Mitigation:

Emergency
Preparedness

OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation - Health impacts April, 2012
Copyright notice and licence terms

First published in 2012 by the Safety Institute of Australia Ltd, Tullamarine, Victoria, Australia.

Bibliography.
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OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation - Health impacts April, 2012
OHS Body of Knowledge
Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
OHS Body of Knowledge
Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
 Synopsis of the OHS Body Of Knowledge

Background
A defined body of knowledge is required as a basis for professional certification and for
accreditation of education programs giving entry to a profession. The lack of such a body of
knowledge for OHS professionals was identified in reviews of OHS legislation and OHS
education in Australia. After a 2009 scoping study, WorkSafe Victoria provided funding to
support a national project to develop and implement a core body of knowledge for generalist
OHS professionals in Australia.

Development
The process of developing and structuring the main content of this document was managed
by a Technical Panel with representation from Victorian universities that teach OHS and
from the Safety Institute of Australia, which is the main professional body for generalist OHS
professionals in Australia. The Panel developed an initial conceptual framework which was
then amended in accord with feedback received from OHS tertiary-level educators
throughout Australia and the wider OHS profession. Specialist authors were invited to
contribute chapters, which were then subjected to peer review and editing. It is anticipated
that the resultant OHS Body of Knowledge will in future be regularly amended and updated
as people use it and as the evidence base expands.

Conceptual structure
The OHS Body of Knowledge takes a ‘conceptual’ approach. As concepts are abstract, the
OHS professional needs to organise the concepts into a framework in order to solve a
problem. The overall framework used to structure the OHS Body of Knowledge is that:

Work impacts on the safety and health of humans who work in organisations. Organisations are
influenced by the socio-political context. Organisations may be considered a system which may
contain hazards which must be under control to minimise risk. This can be achieved by understanding
models causation for safety and for health which will result in improvement in the safety and health of
people at work. The OHS professional applies professional practice to influence the organisation to
being about this improvement.

OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
This can be represented as:

Audience
The OHS Body of Knowledge provides a basis for accreditation of OHS professional
education programs and certification of individual OHS professionals. It provides guidance
for OHS educators in course development, and for OHS professionals and professional
bodies in developing continuing professional development activities. Also, OHS regulators,
employers and recruiters may find it useful for benchmarking OHS professional practice.

Application
Importantly, the OHS Body of Knowledge is neither a textbook nor a curriculum; rather it
describes the key concepts, core theories and related evidence that should be shared by
Australian generalist OHS professionals. This knowledge will be gained through a
combination of education and experience.

Accessing and using the OHS Body of Knowledge for generalist OHS professionals
The OHS Body of Knowledge is published electronically. Each chapter can be downloaded
separately. However users are advised to read the Introduction, which provides background to
the information in individual chapters. They should also note the copyright requirements and
the disclaimer before using or acting on the information.

OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
 Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness

Mr. Neville J Betts, BA, GDip OHM, MAppSci, CFSIA

Chair, College of Fellows, Safety Institute of Australia

Neville is a Registered Safety Professional (RSP) with a special interest in

emergency management who has worked across all industry groups. He has
completed the Victorian SafetyMAP Auditor Course and has been editor and
publisher of the journal ‘Safety in Australia’. Neville currently works as a ‘part
time’ Senior Lecturer at Monash University Faculty of Medicine, Department
of Epidemiology & Preventative Medicine, where he is course coordinator and
presenter for course MPH2076, Safety Management Systems.

Peer reviewer
John Salter BA(Hons), DipEd, DipEnvSt
Director, Emergency Preparedness Capacity Builders

Core Body of
Knowledge for the
OHS Body of Knowledge
Generalist OHS
Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness Professional
April, 2012
 Core Body of Knowledge for the Generalist OHS Professional

Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness

Abstract

All organisations are vulnerable to and, consequently, must plan for emergencies as part of
their health and safety and overall management framework. While expert advice may be
required, the generalist Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) professional has a role in
facilitating and monitoring the emergency planning and preparedness. This chapter – one of
two that address mitigation strategies for prevention of work-related fatality, injury, disease
and ill health – focuses on ensuring the safety of people. It examines the key concepts in
emergency preparedness for organisations, including the Performance, Preparedness,
Response and Recovery (PPRR) approach, the relevance of which is challenged in today’s
emergency-management environment. A comprehensive, integrated risk-management
approach that incorporates PPRR is advocated.

