journal: Pan-Islam.
200 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Incidentally, there is a mention of Allama's six lectures on IslamIc

subjects in London by his biographers (d. Abdullah Anwar Beg, The
Poet of the East, p. 28, and Dr Abdus Salam Khurshid, Sarguzasht-i Iqbiil,
pp. 60-61) which is supported by Allama's letter dated 10 February 1908
to Khwajah Hasan Nizami, listing the 'topics' of four of these lectures as
(i) 'Islamic Mysticism', (ii) 'Influence of Muslim Thought on European
Civilization', (iii) 'Muslim Democracy', and (iv) 'Islam and Reason' (d.
Iqbalniimah, II, 358). Abdullah Anwar Beg, however, speaks of Allama's
extempore lecture on 'Certain Aspects of Islam' under the auspices of
the Pan-Islamic Society, which, it is said, was reported verbatim in a
number of leading newspapers, the next day (ibid.).
19 Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab's date of birth is now more generally
given as 1115/1703; d., however, Khair aI-Din al-ZiriklI, Al-A'liim, VII,
138 (note) and A History of Muslim Philosophy, ed. M. M. Sharif, II, 1446,
in support of placing it in 1111/1700.
It is significant to note that whenever Allama Iqbal thought of
modernist movements in Islam, he traced them back to the movement
of Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab; d. Letters and Writings of Iqbal, pp. 82
and 93. In his valuable article 'Islam and Ahmadism' Allama Iqbal
observes: 'Syed Ahmad Khan in India, Syed Jamal-ud-Din Afghani in
Afghanistan and Mufti Alam Jan in Russia. These men were probably
inspired by Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahab who was born in Nejd in
1700, the founder of the so-called Wahabi movement which may fitly be
described as the first throb of life in modern Islam' (Speeches, Writings
and Statements, p. 190). Again, in his letter dated 7 April 1932 to
Muhammad Ahsan, Allama Iqbal, explaining the pre-eminent position
of Jamal ai-Din Afghani in modern Islam, wrote: 'The future historian of
the Muslims of Egypt, Iran, Turkey and India will first of all mention
the name of' Abd al-Wahhab Najadi and then of Jamal ai-Din AfghanI'
(d. Iqbiilniimah, II,231).
20 Cf. article 'Ibn Tumart' in Encyclopaedia of Islam (New edition), III, 958-
60, also in Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam and R. Le Tourneau, The Al-
mohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, by
Index.
21 This is a clear reference to the well-known saying of the Prophet:
innama 'l-a'miilu bi 'l-nniyyiit, i.e. 'Actions shall be judged only by
intention'. It is to be noted that this hadHh of great moral and spiritual
import has been quoted by Bukhari in seven places and it is with this
that he opens his Al-Jiimi' al-Sahih.
22 For this hadith worded: al-ardu kulluhii masjidun, see TirmidhI, 'Salat':
119; Nasa'I, 'Ghusl': 26; 'Masajid': 3 and 42; Ibn Majah, 'Taharah': 90,
and DarimI, Siyar: 28 and 'Salat': 111. This superb saying of the Prophet
also found expression in Allama's verse, viz. Kulliyiit-i Iqbiil (Persian),
Notes and References 201

Rumuz-i Bekhudi; p. 114, v. 3, and Pas Chih Biiyad Kard, p. 817, v. 8:

) I:'
v..) '-,) ...Ii .t- -'f'
Through the bounty of the ruler of our faith,
the entire earth became our mosque.
I.!) 1,;!uJ.. vi J,)
v..) '-,) ...Ii I.! , 1;/ -'f'
The King of the Faith said to the Muslims:
'The whole earth is my mosque' (trans. B. A. Dar).
23 Cf. The Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosenthal, I, 388-92.
24 For the Khawarij's view of the Caliphate, see Allama Iqbal's article
'Political Thought in Islam' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal,
pp. 119-20); also W. Thomson, 'Kharijitism and the Kharijites',
Macdonald Presentation Volume, pp. 371-89, and E. Tyan, Institutions du
droit public musulman, ii, 546-61.
25 Cf. F. A Tansel (ed). Ziya Gokalp kulliyati: Surler ve halk masallar. p,
129. On Allama's translation of the passages from Ziya Gokalp's
kulliyati, Dr. Annemarie Schimmel observes: 'Iqbal did not know
Turkish, has studied his (Ziya Gokalp's) work through the German
translation of August Fischer, and it is of interest to see how he (Iqbal)
sometimes changes or omits some words of the translation when
reproducing the verses in the Lecture' (Gabriel's Wing, p. 242).
It may be added that these changes or omissions are perhaps more due
to August Fischer's German translation as given in his Aus der religiosen
Reformbewegung in der Turkei (Religious Reform Movement in Turkey)
than to Allama. The term 'esri', for example, has been used by Ziya
Gokalp for 'secular' and not for 'modern' as Fischer has put it. Again, a
line from the original Turkish text is missing in the present passage, but
this is so in the German translation.
For this comparative study of the German and English translations of
passages from Gokalp's kiilliyati I am very much indebted to Professor
S. Qudratullah Fatimi, formerly Director: Regional Cooperation for
Development, Islamabad.
26 This is a reference to the Qur'anic verse 49: 13.
27 Cf. Ziya G6kalp kulliyati, p. 112. According to the Turkish original, the
second sentence in this passage should more fittingly have begun with
'in this period' rather than with 'in every period' as rendered by A.
Fischer. Again the next, i.e. the third sentence, may be said to be not so
very close to the text; yet it is quite faithful to its German version.
28 Cf. ibid., p. 113; also Uriel Heyd, Foundation of Turkish Nationalism:
202 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

The Life and Teachings of Ziya G6kalp, pp. 102-03, and Allama Iqbal's
statement 'On the Introduction of Turkish Prayers by Ghazi Mustafa
Kemal Pasha' published in the Weekly Light (Lahore), 16 February 1932,
reproduced in Rahim Baksh Shaheen (ed.), Mementos of Iqbal, pp. 59-60.
29 On Ibn Tumart's innovation of introducing the call to prayer in the
Berber language, d. Ibn AbI Zar', Raud al-Qirtas, Fr. trans. A. Beaumier,
Histoire des souverains du Magreb, p. 250; I. Goldziher, 'Materalien zur
Kenntniss der Almohadenbewegung in Nordafrika', ZDMG, XLI
(1887),71, and D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, p. 249.
This practice, according to Ahmad b. Khalid al-SalawI, was stopped and
call to prayer in Arabic restored by official orders in 621/1224; d. his AI-
Istiqsa Ii Akhbar Duwal al-Maghrib 'I-Aqsa, 11,212.
30 Cf. Ziya Gokalp kulliyati, p. 133. The word 'sun' in the second
sentence of this passage stands for GOnum in Turkish which, we are
told, could as well be translated as 'day'; some allowance, however, is to
be made for translation of poetical symbols from one language into
another.
31 Cf. ibid., p. 161. It is interesting to note how very close is late Professor
H. A. R. Gibb's translation of this passage as well as of the one
preceding it (Modern Trends in Islam, pp. 91-92), to that of Allama's, even
though his first reference is to the French version of them in F.
Ziyaeddin Fahri's Ziya Gi G6kalp: sa vie et sa sociologie, p. 240.
32 Cf. BukharI, 'I'tisam'; 26; 'Hm'; 39; 'Jana'iz'; 32; 'Marada'; 17, and
Muslim, 'Jana'iz'; 23 and 'Waslyyah'; 22.
33 For further elucidation of Allama's observations on Luther and his
movement here as also in a passage in his 'Statement on Islam and
Nationalism in Reply to a Statement of Maulana Husain Ahmad'
(Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 254), see his most famous
and historical 'All-India Muslim League Presidential Address of 29
December 1930', ibid., pp. 4-5. Cf. also the closing passages of the article;
'Reformation' in An Encyclopaedia of Religion, ed. Vergilius Farm, p. 642.
34 Cf. SubhI MahmasanI, Falsafah-i Shari'at-i Islam, Urdu trans. M.
Ahmad RidvI, pp. 70-83.
35 This acute observation about the development of legal reasoning in
Islam from the deductive to the inductive attitude in interpretation is
further elaborated by Allama Iqbal on pp. 140-41. It may be worthwile
to critically examine in the light of this observation the attempts made
by some of the wellknown western writers on Islamic law to
analytically trace the historical development of legal theory and practice
in Islam, viz. N. J. Coulson, A History of Islamic Law, chapters, 3-5; J.
Schacht, Introduction to Islamic Law, chapters, 7-9 and his earlier
pioneering work: Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, by General
Index especially under 'Medinese' and 'Iraqians'.
Notes and References 203

36 This is a reference to a passage in Lecture I, p. 7.

37 Cf. M. V. Merchant, A Book of Qur'anic Laws, chapters v-vii.
38 Cf. Briefe iiber Religion, pp. 72 and 81. The passages translated here are
as under:
Das Urchristentum legte keinen Wert auf die Erhaltung von Staat
Recht, Organization, Produktion. Es denkt einfach nicht tiber die
Bedingungen der Existenz der mensch lichen Gesellschaft nacho
Also entweder man wagt es, staatslos sein zu woollen, man wirft
sich der Anarchie freiwillig in die Arme, oder man entschliesste
sich, neben seinem religio-sen Bekenntnis ein politisches
bekenntnis zu haben.
Joseph Friedch Naumann (1860-1919), a passage from whose very
widely read Briefe iiber Religion (,Letters on Religion') has been
quoted in Lecture III, pp. 64-65, was a German Protestant theologian,
socialist politician, political journalist and a champion of Mittel-
Europa plan. He was on the founders and the first president of
German National Socialist Party (1896) which both in its name and
its policy in accordeding great importance to the agricultural and
working classes in the dveelopement of the state adumbrated
Hitler's Nazi Party (1920). His Mittel-Europa published in 1915
(English translation by C. M. Meredith in 1916) stirred up
considerable discussion during World War I as it revived, under the
impulse of Pan-Germanism, the idea of a central Europian
confederation including Turkey and the Balkan States under
Germany's cultural and economic control. It also contemplated the
expansion of the Berlin-Baghdad railway into a grandiose scheme of
empire extending from Antwerp in Belgium to the Persian Gulf.
Except for the year 1912-13, Naumann was the member of
Reichstag (German Parliament) from 1907 to 1919. Shortly before his
death, he was elected as the leader of Democratic Party. Naumann,
known for his wide learning, acumen and personal integrity was
very influential with German liberal intellectuals of his day. For the
life and works of Naumann, cf. the two articles: 'Naumann,
Friedrich' and 'National Socialism, German' by Theodor Heuss in
the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, XI, 310 and .225a; also The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica (Micropaedia), VIII, 561. For some information
given in the above note I am deeply indebted to the Dutch scholar
the Reverend Dr. Jan Slomp and his younger colleague Mr. Harry
Mintjes. Mr. Minljes took all the trouble to find out what he said was
the oldest available edition of Briefe iiber Religion (Berlin, Georg Reimer,
1916, sixth edition) by making a search for it in all the libraries of
Amsterdam. Dr. Jan Slomp was kind enough to mark the passages in
Briefe quoted by Allama Iqbal in English and mail these to me for the
204 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

benefit of all Iqbalian scholars.

39 Hence, The Introduction of Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act or
Indian Act VIII of 1939. Cf. Maulana Ashraf' Ali Thanawi, Al-Hilat al-
Niijizah li/-Halilat al-'Ajizah, p. 99 and Asaf A. A. Fyzee, Outlines of
Muhammadan Law, pp. 153-61.
40 See Al-Muwiifiqiit, II, 4: also Ghazali, Al-Mustasfii, I, 140.
41 Cf. al-MarghlnanI, Al-Hidiiyah, II, Kitab al-Nikah, p. 328; English trans.
C. Hamilton, p. 66.
42 Cf. Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 194, where, while making
an appraisal of Ataturk's 'supposed or real innovations', Allama
Iqbal observes: 'The adoption of the Swiss code with its rule of
inheritance is certainly a serious error .... The joy of emancipation
from the fetters of a long-standing priest-craft sometimes derives a
people to untried courses of action. But Turkey as well as the rest of
the world of Islam has yet to realize the hitherto unrevealed
economic aspects of the Islamic law of inheritance which von
Kremer describes as the supremely original branch of Muslim law.'
For some recent accounts of the 'economic significance of the
Qur'anic rule of inheritance', d. M. A. Mannan, Islamic Economics, pp.
176-86 and Shaikh Mahmud Ahmad, Economics ofIslam, pp. 154-58.
43 Marriage has been named in the Qur'an as mitJuiqan ghalizan, i.e. a
strong covenant (4: 21).
44 Cf. M.V. Merchant, op. cit., pp. 179-86.
45 Cf. 1. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, English trans. C. R. Barber
and S. M. Stern, Muslim Studies, II, 18f. This is the view held also by
some other orientalists such as D. S. Margoliouth, The Early
Development of Mohammedanism, pp. 79-89, and H. Lammens, Islam: Beliefs
and Institutions, pp. 65-81. Iqbal did not endorse the views of the early
Orientalists on the issue as transpires from his correspondence and
the incomplete projects that he had visualized to refutation of these
views.
46 This is the closing paragraph of chapter III of Mohammedan Theories of
Finance: With an Introduction to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography by
Nicolas P. Aghnides published by Columbia University (New York)
in 1916 as one of its Studies in History, Economics and Public Law.
A copy of this work as reported by Dr. M. ' Abdullah Chaghata'i was
sent to Allama Iqbal by Chaudhry Rahmat 'Ali Khan (President:
American Muslim Association) from the United States and was
presented to him on the conclusion of the thirty-eighth annual session
of Anjuman-i Himayat-i Islam (Lahore), i.e. on 31 March 1923 or soon
after. Dr. Chaghatai's essay: 'Khutbat-i Madras ka Pas Manzar' in his
Iqbiil ki Suhbat Men and the section: 'Six Lectures on the Reconstruction
of Religious Thought in Islam' with useful notes in Dr. Rafi 'ai-Din
Notes and References 205

Hashimis Tasiinifi Iqbiil kii Tahqiqi -o-Tauzmi Mutiili'ah throw light on the
immediate impact that Aghnides's book had on Allama's mind. It seems
that Aghnides's book did interest Allama and did play some part in
urging him to seek and study some of the outstanding works on UsOI
al-Fiqh such as those by Amidi, Shatibi, Shah Wali Allah, Shaukani, and
others. This is evident from a number of Allama's letters to Sayyid
Sulaiman Nadvi (Iqbiilniimah, I, 128-36, 160-63) as also from his letters
from 13 March 1924 to 1 May 1924 to Professor Mauiavi M. Shafi'
(Oriental College Magazine, LIII (1977), 295-300). It is to be noted that
besides a pointed reference to a highly provocative view of Ijma'
alluded to by Aghnides, three passages from part I of Mohammedan
Theories of Finance are included in the last section of the present Lecture,
which in this way may be said to be next only to the poems of Ziya
Gokalp exquisitely translated from Fischer's German version of them.
47 This is remarkable though admittedly a summarized English version
of the following quite significant passage from Shah WaH Allah's
magnum opus Hujjat Allah al-Biilighah (I, 118):
').,s'.i.l.1 Jr"'J 1 .r.i- l5J"'1 Jr"1 JI ;..\.>-1) ;J... J.>- ['-''11 l5"u1 rl,.'JII.L. )

lJr" ( r-iw. ) ) ,.c.:,I) UI JI l,.; 01 4-c- L.,,>

'-'I fr'" :JL.i oj; Y' ) J\.i'J1 .) ) ./)'J I j->I .uG..."i <>-},,..

) ')r""- .r.i- ['-'I '.ulos; "'" Jl;;, 'J .......;,; rl,.'J 1 I.L. 0'1 SJ; ) (u"WJ ":""f l

cJ\,;'J1 j->'J .,.....i.l.1 lJr" Y' l,. """'? "l,. .)1 -.,...>") SJ:s .)\.51;1
)S1 "'; ",..\;. ) ":"\';\'.ii) '11 ) r-WI ;,r ....; = l,. ( ) rAJ" U.L.a.l1

.r''J 1 01 JI J.,.- '1 .;'1 SJ.; lLiI J.>- L..,r. u"UI ( ,......r.i- ;,r
) r; J5 = l,. 01 JI 'JI ) ')\..pI '.AJ\.i "'" j.....; 'J ;1 r'" J5WI JI

..u, j")\.:>.1 J.>- 1""'= l,. ) r-ibt..., :;,be.. '1 1;1 "'-l? J-(j H I*'" % u")""

..s:J; W ;..\.>-1) "'-l? .,,1» , f ,1))1 r-s- .li ) r-i4,1 J.Y ) r11

...,JI rs- J.,J., 'J ,J.,. ) ,"'" 'JI J.J"''J I ,y;1 'J .;1 ;5"'J1 )

r+sT)I;,r ;,rl l,. .:.,.,....LJ.I) l5}.....JI ) 0\.i 0'J1 "Y"}I tllrJl .) c!) LS 4)1
) )I....!JI .) fr-" .)1 ;,r )""'!I 'J ) ,:.r->-I ")\.i SJ, J./"t1 1".....,1 ( '11

J."ul J.?,'J I J.>- J5 'J ) "-'y.ll ...,; ,,:.,\,;l.i;)'J 1 ) ,),V,I

. ..u., 0f\,
This is the passage quoted also in ShibH Nu'mani's AI-Kaliim (pp. 114-
15), a pointed reference to which is made in AJlama Iqbal's letter dated
22 September 1929 addressed to Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvl. There are in
fact three more letters to Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvi in September 1929,
which all show Allama's keen interest in and perceptive study of Hujjat
Allah al-Biilighah at the time of his final drafting of the present Lecture
206 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

(d. Iqbiilmlmah, pp. 160-63).

From the study of these letters it appears that Allama Iqbal in his
interpretation of at least the above passage from Hujjat Allah al-Biilighah
was much closer to Shibll Nu'manI than to Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvl.
It is to be noted that Allama Iqbal was always keen to seek and study
the works of Shah Wall Allah, whom he considered to be 'the first
Muslim who felt the urge of a new spirit in him' (Lecture IV, p. 78).
Some of these works have been referred to by titles in Allama's more
than 1200 letters and it is noteworthy that their number exceeds that of
the works of any other great Muslim thinker; Ghazall, Fakhr aI-Din
RazI, Jalal aI-Din RumI, Ibn TaimIyyah, Ibn Qayyim, Sadr aI-DIn
ShIrazi, or any other. In his letter dated 23 September 1936 to Maulavi
Ahmad Rida Bijnori (Iqbiilniimah, II, 241-43), Allama reports that he had
not received his copies of Shah Wall Alllah's AI-Khair al-Kathir and
Tajhiim'it supposed to have been dispatched to him through some dealer
in Lahore. He also expresses in this letter his keen desire to have the
services on suitable terms of some competent Muslim scholar, well
versed in Islamic jurisprudence and very well read in the works of Shah
Wall Allah.
48 Cf. Aghnides, op. cit., p. 91. This is the statement which, according to
Dr. 'Abdullah Chaghata'i (op. cit., pp. 300-04) and Dr. Rafi 'aI-DIn
HashimI (op. cit., pp. 313-14) occasioned Allama Iqbal's fiqhi discussions
with a number of renowned religious scholars which finally led to his
writing a paper on ijtihiid in 1924; the present Lecture is said to be only a
developed form of that paper. On the impossible question of Ijmii's
repealing the Qur' an, one is to note Allama's two inquiring letters to
Sayyid Sulaiman Nadvi and more importantly a letter also to Maulami
Abul Kalam Azad (Iqbiilniimah, 1, 131-35).
49 Amidi, Ihkiim fi Usul al Ahkiim, 1,373.
50 Shaukani, Irshiid al-Fuhul, pp. 65-72.
51 Mu'awwidhatiin are the last two surahs of the Qur'an, i.e. 113 and 114;
they are called so because they teach man how to seek refuge in God
and betake himself to His protection.
52 This is summing up of KarkhI's somewhat longer statement as quoted
by Aghnides, op. cit., p. 106; d. also SarakhsI, Usul al-Sarakhsi, II, 105.
53 For Allama's views on Persian constitutional theory see his articles:
'Political Thought in Islam' and 'Islam and Ahmadism', Speeches,
Writings and Statements of Iqbal, pp. 118-19 and 195.
54 For Allama's practical guidelines to reform the present system of legal
education in the modern Muslim world especially in the subcontinent,
see his very valuable letter dated 4 June 1925 to Sahibzadah Aftab
Ahmad Khan (Letters of Iqbal, p. 155); also the last paragraph of his
Presidential Address at the All-India Muslim Conference on 21 March
Notes and References 207

1932 (Speeches, Writings and Statements, p. 43).

