Lab Manual Cycle 1

Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus
A LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR
Chemical Engineering
Laboratory –I
Department of Chemical Engineering,

Birla Institute of Technology & Science (BITS), Pilani
September 2014
1
CONTENTS
CYCLE - I
Page No.
S. No. Experiment
1. Flow through Fluidized Bed (Gas and Water) 3
Flow through Packed Bed (Gas and Water)

2. 10
Drag Coefficient determination
3. a. Losses due to pipe fittings 22

b. Losses due to friction in pipes
a. Bernoulli’s Theorem verification

4. 34
b. Discharge through venturi, orifice and rotameter
a. Pitot tube experiment (Air and Water)
5. 42
b. Reynolds Apparatus
6. Centrifugal pump characteristics 52
7. Reciprocating pump characteristics 61
8. Differential distillation 76
9. Cross-circulation drying apparatus 83

a. Thermal Conductivity of solids
10. 92
b. Heat Pipe demonstrator
2
EXPERIMENT NO. 1(a)

FLOW THROUGH FLUIDIZED BED (AIR & WATER)
1. Aim
Study of hydrodynamic and bed characteristics for flow through fluidized beds.
2. Objective
 To determine the minimum fluidization velocity experimentally as well as
theoretically.
 To study the bed expansion characteristics of the fluidized bed (plot log NRe vs.
porosity and pressure drop vs. NRe).
3. Apparatus
Stop watch, graduated cylinders, beakers
4. Theory
When a liquid or a gas is passed at very low velocity up through a bed of solid particles, the
particles do not move, and the pressure drop is given by the Ergun equation. If the fluid
velocity is steadily increased, the pressure drop and the drag on individual particles increase,
and eventually the particles start to move and become suspended in the fluid. The terms
‘fluidization’ and ‘fluidized bed’ are used to describe the condition of fully suspended
particles, since the suspension behaves like a dense fluid.
Fluidized beds are used extensively in the chemical process industries, particularly for the
cracking of high-molecular-weight petroleum fractions. Such beds inherently possess
excellent heat transfer and mixing characteristics. These are devices in which a large surface
area of contact between a liquid and a gas, or a solid and a gas or liquid is obtained for
achieving rapid mass and heat transfer and for chemical reactions.
The fluidized bed is one of the best known contacting methods used in the processing
industry, for instance in oil refinery plants. Among its chief advantages are that the particles
are well mixed leading to low temperature gradients, they are suitable for both small and
large scale operations and they allow continuous processing. There are many well established
operations that utilize this technology, including cracking and reforming of hydrocarbons,
coal carbonization and gasification, ore roasting, Fisher-Tropsch synthesis, coking,
aluminium production, melamine production, and coating preparations. Nowadays, you will
find fluidized beds used in catalyst regeneration, solid-gas reactors, combustion of coal,
roasting of ores, drying, and gas adsorption operations. The application of fluidization is also
well recognized in nuclear engineering as a unit operation for example, in uranium extraction,
nuclear fuel fabrication, reprocessing of fuel and waste disposal.
When a fluid is admitted at the bottom of a packed bed of solids at a low flow rate, it passes
upward through bed without causing any particle motion. If the particles are quite small, flow
in the channels between the particles will be laminar and the pressure drop across the bed will
be proportional to the superficial velocity (Vo) and for turbulent situations, pressure drop
across the bed increase nonlinearly with the increase in the superficial velocity. As the
velocity is gradually increased, the pressure drop increases, but particles do not move and the
bed height remains the same. At a certain velocity, the pressure drop across the bed
counterbalances the force of gravity on the particles or the weight of the bed, and any other
further increase in velocity causes the particles to move and the true fluidization begins. For a
3
high enough fluid velocity, the friction force is large enough to lift the particles. This
represents the onset of fluidization once the bed is fluidized pressure drop across the bed
remains constant, but the bed height continues to increase with increasing flow.
Figure 1 Fluidization regimes
In order to determine the pressure drop through a fixed bed for any flow condition, the Ergun
equation (1952) can be used:
dp is the size of particles (µm)

L is the height of the bed (m)
µ is the viscosity of sir (N/m2.s)
U is the average superficial velocity (m/s)
ϵ is the bed voidage or porosity
ρ is the density of air/water (kg/m3)
∆P is the pressure drop across the bed (N/m2)
The average Reynolds number based on superficial velocity which is given by,
If the Reynolds number is less than 10 then it is laminar flow and is greater than 2000 it is
turbulent flow. The rest of the values lie in the transition regime. If the flow rate of air/water
Q is measured in litres, A is the bed cross-sectional area and U is the superficial velocity in
m/s, then
4
Theoretically at incipient fluidization (the stage in the fluidized bed where the force on the
solid is enough to balance the weight of the solid material),
∆P is in mm of manometer
The pressure drop at fluidization can also be predicted by the equation,
ρp is the particle density (kg/m3)

ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3)
g is the gravitational force (m/s2)
Minimum fluidization velocity

Umf, the minimum fluidizing velocity, is frequently used in fluid-bed calculations and in
quantifying one of the particle properties. This parameter is best measured in small-scale
equipment at ambient conditions. The correlation given below can then be used to back
calculate dp. This gives a particle size that takes into account effects of size distribution and
sphericity. The correlation can then be used to estimate Umf at process conditions. If Umf
cannot be determined experimentally, use the expression below directly.
Assumption: - Consider the uniform particle size.
Remf = (1135.7 +0.0408Ar) 0.5 - 33.7 (Wen and Yu correlation for particles dp> 100 µm)
Re mf  d p  f U mf / 
Ar  d 3 p  f  s   f g /  2 (Ar is the Archimedes Number)
For particles of dp < 100 µm, Baeyens and Geldart (1977) can be used,
5. Experimental procedure
1. The height of the static bed Z1 i.e. when there is no flow of water/air (porosity 1) was
noted.
2. The flow of air/water in the column is started and the flow rates from the rotameter
were noted.
3. The corresponding bed heights and pressure drop values were noted.
4. The flow rates were increased steadily and similar data were collected at different
intervals.
5. 6 to 8 readings of flow rates were varied and reading were taken.
6. Steady state flow rate of water was ensured at each point.
5
6. Observations and calculations

Particle size = 8 mm
Porosity = 0.6
Inside diameter of the column (D) = 0.055m
Cross-sectional area of fluidized column = 0.002375 m²
Density of water ρ (at T0C) = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water µ (at T0C) = 0.798*10-3 kg/m-s
Density of air = 1.1687 kg/m3
Viscosity of air = 1.8633x10-5 Pa.s
Velocity V (m/s) = volumetric flow rate of water / cross section area of column
Initial height of static bed in the column (Z1)
Porosity of the fluidized Bed: If Z1 and 1 are the height and porosity of the static bed and Z2
and 2 are the height and porosity of fluidized bed, the
(1 1 )
Z 2  Z1 (Total volume of column equal to total volume of solid)
(1 2 )
Z2 = 2 Z2 = Z1 (1- 1)
Z2 - Z1 (1- 1) = 2 Z2
 2 = Z2 - Z1 (1- 1) / Z2
Note: Keep the observation tables for air and water separately. The sample calculations
for the same should be shown separately.
Volumetric
Height of Flow rate of Velocity(v) Porosity Pressure
Obs No. NRe
Bed (Z2) water/air in m/s () drop (P)
m³/s
7. Results & Discussions
References:
1. Warren, L McCabe, Smith, J C , and Harriott, P, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 6th edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India, 2000.
2. Kunii, Levenspeil O, Fluidized Engineering, Robert E Krieger Publishing Company,
Huntington, New York, 1977
6
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
FLOW THROUGH PACKED BED (AIR & WATER)
1. Aim
a) To plot Modified Reynolds’s No. (NRe,m) vs. Modified friction factor (f) on a log-log
graph
b) To verify Ergun’s equation
2. Apparatus
Stop watch, Graduated cylinder, packing as Hollow rings of Glass, Manometer, beakers etc.
3. Theory
A packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a packing material. The
packing can be randomly filled with small objects like Raschig rings, Pall rings or else it can
be a specifically designed structured packing. Packed column is a pressure vessel that has a
packed section. In general, packed towers are used for bringing two phases in contact with
one another and there will be strong interaction between the fluids in this case between solid
and fluid. As the fluid passes through the bed, it does so through the voids presents in the
bed. The voids form continuous channels throughout the bed. The flow may be laminar
through some channels and turbulent in other channels.
Just as with straight pipes, Ergun relates the flows and pressure drops to a Reynolds Number
and friction factor respectively. The Reynolds number for packed beds, Rep , depends upon
the controlled variable i.e. Superficial velocity Vo and the system parameters ρ, ε, μ, and Dp
and is defined as (Bird et. al., 1996),
Dp is the equivalent spherical diameter of the particle, V0 is the superficial velocity defined as
the volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-sectional area of the column, ρ is the fluid
density, ε is the dimensionless void fraction defined as the volume of void space over the
total volume of packing, and μ is the fluid viscosity.
The friction factor, fp, depends upon V0 and the pressure drop, ΔP, and system parameters,
and is defined as (Bird et al., 1996)
P = Pressure drop in kg/cm2

 = porosity
L = effectively length of the bed, cm
V = Superficial-fluid velocity, based on empty cross-section of pipe, m/sec
 = density of the fluid
 = viscosity of fluid
7
4. Working principle
Figure 1 Schematic of Packed Bed Column
The packed column shown above is filled with packings, in our case the packing is Raschig
glass rings. Now, in this the water is passed through the bottom of column and the flow
happens through the packing thus creating friction , this friction leads to pressure drop in the
column which is measured by the manometer attached to the two ends of packed column.
Also, the flow here is regulated by the rotameter attached to the column. An increase in flow
increases the friction and thus leads to an increase in pressure drop.
5. Procedure
a. Water/air was allowed to flow from bottom to top in a packed bed.
b. Flow of water/air is regulated to vary the flow rate.
c. The corresponding pressure drop values were noted by means of the manometer for 6
to 8 different rates of flow of fluid.
d. The flow rate values were noted and it was ensured that the steady state flow rates
have been achieved.
6. Observations
Inside diameter of the tube = 50 mm
Volume of each particle = 1.57x10-6 m3
Surface area of the particle = 0.000628 m2
Porosity of the bed = 0.3
Effective length of packing = 750 mm
Temperature of fluid = ambient
Manometer fluid,  Hg = 13,534 kg/m³
Density of water ρ (at T0C) = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water µ (at T0C) = 0.798*10-3 kg/m-s
Density of air = 1.1687 kg/m3
Viscosity of air = 1.8633x10-5 Pa.s
Manometer Reading h (metres)
8
S. Volumetric Manometer Superficial Velocity of Pressure drop/length

No. flow rate of reading. water = Vo (Q /Cross  P h g ( m   )
water. Q  h (m) of Hg sectional area of the  N / m2
3
L L
m /sec column m/s)
Note: Calculate friction factor and modified Reynolds No. and plot on a log-log graph
separately for air and water. The observation columns and sample calculations for both
of them should be shown separately.
Calculations
Certain assumptions are carried out before calculating the Friction factor and Reynolds
number. First, we assume that there is no channeling in the packed bed. Channeling occurs
when the fluid flowing through the packed bed finds a “preferred path” through the bed. We
also assume that the diameter of the packing is much smaller than the diameter of the column
as well. The maximum recommended particle diameter is one-fifth of the column diameter.
We assume that velocity, particle diameter and void fraction behaves as a bulk behavior and
hence we can use an average values.
Initially, we calculate diameter of the particle,
DP =
Calculate friction factor as,
and modified Reynolds number as,
7. Results and Discussion