Keywords
emergency, planning, preparedness, response, recovery, mitigation

OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
 Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Definitions .............................................................................................................. 2

2 Historical context ........................................................................................................... 3

3 Key concepts in mitigating the impact of emergencies ................................................... 4

3.1 The Australian context ............................................................................................ 4

3.2 PPRR ...................................................................................................................... 5

3.3 A comprehensive integrated approach ................................................................... 10

4 Legislation and standards ............................................................................................. 11

5 Implications for OHS practice ...................................................................................... 12

6 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 13

Useful websites ................................................................................................................... 13

References .......................................................................................................................... 13

OHS Body of Knowledge

Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
OHS Body of Knowledge
Control: Mitigation – Emergency Preparedness April, 2012
1 Introduction
Most organisations are vulnerable to experiencing an emergency that can lead to
devastating outcomes. An emergency event can result from internal organisational
operations or from external sources. Such emergencies can range from serious ‘first-aid’
incidents to events resulting in multiple deaths, property damage and business interruption.
The possibility of emergencies occurring increases as new products and processes are
introduced, and as political and social events causing major community disruption become
more frequent.

While the main focus of the generalist Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) professional
is primary prevention, 1 attention also must be given to mitigating the impact of events or
circumstances causing injury or illness. This chapter is one of two that address mitigation
strategies for prevention of work-related fatality, injury, disease and ill health. 2 It explores
the knowledge required by the generalist OHS professional to assist organisations to
identify the type and magnitude of emergencies that they may face, and to develop
procedures for responding to such situations while acknowledging that emergency
management is a specialist area. The chapter is concerned with minimising the
consequences of an emergency, ensuring the safety of people during an emergency and
reminding the OHS professional of the legal, ethical and moral obligations of employers in
planning for emergencies. It focuses on emergencies that may directly impact
organisations, and does not address the management of large-scale events often described
as ‘disasters,’ ‘catastrophes, or ‘national crises.’

Emergency management occurs after a natural disaster (e.g. flood or fire) or a process
catastrophe (eg: explosion). Planning for such potential events should always be done
beforehand on the assumption that such events have occurred before, even if elsewhere,
and so should be naturally seen within the ‘prevention’ role of the OHS professional. In
addition the OHS professional needs to understand the mitigation role as part of the time
sequence of accidents as proposed by Haddon, Viner and others (See, for example, Viner,
1991). In Viner’s model, mitigation would occur within the consequence time zone, during
which damage commences, is detected and proceeds to completion, followed by recovery
or stabilisation. 3 Clearly recovery and stabilisation are part of the mitigation of the
incident. The bow-tie diagram, used widely in major hazards facilities, 4 visually illustrates
the importance of mitigation in the overall chain of the incident. (Figure 1) The incident
(ie: disaster, process incident, or serious injury event) is seen as the Critical or Top Event,
and the consequences need to be mitigated by appropriate processes that generally have to
be pre-planned and should include emergency preparedness.

1
See OHS BoK Introduction.
2
See OHS BOK Control: Mitigation – Health Impacts.
3
See OHS BoK Models of Causation: Safety.
4
See OHS BoK Risk and OHS BoK Control.

