LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: Professional Education
Facilitating Learning

LET Competencies:
1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and socio-cultural factors that affect learning
2.Organize the learning environment that promotes fairness regardless of culture, family background and
gender, responsive to learner’s needs and difficulties

PREPARED BY: Aggarao, Marivilla Lydia B.

TEACHING
Assistant Professor-Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences
Author of LET Materials and LET Lecturer

PART I: Content Update

Basic Concepts
Schema - Prior knowledge
Principle - Universal truths/facts
Theory
Public pronouncement of what a scientist or an independent/group of minds that have done something and is
subject for further studies/research.
Concepts/propositions that help to describe and explain observations that one has made.
Learning
- involves acquisition of new elements of knowledge, skills, beliefs and specific behavior
- - may mean one or
- more of all these things:
the act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the knowledge gained by virtue of that act (that which is
known) the process of gaining knowledge (learning how). -Banner and Cannon, 1997
LEARNING - It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new
information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.
Adaptation - to become adjusted to new or different conditions
Assimilation - to make or become similar; to become absorbed, as knowledge
Accommodation - to settle; reconcile, adapt, adjust
Learning
- is characterized by:
a change in behavior or the capacity to change one’s behavior in the future
a relatively permanent observable/demonstrable change in the behavior of a person as a result of
interaction of the environment
occurring through practice or experience
it is not being the same as thinking as its focus is on manifest behavior rather than simply on
thoughts

Principles/Conditions of Learning
1. Learning is an active, continuous process: it involves more than acquiring information.
2. Styles and rates of learning vary: learners may be auditory, visual, or tactile/kinesthetic.
3. Readiness affects motivation and desire to learn.
4. Learning is very effective when there is immediate application of what is being taught.
5. Life experiences influence learning.
6. Learning is facilitated when learners have knowledge of their progress towards a goal.
7. Repetition (practice) helps perfect learning.
8. Principle of effect: learning is strengthened when accompanied by satisfying feeling.
9. Principle of primacy: what is taught must be taught right at the first time.

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10. Principle of intensity: teaching requires provision of vivid, exciting learning of experiences.
11. Principle of recency: the things most recently learned are the best remembered.

Learning Theories
They are sets of conjectures and hypothesis that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place
Conjectures -to conclude or suppose from incomplete evidence; guess; an indecisive opinion
Hypothesis - a set of assumptions, provisionally accepted as a basis of reasoning or unsupported or ill
supported theory

A. Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory

It operates on a principle of “Stimulus-Response”
Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’sClassical Conditioning
 Classical means “in the established manner”
 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.

Feature of Classical Conditioning Classroom Implications

1. Stimulus – Generalization – a  A child should be convinced that not all

process by which the conditioned teachers in school are bad or anything
response transfers to other stimuli that that associates to school matters are bad.
is similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.
Ex. stern teacher
2. Discrimination – a process by which one  Help the child to distinguish the
learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an difference between two or three
identical manner because of previous identical stimuli or to discriminate their
experiences. distinct differences.
3. Extinction – a process by which a  Fear of anxiety towards a terror teacher
conditioned response is lost. gradually vanishes if in the succeeding
Ex. anxiousness days you experience pleasant treatment
with the teacher.

Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism

Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting
Thorndike Theory of Learning Classroom Implications
1. Multiple response – variation of  A child tries multiple responses to solve
responses that would lead to conclusion or a certain problem.
arrival of an answer
2. Law of Set and Attitude – attitude means  Giving of homework, advanced reading
“disposition”, “pre-judgment”, and prior affects learning
instruction/experience affects towards a
given task.
3. Law of Readiness – interfering with oral  Asking a child to write the alphabets
directed behavior causes frustration, causing when he/she did not learn the basic
someone to do something they do not want to strokes of writing gets frustrated and
do is also frustrating. annoyed.
a. When someone is ready to perform
some act, to do is satisfying.
b. When someone is ready to perform
some act, not to do is annoying.
c. When someone is not ready to
perform some act and is forced to do,
it is annoying.

