Heriot-Watt University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Name: Mahender Marri, Hw Id: H00308230

Masoud Muhammed
Mirza Ali
Mohammed Sherook
Mulleth Rohith Rohan
Group No: 9
 Abstract
Bernoulli’s theorem experiment and flow meter experiment helps us in learn how to
find volume flow rate and coefficient of discharge. Before experiment check the system
requirement. While observing values in manometers is careful and apparatus is handled
careful.
Before going to experiment, I will give a brief summary of these experiment. First is
safety and precautions maintained while doing experiment. Do as many trails in your time
and avoid consisting errors.
Now discusses about differences of experimental and theoretical values while
calculating values careful in unit’s conversion. Plot the graphs as required/given instructions.
Application for Bernoulli’s theorem air flight, lift, baseball, draft and sailing.
Application for flow meter it is used mainly for volume or mass of gas or liquid.
 Introduction
In these experiments we used Bernoulli’s theorem to calculate the flow rate and as
well as discharge. Bernoulli’s theorem found in fluid dynamics these principle states that an
increase in a speed of fluid occurs simultaneously with decrease in pressure or decrease in
fluid’s potential energy.
Bernoulli’s theorem is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book
hydrodynamica in 1738. The principle can be derived using conversation of energy.
Main aim of these experiment is to measure flow velocities and total pressure head
using pitot probe with the help of Bernoulli equations and continuity.
Orifice plate is used to measure flow rate or volume flow rate. It uses the same
principle Bernoulli. The plate is placed in pipe, plate has a small hole in it. Water passes
through the orifice plate fluid forced to converge at the time velocity increases and pressure
decreases.
Venturi meter is named for the Italian philosopher venturi, who called attention, in
1769. In difference between the velocities and pressures, when fluid is flowing through
diverging and converging tubes. In experiment difference of flow rate is shown by
manometers connected left and right.
A pitot tube is a device used to measure fluid flow velocity it is also know as pitot
probe. The pitot tube is invented by French engineer Henri pitot in early 18th century. It is
widely used to air speed and aircraft. We used same principle to find coefficient of discharge
and velocity.
 Bernoulli’s Theorem Experiment
Theory:
Bernoulli’s theorem states that an increase in speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously
increase or decrease of pressure in the fluid. This theorem can be derived from Isaac Newton
second law of motion. It also can be derived from conservation of energy. For it we need the
sum of internal energy, kinetic energy and potential energy.
 Fig-1 shows the front view of apparatus

Water manometer: It measures the [ ] actual pressure at different diameters.

Air relief valve: To avoid water outflow from manometers.

Pressurizing valve: For pumping the air by hand air pump to decrease water level from top
end.
Total head probe: It is used to measure the actual total head at every point (1-8)
8th manometer is the actual total head.
 Fig-2 shows the Bernoulli’s tube
From right side the liquid enters to the tube and suddenly contrast of tube changes in pressure
and velocity.
On the left the side of the tube sudden expansion velocity and pressure is same as initial entry
of fluid.

Fig-3 shows the line diagram of Bernoulli’s tube with diameters

D1=28 mm , D2=21 mm , D3=14 mm , D4=16.8 mm , D5=19.6 mm , D6=22.4 mm ,
D7=25.2 mm , D8=28 mm

H= + +Z

Where,
H = Total head (m)
V = Velocity (m/s)
P = Pressure (N/m2)
Z = Elevation (m)
 G = Acceleration due to the gravity = 9.81 (m/s)
𝛾 = specific weight of fluid (N/m3)
At point 1 and 2

+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hf,1-2 (1)

Where, hf,1-2 = friction loss between 1 and 2

While in experiment Bernoulli’s tube is placed in horizontal position
so,then

+ = + (2)

− = − (3)

Here,
Bernoulli’s tube has different diameters from section 1 – 2 then velocity also varies.
It can determined by the water levels at 1 and 2 points of the manometer so there is difference
in velocity.
We can calculate pressure head between two points and compare it with a measured value.
The difference between the theoretical and measured value is mainly due to frictional losses.