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 Figure 1: Bow tie model of risk (modified from Hudson & Guchelaar, 2003)

1.1 Definitions

1.1.1 Emergency
The Australian Standard AS 3745 Planning for Emergencies in Facilities (SA, 2010a)
defines an emergency as “an event that arises internally or from external sources, which
may adversely affect the occupants or visitors in a facility, and which requires an
immediate response.” On-site emergencies may include events such as a hazardous
chemical leak, a fire, a bomb threat, a medical emergency or an industrial incident. Off-site
emergencies that could impact an organisation may include a fire or chemical leak in an
adjoining property, or involvement of a company vehicle in a road accident.

Events that constitute an emergency have one or both of the following characteristics:

· Require rapid deployment of resources that would not normally be provided as part
of the core activities of the organisation (e.g. spill kits and emergency showers,
resources to fight a major fire, complete backup systems for essential organisational
activities); special arrangements may have to be made to ensure that the required
resources are in place and available at all times
· Require competencies not normally needed as part of the core activities of the
organisation (e.g. in evacuation procedures, in dealing with major spillage of toxic
materials, in dealing with media and local communities) (Boyle, 2000).

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1.1.2 Emergency response
As an ‘emergency’ requires a rapid and more-or-less complex response to protect life and
minimise losses, an emergency response requires:

· Identification of hazards and events that could lead to an emergency

· Identification of the activities required to respond to the emergency and the time
scales for these activities
· Introduction of risk assessments and measures to control and/or eliminate the
identified risks. (See, for example, EMA, 2004; Phillips, Neal & Webb, 2012.)

2 Historical context
In the early 1900s the Australian approach to disasters was focused on response with the
most visible disaster management agency being the Red Cross. Following World War II
the Red Cross led the way in developing a focus on disaster ‘preparedness’ in addition to
response (Smith, 2006). However, during the 1950 and 60s there was little evidence of
planning to meet potential emergency situations in industry or in specific organisations.
One notable exception was the aviation industry’s requirement for the preparation of
‘Emergency Procedures’ for all approved airports and flying bases. Generally, these
procedures followed the military model developed during World War II, and involved
coordination with local hospitals, fire services and police in preparing their response
should a runway incident occur.

When opening the Australian Civil Defence School at Mount Macedon in Victoria in 1956,
Commonwealth Minister for the Interior and Works Allen Fairhall highlighted the need for
cooperation between the federal and state governments (Pearce, 2006). Subsequently, most
state and territory governments addressed the need for communities to prepare for
disasters, both natural and otherwise, by establishing Civil Defence Organisations and state
disaster plans. For example, the Victorian State Disaster Response Plan, later known as
DISPLAN, was developed following bushfires in 1962, “when a need to improve
emergency agency co-ordination was identified” (WICEN, 1993). Initially these
organisations and disaster plans had no legislative backing, but gradually the various states
and territories promulgated disaster management legislation. In Victoria, for example, the
provisional disaster management arrangements were contained within the State Disasters
Act 1983 (OESC, 2011). Unfortunately, little industry effort was invested in development
of suitable emergency response plans for organisations. Organisations such as the new
vehicle manufacturing plants, and infrastructure bodies such as rail systems and the Snowy
Mountain Scheme, largely relied upon local fire and ambulance services to ‘turn up’ if an
emergency occurred in their facility.

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By the 1980s, Robens-style OHS legislation had been introduced in all states (NRCOHSR,
2002).5 This legislation placed a general duty on employers to ensure, as far as practicable,
a working environment that was safe and without risk and this obligation extended to
employees, contractors and “others” who might be at risk from the conduct of the work.
Thus, by implication, there was a requirement to address the safety and risk that might be
associated with emergency situations.

Since the late 1990s, there have been emergency-management policy shifts from an
internal agency focus to a community focus, and from reactive response-focused strategies
to more proactive risk-management approaches (Crondstedt, 2002). These developments
inspired an evolutionary change from considering hazards alone to considering
vulnerability and risk, which goes beyond the physical nature of the hazard to consider the
interaction between the community and the hazards (Crondstedt, 2002). The rationale
behind these changes is equally applicable to organisations as it is to community
emergency management.

