Learning and Cognition Assessment 2- Essay

Essay Question: How should our teaching practices be influenced by a child’s cultural background?

Introduction
The impact of a child’s diversity on their own, and others’, learning and development has never been
more relevant than in today’s classroom. This has been appreciated by today’s psychologists who
‘recognise that the child’s culture shapes cognitive development by determining what and how the
child will learn about the world’ (Woolfolk and Margetts, 2013, p. 95). Australia in particular is a
country that has seen massive amounts of immigration from all over the world swell its population.
In fact, as a major country it holds the second highest percentage of residents born overseas
(Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2012).While such national diversity
represents a new age of globalisation, acceptance and equality, it also presents a number of
problems to our education system that teachers must adapt to. We have schools full of children who
not only speak a different language or follow a different religion, but possess a completely different
view of the world from each other, and therefore will require teaching strategies that cater best to
these beliefs. The effect of a child’s cultural setting on their learning and development has been
studied closely by a number of well-known psychologists and played a significant role in their
resultant theories. This paper will analyse three of these theories; namely Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model of development and the Information Processing
Theory. Furthermore, the impact of culture on a child’s development will be studied and how as
teachers we must adapt our learning strategies to accommodate this impact.

Body
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
As humans, our activities can only be understood by observing the cultural environments they were
formed in (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 95). An absolutely pivotal facet of the way cultural
environments influence our development and the ensuing activities is our social interaction with
others. Lantolf and Thorne (2014, p.198) state that a child’s interactions in their various
environments is the primary source of higher cognitive thought development. These cognitive
structures are formed firstly as interpsychological and are then internalized to become
intrapsychological. These internalized structures will have been influenced by symbolic cultural tools,
such as language, or physical cultural tools which would have dictated the way information was
conveyed to the child. Conceptual tools are another form of cultural tools that can influence a child’s
development (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 96). The concept of cultural tools is linked to the
importance of interactions mentioned previously. Children will require adults, most likely their
parents, to instruct them in the use of cultural tools, and the extent to which they understand and
use the tools is reliant on the proficiency of instruction. This can also influence how their thought
processes develop. The cultural tools concept is also closely related to the ZPD notion that Lev
Vygotsky was famous for creating. ZPD stands for Zone of Proximal Development and it explains how

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a child can achieve tasks with assistance that would be impossible for them to accomplish alone. It
signifies the functions that are in the process of development, but have not yet fully matured
(Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p.98). Assistance is predominantly seen in the form of adults, and this
relates to the topic of cultural diversity in the classroom because parents in different cultures have
varying levels of involvement in their children’s learning. It is far more beneficial for parents to be
closely involved as their children attempt functions outside their level of competence, but for some
students of various backgrounds this is not always the case. The use of cultural tools is also a method
children can use to extend their ZPD and this leads to higher cognitive functioning. The level of
complexity of these cultural tools will shape the potential a child has for higher levels of thought and
learning. Australian classrooms will contain children who have been raised with completely different
cultural tools to one another, and therefore will have developed differently. Luckily as teachers in an
age where the world is more connected than ever before chances are much higher that our students
would have been raised with a lot of the same cultural tools i.e. Internet, mathematics, mobile
devices, scientific theories, art and literature. Often times various cultures will place more
importance on some cultural tools than others, and this can result in similar processes being
performed differently. An example of this is story-telling. Indigenous-Australians have passed down
their stories verbally, in comparison to Western cultures which utilise the cultural tool of written
language. This suggests that some students will struggle with certain tasks that they have not had
much practice with in their own culture.

The notion and use of play in children is another important facet of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory.
It is another activity that has the capability to greatly increase a child’s ZPD and interpersonal skills.
The presence of structure, regulation, encouragement and advice all lead to faster and more
effective development. Lillemyr et al. (2011) also states that play is crucial in promoting language
development and providing a greater understanding of cultural concepts. Children from different
cultural backgrounds will have drawn specific forms and methods of play from their own
perspectives and tools specific to their culture. This can often lead to greater or lesser development
in certain areas involved with the play, and also a different understanding of play as a whole. Things
such as speaking, listening, physical action and the use of rigid structures will all have varying levels
of importance for different children (Lillemyr et al, 2011). Therefore, it is beneficial that when play
tasks amongst children are assigned, that they are mediated by a teacher or adult so all children are
provided with the same opportunity for learning and development. Arguably the most important
outcome of interactive play is that it leads to a sense of closeness and belonging between the
children involved. Children engaging in play that is specific to their new cultural environment will
most likely develop a sense of identity with that culture. Deci and Ryan (1995) acknowledge that this
sense of relatedness is much more desirable in all cultures than that of autonomy and isolation.
While both isolation and interpersonal relations are both required for greater development, play
extends the ZPD and builds relationships, which is essential for higher order thinking. The
importance of play is not restricted to specific cultures; it applies to all and this means it is a
powerful tool in the hands of a teacher responsible for a diverse classroom.