V = volume of flow measured from the measuring tank (m3)

T = measuring time (s)
A = cross-section area (m2)
D = diameter of Bernoulli’s tube section (m)
Q = vol / t (m3/s)
From equation (3) we have

∴ = −8 [ − ] (4)

For these equation dimensions are in m

Now we can calculate the pressure drop along the tube if flow rate is known. The difference
between the theoretical pressure drop and actual pressure drop (measured value) is due to the
friction in the tube between these two points. At the same time we can compare the total head
at any point using a total head probe (pitot tube’s probe) whose total head is shown on tube
No.8

+ + Zs = + +Z (5)

At the stagnation point in front of the pitot tube tip Vs = 0 and Zs =Z

= + (6)

Or

= −

Velocity head = − (7)

Hence, the velocity head can be demonstrated by the difference of the total head or stagnation
pressure head (ps / 𝛾) measured from pitot tube and static pressure head (p /𝛾) at the point.

Procedure:
1. First switch on the pump and set the flow control to 5 litre per minute.
2. Adjust the outlet control valve to maintain water level in manometer.
3. Check the top air chamber is it closed or opened if not close it.
4. If water level in manometers is increases(outflow) use hand air pump behind the
apparatus to reduce levelof water.
5. Now move the pitot tube probe along horizontal axis and stop at point 1.
6. Note the manometer reading at 1st point and total head in 8th manometer.
7. For flow rate collect the water in measuring tank or in a beaker. Start the timer when
water is filling in measuring tank or beaker.
8. Move the pitot tube probe to 2nd point and note the value of 2nd manometer as well as
8th manometer for total head at point 2.
9. Repeat the procedure 5-8.
10. For remaining 3-6 points and in these Bernoulli’s theorem experiment 7th point is
blind.
Calculation:
Test -1
Volume = 5 litre
Time = 39.49 seconds
×
Flow rate = = 1.26× 10 , m3/sec
.

= , cm

=8 [ − ] × 10 ,m
 Q = 1.26× 10 , m3/sec
g= 9.81 ,m/sec
D2 = 21 ,mm = 0.021 ,m
D1 = 28 ,mm = 0.028 ,m
( . × )
= 8× [ − ] × 10
. × . .

= 4.18× 10 × 10 = 4.18 × 10
Point Meas. 𝑉 −𝑉 Theoretical Difference Actual Head
No: 2𝑔 ( )th ∆𝑝/𝛾 total loss
( )act (m) 𝑝 head(Tube ∆𝐻act
(mm) ( )
𝛾 no.8) Hact (mm)
(mm) × 100% (mm)
1 11.4 0 11.59 1.6 11.6 0
2 11 4.18× 10 11.59 5 11.6 0
3 7.2 2.90× 10 11.57 37.7 11.6 0
4 8.2 1.3× 10 11.39 28 11.4 0.2
5 9.4 6.12× 10 11.39 17.47 11.4 0.2
6 9.8 2.79× 10 11.59 15.44 11.4 0.2
7(blind)
8 10.2 0 11.59 11.99 11.2 0.4

Cdo
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.000232 0.000219 0.000296 0.000185 0.000250 0.000111 0.000130
Test -2
Volume = 5 litre
Time = 19.20 seconds
×
Flow rate = = 2.6× 10 , m3/sec
.

= , cm

=8 [ − ] × 10 ,m

Q = 2.6× 10 , m3/sec
g= 9.81 ,m/sec
D2 = 21 ,mm = 0.021 ,m
D1 = 28 ,mm = 0.028 ,m
( . × )
= 8× [ − ] × 10
. × . .

