Material for Class Presentation

by: dos Santos, Jose Eudes R., SVD

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT DEFINED

Psychological Testing – “the process of measuring psychology-related variables by

means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behaviour.” Psychological
Assessment – “the gathering and integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of
making a psychological evaluation through tools such as tests, interviews, case studies,
behavioural observation, and other methods.”

Basic Elements of the Definition of Psychological Tests

Defining Element Explanation Rationale
Psychological tests are systematic They are characterized by Tests must be demonstrably
procedures. planning, uniformity, and objective and fair to be of use.
thoroughness.
Psychological tests are samples of They are small subsets of a much Sampling behaviour is efficient
behaviour. larger whole. because the time available is usually
limited.
The behaviours sampled by tests are The samples are selected for their Tests, unlike mental games, exist to
relevant to cognitive, affective, or empirical or practical be of use; they are tools.
interpersonal functioning. psychological significance.
Test results are evaluated and scored. Some numerical or category There should be no question about
system is applied to test results, what the results of tests are.
according to pre-established rules.
To evaluate test results it is necessary There has to be a way of applying The standards used to evaluate test
to have standards based on empirical a common yardstick or criterion results lend the only meaning those
data. to test results. results have.

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Testing in Contrast to Assessment
TESTING ASSESSMENT
Objective
Typically, to obtain some gauge, usually numerical in Typically, to answer a referral question, solve a problem,
nature, with regard to ability or attribute. or arrive at a decision through the use of tools of
evaluation.
Process
Testing may be individual or group in nature. After Assessment is typically individualized. In contrast to
test administration, the tester will typically add up testing, assessment more typically focuses on how an
“the number of correct answers or the number of individual processes rather than simply the results of that
certain types of responses . . . with little if any regard processing.
for the how or mechanics of such content” (Maloney
& Ward, 1976, p. 39).

Role of Evaluator
The tester is not the key to the process; practically The assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests
speaking, one tester may be substituted for another and/or other tools of evaluation as well as in drawing
tester without appreciably affecting the evaluation. conclusions from the entire evaluation.

Skill of Evaluator
Testing typically requires technician-like skills in Assessment typically requires an educated selection of
terms of administering and scoring a test as well as in tools of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful
interpreting a test result. organization and integration of data.

Outcome
Typically, testing yields a test score or series of test Typically, assessment entails a logical problem-solving
scores. approach that brings to bear many sources of data designed
to shed light on a referral question.

The process of assessment

In general, the process of assessment begins with a referral for assessment from a source
such as a teacher, a school psychologist, a counsellor, a judge, a clinician, or a corporate human
resources specialist.
(a) Collaborative Psychological Assessment – Stephen Finn and his colleagues have
described a collaborative approach to assessment called Therapeutic Psychological

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Assessment. Here, therapeutic self-discovery and new understandings are encouraged throughout
the assessment process.
(b) Dynamic Assessment – in general, dynamic assessment refers to an interactive approach
to psychological assessment that usually follows a model of (1) evaluation, (2) intervention of
some sort, and (3) evaluation. Dynamic assessment is most typically employed in educational
settings, although it may be employed in correctional, corporate, neuropsychological, clinical,
and most any other setting as well.

THE TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

The Test
A psychological test is a device or procedure designed to measure variables related to
psychology (e.g. intelligence, attitudes, personality, interests, etc.). Psychological tests vary by
content, format, administration, scoring, interpretation, and technical quality.
a. Content – the subject matter of the test. Content depends on the theoretical orientation of
test developers and the unique way in which they define the construct of interest.
b. Format – the form, plan, structure, layout of test items, and other considerations (e.g. time
limits).
c. Administration – tests may require certain tasks to be performed, trained observation of
performance, or little involvement by the test administrators (e.g. self-report questionnaires).
d. Scoring and Interpretation – scoring of tests may be simple, such as summing responses
to items, or may require more elaborate procedures. Some tests results can be interpreted easily,
or interpreted by computer, whereas other tests require expertise for proper interpretation.
e. Cut Score – a reference point, usually numerical, used to divide data into two or more
classifications (e.g. pass or fail).
f. Technical Quality or Psychometric Soundness – psychometrics is the science of
psychological measurement. The psychometric soundness of a test depends on how consistently
and accurately the test measures what it purports to measure. Test users are sometimes referred
to as psychometrist or psychometrician.