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4. Law of Exercise – the organism learns by  Practice makes perfect
doing and forgets by not doing.  Provide varied enhancement
a. Law of use – connections between activities/exercises, seatwork.
stimulus and response are
strengthened as they are used.
b. Law of disuse – connections between
a stimulus and response are weakened
when practice is discontinued.
5. Law of Effect – reward increases the  Praise students’ achievements;
strength of a connection whereas punishment encourage those low performing
does nothing. students to do better.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning - using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.
Reinforcers– any consequence that strengthen a behavior
 Primary reinforcer– related to basic needs. Ex. food
 Secondary reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with primary reinforcer.
Ex. money to buy food
 Positive reinforcer– consequence given to strengthen a behavior
 Negative reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior.
Reinforcement –it is a key element to explain why and how learning occurs.
 Verbal – praise, encouragement
 Physical – touch, pats, hugs
 Non-verbal – smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity – games, enjoyments
 Token – points, stars
 Consumable – cookies

Punishment – any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior

B. Cognitive and Metacognition

Main focus is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information)
Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
Believe in the non-observable behavior

Basic Concepts:
1. Perception - a person’s interpretation of stimuli.
2. Encoding – putting information in memory
3. Storage – changing the format of new information as it is being stored in memory
4. Rehearsal – mental repetition of information
5. Dual Coding – holds the complex networks or verbal representations and images to promote long term
retention.
6. Retrieval – finding information previously stored in memory; recalling

David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory

Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows.
May occur through:
 reception
 rote learning
 discovery learning

Meaningful Reception Learning

material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and relates it to his/her existing knowledge
Rote Reception Learning
material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and is memorized
Meaningful Discovery Learning
learner arrives at the solution to a problem or other outcome independently and relates it to his/her existing
knowledge.
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Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory or
Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction

Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to discover on their own the
relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a solution to a problem

An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. The idea is that
students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own.
Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”

Scaffolding

Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/Problem – Solving Theory

Insight – the capacity to discern the true nature of situation
- imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
• Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring perception until a
solution is arrived at.
The more intelligent a person and the more experiences he has, the more capable he will be for gaining insight.
Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between objects and events and act
accordingly to achieve their needs.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism

 It emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
 It is about how the individual learner understands things, in terms of developmental stages and learning
styles
Two major considerations:
1. Ages – what children can and cannot understand at different ages
2. Stages – how children develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages

Developmental Stages - it is a distinct period in the life cycle characterized by a particular sets of abilities,
motives, behavior and emotion that occur together and form a coherent pattern.

Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory

The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs operation in it,
stores the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval)
Memory – the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time.

Stages of Human Memory

1. Sensory Memory – utilizes sense organs such as visual, auditory; lasts less than a second
Ex. color, shape, blowing of horn
2. Short Term Memory (STM) – selected by attention; lasts up to 13-30 seconds
Ex. telephone number
3. Long Term Memory (LTM) – lasting retention of information
- Minutes to lifetime
- Information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten through decay
Three components:
Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular times and places and a storage place for many
personal experiences.
Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to “knowing that”
Semantic Memory – knowledge of general facts, principles and concepts that are not connected to particular
times and places.

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Forgetting
Inability to recall (something previously known) to the mind

Causes of Forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure- forgetting is due to inability to recall the information.
2. Decay Theory – information stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not used.
3. Interference Theory – forgetting in LTM is due to the influence of other learning

Retention- the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced.
Interference – the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing or impeding.

Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning

Learning skills are hierarchically arranged
Progression from stimulus-response associations to concepts, principles and problem solving.

7 Levels of Learning
1. Signal Learning – involuntary responses are learned
Ex. hot surface touched
2. Stimulus-response Learning – voluntary responses are learned.
Ex. Getting ready to move at the sound of a fire alarm
3. Chaining/Motor – two or more separate motor/verbal responses maybe
combined or chained to develop a more complex shell
Ex. house + wife = housewife
4. Discrimination Learning – learner selects a response which applies to
stimuli.
Ex. sound of fire engine is different from other sounds/sirens
5. Concept Learning – involves classifying and organizing perceptions to
gain meaningful concepts
Ex. Concept of “triangle”, discriminate triangle from other shapes and
deduce commonality among different shapes
6. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) – involves combining and relating
concepts to form rules
Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes
7. Problem Solving – considered the most complex condition: involves
applying rules to appropriate problem situations
Ex. Solving mathematical problems using a given formula (find the area
of a square

Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)

Transfer – to convey or cause to pass from one place, person or things to another; direct (a person) elsewhere
for help or information.