55 For Shafi'i's 'identification' of Qiyiis and Ijtihiid, d. M. Khadduri,
Islamic Jurisprudence: ShiifiTs Risiilah, p. 288 and J. Schacht, The Origins of
Muhammadan Jurisprudence, pp. 127-28.
56 Cf. ShaukanI, op. cit., p. 199; AmidI, op. cit. IV, 42 ff; and MahmasanI,
op. cit., Urdu trans. M. A. RidvI, p. 188.
57 Cf. Mohammedan Theories of Finance, p. 125. This is the observation, in
fact, of the Shafi'I jurist Badr aI-Din Muhammad b. Bahadur b. ' Abd
Allah al-ZarkashI (d. 794/1392) of eighth century and not of Sarkashi of
tenth century of the Hijrah, as it got printed in the previous editions of
the present work (including the one by Oxford University Press in
1934). 'Sarkashi' is a palpable misprint for 'al-Zarkashi; Aghnides in the
above-cited work spells it 'Zarkashi' but places him in the tenth century
of the Hijrah. None of the Zarkashis, however, given in the well-known
biographical dictionaries, say, 'Umar Rida Kihalah's fifteen volume
Mu'jam al MU'allifin (V. 181; IX, 121; X, 22, 205, 239 and XI, 273) is
reported to have belonged to tenth century- except, of course, Muham-
mad b. Ibrahim b. Lulu' al-Zarkashi mentioned in VIII, 214 who is said
to be still living after 882/1477 or as AI-Zirikli puts it to have died
sometime after 932/ 1526 (op. cit., V, 302); but this Zarkashi, though he
may be said to have made name as an historian of the Muwahhids and
the Hafasids, was no jurist.
It is to be noted that the passage on the future prospects of Ijtihad
quoted by Allama Iqbal is only a more significant part of Zarkashi' s
somewhat longer statement which Aghnides gives as under:
If they [i.e. the people entertaining this belief] are thinking of their
contemporaries, it is a fact that they have had contemporaries like
AI-Qaffal, AI-Ghazali, al-Razi, al-Rafi'i, and others, all of whom
have been full mujtahids and if they mean by it that their
contemporaries are not endowed and blessed by God with the same
perfection, intellectual ability and power, or understanding, it is
absurd and a sign of crass ignorance; finally, if they mean that the
previous writers had more facilities, while the later writers had
more difficulties, in their way; it is again nonsense, for it does not
require much understanding to see that ijtihiid for the later doctors
(muta'akhiriin) is easier than for the earlier doctors. Indeed the
commentaries on the Koran and the sunnah have been complied and
multiplied to such an extent that the mujtahid of today has more
material for interpretation than he needs.
This statement on ijtihiid which Aghnides ascribes clearly to
ZarkhashI, albeit of the tenth century of Hijrah, is in fact, as may be
seen, translation of the following passage from ShaukanI's Irshiid al-
Fuhitl:
208 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

.5J1}u 01r"'u "'" (! P <'1.;Jo J"; Ju

.:r.,.-1liJl .y c>jl;:ll) JL.i.iJ1 r'ls- ..w ;.A J.r'lv

rlll .J 0\5' .y ) I*" JL.S01 <u}1 .}>-

Jol .y <1". .u J. I.J, j:.. -# ..#- -J r>- J5' cJ Jly-t

.5J1 }u 01 ) cJ r-WI Jot ,-""I I.,. J"; r}.J1 .y .J 011 C:"'" .y r-WI
Jw .y ,.J,.y <'1.;Jo y.y " I.,. c}J .11 ,)1 1.l.4i
;;)4>0- d' J ""J\kUI Jk<t .y c>y> ,-4-> j}... ..u >U.•.:...)lI) ..50>)11 ij.i )
) j-J J r-WI ;...,; .5J1 0\5' 01 )

0t J>t .J .y ..#- ",u c>>--> Wo,I ,-4-> r-"J.F" Jol )

.u Xi.)1 p--lA.J1 t r".....,; J./,W .11 ,;:.., .u

r-K ) ..;..;.;> .u WI) JI i;5:J1 cJ ",,}. .p ) ..;..;.;>

Cb; I.,. i>4j J" L., \:7'}JI)

From the study of the section of Irshad al-Fuhul dealing with the
'possibility of there being a period of time without a mujtahid, it
becomes abundantly clear that the views embodies in the above
passage are those of the Shafi'Ijurist Badr aI-DIn ZarkashI of the
eight century of Hijrah and not of SarkashI, nor of ZarkashI of the
tenth century. For an account of the life and works of Badr aI-DIn
ZarkashI, Cf. Muhammad Abu'I-Fadl aI-RahIm's 'Introduction' to
ZarkashI's well-known, AI-Burhiin fi 'Ulum al-Qur'iin.
It may be added that the Persian translator of the present work Mr.
Ahmad Aram considers 'SarkashI' to be a misprint for 'SarakhsI', Le.
the Hanafi jurist Shams al-A'immah AbU Bakr Muhammad b. AbI
Sahl al-Sarakhi, the author of the well-known thirty-volume al-
Mabsut who dies in near about 483/1090; and referring to 'many
errors and flaws' that have unfortunately crept into the Lahore
edition of the present work, he is inclined to think that 'tenth
centruy' is another misprint for 'fifth century' (Cf. Ihyii-i Fikr-i Dini
dar Isliim, pp. 202-03, note)
Ahmad Aram admittedly takws his clue from a line in Madame Eva
Meyero-vitch's French translation: Reconstruire la pen see religious de
I'Islam (p. 192) and perhaps also from the Urdu translation: Tashkil-I
Tadi'd Il iihiyat-I Isliimi'yah (p 274) by the late Syed Nadhir NiyazI who
corrects the name (SarakhsI) but not the date. This is, however,
better than the Arabic translator who retains both the misprints
without any commects (Cf. 'Abbas Mahmud, Tajdid al-Tafkir al-Dini
fi'l Isliim, p 206).
58 Cf. article 'Turkey' in Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXII, 606-08. the French
writer alluded to by Allama Iqbal is Andre Servier whose work L'Islam
Notes and References 209

et la psychologie da Musulman translated under the intriguing title Islam

and the Psyhology of Musulman by A.S. Moss Blandell (London, 1924)
aroused the curiosity of many. It is in the last chapter of his work
dealing with French foreign policy that Servier makes some
observations on Turkey such as the following:
(a) 'The Turks constitute an element ofbalance ... they form a buffer
State between Europe and the Asiatic ferment' (p. 267) (Italics
mine.)
(b) 'Our interests, therefore, make it our duty to protect them, to
maintain them as an element of equilibrium in the Musulman
World' (p. 268). (Italics mine.)
59 This may profitably be compared with the following passage from
Allama's famous 'Statement on Islam and Nationalism in Reply to a
Statement of Maulana Husain Ahmed': 'This history of man is an
infinite process of mutual conflicts, sanguine battles and civil wars. In
these circumstances can we have among mankind a constitution, the
social life of which is based upon peace and security? The Quran's
answer is: yes, provided man takes for his ideal the propagation of the
Unity of God in the thoughts and actions of mankind. The search for
such an ideal and its maintenance is no miracle of political
manoeuvring: it is a peculiar greatness of the Holy Prophet that the self-
invented distinctions and superiority complexes of the nations of the
world are destroyed and there comes into being a community which
can be styled ummatan muslimata 'I-Iak (a community submissive to
Thee, 2: 128) and to whose thoughts and actions the divine dictate
shuhadii'a 'alii al-niis (a community that bears witness to the truth before
all mankind, 2: 143) justly applies' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of
Iqbal, pp. 262-63).
Lecture VII: Is Religion Possible?
1 Lecture was delivered in a meeting of the fifty-fourth session of the
Aristotelian Society, London, held on 5 December 1932 with Professor J.
Macmurray in the chair, followed by a discussion by Professor
Macmurray and Sir Francis Young Husband- d. 'Abstract of the
Minutes of the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society for the Fifty-
Fourth Session', in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (New Series),
XXXIII (1933),341. The Lecture was published in the said Proceedings of
the Aristotelian Society, pp. 47-64, as well as in The Muslim Revival
(Lahore), Ijiv (Dec. 1932), 329-49. It now forms the "Seventh Lecture" of
Iqbal's The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, Iqbal Academy
Pakistan, Lahore, 1986.
2 This is a reference to Allama Iqbal's own father, who was a devout
Sufi; d. S. Sulaiman NadvI, Sair-i Afghanistan, p. 179; also S. Nadhir
Niyazl, Iqbiil ke Huzur, pp. 60-61. This great Sufistic idea later found
210 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

expression in Allama's verse, viz. Kulliyiit-i Iqbiil (Urdu), Biil-i Jibn1, Pt.
II, Ghazal 60, v. 4:

Unless the Book's each verse and part

Be revealed unto your heart,
Interpreters, though much profound,
Its subtle points cannot expound. (trans. S. Akbar Ali Shah)
3 Cf. Critique of Pure Reason, Introduction, section vi, pp. 57-58; also
Kemp Smith Commentary to Kant's 'Critique', pp. 68-70. Metaphysics, if it
means knowledge of the 'transcendent', or of things-in-themselves, was
rejected by Kant as dogmatic, because it does not begin with a critical
examination of human capacity for such knowledge. Reference may
here be made to one of the very significant jottings by Allama Iqbal on
the closing back page of his own copy of Carl Rahn's Science and the
Religious Life (London, 1928), viz. 'Is religion possible? Kant's problem';
cf. Muhammad SiddIq, Descriptive Catalogue of Allama Iqbal's Personal
Library, pp. 21-22 and Plate No.7.
4 The 'principle of indeterminacy' was so re-christened by A. S.
Eddington in his Nature of the Physical World, p. 220. Now more often
known as 'principle of uncertainty' or 'uncertainty principle', it was
'announced' by the physicist philosopher Heisenberg in Zeitschrift for
Physik, XLIII (1927), 172-98. Broadly speaking, the principle states that
there is an inherent uncertainty in describing sub-microscopic
processes. For instance, if the position of an electron is determined,
there remains a measure of uncertainty about its momentum. As in a
complete causal description of a system both the properties must needs
be accurately determined, many physicists and philosophers took this
'uncertainty' to mean that the principle of causality had been
overthrown.
5 Cf. Fusus al-Hikam (ed. 'Afifi), I, 108, lines. 11-12- the words of 'the
great Muslim Sufi philosopher' are: al-khalqu ma'qulun wa 'l-Haqqu
mahsusun mashhudun. It is noteworthy that this profound mystical
observation is to be found in one of Allama Iqbal's verses composed as
early as 1903; cf. Biiqiyiit-i Iqbiil, p. 146, verse. 2.
6 For the Sufi doctrine of plurality of time and space stated in Lecture
III, pp. 60-61 and Lecture V, pp. 107-10 on the basis of the then a rare
Persian MS: Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Driiyat al-Makiin (The Extent of Possibility
in the Science of Space) ascribed by Allama Iqbal to the eminent Sufi
poet (Fakhr aI-DIn) 'IraqI (d. 688/1289), see Lecture III, note 34; cf. also
Allama's letter to Dr. M. 'Abdullah ChaghatI'I in Iqbalnamah, II, 334.
7 Cf. John Passamore, A Hundred Years of Philosophy, p. 98. In fact both
Notes and References 211

these pronouncements on metaphysics are to be found in Hans

Vaihinger's work referred to in the next note. Vaihinger in his chapter
on Nietzsche tells us that 'Lange's theory of metaphysics as a justified
form of "poetry" made a deep impression upon Nietzsche' (p. 341) and
he also alludes to Nietzsche's patiently asking himself: 'Why cannot we
learn to look upon metaphysics and religion as the legitimate play of
grown ups?' (p. 346, note). Both these passages are under-lined in
Allama's personal copy of Vaihinger's work (d. M. Siddiq, ap. cit., p. 6).
8 This is a reference to the title: The Philosaphy of "As If' (1924), transla-
tion of Die Philosaphic des Als Db (1911), a work of the German Kantian
philosopher Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933). The" As if" philosophy known
as fictionism is an extreme form of James's pragmatism or Dewey's
instrumentalism; it, however, traces its descent from Kant through F. A.
Lange and Schpenhauer. It holds that as thought was originally an aid
and instrument in struggle for existence it still is incapable of dealing
with purely theoretical problems. Basic concepts and principles of
natural sciences, economic and political theory, jurisprudence, ethics,
etc., are merely convenient fictions devised by the human mind for
practical purposes- practical life and intuition, in fact, are higher than
speculative thought.
One meets quite a few observations bearing on Vaihinger's doctrine in
Allama's writings, for example, the following passage in 'Note on
Nietzsche': 'According to Nietzsche the "I" is a fiction. It is true that
looked at from a purely intellectual point of view this conclusion is
inevitable; Kant's Critique of Pure Reason ends in the conclusion that
God, immortality and freedom are mere fictions though useful for
practical purposes. Nietzsche only follows Kant in this conclusion'
(Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal, ed. S. A. Vahid, pp. 239-40).
Also in 'McTaggart's Philosophy': 'Not William James but Kant was the
real founder of modem pragmatism' (ibid., p. 119).
9 For a comparative study of Indian, Greek, Muslim and modem
theories of atomism, d. Encyclapaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 197-210,
and for a more recent account of modem atomism Niels Bohr's article:
'Atom' in Encyclapaedia Britannica, II, 641-47.
10 A. Eddington, The Nature of Physical World, chapter; 'Science and
Mysticisim', p. 323.
11 Naniknlm Vasanmal Thadani, The Garden of the East, pp. 63-64. Cf.
Mathnawl, iii, 3901-06, 3912-14, for Rumi's inimitable lines on the theme
of 'biological future of man' which Thadani has presented here in a
condensed form. Thadani in the Preface to his book has made it clear
that 'The poems .... are not translations or renderings .... ; they are rather
intended to recreate the spirit and idea of each master .. .
12 Cf. The Joyful Wisdom, Book V, where Nietzsche denounces 'natio-
212 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

nalism and race-hatred (as) a scabies of the heart and blood poisoning',
also The Twilight of the Idols, chapter viii where he pronounces
nationalism to be 'the strongest force against culture'.
13 Cf. pp. 145-46.
14 Reference here is to the misguided observations of the orientalists to
be found in such works as A. Sprenger, Des Leben and die Lehre des
Mohammed (1861), I, 207; D. S. Margoliouth, Mohammed and the Rise of
Islam (1905), p. 46; R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (1907),
pp. 147-48; and D. B. Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam
(1906), p. 46.
15 C. Jung, Contribution to Analytical Psychology, p. 225.
16 Idem, Psychology of the Unconscious, pp. 42-43.
17 Cf. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi', Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani, vol. I, Letter 253,
also Letters 34, 257 and 260. In all these Letters there is listing of the five
stations: Qalb (the 'heart'), Ruh (the 'spirit'), Sirr (the 'inner'), Khafi (the
'hidden'), and Akhfa (the 'hidden most'); together they have also been
named as in Letter 34 Jawiihir-i Khamsah-i 'Alam-i Amr ('Five Essences of
the Realm of the Spirit'). Cf. F. Rahman, Selected Letters of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi, chapter iii (pp. 54-55).
18 Cf. Stray Reflections, ed. Dr. Javid Iqbal, p. 42, where Nietzsche has
been named as a 'great prophet of aristocracy'; also article: 'Muslim
Democracy' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, pp. 123-24), where
a critical notice of Nietzsche's' Aristocracy of Supermen' ends up in a
very significant rhetorical question: 'Is not, then, the Democracy of early
Islam an experimental refutation of the ideas of Nietzsche?'
19 Cf. Kulliyat-i Iqbal (Persian), Javid Namah, p. 741, verses. 4 and 3.

.:..--1 J , )1 (IP v.: 1 ':"--k/ (-IP k? ,; (I

1,),; -1;' JJ .:;;/ :I :)j I,)J.I: -1;' J ' ",:",' )1 t" .:..--Ij
Compare this with Allama Iqbal's pronouncement on Nietzsche in his
highly valuable article: 'McTaggart's Philosophy':
A more serious thing happened to poor Nietzsche, whose
peculiar intellectual environment led him to think that his
vision of the Ultimate Ego could be realized in a world of space
and time. What grows only out of the inner depths of the heart
of man, he proposed to create by an artificial biological
experiment' (Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, p. 150).
Again in 'Note on Nietzsche': "Nietzsche's Superman is a biological
product. The Islamic perfect man is the product of moral and spiritual
forces' (Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal, ed. S. A. Vahid, p. 242).
20 Allama Iqbal wished that Nietzsche were bom in the times of Shaikh
Ahmad of Sirhind to receive spiritual light from him; see Kul/iyat-i Iqbal
(Persian), Javid Namah, p. 741, verse 10.
Notes and References 213

'-..1./ ),/.( '--!r')t"

Would that he had lived in Ahmad's time
so that he might have attained eternal joy. (trans. Arberry)
And he himself could be Nietzsche's spiritual mentor, were he be in
Iqbal's times; see Kulliyiit-i Iqbiil (Urdu), Biil-i ,ibn1, Pt. II, Ghazal33, verse. 5.
..t LL)(j'IJ)",:,,'J( ut"YI/'
!'f-Vv.(IPif. /
If that Frankish Sage
Were present in this age
Him Iqbal would teach
God's high place and reach
(Trans. S. Akbar' Ali Shah).
21 Cf. A. Schimmel, 'Some Thoughts about Future Studies of Iqbal,' Iqbal,
XXIV jiv (1977),4.
22 Cf. pp. 145-46.
23 Cf. Bertrand Russell, 'Relativity: Philosophical Consequences',
Section: 'Force and Gravitation', Encyclopaedia Britannica, XIX, 99c.
24 Cf. Kulliyiit-i Iqbiil (PerSian), 'aVid Niimah, p. 492, verses 10-15 and p.
493, verses 1-7.
I) J ,./ )1 I.:llr h J eJ/ h J e.t)
, My .Ii: I) v,.My, " My
..
.Ii'"
l.:li J J"
JAJ .Ii: 1.:l.J.J I) v,.My, JAJ
..
.Ii'" jt'
v,.MY, V
..
V .,:..Ij .Ii: l.:li J I) .,:..0 .Ii'" .vt'

I) J} IN (rj , "J )Irl jll,)l .Ii ";';:1 J.:;

. :;.. . --1 J.t) l.:liJ eJ{ I) .,:..0 ..:;.....--1 J.t; J} (IP .(

.,:..0 ": VI ifl) .,:..l;..> J)LJ )J ,./r J/

J,.(Jj jl?1 J,JiI CtV"

i. , J) 1./ J I) L J.t) ,1 0,:";; 4- f JJIi
J( ,1 .til, ./, )Irl .tiJ if JH:V )J

f J ).tl £ f u ..;f ;1 J elj

214 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

.:;..,-1
:.
7?
. (;)Jy')1 .J:?)? J; .:;..,-1
:..
7? (;)JJI
.
..: I) J?
A
Jr.y' J J!.? (;)li"1 JI; .L I) oW j .&
if. J .:;..,-1 J / Jr.y' <v!1

if. J .:;..,-1 JJJ JJ) A; ':',J,

Commenting on Allama's translation of this passage A.J. Arberry in the

Introduction to his translation of Javid Namah observes that this' affords
a very fair example of how close and how remote Iqbal was prepared to
make his own version of himself'. And he adds that for comparison, in
addition to the translation of this passage offered by him, the reader
may like to consider its verse-paraphrase by Shaikh Muhmud Ahmad in
Pilgrimage of Eternity, 230-256.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

(I) WORKS OF ALLAM A IQBAL

(A) Works in Prose
The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (a contribution to the
history of Muslim philosophy), London, 1908. Rep. Lahore, 1954,
1959, 1983; 'Ilm al-Iqtisad, (Urdu), Lahore, 1903. Rep. Karachi,
1962.
Six Lectures on the Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam,
Lahore, 1930. 2nd edition with revision at about six places and
quite a few proof-reading corrections and changes, and more
importantly with the addition of Lecture: 'Is Religion Possible?'
and an Index, published under the title: The Reconstruction of
Religious Thought in Islam, London, 1934. Rep. Lahore, 1944,
many later edns. Rep. Delhi, 1974. French trans. by de Eva
Meyerovitch: Reconstruire la pensee religieuse de l'lslam, Paris,
1955. Arabic trans. by 'Abbas Mahmud: Tajdid al-Tafkir al-Dini fi
aI-Islam, Cairo, 1955; fresh revised edition Cairo, 2007. Urdu
trans. by Sayyid Nadhir NiyazI: Tashkil-i Jadid Ilahiyat-i Islamiyah,
Lahore, 1958 and six other Urdu translations from India and
Pakistan. Persian trans. by Ahmad Aram, Ihya-i Fikr-i Din dar
Islam, Tehran, 1967 and a complete new translation by M. Baqa'i
Makan, Tehran, 2007. Also translated in at least six more
languages
Stray Reflections, A Note-Book of Allama Iqbal (1910), ed. by
Javid Iqbal, Lahore, 1961, revised augmented edition, Iqbal
Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 2008.
Tarikh-i Tasawwuf(1916), ed. by Sabir Kalurvi, Lahore, 1985.
Tehsin Firaqi, (Ed.), Bedil in the Light of Bergson, Iqbal
Academy Pakistan, Lahore, 1994.