3 Key concepts in mitigating the impact of emergencies

This section introduces key emergency-management concepts. Brief consideration of the
broader Australian context is followed by an overview of the Prevention, Preparedness,
Response and Recovery (PPRR) approach to emergency management, and the limitations
of its application. Incorporation of PPRR within a more comprehensive, integrated risk
management approach to emergency preparedness is advocated.

3.1 The Australian context

In Australia, there is a tiered approach to disaster management with local authorities being
the first level of response, supported by state and national authorities. This recognises not
only the scalability of incidents, but also the reality that the initial response will involve
those in the immediate vicinity. In addition to local authorities, all states and territories
maintain volunteer-based organisations that can provide initial support in the case of
emergencies. Also, various government agencies and non-government organisations
provide aid and assistance during emergencies. For example, the St John Ambulance may
support professional ambulance services; the Red Cross has both national and international
roles in disaster management; and, traditionally, the Australian military has had a
significant role in emergency response utilising their rapid deployment and transport
capabilities. (See, for example, OESC, 2011.)

An essential component of disaster response is the establishment of coordination and

control centres. Highly sophisticated centres are now operated nationally, in most states

5
See OHS BoK The Generalist OHS Professional in Australia: Appendix 1

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and by lead agencies. Industries likely to be affected by large-scale and site-level
emergencies should also establish coordination centres where information may be
exchanged and response management coordinated. Such centres would assist both
emergency management specialists and generalist OHS professionals in ensuring currency
of knowledge and practice as well as support should an emergency occur.

Thus coordination structures exist at each tier of government for planning for and
responding to disasters. It is the responsibility of industry to engage with those structures
and their personnel to ensure the interests of industry are recognised and that industry
participates actively in incident management.

3.2 PPRR
The time scales for emergency response require pre-planning. As noted in section 2, there
has been a shift away from a reactive, response-driven approach to a risk management
approach. The Prevention, Planning, Response and Recovery (PPRR) approach–
introduced in the US in 1978 and subsequently imported into the Australian emergency-
management framework –is embedded in emergency-management practice (Crondstedt,
2002). However, the following limitations of PPRR as a guiding principle have been
identified:

· PPRR sets up artificial barriers between the four elements implying a clear
delineation between them; discussion about categorising actions can distract from
the objective of effective emergency planning
· The four elements present as equally important in all circumstances whereas a risk-
management approach may indicate that certain actions (and categories of action)
may be more justifiable than others
· The four elements are often presented as a linear process (Figure 2); this implies
that emergency planning comprises consideration and implementation of these
elements in the same order all the time (Crondstedt, 2002).

Figure 2: PPRR as a linear process

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One way in which the application of PPRR has evolved to address these limitations is
representation of the PPRR elements as a matrix (Figure 3) thus suggesting that evaluation
can start at any point in the process. Figure 4 provides a modified view that incorporates
both the linear and matrix approaches; this has lead to greater success in establishing
effective emergency plans.

Figure 3: PPRR as a matrix

Figure4: Combined approach to PPRR

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While recognising the limitations of the PPRR principle and acknowledging that writers in
the emergency-management community have called for its enhancement6 and even its
removal from use (e.g. Crondstedt, 2002), its elements are explained in more detail below.

3.2.1 Prevention
Prevention differs from the other PPRR elements in that it focuses on long-term measures
for reducing or eliminating risk associated with emergencies. The implementation of
prevention strategies also may be part of the recovery process, if applied after an
emergency. The two targets for action in the prevention activity cluster are:

· Identification of hazards and vulnerabilities that may lead to an emergency

· Mitigation of effects should an emergency occur.