Modified Reynold’s number, friction factor are calculated accordingly to the changes in
variables affecting and Ergun’s equation is verified.
References:
a) Bird, R. Byron, Transport Phenomena. Madison, Wisconsin: John Wiley & Sons,
1996.
b) Geankoplis, Christie J., Transport Process and Unit Operations. 4th ed., New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 2003.
c) Ergun, Sabri, “Fluid Flow through Packed Columns.” Chemical Engineering
Progress, Vol. 48, No 2. , 89-94 , 1952.
9
EXPERIMENT NO. 3(a)

LOSSES DUE TO PIPE FITTINGS, SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT &
CONTRACTION
1 Aim
To determine the loss co-efficient for following sections
(a) Sudden expansion
(b) Sudden contraction
(c) Tee – junction
(d) Pipe bend
(e) Elbow
2. Apparatus
FHP (Fractional Horse Power) pump driven pipe system consisting of elbow bend, Tee-
junction, sudden enlargement and contraction, manometer with tapping into pipe for head
readings, sump and discharge tanks, stopwatch.
3. Theory
In Hydraulic Engineering practice, it is frequently necessary to estimate the head loss
incurred by a fluid as it flows along a pipeline. For example, it may be desired to predict the
rate of flow along a proposed pipe connecting two reservoirs at different levels. Or it may be
necessary to calculate what additional head would be required to double the rate of flow
along an existing pipeline.
Loss of head is incurred by fluid mixing, which occurs at fittings such as bends or valves, and
by frictional resistance at the pipe wall. Where there are numerous fittings and the pipes are
short, the major part of the head loss will be due to the local mixing near the fittings. For a
long pipeline, on the other hand, skin friction at the pipe wall will predominate.
Loss of head due to change in cross-section, bends, elbows, valves and fittings of all types
fall into the category of minor losses in pipe lines. In long pipe lines the friction losses are
much larger than these minor losses and hence the latter are often neglected. But, in shorter
pipelines their consideration is necessary for the correct estimate of losses.
When there is any type of bend in pipe, the velocity of flow changes, due to which the
separation of the flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies, takes place. Thus the
energy is lost. The losses of head due to bend in pipe:
V2
hL  K L
2g
The minor losses in contraction can be expressed as:
V12
hL  K L
2g
The minor losses in enlargement can be expressed as:
(V  V2 ) 2
hL  K L 1
2g
Where, hL = minor loss or head loss
KL = Loss coefficient
V = velocity of fluid.
10
V1 = velocity of fluid in pipe of small Diameter.

V2 = velocity of fluid in pipe of large Diameter.
4.Experimental set-up
The apparatus consist of a ½” smooth and sharp bends and elbow, a sudden expansion from
½” to 1”, sudden contraction from 1” to ½” and ½” ball valve, gate valve, tee fitting and pipe
union joint. Pressure tapings are provided at inlet and outlet of these fittings at suitable
distance. A differential manometer fitted in the line gives pressure loss due to fittings. Supply
to the pipeline is made through centrifugal pump, which deliver water from sump tank. The
flow of water in pipeline is regulated by means of Control valve & By-Pass valve. Discharge
is measured with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.
4.1 Utilities Required:

a) Power supply: Single Phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with Earth.
b) De-mineralized Water.
c) Drain.
d) Space required: 1.6m x 0.6m
Schematic Diagram for Losses due Pipe Fittings,

Sudden Enlargement & Contraction Apparatus
5 Experimental procedure:
a) Close the drain valves provided.
b) Fill Sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
c) Close all flow control valves given on the water line, pressure taps of manometer
connected to different pipe -fittings and open by-pass valve.
d) Now switch on the main power supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz) and start the pump.
e) Operate the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired test section.
f) Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to avoid the
blow of water on manometer fluid.
11
g) Now open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the air
in manometer. When there is no air in the manometer, close the air release valves.
h) Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and record the
manometer reading.
i) Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using stop watch
and measuring tank.
j) Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control valve and
by-pass valve.
k) When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the By-Pass Valve fully.
Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the Control valve
of secondly desired test section.
l) Repeat same procedure for the 9 selected test sections of the two bends, elbow,
contraction, expansion, tee and union joint and both gate and ball valves.
m) When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first, switch off pump,
and switch off power supply to panel.
6 Observation & Calculations
6.1 Specification:
Sudden Enlargement : From 16.5mm to 27mm
Sudden Contraction : From 27mm to 16.5mm.
Bend : 1/2"
Elbow : 1/2"
Ball valve : 1/2"
Gate valve : 1/2"
Tee joint : 1/2"
Union joint : 1/2"
Water Circulation : FHP Pump.
Flow Measurement : Using Measuring Tank with Piezometer, Capacity 40 Ltrs.
Sump Tank : Capacity 80 Ltrs.
Stop Watch : Electronic.
Control Panel Comprises of: Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
6.2 Formulae:
(a) Discharge:
A* R
Q ---------------- (1)
t *100
(b) Velocity:
Q
V1  (Velocity in ½” pipe) ---------------- (2)
a1
Q
V2  (Velocity in 1” pipe) ---------------- (2a)
a2
(c) Loss of Head (for Contraction):
V2
hL  K L 1 ---------------- (3)
2g
(d) Loss of Head (for Expansion):
(V  V2 ) 2
hL  K L 1  K LC ---------------- (4)
2g
12
(e) Experimental loss of head

h *13.6
hL  --------------- (5)
100
(f) Loss Co-efficient:
2g
K L  hL 2 ---------------- (6)
V1
6.3 Data:
A = Area of measuring tank = 0.1m2
s = Specific gravity of Hg = 13.6
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
d1 = Dia. of smaller pipe = 0.0165 m
d2 = Dia. of larger pipe = 0.027m.
a1 = Cross-sectional area of Small Dia. pipe = 2.14 x 10-4 m2
a2 = Cross-sectional area of Large Dia. pipe = 5.73 x 10-4 m2
6.4 Observation Table:

S. Type of Fitting Pressure Rise of water level in Time taken for R
No. Difference, h measuring tank R (cm) (sec.)
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
6.5 Calculation Table:

S. Discharge, Velocity, Velocity, Loss of Kinetic Loss of Loss
No Q V1 V2 Energy, C head coefficient K L
hL
6.6 Nomenclature:
Q = discharge, m3/s
V1 = velocity of fluid in pipe of Small Diameter (m).
V2 = velocity of fluid in pipe of Large Diameter (m).
a1 = Cross-sectional area of Small Dia. pipe
a2 = Cross-sectional area of Large Dia. pipe
KL = loss coefficient.
13
h = pressure difference, m
hL = head loss, m
R = Rise of water level in measuring tank (m).
t = Time taken for R (sec.).
7. Result &discussion
8. Conclusion
9. Precaution & maintenance instructions:

a) Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
b) Never fully close, the delivery line and by-pass line valves simultaneously.
c) Always keep apparatus free from dust. To prevent clogging of moving parts, run
pump at least once in a fortnight.
d) Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months. Always use clean
water.
e) It apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely,
and fill pump with cutting oil.
f)
9.1 Troubleshooting:
a) If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
b) If pump gets heat up, switch off the main power for 15 minutes, avoid closing the
flow control valve, and by pass valve simultaneously during operation.
References:
a) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”,
4th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
b) Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering
Vol. - 1”, 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
c) Brown, G.G., “Unit Operations”, 1st ed., CBS, ND, 1995.
d) Foust, A.S., et. al., “Principles of Unit Operations”, 2nd ed., John Wiley, NY, 1980.
14
EXPERIMENT NO. 3(b)

LOSSES DUE TO PIPE FRICTION
1. Aim
To determine the losses due to friction in pipes and friction factor for Darcy - Weisbach
equation
2. Apparatus
FHP (Fractional Horse Power) pump driven pipe system consisting of Galvanized Iron (GI)
pipe of ½”, 1” and Stainless Steel (SS) pipe of ½” diameter, manometer with tapping into
pipe for head readings, sump and discharge tanks, stopwatch.
3. Theory
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, it experiences some resistance due to which some of
the energy is lost. This loss of energy in the pipelines comes under major energy losses and
minor energy losses. In long pipelines, the friction losses are much larger than the minor
losses and hence, the latter are often neglected. The losses due to friction in the pipelines are
known as major energy losses. The friction in the pipeline is due to a viscous drag between
the stream bands of fluid. The stream bands adjacent to the solid surface are always at rest
relative to the wetted surface. The viscous drag is due to the molecular attractions between
the molecular of the fluid.
It is found that the total friction resistance to fluid flow depends on the following:
1. The area of the wetted surface
2. The density of the fluid
3. The surface roughness
4. It is independent of the fluid pressure
5. It increase with the square of the velocity
It depends on a frictional co-efficient. The loss of head in pipe due to friction is calculated
from Darcy-Weisbach equation which has been given by:
4 f LV 2
hf 
2g d
Where:
hf = loss of head due to friction
f = Co-efficient of friction
L = distance between pressure point
V = mean velocity of fluid
d = diameter of pipe
g = Acceleration due to Gravity
4. Experimental setup
The apparatus consist of three pipes of varying diameters and materials for which common
inlet connection is provided with control valve to regulate the flow, near the down stream end
of the pipe. Pressure tapings are taken at suitable distance apart between which a manometer
is provided to study the pressure loss due to the friction. Discharge is measured with the help
of measuring tank and stopwatch.
15
Schematic Diagram for Friction in Pipe Lines Apparatus
4.1 Utilities Required

a) Power supply: Single Phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with Earth.
b) De-mineralized Water Supply.
c) Drain.
d) Space required : 1.6m x 0.6m
a) Close the drain valves provided.
b) Fill Sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
c) Close all flow control valves given on the water line, pressure taps of manometer
connected to different pipe -fittings and open by-pass valve.
d) Now switch on the main power supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz) and start the pump.
e) Operate the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired test section.
f) Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to avoid the
blow of water on manometer fluid.
g) Now open the valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the air in
manometer. When there is no air in the manometer, close the valves.
h) Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and record the
manometer reading.
i) Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using stop watch
and measuring tank.
j) Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control valve and
by-pass valve.
k) When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the By-Pass Valve fully.
l) Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating Control Valve and
By-Pass valve.
16
m) When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first, switch off pump,
and switch off power supply to panel.
6. Observation & calculation

6.1 Specification
Pipes (3 Nos.) : Material GI of ½” & 1” diameter.
SS of ½” diameter
Pipe Test Section : Length 1.1 m for each Pipe
Flow Measurement : Using Measuring Tank with Piezometer, Capacity,
40 Ltrs.
Control Panel Comprises of:
Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
Tanks will be made of Stainless Steel.
The whole set-up is well designed and arranged in a good quality painted structure.
6.2 Formulae
1. Head losses,
h  m 
hf    1 , m of water.
100  W 
2. Co-efficient of Friction:
h 2 gd
f  f
4 LV 2
3. Discharge (Q):
AxR 3
Q m /s
t *100
4. Velocity of Fluid:
Q
V  m/ s
a
6.3 Data:
Area of measuring tank, A = 0.1m2
Sp. gravity of Hg = 13.6
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81m/sec2
Inside Diameter of Pipe, d
For GI pipe (1”) = 0.027 m
For GI pipe (1/2”) = 0.016.5 m
For SS pipe (1/2”) = 0.016 m
Cross-section area of pipe, a