= 1.96× 10 × 10 = 1.96 × 10
Point Meas. 𝑉 −𝑉 Theoretical Difference Actual Head
No: ( )act ( )th 𝑝 total loss
2𝑔 ∆
𝛾 head ∆𝐻
(mm) (m) (m) 𝑝
( ) (Tube (mm)
𝛾
no.8)
× 100%
Hact
(mm)
1 17.5 0 18.19 3.7 18.2 0
2 15.9 1.96× 10 18.28 13 18.3 0.1
3 1.1 1.36× 10 18.06 93.90 18.2 0
4 8.4 6.10× 10 17.74 52.64 17.8 0.4
5 10.9 2.87× 10 17.43 37.46 17.6 0.6
6 12.1 1.30× 10 17.37 30.33 17.5 0.7
7(blind)
8 13.6 0 16.99 19.95 17 1.2
 Cdo
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Test -3
Volume = 5 litre
Time = 19.74 seconds
×
Flow rate = = 2.5× 10 , m3/sec
.

= , cm

=8 [ − ] × 10 ,m

Q = 2.5× 10 , m3/sec
g= 9.81 ,m/sec
D2 = 21 ,mm = 0.021 ,m
D1 = 28 ,mm = 0.028 ,m
( . × )
= 8× [ − ] × 10
. × . .

= 1.81× 10 × 10 = 1.81 × 10
 Point Meas. 𝑉 −𝑉 Theoretic Difference Actual total Head
No. ( ) 2𝑔 al ( ) ∆𝑝/𝛾 head (Tube loss
× 100 %
(cm) (𝑝/𝛾) no.8) 𝐻 ∆𝐻
(mm) (m)
(mm) (m)
1 21.8 0 22.59 3.49 22.6 0
2 20.6 1.81× 10 22.48 8.36 22.5 0.1
3 7.1 1.26× 10 22.17 67.97 22.3 0.3
4 12.9 5.64× 10 22.04 41.47 22.1 0.5
5 15.7 2.65× 10 21.87 28.21 21.9 0.7
6 17 1.21× 10 21.78 21.94 21.8 0.8
7(blind)
8 18.4 0 21.39 13.97 21.4 1.2

Cdo
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.000232 0.000219 0.000296 0.000185 0.000250 0.000111 0.000130
 Flow Meter
Theory:

Fig-4 shows details of the apparatus

1.Orifice Meter:
An orifice plate is thin plate with a hole in it. When water is pumped through orifice
meter at point 1 surrounds around the plate and enters through small hole here pressure
decreses and velocity increaces. When water enters vena contract pressure increases, velocity
decreases. The pressure difference is measured by a manometers connected at 1 and 2 points
as shown fig-5 ∆ℎ is difference.
By applying Bernoulli’s equation.

Fig-5 shows the orific plate

+ +𝑍 = + +𝑍 (1)
 At point -2 we have to calculate velocity,V2

V2 = × 2𝑔∆ℎ (2)
( / )

For theorctical flow rate,

Qth = 𝐴 𝑉 = × 2𝑔∆ℎ (3)

( / )

Since there are some energy loss between point 1 and 2, hence actual flow rate,

Qact = × 2𝑔∆ℎ (4)

( / )

Where,
Qact = actual flow rate for orifice ,m3/s.
Cdo = coefficient of discharge for orifice.
Ao = cross section area of orifice, m3
D1 = pipe diameter, m (29 mm)
Do = orifice diameter, m (20 mm)
∆ℎ = difference in pressure head, m
( / )
Cdo = × (5)
∆

Procedure:
1. Switch on the pump and open the valve connected to rota meter.
2. Wait for a while for air bubble disapper from the manometer.
3. Check the manometers water level is high or low,if level is more pump the air which
is provided at top right of apparatus.
4. Set the rota meter flow to16 lpm.
5. Watch the manometers water level changes.
6. Note the manometers readings for three apparatus orifice,venturi and pitot tube.
7. For volume flow rate values use the measuring tank or beaker as per convient.
8. Start the timer while water collecting measuring tank that gives volume of flow rate
per seconds.
9. Now change the flow rate to 14 lpm.
10. Repeat the procedure 4-8. Note left and right each manometer readings.
11. Test it 4-5 trails but not cross the above 25 lpm in rota meter at small opening of
discharge valve.
12. After completion of experiment switch off the pump and open fully discharge valve to
the vent water from manometers.
13. Finally calculate the actual volume flow rate (Q in m3/s) and coefficient of discharge
each apparatus.
14. And plot the graphs of Q and Cdo, Cdv, and Cdp.
Calculation:
Measuring device
Flow rate of flow meter,lpm (Rota meter)
S.No.
1 16
2 14
3 20
4 12
5 18
6 10
7 8

Measuring Tank:
×
Flow rate = , m3/sec

×
= = 2.32× 10 , m3/sec
.