Hazard identification, vulnerability and risk assessment

The first step in preparation for emergencies is to identify those events that could lead to an
emergency and the likely outcomes. Typical outcomes may include fires, explosions, and
loss of containment of chemicals or harmful substances. Events that might occur
accidentally or as the result of arson or vandalism should be identified separately. The
Prevention activity cluster is about identifying hazards as the source of harm. 7

Certain events can contribute to several different outcomes (e.g. spillages of certain
substances can result in ill health, fire and damage to the environment). All probable
outcomes should be identified for any given event and, for any given outcome, all relevant
events that may lead to that outcome should be identified as it is possible that the
relationships between the events are different for different outcomes. The vulnerability of
the organisation may affect the severity and range of outcomes. Vulnerability may result
from location (e.g. next to a hazardous substances site or a river); the nature of personnel
on site (e.g. workshop for disabled workers); the nature of the work and the hazards (e.g.
Major Hazard Facility) or the business environment (e.g. highly competitive and based on
just-in-time delivery of supplies). Another way of looking at vulnerability is from the
perspective of organisational resilience.8

Identification of hazards that may lead to vulnerability and/or an emergency should be

accompanied by risk assessment to enable those involved in emergency management to
rank the likelihood of an emergency event occurring, as well as its possible severity. The

6
For example, UK Resilience (2010) advocated Integrated Emergency Management comprised of six stages
– anticipation, assessment, prevention, preparedness, response and recovery.
7
See OHS BoK Hazard as a Concept
8
See OHS BoK Systems and BoK The Organisation

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resultant risk registers,9 will give guidance as to the level of preparedness and nature of the
response.10 Casualty prediction, or the estimate of how many injuries to expect for a given
kind of event, is an important part of the risk assessment as it gives planners an idea of the
level of response and resources required to respond to a particular kind of emergency
event.

Mitigation of the impact

Mitigation measures may be structural or non-structural. Structural measures may include
building design features (e.g. compartmentation, and access and egress arrangements) and
technological solutions (e.g. fire detection and suppression systems). Non-structural
measures include procedures to minimise the impact of an emergency (e.g. limiting the
quantities of flammable substances held on site).

3.2.2 Preparedness
Preparing for emergencies is part of minimising vulnerability and building organisational
resilience, and should be a critical element of any organisation’s business strategy. Being
prepared for an emergency means having:

· People in the organisation with designated responsibilities for planning for and
responding to emergencies
· An organisational emergency-response structure including suitably trained
personnel
· A plan detailing prevention and mitigation arrangements, activities for preparing
for emergencies (e.g. training and maintenance), overall control and coordination
arrangements for the emergency response, and roles and responsibilities of key
personnel and others at the work site in preparation for, during, and after an
emergency
· Response procedures, including duties and actions of key personnel and others in
responding to the emergency and, if required, evacuating the workplace
· Appropriate physical resources (e.g. communication equipment, spill containment,
emergency lighting, evacuation equipment for those with disabilities, and first-aid
supplies). (EMA, 2004.)

The Australian Standard AS 3745 Planning for Emergencies in Facilities (SA, 2010a)
provides detailed information on the preparedness phase of emergency management. While
all arrangements for emergency preparedness should be appropriate for the organisation
and the nature of potential emergencies, this standard advocates for the formation of an
emergency planning committee (EPC) to be responsible for the development,

9
See, for example, http://www.safety.unimelb.edu.au/ehs/riskmanagement/riskregister.php3
10
See OHS BoK: Risk for a discussion on risk assessment

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implementation and maintenance of the emergency plan, emergency-response procedures
and related training, and an emergency control organisation (ECO) consisting of personnel
with roles such as chief warden, communications officer and floor/area wardens.

The OHS professional should keep in mind that emergencies are usually dynamic
situations. Consequently, no one procedural document can cover the multitude of
emergency events that can arise within an organisation.

3.2.3 Response
The objective of the response activity cluster is to contain the emergency and minimise
damage to people, the environment, property and business. The safety of people must
always be paramount. The initial response phase will have two components:

· The response by internal organisational personnel through mobilisation of first

responders in the affected area with appropriate support and coordinating action by
key personnel
· Response by core emergency services (fire, police and ambulance).