For GI pipe (1”) = 5.70 x 10-4 m2
For GI pipe (1/2”) = 2.14 x 10-4 m2
For SS pipe (1/2”) = 2.01 x 10-4 m2
Distance between pressure points, L = 1.1 m each for all pipes
6.4 Observation Table: (for For GI pipe 1”, GI pipe 1/2”, and SS pipe 1/2”)
17
Extent of Pressure difference Rise of water level in Time taken, t

Valve open h (cm) measuring Tank R (cm) (sec.)
½ Open
Full Open
6.5 Calculation Table:

Pressure Discharge, Velocity of
Extent of Valve Fanning Friction
head, hf Q Fluid, V
open factor, f
(m) (m3/s) (m/s)
½ Open
Full Open
6.6 Nomenclature:
A = Area of measuring tank
a = Cross-section area of pipe
d = Inside Diameter of Pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity
h = manometer reading, cm
hf = Pressure head of water (m)
R = Rise of water level in measuring Tank (m)
t = Time taken for R (sec)
L = distance between two points
7. Result & discussion
8. Precautions
1. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
2. Never fully close the Delivery line and By-Pass line Valves simultaneously.
3. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
4. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
5. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
6. Always use clean water.
7. If apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely,
8.1 Troubleshooting:
1. If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
2. If pump gets heat up, switch off the main power for 15 minutes and avoid closing the
flow control valve and by pass valve simultaneously during operation.
References
e) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”,
4th ed, McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
f) Foust, A.S., et. al., “Principles of Unit Operations”, 2nd ed., John Wiley, NY, 1980.
g) Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Vol.
- 1”, 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996.
18
EXPERIMENT NO. 4(a)

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
1. Aim & Objective
To experimentally verify Bernoulli equation for fluid flow in horizontal pipe.
2. Apparatus
FHP pump run setup consisting of 4 rectangular tanks, horizontal pipe section, 8 piezometric
tubes with measuring scales, stopwatch.
3. Theory
Energy of a Liquid in Motion
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists
in many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
a) Potential Energy
b) Kinetic Energy, and
c) Pressure Energy.
Potential Energy of a Liquid in Motion
It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its position. If a liquid particle is Z
meters above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the potential energy of the particle
will be Z meter-kilogram per kg of liquid. Potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z
meters of the liquid.
Kinetic Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If a liquid
particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v meter per second, then the kinetic energy of the
particle will be v2/ 2g m-kg per kg of liquid. Velocity head of the liquid, at that velocity, will
be v2/ 2g meter of the liquid.
Pressure Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid
particle is under a pressure of p kg / m2, then the pressure energy of the particle will be p/w
m-kg per kg of liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid
Total Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:

The total energy of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic
energy and pressure energy. Mathematically,
Total Energy,
v2 p
EZ  m-kg/ kg of liquid
2g w
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION:
It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total
energy of a particle remains the same; while the particle moves from one point to another.”
This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in pipe.
Mathematically,
v2 p
E  Z   = Constant --------- (1)
2g w
Bernoulli Equation:
19
---------- (2)
This is the basic from of Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible inviscid flows. It may
be written for any two points 1 and 2 on the same streamline as
--------- (3)
The constant of Bernoulli equation, can be named as total head (ho) has different values on
different streamlines.
-------- (4)
*
The total head may be regarded as the sum of the piezometric head h = p/(ρg) + z and the
kinetic head v2/2g.
Bernoulli equation is arrived from the following assumptions:
a) Steady flow - common assumption applicable to many flows.
b) Incompressible flow - acceptable if the flow Mach number is less than 0.3.
c) Frictionless flow - very restrictive; solid walls introduce friction effects.
d) Valid for flow along a single streamline; i.e., different streamlines may have different
ho.
e) No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline.
f) No transfer of heat - either added or removed.
Range of validity of the Bernoulli Equation:
Bernoulli equation is valid along any streamline in any steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.
There are no restrictions on the shape of the streamline or on the geometry of the overall
flow. The equation is valid for flow in one, two or three dimensions.
Modifications on Bernoulli equation:
Bernoulli equation can be corrected and used in the following form for real cases.
Where 'q' is the work done by pump and 'w' is the work done by the fluid and h is the head
loss by friction.
4. Experimental Set-up
The apparatus is made from transparent acrylic and has both the convergent and divergent
sections. Water is supplied from the constant head tank attached to the test section. Constant
level is maintained in the supply tank. Piezometric tubes are attached at different distance on
the test section. Water discharges to the discharge tank attached at the far end of the test
section and from there it goes to the measuring tank through valve. The entire setup is
mounted on a stand.
20
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental setup
a) Fill the sump tank with water.
b) Before starting the pump, make sure that the bypass valve is fully open and the
discharge valve is closed.
c) Switch ON the Pump.
d) Flow control valve to the supply tank is opened and bypass valve is closed slowly
and simultaneously. Keep drain valve of the discharge tank fully open.
e) After we get steady height of liquid in the supply tank adjust the drain valve on
the discharge tank so as to get steady level there also.
f) Collect the predetermined quantity of water in the measuring tank and measure
the time required for the same.
g) Also record the height of liquid in each of the piezometric tube.
6. Observations
Sr. No.
Height. diff. in H1
measuring tank H2
(m) ΔH
3
Volume (m ) V
Time (sec) T
Vol. Flow rate
Q
(m3/sec)
piezome
position
H1=P1/w(m)
tube
tric
1 v1 = Q/A1
v12/ 2g (m)
21
Total Head
H2=P2/w(m)
v2 = Q/A2
2
v22/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H3=P3/w(m)
v3 = Q/A3
3
v3 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H4=P4/w(m)
v4 = Q/A4
4
v42/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H5=P5/w(m)
v5 = Q/A5
5
v5 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H6=P6/w(m)
v6 = Q/A6
6
v6 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H7=P7/w(m)
v7 = Q/ A7
7
v7 2/ 2g (m)
Total Head
H8=P8/w(m)
v8 = Q/ A8
8
v82/ 2g (m)
Total Head
Calculations:
Length of the test section = 0.4 m
Piezo tube 1 at 0.05 m c/s area A1 = 0.000961 m2
Cross Sectional Area of Measuring Tank (Am) = 0.09 m2
Height Difference in measuring tank (H) = H1- H2
= m
Volume Collected (V) = H * Am
= m3
Volumetric Flow rate (Q) = V/T
= m3/s
Linear Point Velocity (vi) = Q/ Ai
= m/ sec
22
Velocity head at point – 1 = [vi2 / (2*g)]

= m
Total Head at point –1 = Static Head + Velocity Head
= Hi + vi2 / (2*g)
= m
Check for all the points that sum of velocity head and pressure head is almost constant. Here
potential energy is not being considered as the test section lies in one horizontal plane only.
7. Result:
Draw graph of static head, velocity head, and total head Vs distance of the piezometric tubes.
8. Conclusions
9. Precautions
References
(a) McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering”, 7th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 2005.
(b) W.L Badger & J.T. Banchero., “Introduction to Chemical Engineering”,
26th reprint, McGraw Hill, NY, 2011.
(c) C.J. Geankoplis., “Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles”, 4th ed., PHI, 2009.
23
EXPERIMENT NO. 4(b)

VENTURIMETER, ORIFICEMETER & ROTAMETER CALIBRATION
1. Aim & Objective

a) To determine the co-efficient of discharge through Venturimeter & Orificemeter.
b) To calibrate the Rotameter
2. Theory
VENTURIMETER:
A Venturimeter consists of;
1. An inlet section followed by a convergent cone.
2. A Cylindrical Throat.
3. A gradually divergent cone.
The inlet section of the Venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe,
which is followed by a convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers
from the original size of the pipe to that of the Throat of the Venturimeter. The Throat of the
Venturimeter is a short parallel side tube having its cross-sectional area smaller than that of
the pipe. The divergent cone of the Venturimeter is gradually diverging pipe with its cross-
sectional area increasing from that of the Throat to the original size of the pipe. At inlet
section & Throat of the Venturimeter, pressure taps are provided.
ORIFICEMETER:
An Orificemeter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called Orifice,
which is concentric with the pipe axis. An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the
middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice
plate, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum
convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called vena
contracta point. As it does so, the velocity and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena
contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring
the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the
volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.
ROTAMETER:
The Rotameter is a variable – area meter that consists of an enlarging transparent tube
and a metering “float” (actually heavier than the liquid) that is displaced upward by the
upward flow fluid through the tube. The tube is graduated to read the flow directly. Notches
in the float cause it to rotate and thus maintain a central position in the tube. The float is an
indicating element, and greater the flow rate, the higher the float rides in the tube.
3. Experimental set up
24
Schematic Diagram for Venturimeter, Orificemeter & Rotameter Apparatus
Flow Diagram of Venturimeter Flow Diagram of Orificemeter
VENTURIMETER & ORIFICEMETER:

Starting Procedure:
a) Clean the apparatus and make All Tanks free from Dust.
b) Close the drain valves provided.
c) Fill Sump tank ¾ with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
d) Close all Flow Control Valves given on the water line and open By-Pass Valve.
e) Close all Pressure Taps of Manometer connected to Venturimeter & Orificemeter.
f) Ensure that On/Off Switch given on the Panel is at OFF position.
g) Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz).
h) Switch on the Pump.
i) Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired Test
Section.
j) Open the Pressure Taps of Manometer of related Test section, very slowly to avoid
the blow of water on manometer fluid.
25
k) Now open the Air release Valve provided on the Manometer, slowly to release the air
in manometer.
l) When there is no air in the manometer, close the Air release valves.
m) Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of Control Valve.
n) Record the Manometer reading.
o) Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using Stop Watch
and Measuring Tank.
p) Repeat Steps the same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating Control
Valve and By-Pass valve.
q) When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the By-Pass Valve fully.
CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER:
a)
Close the ball valves provided in the Venturimeter and Orificemeter pipelines.
b)
Open the ball valve provided in the Rotameter pipeline.
c)
Now switch on the main power supply and switch on the pump.
d)
Set the flow rate with the help of by pass and flow control valves provided in
Rotameter pipeline.
e) Measure the discharge with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch.
f) The actual discharge, verify the set value of Rotameter.
g) Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates.
Closing Procedure:
a) When experiment is over, close all Manometers Pressure Taps first.
b) Switch off Pump.
c) Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
5. Observation
For venturimeter & orificemeter

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Pressure Rise of Water level in Time taken for R, t
difference, h Measuring Tank, R (sec.)
(cm) (cm)
Average Co-efficient of Discharge:
For rotameter
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Rotameter Rise of Water level in Time taken for R, t
Reading in Measuring Tank, R (sec.)
LPH, Qth (cm)
26
FORMULAE:
For both Venturimeter & Orificemeter:
1. Head losses,
h  m 
H   1 , m of water ------------------- (1)
100  W 
2. Theoretical discharge (Qt):
a a 2 gH
Qt  1 2 , m3/s ------------------- (2)
a1  a 2
2 2
3. Actual discharge (Qa):