S. No. Volume Time Flow rate

Litre Seconds Lps
1 5 21.47 2.32× 10
2 6 27.38 2.19× 10
3 8 26.94 2.96× 10
4 4 21.57 1.85× 10
5 5 19.94 2.50× 10
6 5 45 1.11× 10
7 4 30.56 1.30× 10
Orifice Meter
S.No. Water manometer level, left Water manometer level, Different water
(mm) right (mm) level, (mm)
1 22.6 15.3 7.3
2 19.1 13.7 5.4
3 28.6 17.9 10.7
4 26.4 22.3 4.1
5 42.5 33.7 8.8
6 21 18.1 2.9
7 17.5 15.5 2

Results-1:
( / )
Cdo = ∆
substitute ∆ℎ and Do , D1 in meters

( . / . ) . ×
=
× . √ × . × . ×

= 1.71
S.No. Q Cdo
(m3/s)
1 2.32× 10 1.71
2 2.19× 10 1.88
3 2.96× 10 1.80
4 1.85× 10 1.82
5 2.50× 10 1.68
6 1.11× 10 1.30
7 1.30× 10 1.83

Q vs Cdo
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.000232 0.000219 0.000296 0.000185 0.000250 0.000111 0.000130

Cdo
2.Venturi Meter:
Venturi meters are flow measurement devices which has converging section. It uses
bernoulli’s formula to find discharge and flow rate.

Fig-6 shows the venturi meter

It is similar to above equation (5) can be derived for a venturi meter,
( / )
𝐶 = × ∆

Where,
Cdv = coefficient of discharge of venturi meter
Qact = actual flow rate of venturi, m3/s
A2 = throat cross section area, m2
D1 = pipe diameter, m (29mm)
D2 = throat diameter, m (17mm)
Calculations:

S.No. Water manometer level,left Water manometer level,right Difference water

(mm) (mm) level
(mm)
1 16.2 9.0 7.2
2 14.2 9.8 4.4
3 19.5 9 10.5
4 22.8 19.8 3
5 35 26.4 8.6
6 18.5 15.8 2.7
7 15.7 13.8 1.9
Results-2:
( / )
Cdv = ∆
substitute ∆ℎ and D2 , D1 in meters

( . / . ) . ×
=
× . √ × . × .

= 0.811
S.No. Q Cdv
(m/s)
1 2.32× 10 0.81
2 2.19× 10 0.97
3 2.96× 10 0.85
4 1.85× 10 1
5 2.50× 10 0.79
6 1.11× 10 0.63
7 1.30× 10 0.88

Q vs Cdv
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.000232 0.000219 0.000296 0.000185 0.000250 0.000111 0.000130

Cdo
3.Pitot Tube:
A pitot tube is also known as a pitot probe is used to measure fluid flow velocity. It
can be used to find air velocity.

Fig-6 shows that pitot tube

Similar to section 1 the following equation can be derived for a pitot tube

Cdp = ×
√∆

Where,
Qact = actual flow rate for pitot tube, m3/s
Cdp = coefficient of discharge of pitot tube
A1 = cross section area of pipe, m2
D1 = pipe diameter, m (19mm)
∆ℎ = difference in pressure head, m
Calculations:

S.No. Water manometer level at Water manometer level at Difference water

left right level
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 3 9 6
2 4.1 9.6 5.5
3 1 9.5 8.5
4 15.1 18.3 3.2
5 19.3 26 6.1
6 13.2 15.8 2.6
7 11.8 13.5 1.7
Results-3:

Cdp = √∆
substitute D1, ∆ℎ in meters

. ×
=
× . √ × . √ .