Effective response may be complex and multifactorial, and there is a potential for the
complexity to paralyse action. Thus flexible, comprehensive and scalable response
arrangements need to be in place to deal with relatively simple incidents, which can be
scaled up to deal with more serious challenges. Within an organisation, personnel in the
emergency control group need to be competent in responding to the immediate needs of the
emergency situation. Good leadership and well-disciplined teamwork are essential;
leadership is often tested when the incident grows beyond the capability of the first
responders. A well-rehearsed emergency plan developed during the preparedness stage
facilitates a more effective response at all levels.

3.2.4 Recovery
The aim of the recovery activity cluster is to restore the affected area to its previous state
or to a satisfactory level of functioning. It differs from the response activity cluster in its
focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after the
immediate needs are addressed. Of primary concern is the management of casualties, re-
employment, rebuilding destroyed property and repair of other essential infrastructure.
Efforts should be made to ‘build back better,’ aiming to reduce the pre-event risks inherent
in the infrastructure (see AEMI, 2011a). An important aspect of effective recovery efforts
is taking advantage of a ‘window of opportunity’ for the implementation of measures that
might otherwise be unpopular. Personnel are more likely to accept changes when a recent
incident is a fresh memory.

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3.3 A comprehensive integrated approach
Despite debate surrounding its usefulness to modern disaster management, PPRR:

…remains the framework with which many are familiar, it remains a central part of the visible policy
and it is well established as a standard for a more reactive form of Emergency Management. In
reassessing PPRR for alignment with the more disaster resilience-based approach we must be careful
not to ‘throw the baby out with the bath water’ when advocating change.’ (Rogers, 2011, p. 57)

While preparedness and response activities are closely related and sequential it is important
to stress that the PPRR elements are not linear and independent of each other. A
comprehensive approach to emergency management requires that PPRR processes be
effectively integrated and include an ‘all-hazards’ and ‘all-agencies’ approach.

A useful perspective on PPRR for OHS professionals is provided by Lewis (2006) who
uses a risk management framework to align the Prevention/Preparedness phases with
reducing the likelihood of an event and the Response/Recovery phases with consequence
management. Thus risk management becomes the strategic focus with PPRR being the
tactical framework for organising resources and processes.

3.3.1 ‘All-hazards’ approach

The all-hazards approach requires making arrangements for managing the large range of
possible risks and identifying the emergencies associated with such risks (AEMI, 2011b).
As explained by Rogers (2011, p. 56), this approach:

…suggests that plans across the disaster cycle should recognise the commonalities in situational
response mechanisms, and that these commonalities across all emergencies can be translated into
operational standards and best-practice used across all-hazards.

This concept is useful to the extent that a large range of risks can cause similar problems,
developing common or all-embracing responses can ensure that the competencies required
of the attending personnel can be kept to a minimum. Responding to emergencies may
require measures such as warning signals or alarms, evacuation, planning for the
attendance of medical services, and planning recovery measures that may be required
during and following emergencies. However, many risks also will require specific response
and recovery measures and will almost certainly require specific prevention and mitigation
measures. (AEMI, 2006)

3.3.2 ‘All-agencies’ approach

Emergency-management planning may be referred to in various organisational and
community contexts, including risk management, environmental management,
occupational health and safety, quality management and asset management. In developing
an emergency plan and response procedures, organisations should consider their own
procedures in conjunction with all available responding emergency services and interest

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groups (e.g. local municipal council, fire, ambulance and police services). The organisation
and the various agencies will have different objectives and priorities for response
regarding:

· Ensuring the continuity of their business or service

· Protecting their own interests and personnel
· Protecting the community
· Protecting the environment
· Protecting property
· Security and crowd control (AEMI, 2011b).

Consultation with these groups can facilitate understanding of how the procedures of the
various agencies can complement the procedures of the organisation.

4 Legislation and standards

The national model Work Health and Safety Act (Safe Work Australia, 2011) requires a
person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU) to:

(a) eliminate risks to health and safety, so far as is reasonably practicable; and
(b) if it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate risks to health and safety, to minimise those risks
so far as is reasonably practicable (WHSA s 17).