(B) Major Poetical Works

(With English Translation)
Asrar-i Khudi (1915) trans. by R. A. Nicholson: The Secrets of
the Self, London, 1920; rev. edn., Lahore, 1940, many later edns.
216 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Bal-i Jibril (1935), trans. of the earlier two Parts (16 + 61

Ghazals) by Syed Akbar Ali Shah: Gabriel's Wing, Islamabad,
1979; trans. of six quatrains and of twenty three poems from the
last part (as also of some poems from other works) by V. G.
Kiernan: Poems from Iqbal, London, 1955, lAP, 2007, (Part II).
Javid Namah (1932), trans. by Shaikh Mahmud Ahmad: The
Pilgrimage of Eternity, Lahore, 1961, 1977; also by Arthur J.
Arberry: Javid-Nama, London, 1966; trans. of the concluding
section: Khitab ba Jiivid by B. A. Dar: Address to Javid, Karachi,
1971.
Payam-i Mashriq (1923), trans. by M. Hadi Mussain. A Message
from the East, Lahore, 1977.
Rumiiz-i Bekhudi (1918), trans. by Arthur J. Arberry: The
Mysteries of Selflessness, London, 1953.
Zubiir-i 'Ajam (1927), trans. by Arthur J. Arberry: Persian
Psalms, Lahore, 1948; trans. of the all too important mathanwl
Gulshan-i Raz-i Jadid (New Garden of Mystery) as well as Bandagi
Namah (Book of Servitude), the closing parts of this work, by
Bashir Ahmad Dar, Lahore, 1964; also by M. Hadi Hussain: The
New Rose Garden of Mystery and the Book of Slaves, Lahore, 1969.
Complete poetical works in Persian and Urdu published in 2
vols. Kulliyat-i Iqbal: Persian & Kulliyat-i Iqbal: Urdu, Lahore,
1973. Many later edns. The definitive text, based on the original
manuscripts of Iqbal, prepared by the Iqbal Academy Pakistan,
Lahore, was published in 1994 with many subsequent editions.

(C) Addresses, Articles, Letters, etc.

(i) Compilations in English

Discourses of Iqbal, ed. by Shahid Hussain Razzaqi, Lahore,

1979, lAP edition 2007.
Iqbal by Atiya Begum, Bombay, 1947.
Letters and Writings of Iqbal, ed. by B.A. Dar, Karachi, 1967.
Letters of Iqbal, ed. by Bashir Ahmad Dar, Lahore, 1978.
Letters of Iqbal to Jinnah, with a Foreword by (Quaid-i-Azam)
M. A. Jinnah, Lahore, 1942.
Mementos of Iqbal, compiled by Rahim Bakhsh Shaheen,
Lahore, n.d.
Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal, ed. by Latif Ahmad
Sherwani (3rd revised and enlarged edn.), Lahore, 1977; fresh
Bibliography 217

edition by lAP, 1997 with many subsequent editions.

Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal, ed. by Syed Abdul Vahid,
Lahore, 1964.

(ii) Major Compilations in Urdu

Anwar-i Iqbal, ed. by Bashir Ahmad Dar, Karachi, 1967.
Guftar-i Iqbal, ed. by M. Rafiq Afdal, Lahore, 1969.
Iqbalnamah (Majmu'ah-i Makatib-i Iqbal), ed. by Shaikh' Ata
Ullah, 2 Parts, Lahore, 1945, 1951.
Khutiit-i Iqbal, ed. and annotated by Rafi ud-Din HashimI,
Lahore, 1976.
Maqalat-i Iqbal, ed. by Sayyid 'Abdul Vahid MU'InI, Lahore,
1963.
Ruh-i Makatib-i Iqbal, ed. by M. 'Abdullah QuraishI, Lahore,
1977 (a useful compendium of 1233 letters arranged
chronologically).

(II) SECONDARY WORKS AND ARTICLES REFERRED TO IN NOTES

AND TEXT

(A) Works
, Abd aI-Qadir, 'All Hasan, Nazarah Ammah fi TanKh al-Fiqh al-
Islami, Cairo, 1942.
'Abd al-Quddus GangohI, Lata'if-i Quddusi, ed. by Shaikh
Rukn aI-Din, Delhi, 1311 A. H.
'Abd aI-Salam KhurshId, Dr., Sargudhasht-i Iqbal, Lahore,
1977.
Abdullah Anwar Beg, The Poet of the East, Lahore, 1939.
I Abdullah Chaghata'I, Dr., Iqbal ki Suhbat Men, Lahore, 1977.
Abu Dawud, Sulaiman b. al-Ash'ath al-SijistanI, Kitab al-
Sunan, 4 vols. in 2, Cairo, 1935; English trans. by Ahmad Hasan,
Sunan Abu Dawud, 3 vols., Lahore, 1984.
Abu RashId Sa'Id b. Muhammad b. SaId al-NaisaburI, Kitab
al-Masa'il fi-Khilafbain Basriyyin wa 'l-Baghdadiyyin ed. and trans.
into German by Arthur Biram: Die atomistische Substanzenlehre
aus dem Buch der Streitfragen Bavensern und Bagdadensern, Leyden,
1902.
Aghnides, Nicolas P., Mohammedan Theories of Finance (with
an Intro. to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography), New York,
1916; rep. 1969.
Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, 6 vols., Beirut, n. d.
218 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Ahmad Hasan, The Doctrine ofIjmti' in Islam, Islamabad, 1976.

Ahmad Nabi Khan, Dr. (ed.), Relics of Allama Iqbal
(Catalogue), Islamabad, Ministry of Culture and Tourism,
Government of Pakistan, 1982.
Ahmad Sirhindi, Shaikh, Maktubiit-i Imiim-i Rabbtini, Vol. I,
Lahore, n.d.
'Ain al-Qudat Hamadani, Ghiiyat al-Imktin fi Diriiyat al-Maktin,
ed. by Rahim Farmanish in his compilation Ahwal-o-Athar Ain
al-Qudat, Tehran, 1338(5); Eng. trans. based on collation with
Rampur Library MS by A. H. Kamali, Karachi, 1971.
Alexander, Samuel, Space, Time and Deity (The Gifford
Lectures at Glasgow), 1916-1918), 2 Vols., London, 1920.
AI-A midi, Saif aI-Din, Al-Ihkiim fi Usul al Ahkiim, 4 Vols.,
Beirut, 1400/1980.
Arberry, A. ]. (tr.) Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the
Tadhkirat al-Auliyii' (Memorial of the Saints) by Farid aI-Din aI-
'Attar, London, 1979; -, Revelation and Reason in Islam (The
Forwood Lectures for 1956), London, 1957.
Asad, Muhammad, The Message of the Quran, Gibraltar, 1980.
AI-Ash/ari, Abu 'I-Hasan Ali b. Isma/il, Maqtiltit al Isltimiyim,
I

ed. by Muhammad Muhy aI-Din Abd aI-Hamid, 2 vols., Cairo,

I

1369/1950.
Ashnawi, Shaikh Taj aI-Din Mahmud b. Khudadad, Ghtiyat al-
Imktin fi Ma'rifat al-Zamiin wa 'l-Makiin, ed. by Nadhr Sabiri,
Campbellpur, 1401 A. H.
Ashraf Ali Thanawi, Maulana, Al-Hilat al-Niijizah li 'l-Haliilat
I

al-'Ajizah, Deoband, n.d.

Atiyeh, George N., Al-Kindi: The Philosopher of the Arabs,
Rawalpindi,1966.
Attar, Farid aI-Din, Mantiq al-Tair, Isfahan, 1334 (5).
I

Augustine, Saint, The Confessions of St. Augustine, trans. by E.

B. Pusey, New York, 1945.
Bacon, Roger, Opus Majus, Eng. trans. by R. B. Burke, 2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1928.
AI-Baqillani, Abu Bakr Muhammad b. al-Tayyib, Kittib al-
Tamhid, ed. by Richard]. McCarthy, Beyrouth, 1957.
Barstrow, Robbins Wolcott (ed.), The Macdonald Presentation
Volume, Princeton, 1933.
Bergson, Henri Louis, Creative Evolution, trans. by Arthur
Mitchell, London, 1911; -, Matter and Memory, trans. by Nancy
Bibliography 219

Margaret Paul & W. Scott Palmer (pseud), London, 1911; -, Time

and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness,
trans. by F. L. Pogson, London, 1910.
Berkes, Niyazi, The Development of Secularism in Turkey,
Montreal, 1964.
AI-Birunl, AbU Raihan, AI-Qanitn al-Mas'itdi; vol. I,
Hyderabad (Deccan), 1373/ 1954; -, AI-Biritni Commemoration
Volume (A.H. 362-A. H. 1362), Calcutta, Iran Society, 1951.
Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna, The Secret Doctrine: The Synthesis
of Science, Religion and Philosophy, 6 vols., Adyar (Madras), 1971.
de Boer, Tjitze J., Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam (Stuttgart,
1901), trans. by Edward R. Jones: The History of Philosophy in
Islam, London, 1903.
Bonola, Roberto, Non-Euclidean Geometry: A Critical and
Historical Study of Its Development, Chicago, 1912.
Bradley, Francis Herbert, Appearance and Reality: A
Metaphysical Essay, Oxford, 1930; -, Ethical Studies, Oxford, 1927;
-, The Principles of Logic, 2 vols., Oxford, 1922.
Briffault, Robert, The Making of Humanity, London, 1928.
Broad, C. D., Scientific Thought, London, 1923.
Brockelmann, Carl, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, 2 vols.,
Leiden, 1943, 1949; Supplementbande, 3 vols., Leiden, 1937, 1938,
1942.
Browne, Robert T. The Mystery of Space (A Study of the
Hyperspace Movement in the Light of the Evolution of New
Psychic Faculties and an inquiry into the Genesis and Essential
Nature of Space), New York & London, 1919.
Brunschvig, R., La Berberie orientate sous les Hafasides, Paris,
1947.
AI-Bukharl, Abu' Abd Allah Muhammad b. Ismail, Sahih al-
Bukhiiri, Arabic text with Eng. trans. by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin
Khan, 9 vols., Lahore, 1979.
Burnet, John, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato, London, 1961.
Cajori, F., A History of Elementary Mathematics, New York,
1917.
Carr, W. Wildon, The General Principle of Relativity in Its
Philosophical and Historical Aspect, London, 1920; (ed.), Life and
Finite Individuality, London 1918; A Theory of Monads: Outlines of
the Philosophy of the Principle of Relativity, London, 1922.
Carta de Vaux, Baron Bernard, Avicenne, Paris, 1900.
220 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Cornford, F. M., Plato's Theory of Knowledge (The Theaetetus

and the Sophist of Plato, trans. with a running commentary),
London, 1946.
Coulson, N. J., A History of Islamic Law, Edinburgh, 1964.
DarimI, Abu Muhammad 'Abd Allah b. 'Abd aI-Rahman,
Sunan al- Diirimi, 2 vols., Damascus, 1349/1930.
DawanI, Jalal aI-DIn, Risiilat al-Zawrii, Cairo, 1326/1908.
Denison, John Hopkins, Emotion as the Basis of Civilization,
New York & London, 1928.
Descartes, Rene, The Geometry, trans. by D. E. Smith & M. L.
Latham, Chicago, 1925; -The Philosophical Works of Descartes,
trans. by E. S. Haldane & G. R. T. Ross, 2 vols., London, 1911,
1912.
Durant, Will, The Age of Faith, New York, 1950; -, Caesar and
Christ, New York, 1944.
Eddington, Arthur Stanley, The Nature of the Physical World
(Gifford Lectures 1927), London, 1928; -, Space, Time and
Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory,
Cambridge, 1920.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 24 vols., Chicago, London & Toronto,
1953.
Encyclopaedia of Islam, The, 4 vols., Leiden & London, 1913-
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Encyclopaedia of Islam, The New Edition, Leiden & London,
1954 and after.
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 13 vols., Edinburgh &
New York, 1908-1927.
Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, 14 vols., in 8, New York,
1950.
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, The, 8 vols. in 4, New York &
London, 1967.
Encyclopaedia of Psychology, 4 vols., New York, 1984.
Encyclopaedia of Religion, An, ed. by Vergilius Ferm, New
York,1945.
Fahri, F. Ziyaeddin, Ziya Gokalp: sa vie et sa sociologie, Paris,
1935.
Fakhry, Majid, A History of Islamic Philosophy, New York &
London, 1970; -, Islamic Occasionalism and Its Critique by Avenues
and Aquinas, London, 1958.
Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Attributes of God (The Gifford
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Lectures delivered in the University of St. Andrews in the year

1924-25), London, 1925.
Feigel, Herbert, & May Brodbeck (eds.), Readings in the
Philosophy of Science, New York, 1953.
Fischer, August, Aus der religiosen Reformbewegung in der
Turkei, Leipzig, 1922.
Flint, Robert, History of the Philosophy of History in France,
Belgium and Switzerland, Edinburgh, 1893.
Fu'ad 'Abd al-Baqi, Muhammad, AI-Mu'jam al-Mufahras Ii
Alfiiz al-Qur'iin ai-Karim, Cairo, 1364/1945, with many
subsequent editions.
Fyzee, Asaf A A, Outlines of Muhammedan Law, London,
1955.
Al GhazalI, Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad, AI-
Munqidh min al-Daliil, trans. by Claud Field: Confessions of al-
Ghazali, London, 1909, also in W. Montgomery Watt, The Faith
and Practice of al-Ghazii/i, London, 1953, pp. 1985; -, AI-Mustasfii
min 'lim al-Usiil, 2 vols., Cairo, 1937; -, AI-Qistiis al-Mustaqim,
trans. with Intro. and Notes by D. P. Brewster: The Just Balance,
Lahore, 1978; -, Tahiifut al-Faliisifah, trans. by Sabih Ahmad
Kamalt Incoherence of the Philosophers, Lahore, 1958.
Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Iqbiil Aur Qur'iin, Lahore, 1977.
Gibb, H. A R, Modem Trends in Islam (The Haskell Lectures
in Comparative Religion, 1945), New York, 1947, reprint 1978; -,
& J. H. Kramers (eds.), Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden &
London, 1953.
Gillispie, Charles Coulston (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, 16 vols., New York, 1970-80.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Conversation of Goethe with
Eckermann and Soret, trans. by John Oxenford, London, 1901.
Gokalp, Ziya, Ziya Gokalp kulliyati 1: Siirler ve halk masallari.
ed. by F. A Tansel, Ankara, 1952; -, Turkish Nationalism and
Western Civilization: Selected Essays of Ziya Gokalp, trans. & ed. by
Niyazi Berkes, London & New York, 1959.
Goldziher, Ignaz, Muhammadanische Studien, 2 vols. (1889-90),
Hildsheim, 1961; trans. by C. R Barber & S. M. Stern, Muslim
Studies, 2 vols., London, vol. I: 1967, vol. II: 1971; -, The Zahrris:
Their Doctrine and Their History, trans. by Wolfgang Behn, Leiden,
1971.
Gunn, J. Alexander, The Problem of Time: A Historical and
222 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Critical Study, London, 1929.