Transfer of Learning
Types:
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 1. Lateral transfer – occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the same level. (e.g.
solving word problems given in text and later solving a similar problem on the board)
2. Vertical transfer – occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced/complex skills (e.g. being
able to add and multiply; being able to read and write)

Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

 Known for the terms:
 “life space” (reality, need, aspirations, desires, goals)
 “field theory” (forces-social environment; function of both the person and environment)
 One considers all possible factors that influence a person's behavior and consider how those factors
interact and change in time to influence the person's present state.
 “Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process”

C. Socio-cultural
Concepts:
Learning involves participation in a community of practice
Society and culture affects learning
Social learners become involved in a community of practice, which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to
be acquired; social interaction.

Culture and Learner Diversity

Relationship of culture and learning style affect students’ learning/achievement.
* student’s color, “way of life” vs. cultural values, beliefs and norms of schools
Teacher’s cultures
- teacher’s own cultural orientations impede successful learners guided by another cultural orientation.

Albert Bandura’s Social / Observational Learning Theory

Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment
People learn through observation, simulation, modeling which means watching (observing), another called a
model and later imitating the model’s behavior.
Concentrates on the power of example

Models are classified as:

Real life– exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others
Symbolic – presented through oral/written symbols, e.g. books
Representational– presented through audio-visual measures, e.g. films

Concepts in Social Learning Theory

1. Vicarious Learning – learning is acquired from observing the consequences of other’s behavior.
2. Self – regulated Learning – occurs when individuals observe, assess and judge their own behavior against
their own standards, and subsequently reward or punish themselves.
4 Phases of Observational Learning
1. Attention – mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend to recognize the
distinctive features of the model’s response.
2. Retention –reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that observed
behavior
3. Motor Reproduction Process– after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed for
reproduction of the behavior learned.
4. Motivation al Process– although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior,
there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable

Situated Learning by Jean Lave and Wenger

Concepts
The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process of learning.
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Learning involves social relationships – situations of co-participation.
Learning is in the relationships between people.
Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations they share.

Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory/Environmental Contexts

Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in.
Learners are understood within the context of their environment.
These environmental contexts are interrelated.

Environmental Contexts: Major Levels

1. Microsystem – innermost level
- contains the structure that has direct contact with child
2.Mesosystem– connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
3.Exosystem – 3rd level
- social system which the child does not function directly
4.Macrosystem– outermost level
- values, customs, laws, beliefs and resources of a culture/society
5 . Chronosystem–

If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment resulting to behavioral deficiencies. Learning tends to regress / slow down when the
environment of the child is in turmoil

Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

It emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - gap between actual and potential development
*Actual development – what children can do on their own
* Potential development – what children can do with help
Scaffolding –
 competent assistance or support through mediation of the environment (significant others) in which
cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral development can occur.

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence – refers to general mental ability of a person
- capacity to resolve problems or to fashion products that are valued in a more cultural setting
Achievements – refers to the previous learning of a person in a certain subject area.
Multiple Intelligence – capacity of a person to possess and adapt two or more intelligences.
Intelligence Competence Examples
1. Linguistic – sensitivity to spoken and - Ability to learn language  Writers, poets, lawyers,
written language - Capacity to use language to speakers
accomplish certain goals

2.Logical/mathematical – analyzes problems - Ability to detect patters,  Scientists, mathematicians

logically, carry out mathematical operations, reason deductively and think
and investigate issues scientifically. logically.

3. Musical – skill in the performance, - Capacity to recognize and  Musicians, composers

composition and appreciation of musical compose musical pitches,
patterns. tones and rhythms.

4. Bodily kinesthetic – using one’s whole - Ability to use mental  Athletes, dancers
body or body parts to solve and convey abilities to coordinate bodily
ideas. movements.