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The Interview

As a tool of psychological assessment typically involves more than talk. There are
different ways to conduct interviews: face-to-face – telephone – sign language – electronic
means, such as: online interviews; e-mail interviews; interviews conducted by means of text
messaging. In its broadest sense, then, we can define an interview as a method of gathering
information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange. Interviews differ with
regard to many variables, such as their purpose, length, and nature. Interviews may be used by
psychologists in various specialty areas to help make diagnostic, treatment, selection, or other
decisions; for example, a school psychologists; a court-appointed psychologist may use an
interview; a specialist in head injury; a psychologist studying consumer behaviour. In some
instances, especially in the field of human resources, a specialized interview called a panel
interview may be employed.

The Portfolio

Students and professionals in many different fields of endeavour ranging from art to
architecture keep files of their work products. These work products – whether retained on paper,
canvas, film, video, audio, or some other medium – constitute what is called a portfolio. As
samples of one’s ability and accomplishment, a portfolio may be used as a tool of evaluation.

Case History Data

Refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that
preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant
to an assessee. Case history data is a useful tool in a wide variety of assessment contexts: in a
clinical evaluation; neuropsychological evaluations; school psychologists rely on case history
data for insight into a student’s current academic or behavioural standing. Another use of the
term case history, one synonymous with case study, concerns the assembly of case history data
into an illustrative account.

Behavioural Observation
As it is employed by assessment professionals, may be defined as monitoring the actions
of others or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative

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information regarding the actions. Behavioural observation is often used as a diagnostic aid in
various settings such as inpatient facilities, behavioural research laboratories, and classrooms.
Behavioural observation as an aid to designing therapeutic intervention has proven to be
extremely useful in institutional settings such as schools, hospitals, prisons, and group homes. In
practice, behavioural observation tends to be used infrequently outside of research facilities,
prisons, inpatient clinics, and other types of facilities where the observers have ready access to
assessees.

Role-Play Tests
Role play may be defined as acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a
simulated situation. A role play test is a tool of assessment wherein assessees are directed to act
as if they were in a particular situation. Assessees may then be evaluated with regard to their
expressed thoughts, behaviours, abilities, and other variables. Role-play is useful in evaluating
various skills. Role play as a tool of assessment may be used in various clinical contexts. For
example, it is routinely employed in many interventions with substance abusers.

Computers as Tools

The more obvious role as a tool of assessment is their role in test administration, scoring,
and interpretation. Scoring may be done on-site (local processing) or at a central location
(central processing). Reports may come in the form of a simple scoring report, extended scoring
report, interpretive report, consultative report, or integrative report. Computer Assisted
Psychological Assessment (CAPA) and Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) have allowed for
tailor-made tests with built-in scoring and interpretive capabilities. Assessment is increasingly
conducted via the internet. Advantages of Internet Testing: (1) greater access to potential test-
users; (2) scoring and interpretation tends to be quicker; (3) costs tend to be lower; and (4)
facilitates testing otherwise isolated populations and people with disabilities.

Other Tools
a. Videos – specially created videos are widely used in training and evaluation contexts;
b. In addition to video, many other commonplace items that you may not readily associate
with psychological assessment may be pressed into service for just that purpose. For example,

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psychologists may use many of the tools traditionally associated with medical health:
thermometers – biofeedback equipment.
c. In general, there has been no shortage of innovation on the part of psychologists in
devising measurement tools, or adapting existing tools, for use in psychological assessment.

WHO, WHAT, WHY, HOW, AND WHERE?

Who are the parties in the assessment enterprise? In what types of settings are
assessments conducted? Why is assessment conducted? How are assessments conducted?
Where does one go for authoritative information about tests?

Who are the parties?

Parties in the assessment enterprise include developers and publishers of tests, users of
tests, and people who are evaluated by means of tests. Additionally, we may consider society at
large as a party to the assessment enterprise.
a. The test developer – test developers and publishers create tests or other methods of
assessment. Test creators bring a wide array of backgrounds and interests to the test development
process.
The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing covers issues related to test
construction and evaluation, test administration and use, special applications of tests and
considerations for linguistic minorities.
b. The test user – psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used by a wide
range of professionals, including clinicians, counsellors, school psychologists, human resources
personnel, consumer psychologists, experimental psychologists, social psychologists, the list
goes on.
The Standards, as well other published guidelines from specialty professional
organizations, have had much to say in terms of identifying just who is a qualified test user and
who should have access to psychological tests and related tools of psychological assessment.
c. The testtaker – having all taken tests, we all have had first-hand experience in the role of
testtaker. Testtakers may differ on a number of variables at the time of testing (e.g. test anxiety,