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
The different environments a child interacts with will shape that child’s development. This was
explained in the previous section in relation to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and the importance
of interactions, but Bronfenbrenner’s Theory goes into much more depth on this aspect.

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Bronfenbrenner (1994, p. 37) argued that to get a grasp on a child’s development, ‘one must
consider the entire ecological system in which growth occurs’. He believed that a child is influenced
to a certain extent by different environments, and that influence relies on the amount of contact has
with each specific environment. The closer a child operates in that stage, the greater influence that
environment will have on the child. He theorised 5 environment structures that would be present in
a person’s life. These are the Microsystem (immediate relationships and activities), the Mesosystem
(interactions between elements of the microsystem), Exosystem (social settings one is not directly
involved with), the Macrosystem (larger system in which one is situated) and the Chronosystem
(effect of time and significant events). These are defined as ecosystems because they are constantly
interacting with and affecting each other (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 25).

We will look closer at proximal processes, which are the close and enduring relationships a child
engages in in the microsystem stage. The elements of the proximal processes, time, the attributes of
the developing child in question, and the context of the environments all influence the effect these
environment structures have on a child (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, p.38). Activities that fall under the
umbrella term of proximal processes include parents reading to their children, interactions involving
play or study and even solitary reading. The child’s culture saturates each environmental structure,
from the macrosystem inwards and this has a significant effect on how they engage in their proximal
processes. Therefore, even if certain aspects of the environment were the same e.g. school or
workplace, the cultural influence on these settings will result in children from different cultures
developing differently. The set of values that a culture holds must be factors in at least one of the
microsystems of the child to influence their development. As teachers we must acknowledge that
school is only one facet of a child’s ecological environment, and is often at conflicts with other
environmental structures in the child’s life. Even if children share many aspects of the same culture
now by living in the same country, there are still aspects of that culture that are influencing their
development, such as home life or religious gatherings.

Information Processing Theory

Information Processing Theory is the leading theory as to how memory is formed, retained and
applied. It has been related to a computer system, and consists of 3 main stages of memory. The first
of these is the Sensory memory, which is what the child is experiencing in the present. All their
senses are providing them with input which they either discard or retain for the working and long-
term memory. Memories last only a few seconds in this stage, and this is determined by perception
and attention (Woolfolk and Margetts, 2013, p.253). If input taken in by the sensory memory is
deemed important by the body’s executive processes, than it is passed through to the second stage
of memory, the working memory. The working memory consists of your current thoughts. One of its
uses is taking in new information and striving to hold and process it. As Stamovlasis & Tsaparlis
(2012, p. 393) state, working memory is limited in the amount of information it can hold, and when
this capacity is overloaded it can have a significant effect on a child’s learning. Long-Term memory,
the final stage of memory, requires more time and effort for information and knowledge to be
stored within it in comparison to the other stages, and this also applies to accessing this information
when the child wants to apply it. How does this relate to the influence of a child’s cultural
background in the classroom, however?

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Being aware of the implications of the information processing theory will assist us in setting up
successful and nurturing learning environments for children of all cultural backgrounds. Stimuli is an
aspect of this theory that we must appreciate and take advantage of in relation to a child’s cultural
background; more specifically, discrepant stimuli. This is stimuli that stands out and is different to
what a child expects to see (Cormier, 1991, p.3). This can be both a positive and negative thing for a
teacher. A child from a certain culture, having been raised in that specific environment and
becoming very accustomed to the elements of it, can be alarmed or disconcerted by discrepant
stimuli. This can disrupt their learning and must be taken into account when setting up a classroom
or learning task. However, it can also be a useful tool to shake children out of repetitive and
monotonous study. If we are aware of the cultural backgrounds of our students, we will know what
stimuli will stand out and attract their interest. While we have achieved the goal of gaining their
attention, we need to make sure that throughout the task we maintain this attention otherwise
nothing we will be learned (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p.255). Another important point to take
note of is that children will most likely move new information from sensory memory to long-term
memory if they find it interesting or meaningful. A child’s interest will be piqued if they are
presented with stimuli that they can associate with their culture, and will then draw relevant
information, knowledge and experiences from their long-term memory. A child will likely become far
more engaged with the topic, leading to more meaningful learning that will stay with them longer.