Gwatkin, H. M., & J. P. Whitney (eds.), The Cambridge
Medieval History, 2 vols., London, 1911, 1913.
Haji Khallfah, Mustafa b. 'Abd Allah, Kashf al-Zunun 'an al-
Asiimi 'l-Kutub wa I-Funun, 2 vols., Istanbul, 1941-43.
AI-Hajwl, Muhammad b. aI-Hasan, AI-Fikr al-Siimi fi Tiin1ch al-
Fiqh al-Isliimi, 4 vols., Rabat-Fez-Tunis, 1345-49/1926-3l.
Haldane, Viscount Richard Burton: The Reign of Relativity,
London, 1921.
AI-Hallaj, Husain b. Mansur, Kitiib al-Tawwiisin, Arabic text
and Persian version of Baqll, ed. by Louis Massignon, Paris,
1913; French translation by L. Massignon in La passion d' al-
Halliij, II, 830-93; Eng. trans. by 'Aisha 'Abd Ar-Rahman,
Berkeley & London, 1974: also in GHani Kamran: Ana al-Haqq
Reconsidered, Lahore, 1398 A. H., pp. 55-108.
Hamidullah, Dr. M. (ed.), Sahifa Hammam Bin Munabbih
(Arabic text with Urdu trans.), Hyderabad Deccan., 1956.
Hanif Nadvl, Muhammad, 'Aqliyiit-i Ibn-i Taimiyyah, Lahore,
1981.
Hassan, Riffat, The Sword and the Sceptre (A collection of
writings on Iqbal), Lahore, 1977.
Heath, Sir Thomas Little (tr.), The Thirteen Books of Euclid's
Elements, vol. I, Cambridge, 1926.
Heyd, Uriel, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: The Life and
Teachings ofZiya G6kalp, London, 1950.
Hitti, Philip Khuri, History of the Arabs, London & New York,
1951.
Hocking, William Ernest, The Meaning of God in Human
Experience, New Haven, 1955.
Hoernle, R. F. Alfred, Matter, Life, Mind and God (Five
Lectures on Contemporary Tendencies of Thought), London,
1923.
Holy Bible, The (Authorised King James Version), London &
New York, n.d.
Horten, Max, Die Hauptlehren des Averr6es nach seiner Shrift:
Die Widerlegung des Gazali, Bonn, 1913.
Hourani, George F. (ed.), Essays on Islamic Philosophy and
Science, Albany, 1975.
AI-Hujwlri, An b. 'Uthman, Kashf al-Mahjitb (Iran Pakistan
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1398/1978. New edited annotated edition, Tehran 2009. Eng.

trans. by R. A. Nicholson, London, 1911.
Ibn AbI Zar', AbU 'I-Hasan' Ali b. 'Abd Allah, Raud al-Qirtas
(Upsala, 1843); French trans. by A. Beaumier: Histoire des
souverains du Magreb ... , Paris, 1860.
Ibn al-' Arabi, Muhyi aI-DIn, Fusus al-Hikam, ed. & annotated
by Abu 'Ala 'Afifi, 2 vols., Cairo, 1365/1946, with many
subsequent editions.
Ibn Hazm, 'Ali b. Ahmad, Kitab al-Fisal fi 'I-Mila I wa 'I-Ahwa'
wa 'I-Nihal, 5 vols., Cairo, 1311-1312; -, AI-Taqrib li-Hadd al-
Mantiq, ed. by Dr. Ihsan Abbas (from the only MS 6814, al-
Maktabat al-Ahmadiyah, Tunis), Beirut, 1959.
Ibn Jama'ah, Badr aI-DIn, Tahrir al-Ahkam fi 'I-Tadbir Ahl al-
Islam, ed. & trans. into German by Hans Kofler in Islamica, VI
(1934),349-414 and VII (1935), 1-64.
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History,
trans. by Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols., New York & London, 1958.
Ibn Majah, Abu' Abd Allah Muhammad b. YazId, Sunan, ed.
by Muhammad Fu' ad 'Abd al-Baqi, 2 vols., Cairo, 1952-53.
Ibn Maskawaih, Abu 'Ali Ahmad, AI-Fauz ai-Asghar, Cairo,
1325 A. H; Eng. trans. by Khwaja 'Abdul Hamid in Ibn
Maskawaih: A Study of his AI-Fauz aI-Asghar, Part I, Lahore, 1946.
Ibn Qutaibah, 'Abd Allah b. Muslim, Kitab al-Ma'arif, ed. by
Tharwat 'Ukashah, Cairo, 1960 (Urdu trans. by Dr. Zia-ul-Haq:
Ph. D. Dissertation, University of the Punjab, Lahore, 1950); -,
Kitab Ta'wil al-Hadith, ed. by Faraj Allah ZakI al-KurdI,
et. al., Cairo, 1326 A. H.
Ibn Rushd, (Averroes) Tahafut al-Tahafuh (The Incoherence of
the Incoherence), trans. with Introduction and Notes by Simon
van den Bergh, 2 vols., London, 1954.
Ibn Taimiyyah, Kitab al-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyin, ed. by' Abd al-
Samad Sharaf aI-Din al-Kurtubi, Bombay, 1949.
Ikram, S. M., Modem Muslim India and the Birth of Pakistan,
Lahore, 1977.
Iqbal as a Thinker (Essays by Eminent Scholars), Lahore, Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf, 1944.
Isfra'InI, Abu Ishaq IbrahIm, AI-Tabsir fi '[-Din wa Tamyiz al-
Firqat al-Najiyah 'an al-Firaq al-Halikin, Cairo, 1374 A. H.
James, William, Human Immortality (Ingersoll Lecture at
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224 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

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Experience: A Study in Human Nature (Gifford Lectures, 1901-
1902), London & New York, 1902.
Jaml, 'Abd aI-Rahman, Lawa'ih (A Treatise on Sufism) ed. &
trans. by E. H. Whinfield and Mirza M. Kazwini, London, 1906.
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Jung, Carl Gustav, Contribution to Analytical Psychology, trans.
by H. G. & Cary F. Baynes, London, 1928; -, Psychology of the
Unconscious, trans. by B. M. Hinkle, London, 1919.
Kihalah, 'Umar Rida, Mu'jam al Mu'allifin: Tarajim Musannafi
'l-Kutub al-'Arabiyyah, 15 vols. in 8, Damascus, 1957-61.
Kant, Immanuel, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. by N. Kemp
Smith, London, 1953.
Khuda Bukhsh, Salahuddin, Politics in Islam (von Kremer's
'Staatsidee des Islams'( enlarged and amplified), Lahore, 1948.
AI-Khudarl, Muhammad, Tiirikh al-Tashri' aI-Islam! (Cairo,
1926), Urdu trans. by 'Abd aI-Salam Nadvl: Tarikh-i Fiqh-i Islam!,
A' zamgarh, 1346 A. H.
Kirkpatrick, F. (ed.), Lectures on the History of the Nineteenth
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Kohler, W., The Mentality of Apes, trans. by Ella Winter,
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Lammens, H., Islam, Beliefs and Institutions, trans. by Sir E.
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Lane, Edward William, An Arabic-English Lexicon, Parts 1-8, 8
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Lewes, George Henry, The Biographical History of Philosophy,
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Macdonald, Duncan Black, Development of Muslim Theology,
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McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis, Nature of Existence, ed. by
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Maimonides. Moses, The Guide of the Perplexed, trans. by
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AI-Marghinani, Burhan aI-Din, Al-Hidiiyah: Sharh Bidiiyat al-
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Nadhir Niyizi, Sayyid, Iqbal ke Hudiir, Karachi, 1971.
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AI-Nashshar, 'Ali Sami, Maniihij al-Bahth linda Mufakkiri '1-
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 QUR' ANIC INDEX
Note: - The first figure in the first column represents the number of the Surah
and the second the number of the verse(s). A roman numeral in parentheses in
the second column denotes the number of the Lecture and the figure following it
the number of note in that Lecture.

AI-Baqarah AI-Nisii

2:30 76 4:1 112 (V 47)

2:30-31 66 (III 49) 4:21 134 (VI 43)
2:30-33 10 4:171 51 (III 3)
2:31-34 68 (III 64)
2:35 69 (III 67) AI-Mii'idah
2:35-37 68 (III 61)
2:36 67 (III 55), 70 (III 68) 5:3 101 (V 4)
2:74 10 (126) 5:13 (126)
2:115 74 5:73 51 (III 3)
2:128 (VI 59) 5:111 100 (V 3)
2:143 (VI 59)
2:155 68 (III 63) AI-An'iim
2:163 51 (III 3)
2:164 3 (I 7), 11, 36, 113 (V 50) 6:6 (V 41)
2:177 70 (III 69), 74 6:19 51 (III 3)
2:186 16 6:38 92
2:201 8 (I 21) 6:43 (126)
2:213 75 (III 76) 6:94 76 (IV 1),93 (IV 52)
2:228 134 6:97-99 11
2:255 48 (II 50) 6:98 112 (V 47)
6:101 51 (III 3)
AI'Imriin 6:164 76 (IV 2)
6:165 76
3:7 60 (III 36)
3:19 (III 75) AI-A'rii[
3:26 73, 64 (III 143)
3:97 45 (II 37) 7:10 66
3:137 110-11 7:11 66
3:140 102 (V 9),111 7:19 66 (III 51), 69 (III 67)
3:190 113 (V 50) 7:24 67 (III 55), 70 (III 68)
3:190-91 8,36 7:34 111
3:191 8 (I 22), 74 (III 75) 7:54 82 (IV 22), 84 (IV 26)
3:200 70 (III 69) 7:143 94 (IV 56)
7:181-83 110
Quranic Index 237
7:189 112 (V 47) 15:21 54
15:29 116 (VI 1)
AI-Anfiil 15:48 67 (III 69)
15:85 8 (122)
8:12 100 (V 3)
8:67 (III 21) AI-Nahl

AI-Barii'at 16:3 8 (I 22)

16:12 9
9:39 (V 41) 16:68-69 3 (16), 100 (V 3)
9:97-98 111 16:78 3 (I 11)

Yunus Bani Isrii'il

10:4 98 (IV 64) 17:7 87

10:5 8 (I 22) 17:11 69 (III 67)
10:6 37,102 (V 9), 113 (V 17:13 98 (IV 65)
50) 17:13-14 93
10:19 75 (III 76) 17:15 76 (IV 2)
10:61 107-08 17:16-17 110 (V 41)
10:68 51 (III 3) 17:36 3 (112)
17:72 102 (V 9)
Hud 17:84 82
17:85 82
11:116 110 (V 41) 17:111 51 (III 3)

Yusuf Kahf

12:21 70 18:29 87
18:49 (IV 63)
AI-Ra'd 18:59 110 (V 41)

13:11 10 Maryam
13:39 60 (III 36)
19:66-67 96
Ibriihim 19:80 76 (IV 1), 93 (IV 52)
19:88-92 51 (III 3)
14:5 110 19:93-95 93
14:19 8 (122)
Tii Hii
Al-Hijr
20:14 45 (II 38), 57 (III 26)
15:5 111 (V 412) 20:118-19 67 (III 60)
15:16 (I 8) 20:120 66 (III 52)
15:19-20 66 (III 56) 20:120-22 68 (II 61), 69
238 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
20:122 76 25:73 102 (V 9)
20:123 70 (III 68)
AI-Qasas
AI-Anbiya'
28:7 100 (V 3)
21:11 110 (V 41) 28:77 8 (1 21)
21:16 8 (I 22)
21:33 3 (I 9) AI-'Ankabut
21:35 68
21:37 69 (III 67) 29:6 45 (1137)
21:94 (IV 63) 29:20 8,98 (II 65)
21:103 94 (IV 55) 29:44 8 (122)
21:108 (III 3) 29:69 118 (VI 6)

AI-Hajj AI-Rum

22:44-45 110 (V 41) 30:8 8 (I 22)

22:46 13 (130) 30:11 98 (IV 64)
22:47 37 (II 255), 39 (II 27) 30:22 11,102 (V 9)
22:52 19 30:48 3 (17)
22:67-69 74
Luqman
AI-Mu'minun
31:20 9
23:12-14 83 31:28 Preface
23:43 111 (V 42) 31:29 37
23:78 3 (I 11)
23:80 37, 47 (II 46), 62 (III AI-Sajdah
39), 113 (V 50)
23:99-100 93 (IV 50) 32:5 37 (II 25)
32:7-9 12
AI-Nur 32:9 3 (111),116 (VI 1)
32:17 (IV 66)
24:35 51
24:43-44 3 (17) AI-Ahzab
24:44 8,36
33:40 100 (V 2)
AI-Furqan 33:62 45 (1140)
33:72 9, 70, 76
25:2 40 (II 30)
25:6 (18) AI-Fatir
25:45 102 (V 9)
25:45-46 11 35:1 9, 55 (III 16), (V 22)
25:58-59 39 35:9 3 (I 7)
25:62 37, 44 (II 36) 35:18 76 (IV 2)
Quranic Index 239
35:43 45 (II 40) Zukhruf

Ya-Sin 43:4 60 (III 36)

43:80 (IV 63)
36:31 110 (V 41)
36:40 3 (I 9) AI-Dukhan

AI-Saffot 44:38-39 8 (I 22)

44:43-55 98 (IV 66)
37:6 3 (18)
37:41-49 98 (IV 66) AI-Jathiyah
37:62-68 98 (IV 66)
45:5 3 (I 7), 113 (V 50)
Sad 45:22 8 (122)
45:29 (IV 63)
38:27 8 (122)
38:72 116 (VII) AI-Ahqaf

AI-Zumar 46:3 (122)

39:4 (III 3) AI-Fath

39:5 37
39:6 112 (V 47) 48:23 45 (II 40)
39:7 76 (IV 2)
39:22 10 (126) AI-Hujurat
39:68 94
49:6 111
AI-Mu'min 49:13 75 (III 77), 126 (VI 26)

40:16 (III 3) Qaf

40:60 16
40:84-85 (II 40) 50:3-4 97
50:6 (18)
HaMim 50:16 57 (III 27), 108
50:22 98
41:8 98 (IV 53) 50:38 48 (II 49)
41:12 100 (V 3)
41:37 102 (V 9) AI-Dhariyat
41:53 12 (I 27), 25 (II 4),
77 (IV 5), 101 (V 5) 51 :20-21 12 (I 27), 25 (II 4),77 (V 5)
51:47 8 (123)
AI-Shura
AI-Tur
42:11 45 (II 39)
42:51 16 (V 3) 52:23 67 (III 59)
240 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
AI-Najm 67:3-4 64 (III 42)
67:5 (18)
53:1-18 17 67:23 3 (I 11)
53:11-12 13 (129)
53:17 94 AI-Hiiqqah
53:38 76 (IV 2)
53:39 76 (IV 3) 69:13-188 (IV 54)
53:42 45,105 (V 19)
AI-Ma'iirij
AI-Qamar
70:4 37 (II 25)
54:49 40 (II 30) 70:19 9 (125)
54:49-50 39
Nuh
AI-Rahmiin
71:17 67 (III 57)
55:29 40 (II 31), 98 (IV 70),
113 (V 51) AI-Qiyiimah
55:33 105
75:36-40 9, 94-95
AI-Wiiqi'ah
AI-Mursaliit
56:58-61 93
56:60-62 96 77:8-11 (IV 54)

AI-Hadid AI-Naba'

57:3 25-26 (II 5), 85 (IV 78:23 98

28)
57:15 98 (IV 69) AI-Takwir
57:16 (126)
57:27 8 (121) 81:15-16 3 (18)
57:29 64 (III 43)
AI-Inshiqiiq
AI-Mujiidalah
84:16-19 10
58:7 107-08 84:18-19 93
84:25 93 (IV 53)
AI-Taghiibun
AI-Ruruj
64:3 (122)
85:1 3 (I 8)
AI-Mulk 85:22 5 (I 17)

67:1-2 95 (IV 57)

Quranic Index 241
AI-A 'Iii

87:2-3 40 (II 0)

AI-Ghiishiyah

88:17-20 11

AI-Balad

90:4 (III 63)

AI-Shams

91:7-10 95

AI-TIn

95:4-5 9,68 (III 62)

95:6 93 (IV 53)

AI-Zi/ziil

99:5 100 (V 3)

AI-Qiiri'ah

101:6-7 94 (IV 55)

101:9 98 (IV 68)

AI-Humazah

104:6-7 98 (IV 67)

AI-Ikhliis

112:14 50
 INDEX
Note:- Throughout the Index Roman and Arabic numerals
within parentheses indicate the number of the Lecture and
that of the note respectively where the entry may be seen.

Abbasids, 118, 131 activity, all, a kind of limitation

'Abd aI-Malik (80-150/699-767), even in the case of God as a
collection of traditions by, concrete operative Ego, 64:
137 while enjoying his creative, ...
man has a feeling of
'Abd al-Mu'min, 152
uneasiness in the presence of
'Abd al-Quddus of Gangoh (d. his unfoldment, 132
945/1538),99 (V 1)
Adam, endowed with the faculty
Absolute Ego, 45, 47 of naming things, 10-11; first
Abu Hanifah (c. 80-150/c. 699- act of disobedience of, also
767), 140-41; introduced the the first act of free choice, 68;
principle of lstihsiin, 137; forbidden the fruit of occult
made practically no use of knowledge, 69 (III 67); God's
traditions, 137; modern Vicegerent on earth, 66 (III
Hanafi legists have 49); is 'hasty', 69 (III 67);
eternalized the painful physical environment
interpretations of, 141: school best suited to the unfolding
of, possesses much greater of the intellectual faculties of,
power of creative adaptation, 69; the chosen of God, 76
141 A/iiq, 101 (V 5)
Abu Hashim (d. 321/933), 54 (III Afghanistan, Sufi techniques of
10) Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in,
AbU Hurairah (d. c. 58/678), 152
declared by Nazzam, an Afghani, Sayyid Jamal ai-Din
untrustworthy reporter, 119 (1254-1314/1838-39-1897), 78
(VI 10) (VI 19)
'accomplished fact', see fact Ahkiim, 136
accident, doctrine of, see Ahmad of Sirhind, Shaikh (971-
Ash'arites 1034/1564-1624), criticism of
act, profanity and spirituality of, contemporary Sufism, 152;
determined by the invisible range of the Sufistic
mental background, 122 (VI techniques of, 152; 'Stations
21) of religious experience, 152-
153 (VII 17)
Index 243

Ahuramazda, 115 Aristotle (384-322 B.C), 3, 48,

, Ain al-Qudat aI-Hamad ani (492- 112, 140, first figure of
525/1098-1131), (III 34); see syllogism of, Razi first to
also 'Iraqi criticize, 103 (V 14)
'Ajitl,6 'as if' (philosophy of the), 146
(VII 8)
Akhfo, (VII 17)
Ash' ari, Abu 'I-Hasan 'Ali b.
'Alam-i Amr, 153
Isma'il, al- (d. c. 324/935-36),
Alexander, Samuel (1859-1938), 29
60, 109 (III 33, IV 23, V 37, 38)
Ash' arites, 3, 105; and notion of
'Ali b. Abi Talib (23 B.H.- infinitesimals, 29; atomism
40/600-661), 'the speaking of, 55-57; doctrine of accident,
Qur'an',88 56-57; manner of God's
'Ali Pasha Muhammad (1184- creative activity, 54; time as
1265/1769-1849), 121 viewed by, 59-60
Allah, 45, 50 Ashnawi, Mahmud b. Khuda-
Amidi, Saif aI-Din (551- Dad (d. c. 629/1231-32), (III
631/1156-1233),138 34)
Amr, 82, 84 (IV 22, 26) Asiatic Russia, Sufi technique of
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in,
analytic psychology, essential 152
nature of religion beyond the
province of Oung), 151 atheistic socialism, 149
Anfu,s, 101 (127, II 4, V 5) A Theory of Monads: Outlines of
the Philosophy of the Principle
apostasy, women in the Punjab of Relativity (H. W. Carr),
driven to, 134 (VI 39) quoted: 36 (II 23)
Appearance and Reality (Bradley), atomic time, born out of the
Quoted: 78 (IV 13) movement of self from
appreciative self, nature of, see appreciation to efficiency, 61;
self cannot be applied to God, 60;
'Aql, one of the five things that weakest part of the Ash' arite
the Law of Islam aims at theory of creation, 58; see also
protecting (Shatibi), 134 time
Arabia, 99, 117, 125, 152 atomism, 54-57, 105, 146 (III 10,
VII 9) Baghdad school of, 54;
Arabian imperialism of the
Basra School of, 54; of kalam,
earlier centuries of Islam, 126
a purely speculative theory,
Arabic replaced by Turkish, 127 54
(VI 28)
Attributes of God, The (Farnell), 51
Aristotelian idea of fixed
Augustine, St. (354-430), 46, 113
universe, 54, 56, 109 (V 22)
(II 45)
244 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Aus der religiosen Reformbewegung 2); vitalism of, ends in an

in der rarkei (August Fischer), unsurmountable dualism of
126 (VI 25) will and thought, 41-43
Babi movement, a Persian reflex Berkeley, George (1685-1753),
of Arabian Protestantism, 121 first to refute the theory of
Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), 103 matter as the unknown cause
of sensations, 28 (II 7)
Bacon, Roger (c. 1214-1294), 117
Biographical History of Philosophy
Baghdad, destruction of, 120
(G. H. Lewes), quoted: (V 10)
Baqillani, Qadi AbU Bakr (338-
Bln1ni, Abu Raihan, al- (362-
403/950-1013), and Ash'arIte
440/973-1048), and
atomism, 54 (III 11); and the
conception of Nature as a
condition of Qarshiyat, 125
process of becoming 113; and
Baqir, Mir Muhammad (d. modern mathematical idea of
1041/1631), 70; see also function, 106 (V 22); and
Damad Newton's formula of
Barzakh, 93; characterized by a interpolation, 106 (V 23);
change in ego's sense of time discovery of reaction time,
and space, 95; ego catches a 102 (V 16)
glimpse of fresh aspects of Blavatsky, Madame Helena
Reality in 96 Petrovna (1831-1891), 68 (III
bashar, 66 66)
batin, 119 (VI 13) Body, accumulated action or
Ba Yazid (d. c. 261/874), quoted: habit of the soul, 84;
53,88 compared to nafs, is act
become visible, 57; -soul
Bedil, Mirza ' Abd ai-Qadir relationship, 57, 83, 85, 99-101
(1054-1133/1644-1721), 6 (I
19) Book of Genesis, 66
Bergson, Henri Louis (1859- Bradley, Francis Herbert (1846-
1941), 31, 113; and conscious 1924),78-79
experience, quoted: 37-38 (II Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-
26); and duration, 37-40; and Safa' est. 373/983), 96
Zeno's paradox, 29 (II 12); Briefe aber Religion (Naumann),
denies the teleological quoted: 64-65, 132 (VI 38)
character of Reality, 43; error
Briffault, Robert (1876-1948), 103
of, in regarding time as prior
to self, 44; holds intuition to Broad, Charlie Dunbar (1887-
be only a higher kind of 1971),46 (II 42)
intellect, 2; inadequacy of Browne, Edward Granville
analysis of conscious (1862-1926), (VI 18)
experience, 42; on Browning, Robert (1812-1889),
individuality, quoted: 50 (III quoted: 65
Index 245