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5. Spatial – recognize and use patterns of Capacity to understand,  Engineers
wide space and more confined areas. appreciate and maximize the
use of spaces
6. Interpersonal – working effectively with - Capacity to understand the  Educators, sales people,
others. intentions, motivations and religious counselors,
desires of other people. politicians

7. Intrapersonal – working effectively with - Capacity to understand

oneself oneself, appreciate one’s
feelings, fears and motivations
8. Naturalist – appreciation of the - Ability to recognize,  Nature lover,
environment/nature. categorize and grow upon environmentalist
certain features of the
environment

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence (1988), focuses on three main components of intelligence:

Practical intelligence--the ability to do well in informal and formal educational settings; adapting to and
shaping one's environment; street smarts.
Experiential intelligence--the ability to deal with novel situations; the ability to effectively automate ways of
dealing with novel situations so they are easily handled in the future; the ability to think in novel ways.
Componential intelligence--the ability to process information effectively.Includes metacognitive, executive,
performance, and knowledge-acquisition components that help to steer cognitive processes.

Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Highlights the role of emotion in the success or happiness of an individual which eventually affects behavior or
learning.

William Glasser’s Control Theory

Behavior is inspired by what satisfies a person’s want at any given time (human needs).

David Kolb’s Learning Styles

Learning Styles – are tools utilized by learners to cope and adjust to the learning environment

Four learning styles

Learning Styles Educational Implications
1. Convergers– rely on abstract  Teacher should provide learning
conceptualizing and experimenting tasks that have specific answers
- they like to find specific, concrete like numbers and figures/units.
answers and move quickly to solution
- unemotional, since they prefer to deal
with things rather than with people.
Ex. physical sciences and engineering
2. Assimilators – rely most on abstract  Teacher should provide learning
conceptualizing and reflective tasks that call for integration of
observation materials/situational activities
- interested in theoretical concerns than
in applications.
Ex. research and planning
3. Divergers – rely on concrete  Teacher should provide group
experience and active participation activities since learners enjoy
- generate ideas and enjoy working with working in groups.
people.
Ex. counseling and consulting

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4. Accommodators – rely on concrete  Teacher should provide learning
experience and active experimentation tasks that call for hands-on
- risk – taking, action oriented, approach.
adoptable in new situations.
Ex. marketing, business, sales

Types of Learners

Types of Learners/Perceptual Educational Implications/Learning

Channel Preferences

1. Auditory learners – prefer to learn  Lecturing is the teaching

by listening/auditory perceptual approach that works best for
channel. them.
 Songs/poems are useful and
effective learning tools.
2. Visual learners – prefer print  Reading/responding to visual
materials/visual perceptual channel cues, such as the chalkboard or
transparencies
 Textbooks and pictures are useful
and effective learning tools.
3. Tactile learners – like to  Hands-on or laboratory methods
manipulate objects/tactile perceptual of learning are most appropriate
channel for learners.
 Tracing diagrams or using texture
examples.
4. Kinesthetic or whole body  Simulations, exploratory
learners – like to learn through activities and problem-solving
experiential activities/kinesthetic approach of teaching.
perceptual channel.  Pacing or dancing while learning
new material.

Part II
MOTIVATION

Motivation
An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that serves to activate or energize
behavior and give it direction.
Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior we ordinarily refer to as ability.
Ability refers to what a person wants to do.
In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to understand that motivation comes in two forms.

Two Kinds of Motivation:

Extrinsic Motivation
– When students work hard to win their parents’ favour, gain teachers’ praise or earn high grades; their reasons
for work and study lie primarily outside themselves.
- Is fuelled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from an external source

Intrinsic Motivation
– when students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the praise won or
grades earned; the reasons for learning reside primarily inside themselves
- Fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions

Principles of Motivation
The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned.
Incentives motivate learning
Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self – directive than is external motivation, which must be
repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.
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Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is when one want to know something.
Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.

Theories of Motivation

1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull)

• Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that motivates behavior
• Drives most typically have been considered to involve
physiological survival needs; hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, sex.
• A drive results from the activation of a need
• Need – a physiological deficiency that creates condition of
disequilibrium in the body

2.Self – Efficacy (Albert Bandura)

Self – efficacy – it is the belief that one has capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage
prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in essence competence) self –
efficacy is the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect.

Self – efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his/her ability to reach a goal while, self – esteem relates to a
person’s sense of self – worth.

3. Self – Determination (E. Deci)

Self – determination – comes from the sense of autonomy that a person has when it comes to things that he
does and the choices he makes.

4. Theory of Achievement Motivation (Atkinson)

 Motivation to perform is affected by two variables
 Expectancy – people must believe than they can accomplish a task, that is, they should have
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
 Value – they should place an importance or value in what they are doing.