Emergency preparedness may be considered to be part of risk-minimisation strategies. In

addition to this general duty, the draft model Work Health and Safety Regulations (Safe
Work Australia, 2010) specify the requirement to prepare and test emergency plans, and to
provide appropriate information on emergencies and emergency response to workers
(WHSR s 3.4). In developing emergency plans, the PCBU is required to consider the:

(a) the nature of the work being carried out at the workplace; and
(b) the nature of the hazards at the workplace; and
(c) the size and location of the workplace; and
(d) the number and composition of the workers and other persons at the workplace (WHSR 3.4).

Also, the OHS professional involved in emergency management should be cognisant of the
relevant state disaster management legislation and a range of other legislative instruments
such as road traffic legislation and legislation relating to public health.

Australian Standards are a valuable source of practical advice on emergency preparedness

and emergency management within organisations. The key Australian Standards are:

· AS 3745–2010 Planning for Emergencies in Facilities (SA, 2010a)

· AS 4083–2010 Planning for Emergencies – Healthcare Facilities (SA, 2010b)

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5 Implications for OHS practice
The challenge for generalist OHS professionals is to facilitate a focus on hazard
identification and risk assessment together with organisational preparedness to respond to
emergencies in the busy, complex and highly competitive environment within which most
businesses operate. Planning is critical to the preparedness of an organisation. The process
of planning – engaging key stakeholders in identifying hazards that may lead to
emergencies, considering the associated risks and identifying mitigation strategies – may
be more important than the plan itself.

The generalist OHS professional has a role in facilitating and supporting the emergency
preparedness of an organisation by:

· Gaining commitment from senior executives and organisational leadership; without

this commitment, establishment of an emergency planning committee (EPC) and
emergency control organisation (ECO) will not be perceived as an organisational
priority
· Integrating identification of hazards and vulnerabilities together with risk
assessment into the normal planning and business processes rather than developing
stand-alone systems; thus reinforcing consideration of emergency management as a
routine part of the assessment of any new initiative
· Establishing systems and structures that deliver the necessary planning and
preparedness; this will include an EPC, preferably led by a senior manager, and the
appointment of a key resource person (appropriately trained in emergency-
management techniques) to lead the ECO
· Supporting training and development activities to ensure appropriate competency
of key personnel
· Ensuring appropriate resources (e.g. emergency response and communication
equipment)
· Identifying facilities that can be used in an emergency as a cooperation and control
centre
· Engaging key stakeholders (e.g. workers, customers, professional associations and
unions) in the identification, risk assessment and preparedness processes
· Ensuring that the emergency plan and response procedures are periodically tested,
at least through tabletop exercises (see, for example, EMISIG, 1998; Renner,
2001), to ensure they remain applicable to the changing organisational
environment; exercises can provide information and create awareness as well as
validate plans.

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6 Summary
While expert advice may be required, generalist OHS professionals have a key role in
implementing a systems approach to ensuring that emergency preparedness is an integral
part of OHS management processes and the overall management framework. The resultant
emergency-planning process should be comprehensive, identifying hazards likely to cause
an emergency together with organisational vulnerabilities as basis for a risk-management
approach. It should integrate all-hazard and all-agencies approaches with the principles of
Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Recovery (PPRR), recognising that PPRR is not a
sequential process, but is more effectively employed as an interconnecting matrix to
provide a framework for tactical response to managing risk associated with emergencies.

Useful websites
Emergency Management Australia: http://www.ema.gov.au/
Department of Health and ageing Health Protection Branch:
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/ohp-about.htm

References
AEMI (Australian Emergency Management Institute). (2011a). Community recovery
(Handbook 2). Retrieved from
http://www.ema.gov.au/www/emaweb/emaweb.nsf/Page/Publications_AustralianEm
ergencyManualSeries_AustralianemergencyhandbookCommunityrecovery_Australia
nemergencyhandbookCommunityRecovery

AEMI (Australian Emergency Management Institute). (2011b). Emergency management

approaches. Retrieved from
http://www.ema.gov.au/www/emaweb/emaweb.nsf/Page/EmergencyManagement_E
mergencyManagementApproaches?open&query=all%20hazards%20approach#AHA

Boyle, T. (2000). Health and safety risk management, Leicestershire, UK: IOSH Services.