Bukhari, Muhammad b. Isma'iiI originally a monastic order,

(194-256/810-870},13 116, 123; primitive, 123, 132
Caliphate (Imamate), according Christ, Jesus, 64
to the spirit of Islam, can be Church and State, in Islam, 122-
vested in an elected 123; separation of,
assembly, 124; Turkish view accentuated by (Turkish)
of, 124-126; universal, Ibn Nationalist Party, 122; the
KhaldOn's account of, 7, 125 spiritual and the temporal are
Cantor, George (1845-1918), 29- not two distinct domains in
30 Islam, 122; see also Islam
Carr, Herbert Wildon (1857- Complete Works of Friedrich
1931),30,36 (II 17, V 21) Nietzsche (Nietzsche), quoted:
Cartesian form of ontological 92 (IV 47)
argument, 24 (II 1) Comte, Auguste (1798-1857), 89;
Cartesian 'I think', 156 influence on Gokalp, 126-127
cause and effect, an Concept compared to deed, 95,
indispensable instrument of 146
the ego and not a final Concept of Nature, The
expression of the nature of (Whitehead), quoted: 27 (II 8)
Reality,86 Concrete, knowledge of the, 12;
Central Asia, anti-Islamic the legists of Hijaz
propaganda in, 6 eternalized the, 140; Qur'an
chain, causal, and artificial fixes its gaze on the, 64, 105
construction of the ego for its (V 22); theory of relativity
own purposes, 86 (IV 32) and,64
change, and the Ultimate Ego, Concrete experience, religion
47-48; durable civilization insisted on the necessity of,
possible only through the long before science learnt to
appreciation and control of do so,20
the great fact of, 12 Confessions of St. Augustine, The
Christianity, according to newer (Saint Augustine), quoted: 46
psychology, has already (II 45)
fulfilled its biological Configuration Psychology, 86
mission, 151; and Islam, 7-8, (IV 30); 'insight' in terms of,
51, 92, 112 (III 3, IV 2); 86 (IV 31)
appeared as a powerful consciousness, James's view of,
reaction against legality in examined, 81-82; prophetic
Judaism, 132; individualism and mystic, 99-100; provides
of, could see no spiritual a luminous point to enlighten
value in the complexity of the forward rush of life, 33; to
human relations, 132; describe, as an
epiphenomenon is to deny
246 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

the validity of all knowledge, time is born with the act of

33; unknown levels of creation, 61
consciousness, 37, (Hallaj) 77; Darwin, Charles (1809-1882), 33,
see also Prophetic 154
Consciousness
Dawwanl, Jalal ai-Din
Constantine, Emperor (274-337), Muhammad b. As' ad Mulla
116 (VI 2) (830-908/1427-1502-03),
continuity, Cantor's theory of views on Divine time and
mathematical, 29-30 (II 13) Divine knowledge similar to
Contribution to Analytical those of Royce, 60, 62
Psychology (C. G. Jung), Decline of the West, The
quoted: 151 (VII 15) (Spengler), 87, quoted: 115 (IT
Conversation of Goethe with 51, TV 4, V 22, 61, 62)
Eckermann and Soret democracy, spiritual, ultimate
(Goethe), quoted: 7 (I 20) aim of Islam, 142
cosmological argument, critically Democritus (c. 460-370, B.C.), 41,
examined, 23-24 105
'creation', and 'direction' Denison, John Hopkins (1870-
according to the Qur' an, 82- 1936), quoted (VI 4)
83; Islamic idea of 'Descartes' Method', 102 (V 10)
continuous, 36, 48, 56, 57, 110
Descartes, Rene (1596-1650), 24,
(TTT13) 83 (V 10, 22)
creative activity, see activity
destiny (Taqdir), 40, (II 30), 87-89
Creative Evolution (Bergson),
Development of Metaphysics in
quoted: 37-38 (II 26), 50 (III 2)
Persia (Allama Iqbal), quoted:
criticism, historical, 111, 112; of (V 10, 14, 16, VI, 11)
HadHh, 135 (VI 45)
Din, one of the five necessary
Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 4 things that the Law of Islam
culture, Magian, 77, 114-15 (IV aims at protecting (Shatibl),
4); modern, based on national 134
egoism is a form of Discours de la method (Descartes),
barbarism, 124; modern, (V 10)
result of overdeveloped
Divine knowledge, a kind of
industrialism, is to satisfy
knowledge which is also
primitive instincts, 124
creative of the object known,
Dahr, Daihiir, Daihiir, names of 62; on the view of, as a kind
God (Ibn al-' Arabi, Fakhr al- of passive omniscience, it is
Din Razi), 58-59 not possible to reach the idea
Damad, Mlr Baqir (d. of a Creator, 63; regarded as a
1041/1631), and the view that kind of passive omniscience,
is nothing more than a sort of
Index 247

mirror passively reflecting status through contact with

the details of an already the Most Real, 145;
finished structure of things, emancipation from the
63 limitations of individuality
Divine life, and Divine not the end of, 93, 156-157;
perfection, 47-48; like pearls emergence of, is the world
do we live and move and reaching the point of self-
have our being in the guidance, 84; excludes all
perpetual flow of, 57-58 other egos from the private
circuit of its individuality, 58;
Driesch, Hans Adolf Eduard
finite and the infinite,
(1867-1941),35 (V 21)
relation between, 51-52, 88,
Duhring, Eugen Karl (1833- 94; formed and disciplined
1921),103 by its own experience, 82;
duration, impossible to express individuality and uniqueness
the inner experience of pure, of, as enunciated in the
39; serial and non-serial Qur'an, 76, 93-94 (IV 1, 2);
aspects of, 39; pure, not infected with the oppositions
touched by McTaggart's of change and permanence,
argument against time, 46 unity and diversity, 78; life
'Eastern discussion' (Fakhr al- of, a kind of tension caused
Din Razi, quoted: 61 (III 37) by the ego invading
environment and
Eckermann, Johann Peter (1792- environment invading the
1854),7 ego, 82; life of, in an
Eddington Arthur Stanley (1882- obstructing environment
1944),53,55, 147 (IV 43, V 21) depends on perpetual
education, legal, need for the expansion of knowledge, 69;
reform of the system of, 140 modem psychology and, 81,
(VI 54) 152-53; must continue to
struggle until he is able to
ego, as free personal causality,
win his resurrection, 96; of
shares in the life and freedom
of the Ultimate Ego, 64, 86; higher order emerges out of
lower order, 84; privacy and
can think of more than one
uniqueness of, 73, 79; reality
space-order, 79; causal chain
of, lies in its will-attitudes,
itself an artificial construction
aims, and aspirations, 83;
of 87; conception of, as a
soul-substance, serves neither reality of, too indubitable to
be denied, though too
psychological nor
profound to be
metaphysical interest, 80; did
intellectualized, 78-79;
not pre-exist its emergence in
reveals itself as a unity of
the spatio-temporal order, 93;
mental states, 79; sharp-
directive function (amr) of,
82; discovers its metaphysical
sightedness in life hereafter,
98; true time-duration
248 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

belongs to, alone, 79; Europe, failure of, in political

Ultimate Reality reveals its and social sciences, 117;
secret to, 84-85; William idealism of, never a living
James's view of, 81-82 (IV 21); factor in her life, 142;
see also man and self territorial nationalism in, 112;
egohood, degree of reality varies the greatest hindrance in the
with degree of feeling of, 58 way of man's ethical
advancement, 142
Einstein, Albert (1879-1955), 30-
31, 106, 156; discoveries of, Eve, 66
have laid the foundations of a evil, the problem of, 64-70;
far-reaching revolution in the intellectual, indispensable for
entire domain of human building up of experience, 69
thought, 27; pre- Einstein Evolution, 97, 106-07, 110, 147-
physics, 63; theory of, 148; Emergent, 85, 86 (IV 23)
suggests new wllYs of
experience, and Reality, 37, 62;
looking at the problems
conscious, Bergson's analysis
common to religion and
of, 37; levels of, 26 ff.; life and
philosophy, 6; (II 8, 16, 18),
thought permeate each other
(III 25, 32), (V 21); see also
in conscious, 42; religious, 7;
Rselativity and Russell
13, 21, 143-46, 156; religious,
Emotion as the Basis of Civilization, pragmatic test of, 19, 21-22,
a.
H. Denison), quoted: 116- 77, 99; unitary/unitive, 77,
17 (VI 4) 87-88, 99, 100; see also mystic
emotions, James-Lange theory experience
of, (IV 24) experimental method, not a
ends and purposes, to live is to European discovery, 103 ff.
shape and change, and to be fact, accomplished,
governed by them, 21 constitutional theory of the
energy, Divine, every atom of, Umayyads, 88 (IV 37);
however low in the scale of elements of, and logical
existence, is an ego, 50 judgment, 68; no such thing
Essai sur les Ecoles philosophiques as an isolated, 68
chez les Arabes (A. faith, ages of, are the ages of
Schmolders), (V 10) rationalism (Whitehead), 2 (I
Eternal Recurrence, see 3); and intellect, 1; as the first
Recurrence stage of religious life, 143; has
cognitive content, 1, 13, 17,
Eternity, as Divine attribute, 58-
146, 150; more than mere
61; of the word, Christian
feeling, 1
dogma of the, 119
Fall (of man), legend of, 65-71;
Ethical Studies (Bradley), 78
Qur' anic legend of the, has
Euclid (fb 300 B.C.), 106 nothing to do with man's
Index 249

first appearance on this geometries, non-Euclidean, (V

planet, 67 21)
Farnell, L. Richard (1856-1934), Gestalt Psychology, (IV 30)
51 Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Diriiyat al-
Fatalism, 92; higher, 87-88 Makiin (' Ain al-Qudat al-
Faust, 65 (III 47) Hamadani), quoted; 60-61,
107-09 (III 34, 35, V 29-36, 39,
Fauz ai-Asghar, AI- (Ibn
40)
Maskawaih), quoted: 107 (V
25) Ghiiyat al-Imkiin fi Diriiyat al-
Zaman wa 'l-Makiin (Mahmud
feeling and idea, non-temporal b. Khuda-Dad AshnawI), (III
and temporal aspects of the 34)
same unit of experience
(Hocking), 17 (I 39); idea and GhazzalI, Abu Hamid (450-
word simultaneously emerge 505/1058-1111), 57, 121 (III 7,
out of the womb of, 18 (I 40) 23); and Descartes' Method,
102 (V 10); and ego as viewed
Fikret, Tevfik (1284-1333/1867- in Muslim theology, 80 (IV
1915), and anti-Islamic 15); and Kant, 4; failed to see
propaganda in Central Asia, that thought and intuition are
6 (I 19) organically related, 4-5; on
Fiqh, critical discussion of, likely the whole a follower of
to displease many and lead to Aristotle in logic, 103 (V 11)
sectarian controversies, 131 God, and space, 107-10; and
Fischer, August (1865-1949), 126 time, 60-62; arguments for
(VI25) the existence of, critically
Flint, Robert (1838-1910), 112 examined, 23-25; as the
formula of Islam, see Islam omnipsyche of the universe,
110; change reveals its true
Fox, George (1624-1691), 150 character in, as continuous
freedom, human, 85-87; a creation, 'untouched by
condition of moral goodness, weariness' and unseizable by
68; relation to Divine 'slumber or sleep', 48 (II 49,
freedom, 63, 86-87 50); infinity of, consists in
Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), 19 infinite inner possibilities of
His creative activity, 52; 'is a
Fusiis al-Hikam (Ibn al-' Arabi),
percept and not a concept'
quoted: 144 (VII 5)
(Ibn' Arabi), 144; is immanent
Garden of the East, The (Nanikram in nature, 85; knowledge of
Thadani), quoted: 147-48 (VII Nature is knowledge of the
111) behaviour of, 45; knowledge
General Principle of Relativity, The of, not passive omniscience
(H. W. Carr), quoted: 29-30 as conceived by DawwanI,
(II 16) 'Iraqi and Royce, 62-63; life
250 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

of, is self-revelation and not good and evil, Qur' anic view of,
the pursuit of an ideal, 48; 65-68
loyalty to, amounts to man's Government, republican form of,
loyalty to his own ideal not only consistent with the
nature, 117; metaphor of light spirit of Islam, but a
as applied to, 51-52; necessity, 125
omnipotence as related to
Great European War, 129, 142
Divine wisdom, 64-70;
perfect individuality and 'Great I am', 57 (II 38, III 26)
unity of, as enunciated in the Greek lOgic, Muslim criticism of,
Qur'an, 50-52 (III 3); Qur'an's 102-03 (V 13)
emphatic denial of the Greek philosophy, intellectual
sonship of, 51 (III 3); revolt of Islam against, 3, 47,
rationalistic arguments for 102, 113, 114 (V 22)
the existence of, 23-25;
relation to the universe as Greek thought, character of
soul's relation to the body Muslim culture not
('Iraqi), 110; scholastic determined by, 104
arguments for the existence Greeks, influence of, tended to
of, 23-25; teleological obscure Muslims' vision of
argument for the existence of, the Qur'an, 3, 104
24; thought and deed, the act Guide of the Perplexed
of knowing and the act of (Maimonides), 54 (III 12)
creating identical in, 62 see Hadith, and life-value of the
also Ultimate Ego and legal principles enunciated in
Ultimate Reality the Qur' an, 137; as a source
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von of Muhammadan Law, 135-
(1749-1832), and the legend 37; attitude of AbU Hanlfah
of Faust, 65 (III 47); on the towards, of purely legal
teachings of Islam, quotes 7 import perfectly sound, 137;
Gokalp, Ziya (c. 1292-1343/c. Goldziher's examination of,
1875-1924), critical in the light of modem canons
assessment of the views of, of historical criticism, 135;
on equality of man and intelligent study of, to be
woman, 134-35; ideal of used as indicative of the
womanhood, 128; inspired by spirit in which the Prophet
the philosophy of Comte, himself interpreted his
126-27; religio-political views Revelation, 137; modem
of, 126-28; science and (Western) critics of, 135 (VI
religion, 127 45); pre-Islamic usages in,
our writers do not always
Glodziher, Ignaz (1850-1921), (V
refer to, 136; quoted in the
15, VI 14); on hadith, 135 (VI
present work: 'Actions shall
45)
be judged only by intention'
Index 251

(stated with remarkably 98; not a holiday, 98; states

profound understanding as: not localities, 98
'It is the invisible mental Hedaya (or Guide), The (Burhan
background of the act which ai-DIn al-MarghInanI), 134
determines its character'), 122
Hegel, Ernest Georg Wilhelm
(VI 21); 'Do not vilify time,
Friedrich (1770-1831), 57;
for time is God', 8, 58 (I 24);
view of Reality as an
'If she had let him alone, the
infinitude of reason, 89; see
thing would have been
also Reality
cleared up' (said of Ibn
Sayyad's mother), 13 (I 32); Heisenberg, Werner Karl (1901-
'The Book of God is sufficient 1976), principle of
for us', 129 (VI 32), 'Then I indeterminacy, 144 (VII 4)
will exert to form my own Hell, corrective experience, 98;
judgement' (Mu' adh said this fire which mounts above the
to the Holy Prophet on being hearts, 98; not a pit of
appointed as ruler of Yemen), everlasting torture, 98;
118 (VI 7); 'The whole of this painful realization of one's
earth is a mosque', 123 (VI failure as a man, 98
22); see also traditions Helmholtz, Hermann (Ludwig
Haldane, John Scott (1860-1936), Ferdinand) von, (1821-1894),
quoted: 34-35; (V 21) 95 (IV 58)
Haldane, Lord Richard Burdon Heraclitus (fl. in 5th century
(1856-1928), 57 (II 8, III 25, V B.C,),113
10) Hijaz, legists of, eternalized the
HalIm Pasha, Sa'Id (1280" concrete, 140
1341/1863-1921), Grand history, as a source of human
Vizier of Turkey, quoted: 123 knowledge, 77, 102, 110-12;
Hallaj, Mansur (244-309/857- belief in the unity of mankind
922), 88; and McTaggart, (IV and a keen sense of reality of
6); experience of 'unity of time foundational to the
inner experience' reached its study of, 112-13; continuous
culmination in, 77 creative movement in time,
Hamilton, Sir William (1788- 113; false reverence for past,
1856),150 no remedy for a people's
decay, 120; Ibn Khaldun's
Hasan of Basra (21-110/642-728),
view of, 110, 112; Magian
88
attitude of constant
Heaven, and Hell, descriptions expectation gives a false view
of, in the Qur' an are visual of, 115; possibility of
representations of an inner scientific treatment of, 112;
fact, 98; joy of triumph over Qur'anic teachings on, 110-12
the forces of disintegration,
252 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