AxR
Qa  , m3/s ------------------- (3)
t *100
4. Co-efficient of discharge (Cd):
Cd = Qa/Qt ------------------- (4)
For Rotameter:
5. Actual discharge:
AxR
Qa  x3600 x1000 , m3/s ------------------- (5)
t *100
DATA:-
H= Head loss
h = Pressure difference (m)
A = 0.1 m2
ρm = Density of manometric fluid = 13600 kg/ m3
ρW = Density of working fluid = 1000 kg/ m3
g = Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
For Venturimeter:
d1 = Dia. at inlet of the venturimeter = 28mm = 0.028m
d2 = Dia. at throat of the Venturimeter = 14mm = 0.014m
a1 = d1 /4 cm
2 2
Area at inlet of Venturimeter = 6.157 * 10-4 m2
a2 = d2 /4 cm
2 2
Area at throat of Venturimeter = 1.539* 10-4 m2
For Orificemeter:
d1 = Dia. at inlet of Orificemeter = 28mm. = 0.028m
d2 = Dia. of Orifice Plate = 14mm. = 0.014m
a1 = d12/4 Area at inlet of Orificemeter = 6.157 * 10-4m2
a2 =  d22/4 m2 Area of Orifice Plate = 1.539* 10-4 m2
6. Result and discussion
For Venturimeter and Orificemeter

S. No. Actual discharge Qa Theo. Discharge Qt , Cd = Qa/Qt
3
, m /s m3/s
27
For Rotameter
S. No. Rotameter Reading in Qth, m3/s Theo. Discharge Qt,
m3/s
7. Conclusion
8. Precaution
28
EXPERIMENT NO. 5(a)

STUDY OF PITOT TUBE – AIR
1. Aim
To determine the velocity profile for the flow of air through a circular pipe using Pitot Tube.
2. Objective
To measure the velocity at different points in the flow.
3. Theory
A pitot tube is a device to measure the point velocities in the flow field of a fluid. It generally
consists two concentric tubes arranged parallel to the flow .The outer tube is perforated at one
end with small holes in its wall, which are perpendicular to the flow direction and lead to the
annular space. The annular space is otherwise sealed except for a manometer lead on the
other end .The inner tube has a small opening at one end (the same end in which holes are
there in the outer tube) parallel to the flow and pointed in the direction opposite to the flow
direction. The other end of the tube has a manometer lead. The two tubes are connected to
two limbs of a manometer through the manometer leads. At equilibrium there is no fluid
within the pitot tube. The annular space serves to transmit the static pressure. The flowing
fluid is brought to rest at the entrance of the inner tube, and this tube transmits the impact
pressure (or stagnation pressure) equivalent to the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid at that
position. If and are the stagnation pressure measured by the inner and outer tubes
respectively, the point velocity, , at a given position can be obtained from the Bernoulli
equation, by neglecting the frictional losses, as
u0 = √ {2(Ps-P0)/ℓf} = √ {2gh(ℓm-ℓf)/ℓf}
Where ℓf and ℓm are the densities of the process fluid and the manometric fluid respectively,
h is the difference in the level of the manometric fluid in the two limbs of the manometer,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Thus by changing the position of the pitot tube the
local velocities in the flow field can be obtained. The velocity profile at a given cross section
of the pipe is obtained by moving the pitot along the diameter of the pipe. By knowing the
point velocities at a given cross section, the volumetric flow rate, Q, can be determined
Q = 0∫D/2 2ᴫru0dr
Where D is the pipe diameter, and r is the radius at which u0 is measured.
4. Requirements
Pipe line with provision for supply of air, pitot tube, inclined manometer.
5. Procedure
1. Start the flow of air by switching on the blower.
2. Divide the pipe diameter in 9 equal parts to fix the radial position at which the point
velocities are to be determined.
3. Keep the pitot tube at the radial position.
4. Once the flow steadies (indicated by unchanging or slightly fluctuating level
difference in the manometer), record the level difference in the manometer.
5. Record the ambient temperature (taken same as the air temperature).
6. Repeat step 4 by moving the pitot tube at the radial determined in step 2.
29
6. Observations
Ambient temperature (T) =
Air density at T = kg/m³
Density of manometric liquid at T = kg/ m³
S.No. r,mm h,mm
7. Formula
1)Point velocity, u0
u0 = √ {2gh(ℓm-ℓf)/ℓf}
2)Volumetric flow rate,Q
Q = 0∫D/2 2ᴫru0dr
8. Results and discussion

1. Calculate the point velocities at different radial positions.
2. Plot the point velocity versus the radial position.
3. Calculate the volumetric flow rate from the point velocities .
9. Conclusions
30
STUDY OF PITOT TUBE - WATER

1. Aim
To determine the velocity profile across the cross section of pipe for the flow of water
using Pitot tube and thereby determine the co-efficient of Pitot tube for different flow rates.
2. Objective
To measure the velocity at different points in a pipe for different flow rates.
3. Theory
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe. It is based on the
principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, there is increase in pressure due
to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The Pitot tube consists of a capillary tube, bent at right angle. The lower end, which is bent
through 90, is directed in the upstream direction. The liquid rises up in the tube due to
conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The velocity is determined by measuring
the rise of liquid in the tube.
When a Pitot tube is used for measuring the velocity of flow in a pipe or other closed conduit
the Pitot tube may be inserted in the pipe as shown in figure. Since a Pitot tube measures the
stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at its dipped end. The pressure head may be
determined directly by using piezometeric readings between the Pitot tube and pressure
taping at the pipe surface. Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that
point (2) is just at the inlet of the Pitot -tube and point (1) is far away from the tube. At point
(1) the pressure is p1 and the velocity of the stream is v1. However, at point (2), is called
stagnation point, the fluid is brought to rest and the energy has been converted to pressure
energy. Therefore the pressure at (2) is p2, the velocity v2 is zero and since (1) and (2) are in
the same horizontal plane, so z1 = z2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (2)

2
p1 v1 p2 v 2 2
  
w 2g w 2g
v2 = 0
v 21 p2 p1
 
2g w w
31
p p 
v1  2 g  2  1 
w w
v1  2 gH
This is theoretical velocity.
Actual velocity v1 act  Cv 2gH
4. Requirements
Pitot tube : Material SS/copper of compatible size fitted

with scale.
Test Section : Material Clear Acrylic, compatible to 1” dia
Pipe.
Flow Measurement : Using Measuring Tank,
Capacity 40 Ltrs.
Control Panel Comprises of: Standard make On/Off Switch, Mains Indicator, etc.
5. Experimental set-up
The apparatus consists of a Pitot tube made of SS and fixed below a pointer gauge. The
pointer gauge is capable to measure the position of Pitot tube in transparent test section. The
pipe has a flow control valve to regulate the flow. Piezometric tubes are provided to
determine the velocity head. A pump is provided to circulate the water. Discharge is
measured with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch
Starting Procedure:
1. Clean the apparatus and make Tank free from Dust.
2. Close the drain valves provided.
3. Fill Sump tank ¾ with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Close all Flow Control Valves given on the water line and open By-Pass Valve.
5. Ensure that On/Off Switch given on the Panel is at OFF position.
6. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 Volts AC, 50 Hz).
7. Switch on the Pump.
8. Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water through orifice.
9. Adjust water flow rate to desired rate with the help of flow Control Valve.
10. Set the Pitot tube at the center of test section
11. Record the piezometric reading and measure the discharge with the help of measuring
tank and stop watch.
12. Now move the Pitot tube up and down at the same flow rate and note the piezometric
readings to find out the velocity at different points in pipe.
13. Calculate the co – efficient of Pitot tube from actual and theoretical velocities and plot
the velocities at different points inside the pipe.
14. Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating Control Valve,
and By-Pass valve.
32
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over Switch off Pump.
2. Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
3. Drain water from all tanks with the help of given drain valves.
FORMULAE
1. Discharge,
A* R
Q ----------------------- (1)
t
2. Actual Velocity,
Q
v act  ----------------------- (2)
a
3. Theoretical velocity
v th  2 gh ------------------------ (3)
4. Co – efficient of Pitot tube,

v
C v  act ------------------------- (4)
v th
5. Velocity at any point,

v  Cv 2 gh
7. Observation table
S.No. Pressure head at Pressure Pressure head at R(cm) t(sec)
different points on up head at different points on down
side center side
8 mm 6 mm 4 mm 0 4 mm 6 mm 8 mm
1.
2.
3.
CALCULATION TABLE
S. Cv v8 v6 v4 v0 v4 v6 v8
No.
1.
2.
3.
DATA
33
A = 0.1 m2
a = 0.0006157 m2
g = 9.81 m/ s2
NOMENCLATURE
A = Area of measuring tank.
a = Cross section area of test section
R = Rise of water level in measuring tank.
h = Piezometric difference
CV = Co efficient of Pitot tube
g = Acceleration due to gravity
va = actual velocity of fluid.
Q = discharge at outlet.
t = time for R.
8. Result & discussions

 Calculate the point velocities at different radial positions.
 Calculate the co-efficient of Pitot Tube for different flow rates.
 Plot the point velocity versus the radial position.
9. Conclusion
10. Precautions
5. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
6. Always use clean water.
7. If apparatus will not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely,
34
EXPERIMENT NO. 5(b)

STUDY OF REYNOLDS APPRATUS
1. Aim
To study the flow regime for liquid flow in a pipe, and to find the critical Reynold's number.
2. Objective
To find the volumetric flow rate corresponding to various flow regimes.
3. Theory
Osborne Reynolds (1883) demonstrated different flow regimes when a fluid flows through a
pipe. These regimes are: laminar, turbulent and transition or intermediate regimes. For a
given pippe and fluid, laminar flow exists at low velocity characterized by ordered sliding
past of liquid layer over one another without lateral mixing; while turbulent flow is found at
high velocity in which the flow pattern is random and there is intense lateral mixing in the
fluid. In between these two extremes, a transition flow regime is observed in which the flow
alters between laminar and turbulent flows. Reynolds’s found that the nature of flow depends
on the diameter of the pipe, and viscosity, density and average velocity of the fluid; and these
factors can be combined into one dimensionless group, called the Reynolds’s number, the
magnitude of which would indicate the flow regime. The Reynolds number, Re is defined as
Re = Du/µ = Du/v
Where D = pipe diameter, u= fluid velocity, ρ= fluid density, µ = fluid viscosity, and v =
kinematic viscosity.
Physically, Reynolds number is interpreted as the ratio of the inertial force to viscous force
acting on the fluid. In general, D and v represent some characteristic dimension of the flow
domain and characteristic velocity of the fluid. Thus laminar flow exists at small Reynolds
number, and turbulent flow at large Reynolds number.
The minimum Reynolds number at which laminar flow disappears is called the critical
Reynolds number. The value of critical Reynolds number depends on the geometry of the
flow domain (circular or rectangular pipe, open or closed channel, flat plate etc.) and flow
configuration (flow around a bluff body, in packed bed etc.)
4. Requirements
Reynolds apparatus, water source, dye, measuring cylinder, stop watch.
5. PROCEDURE
1. Fill in the tank with water, and the dye- chamber with dye.
2. Note the water temperature.
3. Start the water flow and maintain a small flow rate, enough to fill the whole pipe
cross section.
4. Once the flow stabilizes, start the dye injection. The injection rate should be just
enough to give a clear visible streak of the dye.
5. Observe the pattern of the dye streak. The dye should flow in a straight line.
6. Increase the water in small and equal increments, and observe the dye streak.
7. Repeat step 6 until some undulations commence in the streak. Note the corresponding
volumetric flow rate of water, which is the critical Reynolds number. Appearance of
the undulations signifies the initiation of the intermediate or transition flow.
35
Note At this point the undulations will be unstable so that there will be some portion
of the dye streak which will be undulating and some portion which will
not.
8. Keep increasing the flow rate of the liquid further until at one point there is found a
complete dispersion of the dye (indicated by the liquid getting colour through the
cross section) just as it comes out of the injection needle. This point shows the
conversion to a fully turbulent regime.
9. Note the corresponding the volumetric flow rate.
6. Observations
Temperature of the liquid =
Pipe diameter = m
S.No Flow Regime Volume of water collected Time taken