= 0.75
S.No. Q Cdp
(m3/s)
1 2.32× 10 0.75
2 2.19× 10 0.74
3 2.96× 10 0.80
4 1.85× 10 0.82
5 2.50× 10 0.77
6 1.11× 10 0.54
7 1.30× 10 0.79

Q vs Cdp
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.000232 0.000219 0.000296 0.000185 0.000250 0.000111 0.000130

Cdo
 Discussion
In these experiment the Bernoulli’s theorem is more helpful to find the volume flow
rate. The experiment faced unusual events and errors while taking readings from
manometers. In bernoulli’s theorem experiment venturi tube is used and it is conncected to 8
manometers which reads pressure difference & actual (p/𝛾) is measured by 8th manometer.
When pitot tube (probe) is moved forward and kept at 1st point the manometer connected to
1st point reads the value at same time actual pressure is measured in 8th tube with the help of
probe. Same way we have to change the positions of the probe. At the same time collecting
the water in a measuring tank (or) beaker is important. So,we used the measuring tank to
measure volume flow rate.
By using all these values the graph was plotted below the table. When actual pressure
graph is compared to theoretical pressure graphs the difference is very minute. So,time
calculation also is important in order to find the flow rate. We can increase the flow rate by
operating the control valve fitted after bench pump outlet.
There are two control valves one is discussed above and other is right hand side of the
equipment (human right hand side when he stands infront of apparatus).
In fluids experiments we did another experiment it similar for equation derivation of
bernoulli’s equation as compared to bernoulli’s is different in finding velocities in these we
used continuity equation
Where as,
A1V1 = A2V2
In these part we done trails on orifice meter, venturi meter and pitot tube. Same procedure is
applied here but here we use a rota meter means flow will come through it. Be careful with
rota meter which we used for trail it is setted or do not cross above 25 litre per minute. These
are mainly useful when we designing or constructing oil refiners,water flitration plants there
orifice plate and venturi as well as rota meter are required.
Pitot tube is mainly found in airspeed and air crafts. By operating the flow rate to inlet
is directly changes the cofficient of discharge.
While doing experiment and comparing theoretical values to actual(experimental)
values it has 3 – 5 % of difference in bernoulli’s (it is over all points). Same as in flow meter
the difference is 2-3% (over all for separate apparatus. Human error is more because the
manometers scale is line and it printed on glass tube while we pointing the value on scale it
has some reflection on glass surface the value which noted is not a exact value.
 Conclusion
Overall, the experiment was succeeded in calculating flow rate and cofficient of discharge of
orifice, venturi and pitot tube apparatus. There is a difference in experimental and
theorectical (p/𝛾). It can be accounted by error. As per procedure we calculated the flow rate
and cofficients of discharges and finally the is ended successfully.
 Reference and Bibliography

(IndiaMART InterMESH Ltd, 1996-2018)

(Boulder, Colorado, n.d.)

(Bernoulli, 1738)

(Herschel, 1898)

References
Bernoulli, D. (1738). FERCHAL Albain, CHEVREL Timothy, SARAZIN Pierre. Retrieved from The
Cavitation: https://sites.google.com/site/thecavitation/la-cavitation/principe-de-bernoulli

Boulder, Colorado. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mike Soltys, P.hD.: http://www.mikesoltys.com/

Boulder, Colorado. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mike soltys, P.hD.:

http://www.mikesoltys.com/2011/03/15/demo-for-theoretical-fluid-mechanics-venturi-
meter/

Boulder, Colorado. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mike soltys, P.hD.:

http://www.mikesoltys.com/2011/03/15/demo-for-theoretical-fluid-mechanics-venturi-
meter/

Herschel, C. (1898). The venturi Meter. usa: Providence, R.I. : The Foundry.

IndiaMART InterMESH Ltd. (1996-2018). Retrieved from IndiaMART :

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/hartmann-tube-apparatus-4832727948.html

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