History of the Philosophy of History determines the place of a

(Robert Flint), quoted: 112-13 thing in the scale of being, 45
(V 48) Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab,
Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679), 128 Muhammad (1115-
Hocking, William Ernst (1873- 1206/1703-1792),121 (VI 19);
1966),17-18,21 (139) movement of, conservation in
its own fashion, 121; wholly
Hoernle, R. F. Alfred (1880-1943),
uncritical of the past, 121
quoted: 26-27 (II 6)
Ibn al-' Arabi, Muhyuddin (560-
Holism, (IV 30, V 22)
638/1165-1240),44; Dahr, one
Harten, Max (1874-1945), of the beautiful names of
quoted: 130 God, 58; 'God is a percept
Hujjat Allah al-Btilighah (Shah and the world is a concept',
Wall Allah), quoted: 136-37 144 (VII 5)
(VI 47) Ibn Haitham, Abu' All ai-Hasan
Hukm, 139 (354-c. 430/965-c. 1039),
human origin, unity of, 112 influence on Roger Bacon,
103 (V 17, 18); 'Optics' or
human social relations, spiritual
Kittib al-Mantizir, 103 (V 17);
value of the complexity of,
on reaction-time, (V 16)
132
Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad (164-
human unity, conception of, in
241/780-855),137
Europe and Islam, 112
Ibn Hazm (384-456/994-1064),
humanity today needs three influence on Roger Bacon,
things, 142
103 (V 18); language of the
Humayun, Emperor (913- Qur'an makes no difference
963/1508-1556),40 in the act of creation and the
Hume, David (1711-1776), 21, thing created, 55; on
155-56 predication of life to God, 47;
Hurgronje, Christian Snouck rejected the Ash' arne notion
(1857-1936), Dutch critic of of infinitesimals, 29 (II 11);
relation with Zahiri school of
Islam quoted: 130
law, 120 (VI 14)
Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825-
1895),148 Ibn Ishaq, Abu ' Abd Allah
Muhammad (d. c. 150/767),
'I am', only that truly exists 112 (V 44)
which can say: 45; the more
fundamental, finds evidence Ibn Khaldun (732-808/1332-
of ego's reality not in the 1406), and the modern
Cartesian 'I think' but in the hypothesis of subliminal self,
Kantian 'I can', 156-57 14, 150 (I 35); anti-classical
spirit of the Qur'an scored its
'I amness', of God, 45 (II 38); the final victory in, 113;
degree of the intuition of, demolished the alleged
Index 253

revelational basis of an idea analogy and Ijmti', 120-21, (VI

similar to the original Magian 15); systematic refutation of
idea, 115 (V 62); Flint's Greek logic, 103 (V 13)
euology of, 112 (V 48); his Ibn Tumart (d. 524/130), 121 (VI
account of universal 20); call to prayer in Berber,
caliphate, 125; indebtedness 128 (VI 29); Qur' an to be
to the Qur' an for the whole translated and read in the
spirit of his 'Prolegomena', Berber language, 128
111; intellectual inheritance
Ijmti', as the third source of
of, 113; only Muslim to
Muhammadan Law, 137-39;
approach mystic experience
in thoroughly scientific spirit, attitude of the Umayyad and
Abbasid caliphs to,
14, 77, 101-02, 150 (IV 7, V 8);
determined by political
on the condition of
interests, 137-38; Ibn Hazm
Qarshiyat, 125; three distinct
views of the Universal and Ibn Taimiyyah rejected,
120 (VI 15); legislative
Caliphate in Islam, 125; was
assembly in view of opposing
hostile to metaphysics, 113 (V
sects is the only possible form
49)
of, 138; question of the text of
Ibn Maskawaih (330?-421/942?- the Qur' an being repealed by,
1030), 110, 113; first Muslim 138 (VI 48); rarely assumed
to give in many respects the form of a permanent
thoroughly modem theory of institution, 137; value and
the orIgm of man, 96; possibilities of, in view of
substance of his evolutionary new world forces and
hypotheses, 107 (V 25) political experience of
Ibn Rushd (520-595/1126-1198), European nations, 138
doctrine of immortality, as a Ijtihtid, as manifested in recent
purely metaphysical thought and activity in
question, 89; in terms of Turkey, 121-29; causes of
Active Intellect, 3 (I 14, IV stagnation of, 118-20;
38); similarity to the view of conditions of complete,
William James, 89 (IV 39) impossible of realization in
Ibn Sayyad (d. c. 63/682), an individual, 118; closing of
Prophet's critical observation the door of, is a pure fiction,
of the psychic phenomena of, 141 (VI 57); first degree of
13, 101 (131, V 7) (ijtihtid fi 'I-shar') admitted in
Ibn Taimiyyah (661-728/1263- theory, denied in practice,
1328), and the movement of 118; in Turkey, reinforced by
Muhammad b. ' Abd al- modem philosophical ideas,
Wahhab, 121; induction the 121; meaning of, in the
only form of reliable Islamic Law, 117-18; tradition
argument, 103; rejection of of the Prophet relating to, 118
(VI 7); transfer of power of,
254 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

from individual individual, altogether crushed

representatives of schools to out of existence in an over-
a Muslim legislative organized society, 130
assembly, 138; three degrees individuality, harbours its own
of, 118 (VI 8); Ulema cannot enemy by the tendency
deny the theoretical towards reproduction, 51;
possibility of complete, 133 matter of degrees, 50;
Imam, Absent, 139 Qur' anic argument for the
Imamate, see Caliphate and perfect, of God, 50-51
Khilafat individuals, self-concentrated,
Iman, and the higher fatalism see self-concentrated
implied in it, 87; not merely a individuals
passive belief in one or more infinite, and the finite, 23-24; and
propositions, 87; the vital thought, 4-5; God, not
way of appropriating the extensively, but intensively
universe, 87 so, 51-52, 94; in the history of
immortality, collective, by self- Muslim culture the ideal
multiplication, 69; Ibn revealed is the possession
Rushd's doctrine of, 3, 89 (I and enjoyment of, 105; Ego,
14); Kant's ethical arguments relation between, and the
for, 89-90; man is only a finite ego, 52, 94
candidate for, 95; inheritance, economic
metaphysical arguments do significance of the Qur' anic
not give us a positive belief rule of, 134 (VI 42); principles
in, 89; Nietzsche's view of, in underlying Qur' anic law of,
terms of Eternal Recurrence, have not yet received the
91-92,148 (IV 44); perfectly in attention they deserve, 135
accord with the spirit of the insan, 66
Qur' an, Rumi regarded the
intellect, inductive, birth of Islam
question of, as one of
is the birth of, 101; not the
biological evolution and not a
product of evolution, 36;
problem of metaphysics,
outgrowing its most
quoted: 96-97, 147-48 (IV 62,
fundamental categories: time,
VII 11); personal, to be
space and causality, 6
achieved by personal effort,
95; Qur' anic view of, is partly interpolation, formula of, 106 (V
ethical and partly biological, 21, 23); Al-Biruni and
92 ff.; status of belief in, Newton's formula of, 106 (V
philosophically speaking, 98 2)
indeterminacy, principle of, 144 'Iraq', legists of, 140
(VII 4) 'Iraqi (' Ain al-Qudat al-
Hamadani), (492-525/1098-
1131), 60, 144 (III 34, VII 6);
Index 255

and Divine knowledge, 62-63; historical sense in, is a

and Divine time, 60-61, 110; fascinating subject, 112;
infinite varieties of time harmony of idealism and
relative to the varying grades positivism in, 123; idea of
of being, 60-61; plurality of evolution in, 106-07, 132; if
space-orders, 107-09 renaissance of, is a fact, and it
'Iraqi, Fakhr ai-Din IbrahIm (d. is a fact, we will have to re-
688/1289), (III 34, VII 6) evaluate our intellectual
inheritance, 121; inner
[rshad al-Fuhul (ShaukanI),
catholicity of the spirit of,
quoted: (VI 57)
bound to work itself out, in
Isaiah,115 spite of the rigorous
IshraqI, Shihab ai-Din Yahya ibn conservatism of our doctors,
Habash ibn Amirak 130-31; is neither nationalism,
Suhrawardi al-Maqtlll (549- nor Imperialism, but a league
587/1153-1191), 57; and of Nations, 126; legal
Greek logic, 103 (V 13) reasoning in, from deductive
Islam, a civil society from the to inductive, 131, 140, 141 (VI
very beginning, 123; and 35); overcomes the sharp
Christianity, 7-8; and opposition between the
European culture, 6, 103-04, biological within (the ideal)
(V 22); and modern and the mathematical
knowledge, 78; and original without (the real), 7-8; over-
verities of freedom, equality organization by false
and solidarity, 124; reverence of past contrary to
assimilative spirit of, more the inner impulse of, 120;
manifest in the sphere of law, propaganda against, in
130; birth of, is the birth of Central Asia, 6; prophecy in,
inductive intellect, 101; reaches its perfection in
Church and State in, 122-23; discovering the need of its
confronted today by new own abolition, 101; race idea
forces set free by the in modern, 129; rationalist
extraordinary development movement in the Church of,
of human thought in all its 118-19 (VI 12); rejects blood-
directions, 133; European relationship as a basis of
culture on its intellectual side human unity, 116; revision
only a further development and reconstruction of
of the culture of, 6; formula theological thought in, 6;
of, 101 (V 6, VI 5); first half of revolt of, against Greek
the formula of, has created thought, 3, 56, 102, 113, 114
and fostered critical (V 22); says 'yes' to the world
observation of Nature of matter, 8 (I 21); search for
divesting it of divine rational foundations in, 2, 3 (I
character, 101; growth of 5); socio-economic position of
women in, 134-35; spirit of
256 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Islam seen at its best by critically assessed, 81-82 (IV

tapping Nature and History 21)
as sources of knowledge, 116; Jannat, Qur' anic view of, 67
spiritual democracy is the
ultimate aim of, 142; State in, Javid Namah (Allama Iqbal),
quoted: 154, 157 (VII 19, 24)
an effort to realize the
spiritual in human Jawiihir (atoms of the
organization, 123; as Ash'artites),55
endeavour to transform the Jawiihir-i-Khamsah-i 'Alam-i Amr;
principles of equality 'Five Essences of the Realm
solidarity and freedom into of the Spirit' (Shaikh Ahmad
space-time forces, 122; the SirhindI), (VII 17)
problem of, suggested by the Jivatma, 78
two forces of religion and
civilization, 7; Universal Joyful Wisdom, The (Nietzsche),
Caliphate in, 125; universal quoted: 92, 149 (IV 47, VII 12)
ethical ideals of, lost through Julian, Emperor (331-363), 116
the process of localization, (VI3)
124; whether the law of, is Jung, Carl Gustav (1875-1961),
capable of evolution requires 151
great intellectual effort, 129; Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), and
world of, spiritually moving
metaphysics, 144 (VII 3);
towards the West, 6 argument against soul as
Islamic Law, causes for the substance, 80-81 (IV 16, 18);
stationary character of, 118- compared with GhazzalI, 4-5;
20; question whether, is criticism of ontological
capable of evolution will argument, 24 (II 2); denied
require great intellectual the possibility of knowledge
effort, 129 of God, 4 (VII 3); ethical
Istihsan, 137 argument for immortality,
Jahiz, Abu 'Uthman 'Amr b. 89-90; serial time the essence
Bahr (160-255/776-869), 96, of causality as defined by, 31
106 (IV 59) Kantian 'I can', 156
Jalal aI-DIn DawwanI, Mulla, see KarkhI, Abu 'I-Hasan (260-
DawwanI 340/874-952), quoted: 139
James, William (1842-1910), 15, Karbala,88
90 (V 1); and immortality, 89; khafi (Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi),
empiricist criterion of mystic (VII 17)
experience (quoted), 19; Khalq 82, 84 (IV 22, 26)
subliminal self, 14 (I 35);
ultimate motive of prayer Khawarij, 125 (VI 24)
(quoted), 71-72; view of ego Khilafat, 124-25; see also
Caliphate
Index 257

Khwarizmi, Abu, ' Abd Allah laziness, intellectual, in periods

Muhammad b. Musa (d. c. of decay, turns great thinkers
232/c. 847), 106 (V 24) into idols, 141
Kindi Abu Yusuf, Ya'qub b. legal education, see education
Ishaq b. al-Sabbah, al- (d. c. legal reasoning in Islam, see
260/873),103 (V 16) Islam, and reasoning
Kitiib al-Tawwiisin (AI-Hallaj), legal systems cannot claim
quoted: 77, 88 (IV 6) finality, 134
knowledge, Adam's desire for, Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm
68-69 (III 66, 67); all search (1646-1716),84,151
for, is essentially a form of
Lewes, George Henry (1817-
prayer, 73; character of
1878), quoted: (V 10)
human, 11, 68-69; divine, 62-
63 (see also Divine liberalism in modem Islam, see
knowledge); modem, the Islam
only course open to us is to life, all human, is spiritual in its
approach it with a respectful orIgm, 116 (VI 1);
but independent attitude, 78; anthropomorphic conception
occult, fruit of the tree unavoidable in the
forbidden to Adam, 68-69 (III apprehension of, 53; intricate
67); of other minds, 15-16, behaviour of, cannot be
145; only a systematizes subjected to hard and fast
expression of consciousness, rules of logic, 140; intellectual
33; sources of human, view of, necessarily
according to Qur'an, 77, 101- pantheistic, 48; moves with
2,110 the weight of its own past on
Kremer, von Alfred (1828-1889), its back, 132; of the ideal
quoted: 133; 135 consists in its perpetual
endeavour to appropriate the
kulliyatii: Siiler ve halk masallari
real, eventually to illuminate
Ziya Gokalp (Ziya Gokalp);
its whole being, 7; physical
quoted: 126-28 (VI 25, 27, 28,
and mental in the evolution
30,31)
of, 85; see also religious life
Laird, John (1887-1946), quoted:
Life and Finite Individuality (H. W.
81
Carr), quoted: 35 (II 22)
Lange, Carl Georg (1834-1900),
Locke, John (1632-1704),21
84 (IV 24)
Luther, Martin (1483-1546), 129
Lange, Friedrich Albert (1828-
(VI 33)
1875), quoted: 146 (VII 7), 154
Ma'bad b. 'Abd Allah al-Juhani
Latii'if-i Quddusi (' Abd al-
Quddus Gangohi), quoted: 99 (d. 80/699), 88
(V 1)
258 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Mabiihith al-Mashriqiyah, AI- into stone, 10 (I 26);

(Fakhr aI-Din Razi), quoted: impossible for one, to bear
61 (III 37) the burden of another, 76 (IV
Macdonald, Duncan Black (1863- 2); individuality and
1943), 14, 121, (I 32, VII 14); uniqueness of, 76, 79 (IV 1, 2);
and the growth of atomistic in his inmost being, as
kaliim in Islam, 54 (III 13) conceived by the Qur' an, is a
creative activity, an
Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun's
ascending spirit, 10; modern,
repudiation of the idea of,
stands in need of a biological
115 (V 62)
renewal, 170; no form of
Maimonides, Moses ben (1135- reality so powerful, so
1204),54 (III 12) inspiring, so beautiful as the
Making of Humanity, The (Robert spirit of, 10; not a stranger on
Briffault), quoted: 103-04 this earth, 67; occupies a
Maktubiit-i Imiim-i Rabbiini genuine place in the heart of
(Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindl), Divine creative energy, 58;
quoted: 153 (VII 17) only a candidate for
immortality, 95; open to, to
Miil, one of the five things that belong to the universe and
the Law of Islam aims at
become immortal, 94;
protecting (SMtibl), 134
Qur' anic view of the destiny
Malik b. Anas (d. 179/795), 140 of, is partly ethical, partly
man, approaches the observable biological, 92; restless being
aspect of Reality with the engrossed in his ideals, 9 (I
weapon of conceptual 25); rises from one state of
knowledge, 11; capable of being to another, 10, 93; with
participating in the creative all is failings, superior to
life of his Maker, 58, 64; nature, 9; with all his faults,
chosen of God, 76; destined, representative of God on
perhaps, to become a earth, 76; see also Adam and
permanent element in the ego
constitution of being, 9; mankind, unity of, 75 (III 76);
endowed with the faculty of idea of, a living factor in the
naming things, 10; entitled to Muslims' daily life, not a
only what is due to his own philosophical concept nor a
personal effort, 76 (IV 3); God dream of poetry, 112
becomes co-worker of, in his
Mantiq al-Tair (Farld aI-DIn
progressive adjustment with 'Attar), quoted: 1 (11)
the forces of the universe, 10;
God's immense faith in, 68; if, Maqtiil, ShiMb aI-DIn
does not evolve the inner Suhrawardi, see IshraqI
richness of his being, the Massignon, Louis (1883-1962), 77
spirit within him hardens
Index 259

Mas'udi Abu 'I-Hasan (d. cannot be applied to life, 34-

346/957),112 (V 46) 36
material, the merely, has no meliorism, 65
substance until we discover it Mendelssohn, Moses (1729-
rooted in spiritual, 123 1786), (IV 18)
materialism, 33, 43, 89, 90, 95, Metaphysics, positive views of
148; refutation of, 26-28, 83-84 ultimate things are the work
Mathematical Principles of Natural rather of inspiration than, 91
Philosophy, The (Newton), Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873), 103
quoted: 59 (III 31)
Mittele-Uropa (Naumann), (VI 38)
Mathnawi-i-Ma'nawi (Jalal ai-Din
modern culture, see culture
Rumi), quoted: 13, 57, 72-73,
88, 97, 147-48, (I 28, III 24, 73, modern Muslim, the task before
IV 62, VII 11) the, is immense; he is to
rethink the whole system of
matter, all this immensity of,
Islam without completely
constitutes a scope for the
breaking with the past, 78
realization of spirit, 123; and
theory of 'Relativity', 27-28; modern psychology and religion,
colony of egos of low order 16, 21-24, 88, 171-75; must
out of which emerges the ego develop independent method
of higher order, 84 (IV 23); to possess a real significance
hypothesis of, as an for the life of mankind, 175;
independent existent slavish imitation of physical
perfectly gratuitous, 83; spirit sciences, 97
in space-time reference, 122 Mohammedan Theories of Finance
Matter, Life, Mind and God (R. F. (Aghnides), 136, 138, quoted:
A. Hoernle), quoted: 26-27 (II (VI 46, 52, 57)
6) 'Mother of Books' ('Iraqi), 60 (III
McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis 36)
(1866-1925), critical movement, as lived and not as
examination of his argument thought does not admit of
relating to the unreality of diviSibility, 30; hyperspace,
time, 45-46 (II 41); compared 106 (V 21); theories of, 29-30,
to Hallaj, (IV 6) 40-41, 55-56; things can be
Meaning of God in Human derived from, not movement
Experience, The (W. E. from things, 40
Hocking), quoted: 17, 21 (139, Mu'adh b. Jabal (20 B. H.-
45) 18/603-39), and the hadith
mechanism, 43, 85, 92; battle for relating to ijtihiid, 118 (VI 7)
and against, still fiercely Mu'awiyah, Amlr (20 B.H.-
fought in the domain of 60/603-680),88
biology, 33; concept of, Mu'awwidhatiin, 139 (VI 51)
260 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Muhammad (53 B.H.-11/571- a matter of expediency, 125