1 Laminar
2 Transition
3 Fully Turbulent
Volumetric flow rate corresponding to start of the Laminar flow = m³/s

Volumetric flow rate corresponding to start of the transition flow = m³/s
Volumetric flow rate corresponding to fully turbulent flow = m³/s
Liquid density at observed temperature = kg/m³
Liquid viscosity at the observed temperature = kg/m.
7. Results and discussion

1. Calculate the Reynolds number corresponding to the transition flow and turbulent
flow.
The liquid velocity is calculate as u = 4Q/ π D², Where Q is the volumetric flow
rate.
2. Compare the critical Reynolds number and the Reynolds number for transition to fully
turbulent flow observed with those reported in the literature. Discuss the possible
sources of discrepancy, if any.
8. Conclusion
36
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
1. AIM
Study and analysis of centrifugal pump characteristics.
2. Objectives
1. To study the operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump.
2. To study the operating characteristics of two centrifugal pumps operated in series and in
parallel.
3. Theory
Pumps are the fluid moving machineries which increase the mechanical energy of the fluids
to be displaced. The energy increase may be used to increase the velocity, the pressure or the
elevation of the fluids. A large number of pumps, differing widely in principle and
mechanical construction, have been developed to meet a wide variety of operating conditions.
For selection of pumps for a specific application requires the knowledge of operating
conditions of the system and applicability of different available pumps.
The mechanical energy of the liquid is increased by centrifugal action. Centrifugal pumps
are classified as single suction and double suction pumps depending upon the suction from
either one side or from both sides respectively.
In a single suction centrifugal pump the liquid enters through a suction connection concentric
with the axis of a high-speed rotary element called the impeller, which carries radial vanes
integrally cast in it. Liquid flows outward in the spaces between the vanes and leaves the
impeller at a considerably greater velocity with respect to the ground than at the entrance to
the impeller. In a properly functioning pump the space between the vanes is completely filled
with liquid flowing without cavitation. The liquid leaving the outer periphery of the impeller
is collected in a spiral casing called the volute and leaves the pump through a tangential
discharge connection. In the volute, the velocity head of the liquid from the impeller is
converted into pressure head. The power is supplied to the fluid by the impeller and is
transmitted to the impeller by the torque of the drive shaft, which usually is driven by a
direct-connected motor at constant speed, commonly at 1750 rpm. Another common type
uses a double-suction impeller, which accepts liquid from both sides. Also, the impeller itself
may be a simple open spider, or it may be enclosed or shrouded.
4. Experimental Set up
4.1. Requirements
Centrifugal pump test rig, bucket, watch.
4.2. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup

The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown below:
37
P2
V2 P4
V8
V4
V5
P1 C1 V3 C2
V1
P3
V-Notch
Measuring Tank
Sump Tank
OPERATION OPEN CLOSE

SINGLE PUMP : V1, V4, V5 V2, V3, V8, V9
SERIES : V1, V2, V5 V3, V4, V8, V9
PARALLEL : V1, V3, V4, V5 V2,V8,V9
5. Experimental Procedure
First, prime the pump by pouring water through valve V8. Subsequently, the following
sequence of operations are to be carried out:
5.1. Calibration of V-Notch

1. Measure the width of the V-notch at the top and depth of the V-notch.
2. Fill the storage tank with water.
3. Open valves V1, V2 and V5, and close valves V3, V4 & V9.
4. Start running the pumps.
5. Fill the channel with water until water starts spilling over the notch to the outlet.
6. Stop the water supply by closing the bench supply valve (V5) with the pump in running
condition.
7. Allow the water above the crest height to spill over the notch.
8. When the water level is at the level of the crest of the notch, bring the point gauge exactly
to the water surface, and note the reading (say R1) on the longer scale which coincides
with the “zero” of the shorter scale. (This is the datum level for subsequent height-
measurements when the water flows in the channel.)
9. Open valve V5 completely and wait for the level (or head) of water in the channel to
stabilize.
10. Bring the point gauge to the surface of the water by rotating the knob attached to the
scale, and note the reading (say R2) on the longer scale that coincides with the “zero” of
the shorter scale.
38
11. Collect the water in the bucket for an arbitrary but known duration, and determine the
flow rate of water by dividing the volume (or mass) of water collected by the time of
collection.
12. The difference (R2-R1) is called the head which is related to the volumetric flow rate by
the following equation:
8 
5
Q   C d tan  2 g h 2 ; Where, h = R2-R1
 15 
13. Adjust the water flow rate at seven different values from the maximum to zero flow rate
in the channel by manipulating valve V5 and determine the water flow rate and the
corresponding head.
14. Calculate the discharge coefficient (Cd) in each case, and take the arithmetic average of
these values as the Cd of the notch.
5.2. Pump Characteristics (Single Pump)

1. After carrying out the steps 1 to 3 mentioned in “Calibration of V-Notch”, open the valve
V5 fully.
2. Note the RPM of the pump from the control panel.
3. Note the gage pressure on the outlet line (P4 in the figure) and on the inlet line (P1 in the
figure). The difference of the readings in P4 and P1 is the head delivered by the pump.
4. Note the power supplied to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing
the appropriate button (labeled W).
5. Note the head of the V-notch.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for seven different flow rates of water spanning the whole range of
flow rate up to zero flow by manipulating V5.
5.3. Pump Characteristics (Pump in Series)

1. Fully open the valves V1, V2 and V5, and close valves V3 and V4.
figure).
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for three different RPMs.
5.4. Pump Characteristics (Pump in Parallel)

1. Fully open the valves V1, V3, V4 and V5, and close valve V2.
figure).
6. Observations
39
6.1. Calibration of V-Notch

Width across the top of the V-notch =
Depth of the V-notch =
Initial point gauge reading at zero flow rate (R1) =
Head of
Point gauge Amount of Duration of
S No the V-notch
reading, R2 Water collected collecting water
(R2 – R1)
6.2 Pump Characteristics*

1. RPM =
2. Initial point gauge reading at zero flow rate (R1) =
3. Length of Pipe in single pump operation =
4. Length of Pipe in series operation =
5. Length of Pipe in parallel operation =
6. Elevation =
7. Diameter of the suction pipe =
8. Diameter of the discharge pipe =
Point gauge Head of Gauge pressure reading Power to the

S No
Reading, R2 The V-notch P1 P4 pump
* Make separate tables for different configurations (single/series/parallel) of the pumps and for different RPMs.
7. Model Calculations
For steady incompressible flow of a liquid of density , the developed head is given as
P2  P1 V22  V12
H   ( Z 2  Z1 )  h f (1)
g 2g
where subscripts 1 and 2 signify the values at the suction and delivery ports of the pump; P
is the pressure; V is the velocity; Z is the elevation; and hf is the friction head (that is, the
frictional losses) in the line between the suction and delivery ports. hf is given by
 V
2

L
hf  4 f  Kf  (2)
 D  2g
where f is the friction factor, L is length of the pipe, D is the diameter of the pipe, Kf is the
loss factor for fittings. Friction factor (f) depends on roughness and type of flow
40
(laminar/turbulent) and read from friction factor chart. Alternatively, it can be calculated
from the equations:
16
f  ; for laminar flow
N Re
The friction factor for turbulent flow can be calculated by using Colebrook equations (either
implicit form or explicit form) given below:
7.1. Implicit Forms of Colebrook Equation
There are at least three forms of the Colebrook Equation that can be found in current
literature on hydraulics. These are:
  
 2 log10  
1 2.51

f  3.7 D N Re f  (3)
 
 2 
 1.74  2 log10  
1 18.7

f  D N Re f  (4)
 
 
 
1 D 9.3
 1.14  2 log10   2 log101  
f 
     (5)
 N Re f 
 D 
where,
f is the Friction Factor and is dimensionless

ε is the Absolute Roughness and is in units of length
D is the Inside Diameter and, as these formulas are written, is in the same units as ε.
NRe is the Reynolds Number and is dimensionless.
Note that ε/D is the Relative Roughness and is dimensionless.
These three equations are referred to as “Implicit” Equations. “Implicit” means that “f”, the
Friction Factor, is “Implied or understood though not directly expressed”2. Simply stated,
the equations ARE NOT in the form of “f = ………”. These are sometimes referred to as
“equivalent” but the results will vary when calculated to the fourth significant digit.
These equations can be solved for “f” given the Relative Roughness (ε/D) and the Reynolds
Number, (NRe), by iteration. Such iterations can be performed using an electronic
spreadsheet. A spreadsheet, “Friction Factor Formulas for Cheresource.xls” is available at
http://www.cheresources.com/colebrook1.shtml presented for demonstration. The
spreadsheet contains four worksheets. The first “Tab” is labeled “Iterations”. The Iterative
solutions are generated by breaking the formulas in two parts, that which is left of the equal
sign and that which is right of the equal sign (See row 20 as an example). The Iteration then
tests values of “f” that will result in the difference between the two sides to be zero or very
close to zero. (A complete explanation was published in the ASHRAE Journal of September,
2002: see Reference 4 for details)
7.2. Explicit Forms of Colebrook Equation

41
There are four Explicit forms of Colebrook Equations reported in literature. (Ref: available
on internet at http://www.cheresources.com/colebrook1.shtml). Out of these the Serghide’s
solution is the most accurate one, which is given below:
Serghide’s Solution (see Reference 3 for details).
f  ( A  ( B  A)2 /(C  (2B)  A))2 (6)
where
A  2 log10[( / 3.7D)  (12 / N Re )]
B  2 log10[( / 3.7D)  (2.51A / N Re )]
C  2 log10[( / 3.7D)  (2.51B / NRe )]
Serghide can be used across the entire range of the Moody Diagram. Its accuracy is
unparalleled amongst the Explicit Equations evaluated here. It appears to be based on Eqn. 3,
as do all the Explicit Equations presented. There is less deviation between Serghide and Eqn.
3 then there is between Eqn. 3 and either Eqn. 4 or Eqn. 5.
1
f

 4.07 log N Re 
f  0.6 ; (7)
Eqn. 7 is the von Karman equation for turbulent flow which can be used only if the pipe is
smooth. In our case, the pipe is not smooth and hence this equation cannot be used.
Colebrook equation has to be used.
Power developed by the pump (or the power delivered to the fluid) Pf is given as
Pf  QHg (8)
where Q is the volumetric flow rate of the liquid.
The mechanical efficiency of the pump  is given as
Pf
 (9)
PB
where PB is the total power supplied to the pump drive from an external source.
Operating (or performance) characteristics of a pump is commonly illustrated by plots of

actual head developed H, power consumption Pf, and efficiency  versus the volumetric flow
rate.
8. Results & Discussion
8.1. Calibration of V-notch