Classroom Applications
These three theories provide teachers with a multitude of crucial information that they can apply in
their classrooms. Vygotsky gives us insight into how a child’s interactions with peers, adults and
cultural tools affect their development. The notion of cultural tools is of particular importance. If a
child has been raised with different tools, or has used similar tools in a different way, then this will
limit their ability in a new environment. When setting learning tasks, teachers must be cautious that
when children are doing these tasks that they are using cultural tools that are familiar to the widest
range of students. Using visuals or moving objects instead of confronting masses of text for a
student struggling with English is an example. For some subjects this will be hard to avoid, but for
others such as maths, which is a universal tool, this will not be an issue. Also technology and its
many resources make this an easier dilemma to solve than ever. Vygotsky also touches on the
importance of play, which as mentioned previously is an extremely helpful tool in the hands of a
teacher. Particularly in a scenario where a child is not fitting in and feeling excluded, play can be
utilised to enable bonding with the other students and boost confidence and self-esteem; a pivotal
trait for successful learning (Lillemyr et al, 2011, p.43). Play also supports a child’s development of
language skills and a general understanding of how their new culture operates.

Bronfenbrenner provides a clear picture of how overwhelming moving to a new culture can be.
Fortunately for teachers, every environment a child encounters is new to them, and as a result they
adapt easier than adults (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, p.39). Sensitivity is still required however. The
classroom set up needs to accommodate the heavy influences different cultural environments have
on the many children on the class; if it is too geared too much towards children of a specific cultural
background then other children’s learning will suffer by no fault of their own. As teachers we will
also have to manage when a child’s other environments come into contact with our own- parents in
particular have varying levels of participation with their child’s education. This often impacted by the
norms of their culture of origin. For the majority of children, seeing their parents in their own school

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environment is exciting and stimulating. Parental involvement should be encouraged, and therefore
good relationships with those parents are also required.

The concept of discrepant stimuli was discussed thoroughly in the chapter analysing Information
Processing Theory. This aspect of the theory provides a number of applications and cautions for
teachers. Too much new and conspicuous stimuli and a child will become overwhelmed. This can
apply to things such as wall displays, posters or simply new structures and activities. Discrepant
stimuli will be even more overwhelming for a child if it is not relatable to the culture-specific
information they have processed and stored in their long-term memory. Therefore, we should be
constructing learning tasks with the various cultures of our students in mind and implementing plans
that will appeal to the widest spread of cultures possible.

Conclusion
To conclude, our teaching practices should be heavily influenced by a child’s cultural background in
order support their learning development. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s bio-
ecological model of development and the Information Processing Theory all give explanations as to
how significant an impact a child’s culture has on their learning, and they also provide many
applications as to how teachers can adapt to this. Vygotsky singles out the importance of
interactions in his theory, and with that how play and the use of cultural tools extends their zone of
proximal development. Both of these can be utilised and applied in the classroom to promote higher
order thinking and a sense of relatedness with their peers. Bronfenbrenner highlighted the array of
environmental structures present in a child’s life and the impact these have when they intermingle.
Teachers are at the centre of these environmental interactions and are also one of the child’s
proximal processes, showing how influential we can be in the lives of our students. The theory also
suggests the use of parent participation and sensitivity to ever-adapting children. The Information
Processing Theory goes into detail as to how a child takes in, stores and uses knowledge and
information. The implications of this can be kept in mind when planning lessons, remembering that
students will respond to tasks they can relate to their own culture and be overwhelmed when
presented with too many discrepant stimuli. Groundwater Smith et al. (2015, p. 61) sums it up when
it describes schools as sites where ‘explicit, positive messages can and should be relayed about the
great benefits of an ethnically diverse society’.

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