632), 88, 99, 150; see also (VI 11)
Prophet Muwafiqat Ai- (Shatibi), quoted:
Muhammadan Law, sources of, 134, 138 (VI 40)
131-41 Muwahhidun, 128
Mujtahid, 138, 140, 141 mystic, the, and the prophet, 18,
Mu'min, 'Abd al-, 152 99; condemnation of intellect
Munk, Solomon (1805-1867),54 by, not justified by history of
religion, 17-18
Munqidh min ai-Dalal (Ghazzali)
and 'Descartes' Method', 102 mystic experience, and the
(V 10) organic conditions, 18-19;
characteristics of, 14-19;
music, in worship forbidden by
content of, has a cognitive
Sufism, 156
element also, 17, 150;
Muslim countries, most, today empirical criterion of, 19;
mechanically repeating old forms of expression of
values with no thoughts and unitive (mystical) experience
feelings at all, 128-29; in the history of religious
Muslim (legislative) assembly, experience in Islam, 87-88;
Caliphate according to the incommunicability of, 16-17,
true spirit of Islam to be 145; not discontinuant from
vested in, 124; modern, for normal consciousness, 15;
the present to consist mostly open to critical scrutiny like
of men possessing no other aspects of experience,
knowledge of the subtleties 101; qualitatively not
of Muhammadan Law, 139; different from prophetic
transfer of power of Ijtihad experience, 101; see also
from individual prayer, religious experience
representatives of schools to, and Sufism
the only form Ijma' can take mystic state, a moment of
in modern times, 138; Ulema intimate association with a
to form vital part of, helping unique other self, 18; has
and guiding free discussion made average man contented
on questions relating to law, with ignorance and spiritual
140 thraldom, 149
Mutakallimun,77 mystic techniques, our medieval,
Mu'tazilah, failed to see that in no longer produce
the domain of knowledge, discoverers of ancient Truth,
scientific or religious, 145
complete independence of mysticism, medieval, cannot
thought from concrete cure the ills of a despairing
experience not possible, 4; humanity, 149; has done in
regarded Universal Imamate the Muslim East far greater
Index 261

havoc, 148; has now the human self, 45; its

practically failed, 148; its set passage in time offers the
phraseology has deadening best clue to the ultimate
effect, 72; Neo-Platonic and nature of Reality, 36;
its quest after nameless knowledge of, is the
nothing, 72 knowledge of God's
Nafs, Ash'ante view of, (soul) as behaviour, 45; not a static fact
an accident critically situated in an a-dynamic
assessed, 57; distinction void, 28, 52; observation of, is
between, and Ruh, 89; one of only another form of
the five necessary things that worship, 45, 73; only a
the Law of Islam aims at fleeting moment in the life of
protecting (SMtib!), 134 God, 45; organic unity of, as
viewed by Qur' an, 64 (III 42);
Napoleon, Bonaparte (1769-
theory of bifurcation of, see
1821),87
also Universe 27 (II 8),
Nasir 'Ali Sirhindl (1047- Whitehead's view of, 28
1108/1638-1696), quoted: 47
Nature of the Physical World, The
Naskh, as the power to extend or (Eddington), quoted: 147 (IV
limit the Qur' anic rule of law, 43, VII 10)
138-39
Naumann, Joseph Friedrich
Nasi, one of the five things that (1860-1919), 64, 132 (VI 38)
the Law of Islam aims at
Nazzam, IbrahIm b. Sayyar (d.
protecting (SMtibl), 134
231/845), and principle of
nationalism, and modern doubt, 102; declared Abu
Muslim, 169; territorial, has Hurairah an untrustworthy
tended to kill the broad reporter, 119 (VI 10); notion
human element in the art and of tafrah or 'jump', 55-56 (IT 9,
literature of Europe, 112 III 19); rejection of traditions,
naturalism, every form of, ends 119
in some sort of atomism, 146 Nejd, the 'cleanest spot in the
(VII 9); modern man's, has decadent world of Islam', 121
given him an unprecedented Neo-Platonic mysticism, see
control over the forces of mysticism
Nature, but robbed him of
faith in his own future, 147 Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727),
and mechanism, 33;
Nature, as a source of
definition of time, critically
knowledge, 77, 101, 102; is
examined, 59 (III 31);
human interpretation put on interpolation formula of, and
the creative activity of the AI-Blruni, 106 (V 23); view of
Absolute Ego, 45; is the habit absolute space, 28, 30
of Allah, 45 (II 40); is to the
Divine Self as character is to Nietzsche, Friedrich W. (1844-
1900), a genius who remained
262 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

unproductive for want of omnipotence, abstractly

spiritual guidance, 154 (VII conceived, is merely a blind
20); appears to have been capncIOus power, 64;
endowed with a kind of intimately related to Divine
prophetic mentality, 154; a wisdom according to Qur' an,
psychopath endowed with a 64; reconciliation of, with
great intellect, 154; limitation of God, born, out
aristocratic radicalism in, 154 of His own creative freedom,
(VII 18); denounced 63-64
patriotism and nationalism as omniscience, God's, not a mirror
'sickness and unreason', 149 passively reflecting a finished
(VII 12); enthusiasm for the structure of things, 63; not
future of man, 148; Eternal passive which suggests that
Recurrence, 91-92 (IV 44):- it God's creative activity is
was the power of idea of, determined by an unalterable
which appealed to, rather order of events, 62-63
than its logical
ontological argument, 23-24
demonstration, 91; most
hopeless idea of immortality ontological problem, 37
ever formed by man, 148; 'Optics' (Ibn Haitham), 103 (V
nothing more that Fatalism 17)
worse than the notion of optimism, 65
Qismat, 92; his mental history
not without a parallel in the Opus Majus (Roger Bacon), 103
history of Eastern Sufism, (V 17)
154; 'imperative' vision of the original sin, 68 (IV 2)
Divine in man did come to, Ouspensky, Peter Demianovich
154; intellectual progenitors (1878-1847), his view of time,
of, 175; metaphysics: 'a critically examined, 32
legitimate play of the grown- Pan-Islamic movement, 121 (VI
ups', 146 (VII 7); modern 18)
prophet, 91; relation to
fictionism, (VII 8); superman, Paraclete, 115
91-92 (IV 23): - a biological parallel postulate, Euclid's, 106
product, 154 (VII 19); view of (V 21)
time of, different from that of Parsa, Khwajah Muhammad (d.
Kant and Schopenhauer, 91; 822/1420), 107 (V 26)
vision of, completely blinded
'Paralogisms of Pure Reason',
by his intellectual
(IV 16)
progenitors 154
perception, through 'heart', 12-
Nunn, T. Percy (1870-1944), 30 (II
13
17)
Persia, 121, 125, 139, 149
Old Testament, 39, 66, 67
Index 263

personality, reality of, lies in its capture Reality itself and

directive attitude, 82-83 become a conscious
pessimism, 65, 66 participator in its life, 72; in
the case of Prophet's
petitio principii, 25 (II 3)
consciousness, creates a fresh
Philosophical Works of Descartes ethical world, 71; little island
(Descartes), quoted: 24 (II 1) of our personality suddenly
Philosophy and New Physics (Louis discovers in, its situation in a
Rougier) quoted: 59 (I 18, III larger whole of life, 72;
32) necessary complement to the
Philosophy of the 'As If intellectual activity of the
(Vaihinger), quoted: 146 (VII observer of Nature, 72; not
7) some occult and special way
of knowledge, 72; nothing
Planck, Max Karl Ernst Ludwig
mystical about, 72; observer
(1858-1947),56
of Nature a kind of mystic in
Plato (428/427-348/347 B.C), the act of, 73; (opening up of
112, 113; and sense- the sources of life that lie in
perception, 3 (I 10); unites the depths of human ego, 73;
religion and state much as prophet's and mystic's,
the Qur' an does, 132 difference between, 72;
prayer, all search for knowledge timing of the daily, in Islam
essentially a form of, 73; and is intended to save the ego
unity of mankind, 75; as an from the mechanizing effects
inner act, has found of sleep and business, 87;
expression in a variety of ultimate motive of, 71;
forms, 74; associative, in unique discovery whereby
Islam, socialization of the searching ego affirms
spiritual illumination, 73; call itself in the very moment of
to, in Berber/Turkish, 127-28 self-negation, 73
(VI 28, 29); compared to 'Preserved Tablet', 6 (I 17)
thought, 81-82; expression of
principles, to interpret
man's inner yearning for a
foundational legal, perfectly
response in the awful silence
justified, 134
of the universe, 73; form of,
according to Qur' an, ought Principles of Logic, The (Bradley),
not to become a matter of 78
dispute, 74; form of Principles of Psychology, The
congregational, in Islam (William James), quoted: 71
creates and fosters the sense (III 72)
of social equality, 74; form of, Pringle-Pattison, Andrew Seth
in Islam symbolizes both self- (1856-1931),82
affirmation and self-negation,
74; in the act of, mind rises to
264 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Problem of Immortality, The 99; pragmatic test of the

(Radoslav Tsanoff), quoted: religious experience of, 21-22,
92 (114, IV 38, 47) 77, 99; spiritual tension of, is
'Prolegomena' (Ibn KhaldOn), to be understood as a
111, 125 response to an objective
Prophet, the Holy, 2, 8, 13, 14, 58, situation generative of new
94, 100, 101, 112, 118, 123, enthusiasms, new
129, 135, 136, 141, 143, 150; new starting
and Apostle, 19 (I 43); and pomts, 150; way of, is not to
pre-Islamic usages of Arabia, classify facts and discover
136; and the method of causes, but to think in terms
building up a universal of life and movement with a
Shan'ah, 136-37 (VI 47); first view to create new patterns
critical observer of psychic of behaviour for mankind
phenomena, 13, 101 (I 31, V 150 '
7); rational foundations of prophethood, finality of, 100-01
Islam began with, 2; so far as (V 2); creates an independent
the spirit of his revelation is critical attitude towards
concerned, belongs to the mysticism, 101; early
modern world, 101; spirit of Muslims emerging out of the
the interpretation of spiritual slavery of pre-
Revelation by, and study of Islamic Asia were not in a
the Hadith literature, 137; see position to realize the true
also Muhammad significance of, 142; function
Prophet, desire to see his of the idea is to open up fresh
religious experience vistas in the domain of man's
transformed into a living inner experience, 115;
world force, supreme in, 99; generates the belief that all
in the personality of, the personal authority claiming
finite centre of life sinks into supernatural origin has come
his own infinite depths only to an end, 101; involves the
to spring up again to disclose keen perception that life
the new directions of life, 100; cannot for ever be kept in
inserts himself into the sweep leading strings, 101; Muslims
of time with a view to control spiritually most emancipated
the forces of history, 99; not because of their faith in, 142;
less alert than the scientist in psychological cure for the
the matter of eliminating the ' Magian attitude of constant
alloy of illusion from his expectation, 115 (V 62)
experience, 150; penetrating Qur' an' s constant appeal to
the impervious material reason and experience and
before him, discovers himself emphasis on the study of
for himself, and unveils Nature and History, are
himself to the eye of history, aspects of the idea of, 101
Index 265

prophetic consciousness, perception of Reality through

difference between, and heart, 12-13; and resurrection,
mystic consciousness, 71, 99; 92-93, 96; and revelation, 16-
mode of economizing 17, 100-01 (V 3); and Satan's
individual thought and suggestions to Apostles and
choice by providing ready- Prophets of God, 19; and
made judgements, choices sense-perception, 3, 10-12,
and ways of action, 100 102 (I 12, V 9); and sources of
psychology, and religion, 19-21, human knowledge, 77, 101-
153-54; Configuration, 86 (IV 02; and the character of man's
30); must develop an knowledge, 11, 68; and the
independent method to concrete, 64, 102, 105; and the
possess a real significance for ego, 80, 82-83, 87, 93, 94, 95,
mankind, 154 96, 98; and the legend, 65;
and the metaphor of light as
Psychology of Unconscious (c. G. applied to God, 51; and the
Jung), quoted: 151-52 (VII 16)
method of simple
Ptolemy (c. 87-c. 165), 106 enumeration, 103; and the
Qalb, i.e. 'heart', perception of problem of evil, 64, 67, 68, 70;
Reality through, 12-13; and the universe, 8-9, 44, 55,
'Stations' of, 153 (VII 17) 102; and time, 39-40, 58, 60-
Qarshiyat, condition of, in the 62; and 'trust' of personality,
Khalifah, 125 9, 70, 76; and the unity of
human origin, 112; anti-
Qismat, 88, 92 classical spirit of, 3, 56, 102,
Qistiis (al-Mustaqim), Al- 113 (V 22); as primary source
(Ghazzali:), 103 (V 11) of the Law of Islam, 131-35;
Qiyiis, absolutely free within the destiny of man as viewed by,
limits of revealed texts, 141; 92-98; dogma of the eternity
as a source of Islamic Law, of, 119 (VI 9); emphatic
140-41; only another name for denial of the sonship of God,
Ijtihiid, 141; permitted even in 51 (III 3); general principles
the life-time of the Holy and rules of legal nature in,
Prophet, 141; source of life 131 (VI 37); Heaven and Hell
and movement in the Law of as conceived by, 98; idea of
Islam, 141 destiny (Taqdir) in, 39, 40, 87-
88 (II 30); Obseroations and
Quanta, theory of, 55, 56
Statements Bases on Perceptive
Qur' an, and Barzakh, 92-93, 95-96 and Deep 5 tudy of
(IV 50); and Divine space,
Alternation of day and
107-08; and God's response to
night is one of the greatest
man, 16; and history, 77, 102,
signs of God, 8, 58
110-12; and legend of the fall,
65-71; and man, 8-10, 76; and Always fixes its gaze on the
Nature, 9, 11, 45, 101-02; and concrete, 64, 102, 105
266 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Argues the phenomenon of Does not contemplate

re-emergence of the ego (in complete liberation from
the life hereafter), on the finitude as the highest state
analogy of his first of human bliss, 93
emergence,96 Embodies a dynamic
Attaches equal importance outlook on life, 118, 132
to all the regions of human Emphasis on Nature and
experience, 12 History, as sources of
Believes in the possibility human knowledge, and as
of improvement of an aspect of the idea of
behaviour of man and his finality of prophethood,
control over the natural 101
forces, 65 Emphasizes 'deed' rather
Cannot be inimical to the than 'idea', Preface (IV 57)
idea of evolution, 131 Emphasizes the
Change (also social), individuality and
according to, is one of the uniqueness of man, 76 (IV
greatest signs of God, 117 1,2)
Constant appeal to reason Finds the infinite power of
and experience, is an aspect God revealed not in the
of the idea of finality of arbitrary and capricious,
prophethood, 101 but in the regular and the
Considers it necessary to orderly, 64
unite religion and state, General empirical attitude
ethics and politics in a of, engenders a feeling of
single revelation, 132 reverence for the actual, 11
Declares Ultimate Ego to be (112, V 9)
nearer to man than his own General principles and
neck-vein, 57 rules of legal nature in the,
Declares 'unity of inner 131 (VI 37)
experience' to be one of the Has a clear conception of
three sources of human Nature as a cosmos of
knowledge, 77 mutually related forces, 64
Describes reality as the (III 42)
First and the Last, the Has a definite view of
Visible and the linvisible', man's destiny as a unity of
25-26, 85 (II 5, IV 28, VI 13) life, 76, (IV 1)
Does not base the Has no liking for abstract
possibility of resurrection universals, 64
on the actual resurrection History in the language of,
of an historic person, 92 is 'the days of God' (ayyiim
Allah),110
Index 267

Idea of destiny runs exploited in the interest of

throughout in, 87 a free upward movement
Iman is a vital way of of spiritual life, 12
appropriating the universe, Nations are collectively
87 judged and suffer for their
Immediate purpose in misdeeds here and now,
reflective observation of 110 (V 41)
nature is to awaken the Nature is the habit of Allah,
consciousness of that of 45 (II 40)
which nature is a symbol, Nature's passage in time
11 offers the best clue to the
In order to emphasize the ultimate nature of Reality,
individuality of Ultimate 36
Ego, gives Him the proper No understanding of,
name of Allah, 50 possible until it is actually
Intensive breadth of the revealed to the believer,
legal principles of, is 143 (VII 2)
awakener of human Object in dealing with
thought, 133 legends is seldom
Interest of, in history historical, 65
extends farther than mere One noteworthy feature of,
historical generalizations, is the emphasis that it lays
111 on the observable aspect of
Is not a legal code, 131 Reality, 11 (I 12, V 9)
Lays down a few general Opens our eyes to the great
principles and rules of legal fact of (social) change
nature, especially relating through the appreciation
to the family, 131 (VI 37) and control of which alone
Main purpose of, is to a durable civilization
awaken in man the becomes possible, 12, 117
consciousness of his Recognizes empirical
relation with God and the attitude to be an
universe, 7, 131 indispensable stage in the
Man in his inmost being is spiritual life of humanity,
a creative activity, an 12
ascending spirit, 10 Regards both Anfus (self)
Man is not a stranger on and Afoq (world) as sources
this earth, 67 of knowledge, 101 (V 5)
Naturalism of, is only a Regards experience within
recognition of the fact that and without as symbolic of
man is related to nature, reality, 14, 25-26 (127, 114)
and this relation must be
268 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Regards 'hearing' and Ultimate Ego that makes

'sight' as the most valuable the higher ego emerge from
Divine gifts, 3 (111) the lower egos is immanent
Regards Wahy (inspiration) in nature and is described
a universal property of life, as 'the First and the Last,
100 (V 3) the Visible and the
Invisible', 85 (IV 23, 28, 115,
Rejects the idea of
VI 13)
redemption, 76 (IV 2)
Ultimate Reality is spiritual
Seems to take and argue
and its life consists in its
resurrection as a universal
temporal activity, 123
phenomenon of life, 92
Understanding of certain
Set of simple legal
statements of biological
principles received from
nature made by, in
carried great
connexion with the destiny
of expansion and
of man, possible only
development by
through a deeper insight
interpretation, 123
into the nature of life, 92
Spirit of, is essentially anti-
Universe, according to the
classical, 3, 102, 113 (V 22)
teachings of, is dynamic in
Subscribes neither to its origin, finite and capable
optimism nor to of increase, 102 (I 23, V 22)
pessimism, but to
Universe has a serious end,
meliorism, 65
11-12 (122)
Teaching of, that life is a
Views Divine omnipotence
process of progressive
as intimately related to
creation, necessitates that
Divine wisdom, 64
each generation be
permitted to solve its own With its characteristic
problems, 134 simplicity, alludes to serial
and non-serial aspects of
This noiseless swim of time
duration, 39
which appears to us,
human beings, as the (Qur'anic) method of
movement of day and night complete or partial
is one of the greatest signs transformation of legends
of God, 8, 58 to besoul them with new
ideas is an important point
Time regarded as an nearly always overlooked,
organic whole is Taqdir or
65
the destiny, 40 (II 30)
(Qur'anic) outlook, nothing
True manhood consists in more alien to, than the idea
'patience under ills and that the universe is the
hardships', 70 (III 69)
Index 269

working out of a reason, inductive, once born,

preconceived plan, 44 must be reinforced by
Rabbi ('My Lord'), 82 inhibiting the non-rational
modes of consciousness, 100
Razi Abu Bakr Muhammad b.
Zakariya (250-c. 313/864-c. reasoning, Hanafite principle of,
925), and criticism of 120; legal, in Islam,
Aristotle's first figure, 103 (V development of, from
14) deductive to inductive, 131,
140-41 (VI 35)
Razi, Imam Fakhr aI-DIn (543-
606/1149/1209), and 'Dahr', Recurrence, Eternal, 91-92, 113,
'Daihur'. or 'Daihar', as names 148 (IV 44); see also Nietzsche
of God, 58; criticism of redemption, Qur' an rejects the
Aristotle's first figure, (V 14); idea of, 76 (IV 2)
'Eastern Discussions' and reflective contact with the
examination of the temporal flux of things trains
contemporary theories of us for an intellectual vision of
time, 61 (III 37) the non-temporal, 12
reaction-time, 116 (V 16) Reformation, essentially a
Reality, and thought, 5, 42; as political movement, 129 (VI
viewed by Bergson, 41-44; 33)
Bergson denies the 'Refutation of Logic' (Ibn
teleological character of, 43; Taimiyyah), 103 (V 13)
every moment in the life of, is
Reign of Relativity (Lord
original, 40, 98, 113 (II 31, IV
Haldane), 57 (II 8, III 25)
70, V 51); Hegel's idea of the
degrees of, 57-58; Hegel's Relativity, theory of, and non-
view of, as an infinitude of Euclidean geometries, (V 21);
reason, 89; lives in its own dispenses with the concept of
appearances, 12 (VI 13); force altogether, 156 (VII 23);
Nature's passage in time emphasizes the concrete
offers the best clue to the much as the Qur' an does, 64;
ultimate nature of, 36; has given the greatest blow to
perception of, through the traditional notion of
'heart', 12-13 (128); reveals its matter, 27-28; in Whitehead's
symbols both within and presentation of, 'matter' is
without, 12, 25 (I 27, II 4); entirely replaced by
sectional view of, 33; time an 'organism', 31; makes
essential element in, 52-53; pOSSible the effect precede its
ultimate nature of, must be cause, 32 (II 19); makes space
conceived as an ego 49, 62; dependent on matter, 31;
see also God, Ultimate Ego time as free creative
and Ultimate Reality movement has no meaning
for, 31, 106 (II 18); universe
270 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