S No Volumetric flow rate Head of the V-notch Cd
42
Average Cd =
8.2. Pump Characteristics (RPM = )

Volumetric flow Head developed by Power delivered by
S No Efficiency
rate the pump the pump
1. Plot head, power delivered to the pump, power delivered to the liquid, and efficiency
versus the capacity of the pump (i.e., flow rate of water).
2. Suggest the operating point from the efficiency versus flow rate plot.
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Do not run the pump with the delivery valve closed for a long time to avoid damage of the
pump.
References
2. Babu, B.V.,"Pumps: Selection & Trouble Shooting", IPT (Indian Plumbing Today), Vol.
2005 (No. 6), pp. 41-49, November-December, 2005.
3. T.K.Serghide’s implementation of Steffenson’s accelerated convergence technique,
reportedly to have appeared in Chemical Engineering March 5, 1984.
4. Lester, T. “Calculating Pressure Drops in Piping Systems.” ASHRAE Journal Sept.
2002.
43
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
RECIPROCATING PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
1. AIM
Study and analysis of operating characteristics of double acting reciprocating pump.
2. Objectives
To study the operating characteristics of a double acting piston-type reciprocating pump.
3. Theory
A piston pump consists of a cylinder with a reciprocating piston. The fluid is drawn through
an inlet check valve into the cylinder by the withdrawal of a piston and is then forced out
through a discharge check valve on the return stroke. Most piston pumps are double acting
with the liquid admitted alternately on each side of the piston so that one part of the cylinder
is being filled while the other is being emptied. The energy added per unit mass of liquid by
the pump is termed as the head developed by the pump, which is expressed in length
dimension.
4.1. Requirements
Reciprocating pump test rig, watch.
4.2. Experimental Setup
V1 P2
V2
Measuring
Tank
P1
LL
V3
Sump
Tank V4
To Drain
1. Fill the storage tank with water and ensure that the measuring tank is empty.
2. Open the valve on the delivery line, and allow the flow from the delivery line to drain
directly into the sump tank with the help of the drain valve.
44
3. Adjust the RPM of the motor to an arbitrary but known value.

4. Note the gauge pressures at the suction and delivery line of the pump.
5. Note the power to the pump from the display on the control panel by pressing appropriate
button.
6. Collect water in the measuring tank for a given duration of time and note the change in
water level in this tank during this period.
flow rate (excluding zero flow rate) by manipulating the delivery valve.
6. Observations
Technical specifications of the pump:
i. Type: Double acting
ii. Power: Connected to 1 HP, 3 phase, 440V AC motor.
iii. Pump bore (diameter): 44.5 mm
iv. Pump stroke: 35 mm
Inside diameter of the suction pipe =
Inside diameter of the delivery pipe =
RPM =
Length of the suction pipe =
Length of the delivery pipe =
Elevation =
Gauge pressure
Time of collection Change in water
reading Power to
S No of water in level in the
Suction Delivery the pump
measuring tank measuring tank
(P1) (P2)
Note: Make separate tables for different RPMs.
For steady incompressible flow of a liquid of density , the developed head is given as
P2  P1 V22  V12
H   ( Z 2  Z1 )  h f (1)
g 2g
where subscripts 1 and 2 signify the values at the delivery and suction ports of the pump; P is
the pressure; V is the velocity; Z is the elevation; and hf is the friction head (that is, the
frictional losses) in the line between the suction and delivery ports. hf is to be calculated as
described in previous experiment, i.e., centrifugal pump characteristics.
Power developed by the pump (or the power delivered to the fluid) Pf is given as
Pf  QHg (2)
where Q is the volumetric flow rate of the liquid.
45
The mechanical efficiency of the pump  is given as
Pf
 (3)
PB
where PB is the total power supplied to the pump drive from an external source.
Volumetric efficiency (V) of a reciprocating pump is defined as the ratio of the actual
discharge (Q) to the theoretical discharge (Qth). The theoretical discharge is the volume swept
by the piston of the pump per unit time. The difference between the theoretical and actual
discharge of the pump is called the slip.
Q
V  (4)
Qth
where Qth for a double acting pump is given by
    2 
Qth  2 d B2  L N (5)
 4   60 
where dB and L are the bore diameter and length of the stroke of the pump, and N is the speed
of rotation of the crank (attached to the motor) in RPM.
Operating (or performance) characteristics of a pump is commonly illustrated by plots of
actual head developed H, power consumption PB and Pf and efficiency  versus the capacity
of the pump (i.e., the volumetric flow rate of liquid).
RPM =
Theoretical discharge of the pump =
Volumetric flow Head developed Power delivered

S No Η ηV
rate by the pump by the pump
1. Plot head, power delivered to pump, power delivered to the liquid, and mechanical
efficiency versus the capacity of the pump (flow rate of water).
2. Suggest the operating point from the efficiency versus flow rate plot.
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Never run the pump with the delivery valve closed.
46
References
4. Babu, B.V.,"Pumps: Selection & Trouble Shooting", IPT (Indian Plumbing Today), Vol.
2005 (No. 6), pp. 41-49, November-December, 2005.
47
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
DIFFERENTIAL DISTILLATION
1. Aim
To verify the Raleigh’s equation for a differential distillation in a binary system and to
estimate relative volatility of the binary system
2. Introduction
Differential distillation is also known as simple distillation. Usually it is operated in a batch
mode. It is used to separate a liquid mixture whose components have fairly large difference in
their boiling points. In this mode of distillation a charge of liquid is placed in the still and it is
distilled off until the liquid charged is all gone or until the operation is no longer doing any
beneficial separating. In batch distillation operations, the liquid in the original charge is
constantly being depleted of its more volatile components. This mode of distillation may also
be used for analytical evaluation of boiling ranges and vaporization characteristics if mixtures
in laboratories.
3. Theory
Differential distillation refers to a batch distillation in which only one vaporization sate is
involved. Lard Rayleigh developed a mathematical equation which represents differential
distillation. The following are the major assumptions in deriving Rayleigh’s equation
1. Still liquid composition is uniform.
2. The distillation process is carried out slowly so that the vapour leaving the still is in
equilibrium with the liquid in still.
3. There is no entrainment of the liquid during the distillation
4. There is no condensation of the vapour evolved before it reaches the condenser.
3.1 Rayleigh’s equation derivation

Let L be the number of moles of the mixture at a given instant. Let x be the mole fraction of
more volatile component in liquid mixture. Let y  be the mole fraction of more volatile
component in vapour that is in equilibrium with liquid that is in still. If dL is the differential
amount of liquid vaporized then by applying the material balance with respect to the more
volatile component we get
Input = Lx (1.1)

Output = y dL (1.2)
Accumulation = L  dLx  dx  (1.3)
Therefore Lx  L  dLx  dx   y  dL (1.4)
Neglecting dLdx , we get
y  dL  xdL  Ldx (1.5)
dL dx
 
L y  x 
Therefore, (1.6)
The boundary conditions are:

Initially, L = F and x  x F ; F : moles of feed mixture
Finally, L = W and x  x W ; W : moles of with drawn or bottom mixture
W xW
dL dx
   y
F
L xF

x  (1.7)
48
x
 F
T
dx
 ln     
 
(1.8)
 W  xW y  x
Using the vapour liquid equilibrium data for the binary mixture system, the plot is made of
1
y  x 

vs x .Area under the curve between the ordinate at x F and x W gives the values of
the integral on the R.H.S of Eq.(1.8). From this we obtain the value of W, the amount of with
drawn (or) bottoms, to be left to attain the given composition x W of the liquid. Alternatively,
if we want to calculate the composition of with drawn, when W is known, then L.H.S of
Eq.(1.8) can be found and value of x W adjusted to obtain the area under the curve equal to the
 W .
value of ln F
3.2 Rayleigh’s equation for an ideal system
For an ideal system, average relative volatility,  ave , is constant. Therefore for an ideal
system we can write the following equilibrium relation
α ave x
y  (1.9)
1  α ave  1x
Substituting Eq.(1.9) in Eq.(1.8) and upon manipulation we get the following relation
 Fx F   F1  x F  
ln    α aveln   (1.10)
 Wx W   W1  x W  
Eqs.(1.8) and (1.10) are known as Rayleigh’s equations for differential distillation.
4. Experimental setup
The experimental setup to study differential distillation is shown in Figure P1.1. The
distillation still may be fabricated from steel with substantial thickness recommended. The
vapors of the chemical distilled are collected as distillate is shown in the Figure P1.1.
49
Figure P1.1. Differential distillation experimental setup
The following procedure may be followed while conducting the experiment
1. The still is charged with known composition binary system
2. Ensure water flow in the condenser
3. Heating mantle is switched on and heating is carried out sufficiently and slowly.
When the mixture starts boiling, collect the distillate in a flask.
4. This procedure is continued for sufficient length of time (say 2hours) until
approximately 2/3 of the feed distilled.
5. Meantime prepare a calibration chart using known concentrations for the binary
system. For calibration purpose use specific gravity technique (or) refractive index
(RI) method.
6. Measure the specific gravity of the distillate (or) RI of the distillate. Similarly cool the
bottoms to room temperature and measure specific gravity (or) RI of bottoms
6. System used and calculations

The Following binary Chemical may be taken for simple distillation
Ethanol (A)-water (B)
Data required for the calculations from the literature
1. Molecular weights of compounds A and B
2. Densities of components A and B (or) refractive indices of components A and B
3. Vapour- liquid equilibrium (VLE) of components A and B at atmospheric pressure
4. Plot calibration chart
7. Calculations
1. Calculate the amounts and compositions of distillate for the sample i.e D and x D .
While doing make use of calibration plot for composition calculations.
50
2. Using total material balance and more volatile component balances to calculate
amount of residue (bottom),W and composition of the residue, x W
1
y  x  x
3. Plot  vs. and measure the area between the curve and x-axis to the left of
the ordinate x  x F ,when the area = ln F/W  , final x W

xF
ln F/W    dx y 
x 
 100
 W
xW
4. Calculate
ln F
 Fx F   F1  x F  
5. Using ln    α aveln   estimate α ave
 Wx W   W1  x W  
8. Presentation of results
1. Mole fraction of mole volatile component in the feed; mole fraction of more volatile
component in the distillate; mole fraction of more volatile component in the bottoms
2. Amounts of distillate and bottoms and their compositions
3. α ave = average relative volatility of the system between x W and x F
4. Report % errors
5. One can also compare estimated α ave value with the value obtain with the help of
y 
 1 y 
equilibrium data. Make use the definition of α as α    and then calculate α ave
 x1  x 
 