Crondstedt, M. (2002). Prevention, preparedness, response, recovery – an outdated

concept? Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 17(2), 10–13.

EMA (Emergency Management Australia). (2004). Emergency planning (Manual No. 43).
Dickson, ACT: EMA. Retrieved from
http://www.ag.gov.au/www/emaweb/RWPAttach.nsf/VAP/(3273BD3F76A7A5DED
AE36942A54D7D90)~Manual43-EmergencyPlanning.pdf/$file/Manual43-
EmergencyPlanning.pdf

EMISIG (Emergency Management Issues Special Interest Group). (1998). A Guide for the
Conduct of Emergency Response Tabletop Activities. US Department of Energy.
Retrieved from http://orise.orau.gov/emi/training-products/files/Emergency-
Response-Tabletop-Training.pdf

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Hudson, P.T.W.,Guchelaar, H.J. (2003). Risk assessment in clinical pharmacy, Pharm
World Sci, Kluwer Academic Publishers; 25(3):98–103.
Lewis, C. (2006). Risk management and prevention strategies. Journal of Emergency
Management., 21(3), 47-51

NRCOHSR (National Research Centre for OHS Regulation). (2002). About occupational
health and safety regulation in Australia. Retrieved from
http://ohs.anu.edu.au/ohs/index.php

OESC (Office of the Emergency Services Commissioner). (2011). Emergency

management manual Victoria. Melbourne, VIC: OESC. Retrieved from
http://www.oesc.vic.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/justlib/OESC/Home/Policy+and+Stan
dards/OESC+-+Emergency+Management+Manual+Victoria+%28PDF%29

Pearce, T. (2006). Foreword: Mt Macedon 50th anniversary. Australian Journal of

Emergency Management, 21(3), 2.

Phillips, B. D., Neal, D. M., & Webb, G. R. (2012). Introduction to emergency

management. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Renner, S. (2001). Emergency exercise and training techniques. Australian Journal of

Emergency Management, 16(2), 26–35.

Rogers, P. (2011). Development of resilient Australia: Enhancing the PPRR approach with
anticipation, assessment and registration of risks. Australian Journal of Emergency
Management, 26(1), 54–58.
SA (Standards Australia). (2010a). AS 3745–2010 Planning for Emergencies in Facilites.
Sydney, NSW: Standards Australia.
SA (Standards Australia). (2010b). AS 4083–2010 Planning for Emergencies – Healthcare
Facilites. Sydney, NSW: Standards Australia.
Safe Work Australia. (2010). Work Health and Safety Regulations (Draft). Canberra, ACT,
Safe Work Australia.
Safe Work Australia. (2011, June 23). Model Work Health and Safety Bill. Canberra, ACT:
Safe Work Australia.
Smith, E. (2006). National disaster preparedness in Australia – Before and after 9/11.
Journal of Emergency Primary Health Care, 4(2).s
UK Resilience. (2010). Emergency preparedness. Retrieved from
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/ukresili
ence/preparedness.aspx
Washington State MDEMD (Military Department Emergency Management Division).
(2009). Hazard identification and vulnerability assessment (HIVA): An assessment of
hazards and risks to the people, economy, environment, and property of Washington
State. Retrieved from
http://www.emd.wa.gov/plans/documents/HIVA_2009_FINALformattingNOV09.pd
f

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WICEN (Wireless Institute Civil Emergency Network). (1993). DISPLAN – An
explanation. In Region co-ordinators manual. Retrieved from
http://pub.vic.wicen.org.au/rcomanv2/d03.pdf

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