(much in accord with the health of the social fabric

Qur'anic world-view) is finite which forms the present
but boundless, 31, 45 (I 23, V environment of the ego, 173
19,22); Whitehead's view of Religion in the Making
likely to appeal more (Whitehead), quoted: 1, 2 (I 2,
Muslim students, 106 (II 19); 3)
Wildon Carr's interpretation
Religious Attitude and Life in Islam
of, in terms of Monadistic
(Macdonald), quoted: 14 (I
Idealism, 30 (II 17); see also
32)
Einstein and Russell
religious experience, consists in
religion, and higher poetry, 1;
creating the Divine attributes
and human ego, 145, 150,
in man, 87; critical
152-54, 156-57; and modern
examination of, not
psychology, 19-21, 151-52;
irreverent, 13; essentially a
and philosophy, 1, 2, 49, 70-
state of feeling with a
71; and re-integration of the
cognitive aspect, 17-18, 146,
human personality, 170, 173;
150 (I 39); forms of expression
and science, 2, 21, 33-34, 146,
of 'unitive experience' in the
155; conservatism in,
history of, in Islam, 87-88;
destroys the ego's creative
higher, corrective of our
freedom and closes up the
concepts of philosophical
paths of fresh spiritual
theology, 145;
enterprise, 145; deliberate
incommunicability of, gives a
enterprise to seize the
clue to the ultimate nature of
ultimate principle of value,
ego, 145; pragmatic test of,
149; higher, as critical of its
19, 21-22, 77-79; process of,
level of experience as
identical with scientific
Naturalism of its own, 144; in
process, 155; revelation of a
its higher manifestations,
new life-process- original,
neither dogma, nor
essential, spontaneous, 156;
priesthood, nor ritual, 149;
tests of the truth of, 21-22; see
modern man and, 169-70;
also prayer
only a search for larger life,
143; reasons for and religious life, climax of, is the
legitimacy of the question of discovery of the ego as an
the possibility of, 167-70; individual deeper than the
recognized the necessity of habitual selfhood, 145;
experience before science did individual achieves a free
so, 20, 143-44; sex-impulse personality in, by discovering
and, 23-24, 174-75; stands in the ultimate source of the law
greater need of rational within the depths of his own
foundations than science 2 consciousness, 143;
146; ultimate purpose i; psychopath endowed with
move beyond the moral great intellect (Nietzsche)
may give a clue to the
Index 271

technique for the realization Roman Empire, conception of

of the ultimate aim of, 154; human unity in, 112
ultimate aim of, is to bring Romans, twelve tables of, 123
the ego into contact with an
Rome, 112, 116, 151
eternal life process,154;
understanding of the Holy Rougier, Louis (1889-1982), (III
Book of Islam by a believer in 32, V 21); concept of
the third period of, 143 intelligibility undergoing
change with the advance of
Religious Reform Party (Sa'Id
scientific thought, 6 (I 18);
HalIm Pasha), 123-24
discontinuity of matter and
Renan, Joseph Ernest (1823- time, 59 (III 32)
1892), and Ibn Rushd's
Royce, Josiah (1855-1916),
notion of unitary intellect, 89
omniscience of God
Republic (Plato), 132 conceived as a single
resurrection, bodily, the Qur' an indivisible act of Divine
suggests the fact of, but does perception, 60, 62-63 (III 41);
not reveal its nature, 98; kind response as criterion of our
of stocktaking of ego's past knowledge of other minds,
achievements and future 15-16
possibilities, 96; universal Ruh, 89, 153
phenomenon of life, 92
RumI, Maulana Jalal aI-Din (604-
revelation, prophetic, 16-18, 99- 672/1207-1273), 57, 72, 88;
101 (I 40, V 3), prophetic, in mystic quest after Reality, 72-
terms of world life, 117; 73 (III 74); perception of
Qur' anic view of, as a Reality through 'heart', 13 (I
universal property of life, 100 28); regarded the question of
(V 3); pure reason compared immortality as one of
to, 161-62; spirit of the biological evolution, and not
Prophet's own interpretation a metaphysical problem, 96-
of his, and study of Hadith 97; tremendous enthusiasm
literature, 137; understanding for the biological future of
of, in the third period of man, 147 (IV 23)
religious life, 143 (VII 2);
Russell, Arthur William Bertrand
verbal, 18 (I 40)
(1872-1970), concept of force
'Revivification of the Sciences of in Relativity, 156 (VII 23);
Religion' (GhazzalI), 102 (V matter in the light of
10) Relativity (quoted), 27-28;
Risiilah dar Zamiin-o-Makiin realism in Relativity, 30-31 (II
(Khwajah Parsa), (V 26) 17); refutation of Zeno's
Risiialat al-Shiifiyah, Al- (Tiisi), (V argument, 28-30 (II 14)
19) Sabit, Halim (d. 1362/1943),
theory of Muhammadan law
272 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

grounded in sociological individuality and uniqueness

concepts, 121 of, 76 (IV 1, 2): subliminal, 14,
Sa'Id Hallm Pasha, see Hallm 150 (I 35), see also ego and
Pasha man
Sanusi movement, 121 self-concentrated individuals,
alone reveal the depth of life,
SarkashI (of 10th century of
120; in the light of new
Hijrah sic.), (VI 57)
standards make us see that
Satan, 19, 67, 68 our environment is not
Schmolders, August (1809-1880), wholly inviolable and
(V 10) requires revision, 120; rearing
Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788- of, alone counteracts the
1860), 65, 91, 154 (III 46) forces of decay in a people,
120
science and Reality, 33-34, 145,
155; and religion, 1, 2, 3, 20, self-determination, 85 f. (II 30, IV
33-34, 146, 155; most 32)
momentous contribution of sense-perception, passage to
Arab civilization to the Reality through the
modern world (Briffault), revelations of, 11-12, 33;
104; nature of, 33-34 Plato's view of, 3 (I 10);
Science and the Modem World Qur'anic emphasis on, 3, 10,
(Whitehead), quoted: 56 (Ill 102, (I 12, V 9)
20) Shafi'I, Imam AbU 'Abd Allah
scientific and religious processes Muhammad b. IdrIs (150-
go parallel to each other, 155 204/767-820),140,141
scientific method, Islamic origin Shah Wall Allah see WalI Allah,
of,103-04 Shah
scientific quest and vision of the Shari'ah, 119, 120, 124, 136, 139
total infinite, 73 ShatibI, Imam Abu Ishaq (d.
'Scope of Logic' (Ibn Hazm), 103 790/1388), 134, 138
(V 15) ShaukanI, QadI Muhammad b.
Secret Doctrine, The (Blavatsky), 'AlI (1173-1250/1759-1834),
69 (III 66) 139, 141
secular is sacred in the roots of Shihab aI-Din SuhrawardI
its being, 123 Maqtul, see IshraqI
self, alone can combine the Shu'arli' (the Qur'anic Surah),
opposite attributes of and the inductive method of
permanence and change, 54; simple enumeration, 103
appreciative and efficient, 38- Sirr-i Akhfo' (Shaikh Ahmad
39, 61; appreciative, nature SirhindI), 153 (VII 17)
of, 38-39; efficient, 38 ff.;
Qur' anic emphasis on
Index 273

Sirr-i Khafi (Shaikh Ahmad Spengler, Oswald (1880-1936),

Sirhindi), 153 (VII 17) 88, 105-06; alleges complete
social change (in Islam), the negation of the ego in Islam,
value and function of forces 87, 114 (IV 33, V 58), and
of conservatism in, 150-51 parallel postulate, (V 21);
culture of Islam 'Magian' in
Socialism, atheistic, 149
spirit and character, 114; (V
Socius (William James), 71 57); fails to appreciate the
Socrates (470-300 B.C), 3 cultural value of the idea of
Soul as substance, 91-92; finality of prophethood in
directive function of, 92-93 Islam, 115 (V 62); ignorance
of Muslim thought on the
Soul-body relationship, 93-96,
problem of time, 114-15; main
139-40; Iraqi's view of, 122;
thesis, 114-15; spirit of
Mutakallimun's view of, 64-
European culture through
65
and through anti-classical,
space, 'Iraqi's view of, 107-10; 114 (V 22)
Newtonian view of, as an
State, Church and, 122-24
absolute void, 28, 30; thought
of a limit to the perceptual, State in Islam, see Islam
staggers the mind, 105 State, Muslim, generally left in
Space and time, arise out of the the hands of intellectual
relations of co-existence and mediocrities, 119
succession of immobilities, subliminal self, 165, 171 (135)
41; interpretations that Sufism, 152, 153, 154, 156 (III 67);
thought puts on the creative devotional, alone tried to
activity of God, 52, 53; understand the meaning of
problem of, is a question of unity of inner experience; 77;
life and death in Muslim fostered revolt against the
culture, 105 quibbles of early legists, 119;
space-orders and time-orders, ideal revealed in higher, is
plurality of ('Iraqi) 60-61, 107- the possession and
10, 146 (III 34) enjoyment of the infinite, 119;
space-time, as the matrix of all in higher, unitive experience
things (Alexander), 109 (V is not the effacing of the finite
37); living thought as the ego into the infinite Ego, 88,
ultimate principle of, 110 94; in later, otherworldliness
obscured vision of Islam as a
Space, Time and Deity
social polity, 119; latter-day
(Alexander), 60, 109 (IV 23, V
representatives of, absolutely
37,38)
incapable of any fresh
Space, Time and Gravitation inspiration from receiving
(Eddington), quoted: 53 (III 9) any fresh inspiration modern
Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), 91 experience, Preface; non-
274 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

Islamic influences on purely Thadani (Nanikram Vasanmal),

speculative, 119 (IV 4); 148
offering the prospects of theocracy, meaning of, in Islam,
unrestrained thought, 123
attracted and absorbed the
thought, and being are
best minds in Islam, 119;
ultimately one, 25; intuition
pantheistic, difficulties of,
and, spring from the same
with regard to the relation
root and complement each
between the infinite and the
other 2; and the Infinite 4-5;
finite egos, 94; speculative, a
as a potency, formative of the
form of free-thought; see also
very being of its material, 25;
prayer and religious
Bergson's view of, 41-42;
experience
complete independence of,
Sufyan al-Thaurl (97-161/716- from concrete experience is
778),119 (VI 12) not possible, 4; in its deeper
Sunnis, 118 movement capable of
superman, 91-92 (IV 23); a reaching the infinite, 5, 42; in
biological product, 154, (VII its true nature, is identical
19) with life, 42; operation of,
being essentially symbolic in
Superstitions, pre-Islamic, of
character, veils the true
Muslim nations, 124
nature of life, 48; real
Suyutl, Jalal ai-DIn (849- function of, is to syntheSize
911/1445-1505),121 (VI 17) the elements of experience by
Tabarl, AbU Ja'far Muhammad employing categories suitable
ibn Jarir (225-311 /839-923), to its various levels, 42
112 (V 45) time, AI-Blrunl's discovery of
tafrah, 55 (II 9, III 19) reaction, 103 (V 16) an
Tahmasp, Shah (919-984/1514- essential element in Reality
1576),40 46; as a cyclic movement
(Nietzsche, Heraclitus,
Taqdir (destiny), 40, 87 (II 30); is Stoics), 91-91, 113 (V 54); as
time regarded prior to the fourth dimension of space
disclosure of its possibilities, (Ouspensky), 32; as free
40 creative movement, has no
Tauhid, essence of, is equality, meaning for Einstein's
solidarity and freedom, 122, Relativity, 31, 106 (II 18); as
124; principle of, foundation mind of space (Alexander),
of world unity, 117 110 (V 38); Augustine's
teleology, Bergson's denial of, 43 confession of the mystery of,
46 (II 45); Bergson's error of
Tertium Organum (Ouspensky),
regarding, as prior to self, 44;
32
Bergson's view as pure
duration, 37-41; Divine, 60-
Index 275

61, 110; Divine, as viewed by Islamic usages in, our writers

Dawwani and 'Iraqi, 60-61, do not always refer to, 136;
110 (III 35, V 40); function- see also Hadith
idea and element of, in our Turk, modern, inspired by the
world-picture, 106 (V 22), realities of experience and
'Iraqi, view of plurality of, not by the scholastic
60-61, (III 34, 35); keen sense reasoning of jurists, 125-26
of the reality of, necessary for
Turks, life in, has begun to
a scientific treatment of
move, giving birth to new
history, 112-13; mathematical
desires, bringing new
idea of function and, 106, (V
difficulties and suggesting
22); McTaggart's argument
new interpretations, 129; on
relating to unreality of, 45-46
way to creating new values,
(II 42); Newton's conception
129
of, 59 (III 31); of appreciative
self as compared to that of Turkey, awakening of, in the
efficient self, 38-39; our wake of Great European War,
physiolOgical structure at the 142-43 (VI 58), growing
bottom of our view of time, complexities of a mobile and
95 (IV 58); priority of, is due broadening life are to bring
to God's priority ('Iraqi), 60 new situations to, suggesting
(III 35); Prophetic tradition new points of view, and
relating to, 8, 58 (I 24); necessitating fresh
regarded as destiny or Taqdir, interpretations, 128; religio-
40 (II 30); view of, as cyclic, political thought in, 121-28
113; true, belongs to ego Tusi, Nasir aI-Din (597-
alone, 79; view of, as held by 672/1201-1274), Euclid's
the Ash' arties and other parallel postulate, 106 (V 20,
Muslim thinkers and mystics 21); hyperspace movement,
58-62, 107, 110, 146 106 (V 21)
traditions of the Prophet, as a Twilight of the Idols, The
source of Muhammadan (Nietzsche), quoted: 129 (VII
Law, 135-137; attitude of Abu 12)
Hanifah towards, of a purely Ulema, our modern, do not see
legal import perfectly sound, that the fate of a people
137; Goldziher's examination depends not so much on
of, in the light of modern organization as on the worth
canons of historical criticism, and power of individual
135; intelligent study of, to be men, 120; Persian
used as indicative of the constitutional theory and the,
spirit in which the Prophet 139 (VI 53); should form
himself interpreted his assembly, 139-40 (VI 54)
Revelation, 137; modern
Ultimate Ego, beyond, and apart
critics of, 135 (VI 45); pre-
from His creative activity,
276 The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam

there is neither time nor 44, 62; time an essential

space, 52; by permitting the element in, 45
emergence of a finite ego as ultimate things, positive views
free personal causality, limits of, are work rather of
the freedom of His own free inspiration than of
will, 86-87; change reveals its metaphysics, 91
true character in, as
'Umar b. al-Khattab (40 B.H.-
continuous creation,
23/584-644), the first critical
'untouched by weariness'
and independent mind of
and unseizable by 'slumber
Islam, 129
or sleep', 48 (II 49, 50);
creative energy of, functions Umayyads, 88, 138
as ego-unities, 57; given by uncertainty principle, (VII 4)
Qur' an the proper name of unitive experience, 99
Allah to emphasize His
individuality, 50; intensive universe, a free creative
infinity of, consists in the movement, 41; an elaborate
infinite inner possibilities of differential equation, 146;
Aristotelian idea of fixed, 54,
His creative activity, 52; is
immanent in the emergence 56, 109 (V 22); constantly
growing, 8, 55 (I 23, V 22);
of higher ego from lower
egos, 85 (IV 23); reveals the controversy on the issue of
creation of, (III 7); finite and
infinite wealth of His being in
boundless, according to
the countless variety of living
forms, 70; thought and deed, Einstein, 31: so also according
to Qur'an, 8, 44, 45, 102 (123,
the act of knowing and the
V 22); God's relation to, is as
act of creating, are identical
soul's relation to the body
in, 62; universe only a partial
expression of the infinite ('Iraqi), 110; only partial
creative activity of, 52 expression of God's infinite
creative activity, 52; Qur' anic
Ultimate Reality, furnishes the view of, 8-9, 44; Whitehead's
ego with a clue to its ultimate conception of, 36, see also
nature, 84-85; is rationally Nature
directed life and can be
'Urf! ShIrazI (Muhammad Jamal
conceived only as an ego, 49,
ai-Din), (963-999/1550-1591),
57, 62; life of, according to
Qur'an consists in its quoted: 42 (II 33)
temporal activity, 123; Vaihinger, Hans (1852-1933), (VII
reveals its symbols both 8)
within and without, 12, 25-26 Varieties of Religious Experience
(I 27, II 4, IV 5); thought, life (William James), 14 (I 35, V
and purpose interpenetrate 1), quoted: 19 (V 1)
in, to form an organic unity,
Index 277

VISIOn and power both must William III (1650-1702),46

combine for the spiritual woman, economic position of, in
expansion of humanity, 73 Islam, 135; equality of man
Wahi/Wahy, Qur' an regards, a and, as viewed by Ziya
universal property of life, 100 Gokalp, 128, 134-35
(V 3) world-life and prophetic
WaH Allah, Shah (1114- revelation, 117
1176/1703-1763), on pre- worship, difference between
Islamic usages and the prophet's and mystic's, 71
Prophet's method of building
Yahweh,115
up a universal SharI' ah, 136-
37 (VI 47); first Muslim to Yemem,118
rethink the whole system of ziihir and biitin, 119 (VI 13)
Islam, 92; last great Zahiri school of law, 120 (VI 14)
theologian of Islam, 97; on
some kind of physical ZarkashI, Muhammmad b.
medium suitable to the ego in Bahadur b. 'Abd Allah (745-
794/1344-1392), on the fiction
life hereafter, 97; works of,
of the closing of the door of
mentioned in Allama's
Ijtihiid, 141 (VI 57)
letters, (VI 47)
Zaurii' (Risiilat) al- (DawwanI), 60
Whitehead, Alfred North (1861-
1947), 31, 56; bifurcation of Zeno (490-430 B.C.), arguments
Nature, theory of, 27 (II 8); for the unreality of
definition of religion, 1 (I 2); movement 28-29 (II 9); holds
Nature according to, 27-28; time to be unreal, 113;
on movement of electron in Russell's refutation of, 29-30
terms of quantum mechanics, (II 14, 15)
56 (III 20); refutation of the Ziya Gokalp, see Gokalp
traditional theory of Zoroaster (fl. in the 7th century
materialism, 27; universe B.C. or earlier), 115
according to, 28, 36; view of
Relativity of, likely to make ZuhrI, Muhammad b. Shihab al-
greater appeal to Muslim (57-124/678-742),137
students than that of Zwemer, Samuel Marinus (1867-
Einstein, 106 (II 8) 1952),54
 encountering traditions

s e n i o r e d i t o r s : Stanley Hauerwas, Peter Ochs, Randi Rashkover,

and Maria Dakake
e d i t o r i a l b o a r d : Nicholas Adams, Rumee Ahmed,
and Jonathan Tran

Rapid globalization and portents of a post-secular age drive unprecedented

encounters within and between traditions. Encountering Traditions seeks
to capture this wave of creativity and offers authors a venue to speak
unapologetically from any one of the Abrahamic scriptural traditions and
beyond. Potential authors are invited to explore topics that would interest
a broad readership as well as specialists. Series editors welcome studies that
highlight the dynamism of encounters between traditions—religious as
well as secular, mainstream as well as marginal ones. Authors who draw on
a rich heritage of scholarly disciplines in order to clarify and illustrate their
observations will enjoy priority, as will proposals that offer attention both
to tradition and to social and historical context. Encountering Traditions
seeks to show the multiple ways that the energies of faith and reason, texts
and history enhance our life worlds through creative scholarship.