.
 Fx F   F1  x F  
6. Using ln    α aveln   estimate α ave
 Wx W   W1  x W  
VLE DATA ETHANOL WATER SYSTEM
x y* x y*
0.0 0.0 32.73 58.26
1.9 17 39.65 61.22
7.21 38.91 50.79 65.64
9.66 43.75 51.98 65.99
12.38 47.04 57.32 68.41
16.61 50.89 67.63 73.85
23.37 54.45 74.72 78.15
26.08 55.8 89.43 89.43
51
CALIBRATION CHART
1.36
1.355
1.35
Refractive Index
1.345
1.34
1.335
1.33
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Mole fraction of Ethanol in Ethanol-Water System
References:
1. Max Peters, “Elementary Chemical Engineering”, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1984, pp. 203-204.
2. V.G.Pangarkar and R.R.bhave, “Mass transfer Operations: A laboratory manual in
Chemical Engineering”, Chemical Engineering Education Development Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Madras, 1981, pp.20-26.
3. R..E.Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 3rd ed, New
York, 1984, pp. 367-370.
4. F.Molyneux, Laboratory exercises in Chemical Engineering, Leonard Hill Books,
London, 1967, p.137.
5. ‘Chemical Engineering Laboratory Manual’ published by IIT Bombay, obtained on
the Webpage http://www.che.iitb.ac.in/courses/uglab/uglabs.html accessed on
25.08.2011
52
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
CROSS-CIRCULATION DRYING
1. Aim
Study of drying characteristics of porous and non-porous solids under forced draft condition
with cross flow of air.
2. Objectives
1. To determine the critical moisture content.
2. To calculate the total drying time.
3. To calculate the humidity of inlet and outlet air with respect to drying time.
3. Theory
Drying of solid generally means the removal of relatively small amounts of a liquid from the
solid material to reduce the liquid content to an acceptably low value. There are various
modes of drying a material in various types of dryers. In the present experiment, we study the
cross-circulation drying in an adiabatic or direct dryer. In this case, hot gas (air) is blown over
a bed of wet solids (brick particles wetted with water) under constant drying conditions by
maintaining the temperature, humidity and the velocity of the air across the drying surface
constant. A drying curve is then obtained by plotting drying rate against moisture content of
the solid. In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also
moisture from the interior of the material. Thus there is interplay of the surface evaporation,
inter-particle and intra-particle diffusion processes during the drying of a material. This gives
rise to several distinct periods in the drying curve as the moisture content of the solid is
reduced from the high initial value to its final value, as explained below in terms of different
periods:
I0 (Initial Period): An initial period during which the drying rate may increase or decrease
rapidly from an initial value and the drying conditions are adjusting themselves to the steady
state condition, which is the next period. This period is of relatively short duration and in
some experiments may be unobservable. Therefore, this period is neglected in the
mathematical analysis of the process.
I (Constant Rate Period): An early stage of drying during which the drying rate remains at a
constant value, that is, is independent of the moisture content. During the constant rate
period, it is assumed that drying takes place from a saturated surface of the material by
diffusion of the water vapor through a stationary air film into the air stream. This period may
be absent if the initial moisture content of the solid is less than a certain minimum.
II (Falling Rate Period 1): During this period, there is insufficient water on the surface to
maintain a continuous film of water. The entire surface is no longer wetted, and wetted area
continually decreases in this first falling-rate period until the surface is completely dry.
During this period, the drying rate decreases more or less linearly with continued decrease of
water content.
III (Falling Rate Period 2): This second falling-rate period begins when it may be assumed
that the surface is dry. In this period evaporation will be taking place from within the solid
and the vapor reaches the surface by molecular diffusion through the material. The drying
rate in this zone decreases further, but generally in a non-linear fashion with the moisture
content.
The moisture content at which the drying rate falls for the first time is the first critical
moisture content, and the moisture content at which the drying rate falls for the second time
is the second critical moisture content. In case of non-porous solids, due to the absence of
intra-particle moisture and hence intra-particle diffusion, the constant-rate period is followed
53
by only one falling rate-period so that there is only one critical moisture content (see McCabe
et al., 2001, for detail).
Drying continues until equilibrium moisture content in the solid is attained. Nature of the
drying curve depends on the nature of the solid (porous or non-porous), and the temperature,
humidity and flow rate of the drying medium.
The total time of drying, tT, is determined from the following equation (the derivation is
given in McCabe et al., 2001)
ms  Xc 
tT  ( X 1  X c )  X c ln  (1)
ARc  X2 
Where,
ms = mass of bone-dry solid

A = area of drying
Rc = rate at first critical point
X = free-moisture content, mass of water per unit mass of dry solid
Xc = free-moisture content at first critical point
X1 = initial free-moisture content
X2 = final free-moisture content
Free moisture content, X, is given by
X  XT  X  (2)
Where,
XT = total free-moisture content

X* = equilibrium free-moisture content
The equilibrium moisture content of a non-porous insoluble material is practically zero so
that the whole moisture content is free moisture.
4. Experimental Setup
4.1. Requirements
Dryer assembly, blower, beaker, water, brick particles (porous), glass beads (non-porous),
heater, physical balance, digital anemometer, thermometers (4 in number).
54
Wet bulb
temperature Dry bulb
Anemometer Dryer thermometer temperature
Measurement thermometer
space
Inlet of air
Outlet of air
Heater
Blower Valve
1. Weigh the empty pan of the dryer.
2. Take out the pan from the dryer, and after filling it with about 250 gm of brick particles
place it back in the drying chamber. Note the weight of the pan with its contents.
3. Take out the water-cups for wet-bulb temperature (WBT) thermometer from the dryer and
keep them aside. Inject water in the water-cups using a 5 ml-pipette after every 30
minute.
4. Switch on the heater and the blower. Adjust the valve on the inlet line to give a constant
air velocity at about 4 m/s. Measure the air velocity with the digital anemometer.
5. Keep blowing the air for about 30 minutes for the system to reach a steady state, which is
indicated by an insignificant change in the weight of the filled pan. Note the dry-bulb
temperature and the weight of the pan at this state.
6. Take out the pan from the dryer and soak the brick particles in water for about 10 minutes
in a beaker. Then spread the wet brick particles over the pan uniformly. Fill the cups of
the WBT thermometers with water and wrap wet cotton around the bulb of these
thermometers.
7. Put one cup in the cup-holder and one WBT thermometer each at the inlet and outlet ports
of the dryer. Ensure that the bulb of the thermometer remains dipped in the cup.
8. Place the pan back in the drying chamber.
9. Note: Step 8 should follow step 7 with very little time gap.
10. Record the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer, and
weight of the pan. These are the reading at time t = 0.
11. Record the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer and
the weight of the pan, initially at intervals of about 2 minutes, and later at intervals of
about 5 minutes as the rate of drying (indicated by the rate of change of the weight of the
pan) decreases.
12. Continue the run until there is no significant change in the weight of the pan (and so the
temperatures; also the pan plus solid would weigh almost the same as the one noted in
step 5 before wetting the particles).
13. Repeat the experiment with the glass beads at the two air velocities of about 2 and 4 m/s.
6. Observations
1. Surface area of pan = 0.0245 m2
2. Air velocity =
3. Weight of pan, w1 =
55
4. Weight of (pan + dry brick particles), w2 (at step 5) =
Material (glass beads/brick particles):
Weight of pan and Inlet temperature Outlet Temperature

S No Time
wet solid, w3 Dry-bulb Wet-bulb Dry-bulb Wet-bulb
1. Calculate the total moisture content (XT) as (w3 – w2)/(w2 - w1), and plot it with time.
2. Determine the rate of drying by finding the slope of the XT vs. t curve at different times.
(Truly speaking, in case of porous brick particles, one should find the equilibrium
moisture content and then determine the rate of drying using the free moisture content;
since it is difficult to find the equilibrium moisture content [why?], we are working with
the total moisture content).
3. Make the drying-curve by plotting rate of drying vs. moisture content.
4. Find the critical moisture content(s) and the corresponding drying rate(s) from the drying
curve.
5. Check the equilibrium moisture content of glass beads.
6. Using Eq. 1 calculate the total time of drying.
7. Compute the humidity of the air at the inlet and the outlet of the dryer at 5 minutes
interval and plot it against time at inlet and outlet.

(Tables, Graphs, Comparison with those reported in literature)
9. Conclusions
10. Precautions
Reference
1. Warren, L McCabe, Smith, J C , and Harriott, P, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
6th edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India, 2000.
2. Richardson, J F, Harker, J H and Backhurst, J R, Coulson and Richardson's Chemical
Engineering, 5th edition, Vol-2, Asian Books Private Limited, New Delhi, India, 2002.
56
EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (a)

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS
1. Aim
To measure the thermal conductivity of solids.
2. Objective
(i) To Determination the Overall Thermal Conductivity of Composite wall.
(ii) To check that the Thermal Resistances in Composite wall are connected in series.
3. Theory
Thermal conductivity is defined as the fundamental property of material which gives the
measure of the effectivity of material in transmitting heat through it.
For the measurement of the thermal conductivity K what is required is to have one
dimensional heat flow through the flat specimen, an arrangement for maintaining its faces at
the constant temperature and metering method to measure the heat flow through a known
area.
Knowing the heat input to the central plate heater, the temperature difference across the each
specimen, its thickness and the area, one can calculate the K by the following formula.
K = q * L / [2 * A* ( - )]
Where,
K Thermal Conductivity of the sample, W / m
q Heat flow rate in the specimen, W
A Area of the specimen, m²
Hot side average temperature,
Cold side average temperature
L Thickness of the specimen, m
4.1. Requirements
Thermal Conductivity Apparatus with composite wall (Mild steel, Hylam (Paper Grade) &
Wood), C clamps
Two sections of composite walls are positioned on either side of the plate heater (Ni-Cr wire
packed in upper and lower mica sheets, 1000 W)
57
Two thermocouples (2&3) are used to measure the hot face temperature at the upper and
lower heater plate, 4 & 5 are used to measure the temperature at the other end of mild steel
plate (25mm), 6 & 7 to measure temperature at far end of hylam sheet (20 mm) and 8 & 9 for
far end of the wooden plate (12 mm). (see figure). Diameter of the plates is 300 mm
Specimens are held in position by the help of C clamps. The whole assembly is enclosed in
wooden box with one side transparent of visualization.
Voltmeter and Ammeter are used to measure the energy input to the heater. This energy input
to the heater can be varied using Dimmer stat. Digital temperature indicator with selector
switch on the control panel indicates the temperature at different positions in the composite
wall. Indicator lamp Indicates ON/OFF position of the heater. MCB has been provided to
switch ON/OFF the power to the equipment.
5. Procedure
The specimens are placed on either side of the heating plate assembly uniformly touching
each other. Then predetermined heat input is given to the heater using the Dimmer stat. The
input of the heater (current & voltage) and the thermocouple readings are observed every 5
minutes till a reasonably steady state condition is reached (steady temperature gradient). The
readings are recorded in the observation table. The final steady state values are taken for
calculations.
6.Observations and calculations:
6.1 Observation Table

S.No. Volt. Amp. T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
(V) (A) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6.2 Calculations
Heat transfer Area Perpendicular to Heat Flow,
A = (π /4) * D² = ________ m²
Heat Input Q = V * I = ________ W
Thermal Conductivity for individual specimen,
= (Q * ) / [2 * * ( – ], W/m0C
i = 1, 2 and 3 for MS, Hylam and Wooden Plate respectively.
Where,
= ( + ) / 2 for MS plate, ( + ) / 2 for Hylam Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Wooden
Plate,
= ( + ) / 2 for MS Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Hylam Plate, ( + ) / 2 for Wooden
Plate,
Overall Thermal Conductivity,
= (Q * L) / [2 * A *((( + ) / 2) – (( + ) / 2)))], W / m
Indiviual Thermal Resistance,
Ri= L/KiAi, 0C/W
58
In Series, Thermal Resistance Rt of the composite wall is given by