5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)

People’s various explanations for successes and failures – their beliefs about what causes attributions.
Dimensions underlying people’s attribution. People can explain events in many different ways. For example, a
tennis player may attribute his/her wins and successes in matches to things like – luck, health, effort, mood,
strengths and weaknesses of his/her opponents, climate, his/her fans etc.

TECHNIQUES IN MOTIVATING LEARNERS

Challenge them - offer student’s opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take intellectual
risks.
Build on strengths first - Opportunity to use their talents to achieve success.
Offer choices - offering choices develop ownership. When child makes decisions he/she is more likely to
accept ownership and control of the results.
Provide a secure environment which permits children to fail without penalty. Learning how to deal with
failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning.

III. ACHIEVING LEARNING OUTCOMES

A. Definitions
- Learning outcomes specify what a learner is expected to know, understand or to be able to do as a result of a
learning process.
- Measuring learning outcomes provides information on what particular knowledge (cognitive); skill or
behavior (psychomotor and affective). Students have gained after instruction is completed.

B. Importance
• Communicate expectations to learners
• Review curriculum and content
• Design appropriate assessment
• Evaluate the effectiveness of learning

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C. Three learning domains (KSA)
C.1. Cognitive Learning Domain
– development of knowledge and intellectual skills
- mental skills (knowledge)

Basic Concepts: Cognitive Learning

1.Fact – something that is true, something that actually exists
2. Concept – basically the main idea
3. Generalization –the formation of a general notion by putting together general concepts
4. Thinking – rational; reasoning

Types of Thinking
1 Problem Solving – process involved in the solution of a problem.

2. Critical Thinking
a. Careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, suspend judgement on a claim
b. Reasonable reflective thinking that is focused in deciding whether to believe or do
c. Comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use to solve problems, make
decisions, and learn new concepts

3. Creative Thinking
 Involves the ability to produce new forms in an art or mechanics or to solve problems by novel
methods
 Creativity consist in coming up with a new and relevant ideas
 Creativity has two kinds
a. Cognitive – involved in problem solving
b. Aesthetic – relating to artistic creation

4. Metacognition
-meta– after; beyond; higher
-cognition– way of thinking; perceiving; knowing
 Refers to the idea of “knowing about knowing”, involves the study of how we think about our
own thinking in order to develop strategies for learning.
 Is the capacity to monitor and regulate one’s own thinking or mental capacity.
 From of thinking in which an individual develops an awareness of his characteristics, attitudes,
beliefs, and actions.

Principles in Achieving Cognitive Learning and Their Classroom Implications

 Content: Teach tacit heuristic knowledge as well as textbook knowledge.
 Situated Learning: Teach knowledge and skills that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful
in real life.
 Modeling and Explaining: Show how a process unfolds and tell reasons why it happens that
way.
 Coaching and Feedback: Pay personalized attention to performance, coupled with appropriate
hints, helps, and encouraging feedback.
 Articulation and Reflection: make students think about and give reasons for their actions/own
performance.
 Exploration: Encourage students to try out different strategies and observe their effects.
 Sequence: Proceed in an order from simple to complex, with increasingly diversity.

C.2. Affective Learning Domain

(Krathwohl)
- deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate
- valuing what is being learned
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 - incorporating the values of a discipline as a way of life
- growth in feeling or emotional areas (attitude)

Basic Concepts: Affective Learning

 Beliefs – an accepting of something or someone as true or reliable without asking for proof.
 Attitudes – a particular feeling or way of thinking about something.
 Values – important and enduring beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is
good or desirable and what is not.

Principles in Achieving the Development of Attitudes and Values and Their Classroom Implications
 Every interaction with children provides an opportunity to teach values.
 Children learn about our values through daily interaction with us.
 Children learn through our example
 Children learn values through the way we do things as a family.
 Children learn values and beliefs through their exposure to the larger world.
 Children learn values through our explanations of the world.

C.3 Psychomotor Learning Domain

(Anita J. Harrow)
Includes physical movement that involves coordination of the mind and body
Manual of physical skills

Basic Concepts: Psychomotor Learning

Capacity – the facility or power to produce, perform or deploy.
Ability – competence in an activity or occupation because of ones’ skill, training, or other qualification.
Skill – learned capacity to carry out predetermined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or
both.

Acknowledgement goes to authors

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