RT= ∑ Ri , i = 1, 2 and 3 for MS, Hylam and Wooden Plate respectively.
7. Results
Overall thermal conductivity of the material is……. W/m0C
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmer state is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment.
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.
59
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS

1. Aim
To measure of the effectivity of the liquid in transmitting heat through it.
2. Objective
To determine the Thermal conductivity of liquid.
3. Theory
Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat. Heat transfers occurs
across materials of high thermal conductivity than across materials of low thermal
conductivity. Thermal conductivity of materials is temperature dependent. For the
measurement of the thermal conductivity K what is required is to have one dimensional heat
flow through the flat specimen, an arrangement for maintaining its faces at the constant
temperature and metering method to measure the heat flow through a known area.
Knowing the heat input to the central plate heater, the temperature difference across the each
specimen, its thickness and the area, one can calculate the K by the following formula.
K = q * L / [A * ( Theater avg – Tsample liquid temp ) ]
where,
K Thermal Conductivity of the sample, W / m C
q Heat flow rate in the specimen, W
A Area of the specimen, m2
TH,av Hot side average temperature, C
TC,av Cold side average temperature, C
L Thickness of the test section, m
Thermal conductivity is important in building insulation and related fields. However,

materials used in such trades are rarely subjected to chemical purity standards.Several
construction materials' ''k'' values are listed below. These should be considered approximate
due to the uncertainties related to material definitions.
The following table is meant as a small sample of data to illustrate the thermal conductivity
of various types of substances.
Some typical thermal conductivity (k values)
Material Thermal Temperature

Conductivity (K)
(W·m−1·K−1)
Ice 1.6 - 2.2 293
Water 0.32 293
Glycerol 0.29 293
Rubber (92%) 0.16a 303
Alcohols OR Oils 0.1- 0.21 293
Air 0.024 - 0.0262 273-300
Oxygen (O2) 0.0238 293
Nitrogen (N2) 0.0234 - 0.026 293 - 300
4.1. Requirements
60
Thermal Conductivity Apparatus with composite wall (Mild steel, Hylam (Paper Grade) &
Wood), C clamps
.
4.2 Description
Test Section (SS 304, 5 mm width, 150 mm diameter) is resting on a heater (500 W, Ni-Cr)
.The heat passing across the test section is removed by the cooling water jacket.
The housing made of Mild Steel has been filled with glass wool to ensure minimum heat loss
to the surroundings.
The total assembly of test section, , main heater and cooling jacket are held in position by the
help of bolts.
Voltmeter and Ammeter are used to measure the energy input to the heater. This energy input
to the heater can be varied using Dimmerstat. Digital Temperature indicator with selector
switch on the control panel indicates the temperature at different positions. Indicator Lamp
indicates ON/ OFF position of the heater. MCB has been provided to switch ON/ OFF the
power to the equipment.
5. Procedure
1. Fill the test section with the liquid whose thermal conductivity is to be measured.
2. Switch ON the Main heater and set the desired heat input through the test section
using Dimmerstat.
3. Start the cooling water supply to the cooling water jacket.
4. Now observe the temperatures T1 to T6 after 15 minutes and note down their values
once they become reasonably constant .
6. Observations and calculations

6.1 Observation Table
Sr. Volt Amp. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
No (V) (A) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C)
1
2
3
4
5
T1= heater temperature

T2= cold water inlet temp to upper plate
T3= hot water outlet temp of upper plate
T4= cold water inlet to lower plate
T5= hot water outlet of lower plate
T6= sample liquid inner temp
T Heater = Heater temperature= T1
Tsample = sample liquid temperature
Diameter of test section = 150 mm

Thickness of test section = 20 mm
6.2 Calculations
61
Heat Transfer Area Perpendicular to Heat Flow,
A = (2 *  * r) = ------------------ m2
Heat Input Q = V * I = ------------ Watt
Thermal Conductivity , K = (Q * L) / [A * (Theater – T 6)] = ----------- W/ m C.
7. Results
Thermal conductivity of the material is……. W/m0C
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmerstat is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time
62
EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (b)

HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR
1. Aim
To study the performance of heating of heat pipe and compare its working with the best
conductor.
2. Objective
To calculate the thermal conductivity of the given heat pipes.
3. Theory
A heat pipe or heat pin is a heat-transfer device that combines the principles of both thermal
conductivity and phase transition to efficiently manage the transfer of heat between two solid
interfaces. At the hot interface of a heat pipe a liquid in contact with a thermally conductive
solid surface turns into a vapor by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels
along the heat pipe to the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid - releasing the latent
heat. The liquid then returns to the hot interface through either as capillary action, centrifugal
force, or gravity, and the cycle repeats. Heat pipes are thermal superconductors, due to the
very high heat transfer coefficients for boiling and condensation.
3.1 Working Principle

The heat pipe is a heat-transfer element with extremely high thermal conductivity and large
heat transfer capacity, which accomplishes the heat transfer through the latent heat of phase
change of the working fluid inside the sealed vacuum tube. For the typical gravity heat pipe,
the up end of the heat pipe releases heat, while the working media is condensed into the
liquid. The condensed liquid, with the pull of gravity, will return to the hot side along the
inner wall of the heat pipe and will be heated and vaporized again. In this way, the heat will
be transferred from one end to the other successively by the heat transfer of phase change, the
thermal resistance inside the heat pipe is very small, which results in a larger heat transfer
capacity at a smaller temperature difference.
In terms of the gravity heat pipe, due to its simple structure, single-direction heat
conductivity, and special heat transfer mechanism (the heat exchange between the hot fluid
and the cold one is done outside the heat pipe), the heat transfer can be easily enhanced, the
working fluid is readily evaporated and boiled and the heat pipe is quick to start up the heat-
transfer capability of the heat pipe can rival and even exceed that of stainless steel and
copper. The heat pipe can be used individually or as combinedly. The heat pipe heat
exchanger consisting of heat pipes is characterized by such merits as high heat transfer
efficiency, low flow resistance, compact structure, high reliability, and excellent maintenance
economy, and is widely applied in the space technology, electronic, metallurgical, motive
power, and petroleum and chemical trades.
63
Fig. Liquid and Vapor pressure distribution along the heat pipe
4.1. Requirements
The apparatus consist of three different test specimen viz. stainless steel, copper & heat pipe
(Al) which is banded with water cut at the top and heaters at the bottom.
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown below
5. Procedure
1. Plug-in socket of control panel & set up instrument in proper position.
2. Fill up the cup provided on each of the pipe with water.
3. Start the main switch of control panel.
64
4. Increase slowly the input to heater by the dimmerstat starting from 0 volts position
and ampere I changes accordingly.
5. Adjust input so that it correspond out to certain Watts to be calculated (i.e. Q = V *
I) out as maximum by help of dimmerstat by varying Voltage.
6. See that both inputs remain constant throughout the experiment.
7. The steady state condition can be checked by rectal temperature of thermocouple of
1 to 8 zone temperature indicator provided on Control panel out of which 1 to 6
channel temperature Indicator are actually working with 1,2 – Stainless Steel , 3,4 –
Heat Pipe (Al) and 5,6 – Copper material heat pipe.
8. Note down the reading in the all the tube with Time up to which it reaches before
and after steady state as given in observation table.
6. Observations & Calculations

Data given:
1. Length of SS, Copper and Heat pipe (L) :- 300 mm
2. Diameter of pipe (Dp) :- 250 mm
3. Area of pipe (Ap) :- 0.04908 m2
6.1 Observation table for S.S. pipe.
Thermocouple Thermocouple Temperature Temperature

No. Position (mm) (K) (K)
(Before Steady State) (Before Steady (At Steady State)
State)
1 50
2 200
6.2 Observation table for Heat pipe.

State)
3 50
4 200
6.3 Observation table for Copper pipe.

State)
5 50
6 200
6.4 Formulae & Calculations
QA = V * I
65
QA = - KA * AP *
QA – Power, Watts
V – Voltage Potential, Volts
I – Ampere Current, Ampere
QA - Heat Transfer Rate, Watts
Ap - Area of Pipe, m2
T - Change in temperature from Start to Steady state ,K
x - Change in position of Thermocouple from Start to Steady state (i.e. 50 & 200 mm)
KA - Thermal Conductivity of Material A, W / m . K
For Copper, Heat pipe and Stainless Steel pipe :
KA = = W / m .K
7. Results
Thermocouple Thermal Conductivity

Position ( W/m K)
(mm)
SS pipe Heat pipe Copper pipe
50
200
8. Precautions
1. Ensure that the Dimmerstat is at 0 position at before switching on and off the
equipment.
2. Increase the energy input gradually to the heater during initial set-up experimentation.
3. Never use the heater at full wattage for longer period of time.
66

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Chemical Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani Campus

Department of Chemical Engineering,

1. Flow through Fluidized Bed (Gas and Water) 3

Flow through Packed Bed (Gas and Water)

3. a. Losses due to pipe fittings 22

a. Bernoulli’s Theorem verification

9. Cross-circulation drying apparatus 83

EXPERIMENT NO. 1(a)

Figure 1 Fluidization regimes

dp is the size of particles (µm)

The pressure drop at fluidization can also be predicted by the equation,

ρp is the particle density (kg/m3)

Minimum fluidization velocity

Assumption: - Consider the uniform particle size.

6. Observations and calculations

7. Results & Discussions

P = Pressure drop in kg/cm2

Figure 1 Schematic of Packed Bed Column

S. Volumetric Manometer Superficial Velocity of Pressure drop/length

Initially, we calculate diameter of the particle,

and modified Reynolds number as,

7. Results and Discussion

EXPERIMENT NO. 3(a)

V1 = velocity of fluid in pipe of small Diameter.

4.1 Utilities Required:

Schematic Diagram for Losses due Pipe Fittings,

6 Observation & Calculations

(e) Experimental loss of head

6.4 Observation Table:

6.5 Calculation Table:

9. Precaution & maintenance instructions:

EXPERIMENT NO. 3(b)

Schematic Diagram for Friction in Pipe Lines Apparatus

4.1 Utilities Required

6. Observation & calculation

Cross-section area of pipe, a

Extent of Pressure difference Rise of water level in Time taken, t

6.5 Calculation Table:

7. Result & discussion

EXPERIMENT NO. 4(a)

Total Energy of a Liquid Particle in Motion:

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental setup

Velocity head at point – 1 = [vi2 / (2*g)]

EXPERIMENT NO. 4(b)

1. Aim & Objective

Schematic Diagram for Venturimeter, Orificemeter & Rotameter Apparatus

Flow Diagram of Venturimeter Flow Diagram of Orificemeter

VENTURIMETER & ORIFICEMETER:

For venturimeter & orificemeter

Average Co-efficient of Discharge:

3. Actual discharge (Qa):

6. Result and discussion

For Venturimeter and Orificemeter

EXPERIMENT NO. 5(a)

Where D is the pipe diameter, and r is the radius at which u0 is measured.

8. Results and discussion

STUDY OF PITOT TUBE - WATER

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (2)

Pitot tube : Material SS/copper of compatible size fitted