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emotional distress, physical discomfort, alertness, etc.). As amazing as it sounds, this means that
even a deceased individual can be considered an assessee. True, it is the exception to the rule, but
there is such a thing as a psychological autopsy. A psychological autopsy may be defined as a
reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profile on the basis of archival records,
artefacts, and interviews previously conducted with the deceased assessee or with people who
knew him or her. In the broad sense in which we are using the term testtaker, anyone who is the
subject of an assessment or an evaluation can be a testtaker or an assessee.
d. Society at large – as society evolves and as the need to measure different psychological
variables emerges, test developers respond by devising new tests. Through elected
representatives to the legislature, laws are enacted that govern aspects of test development, test
administration, and test interpretation. Similarly, by means of court decisions, society at large
exerts its influence on various aspects of the testing and assessment enterprise.
e. Other parties:
 Organizations, companies, and governmental agencies sponsor the development of tests
for various reasons, such as to certify personnel.
 Companies and services offer test-scoring or interpretation services.
 Laws and court decisions may play a major role in test development, administration, and
interpretation.
 Researchers may review tests and evaluate their psychometric soundness.

In what types of settings are assessments conducted, and why?

a. Educational settings: students typically undergo school ability tests and achievement
tests. Diagnostic tests may be used to identify areas for educational intervention.
b. Clinical settings: includes hospitals, inpatient and outpatient clinics, private-practice
consulting rooms, schools, and other institutions. Assessment tools are used to help screen for or
diagnose behaviour problems; a private psychotherapy; a school psychologist; a psychotherapy
researcher; a psychologist-consultant; a court-appointed psychologist; a prison psychologist.
c. Counseling settings: assessment in a counselling context may occur in environments as
diverse as schools, prisons, and government or privately owned institutions. Regardless of the
particular tools used, the ultimate objective of many such assessments is the improvement of
the assessee in terms of adjustment, productivity, or some related variable.

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 d. Geriatric settings: assessment primarily evaluates cognitive, psychological, adaptive, or
other functioning. The issue is quality of life.
e. Business and military settings: decisions regarding careers of personnel are made with a
variety of achievement, aptitude, interest, motivational, and other tests.
f. Government and organizational credentialing: includes governmental licensing,
certification, or general credentialing of professionals (e.g. attorneys, physicians, and
psychologists).
g. Academic Research settings: however defined, what is typically assessed in such research
includes evaluation with respect to variables such as perceived stress, loneliness, sources of
satisfaction, personal values, quality of living conditions, and quality of friendships and other
social support.
h. Other settings: Many different kinds of measurement procedures find application in a
wide variety of settings. For example, the courts rely on psychological test data and related
expert testimony as one source of information to help answer important questions … tools of
assessment can be found in use in research and practice in every specialty area within
psychology. For example, consider Health Psychology …

How are assessments conducted?

There are many different methods used. Ethical testers have responsibilities before,
during, and after testing. Obligations include familiarity with test materials and procedures;
ensuring that the room in which the test will be conducted is suitable and conducive to the
testing; it is important to establish rapport during test administration – rapport can be defined as a
working relationship between the examiner and the examinee.
Assessments of People with Disabilities – people with disabilities are assessed for exactly the
same reasons that people with no disabilities are assessed: to obtain employment, to earn a
professional credential, to be screened for psychopathology, and so forth. The law mandates
“alternate assessment” – in general, alternate assessment is typically accomplished by means of
some accommodation made to the assessee. The verb to accommodate may be defined as “to
adapt, adjust, or make suitable.” In the context of psychological testing and assessment,
accommodation may be defined as the adaptation of a test, procedure, or situation, or the

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substitution of one test for another, to make the assessment more suitable for an assessee with
exceptional needs.

HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Antiquity to Nineteenth Century

The first systematic tests were developed in China as early as 2200 B.C.E. as a means of
selecting people for government jobs. The ancient Egyptian – psychological assessment, as well
as, counselling and psychotherapy were probably more the providence of the priest. Egyptian
priest were trained in much more than religion. They typically had knowledge of the healing
arts, philosophy, architecture, math, and astronomy. They were called upon to answer questions
related to the meaning of dreams, as well as many other questions related to life – and afterlife.
Also intriguing from a historical perspective are ancient Greco-Roman writings indicative of
attempts to categorize people in terms of personality types. Such categorizations typically
included reference to an overabundance or deficiency in some bodily fluid (such as blood or
phlegm) as a factor believed to influence personality. During the Middle Ages, a question of
critical importance was “Who is in league with the Devil?” and various measurement procedures
were devised to address this question. It would not be until the Renaissance that measurement in
the modern sense began to emerge. By the eighteenth century, Christian von Wolff (1732, 1734)
had anticipated psychology as a science and psychological measurement as a specialty within
that science.

In 1859, a book was published entitled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection by Charles Darwin (1809–1882), in this important, far-reaching work, Darwin argued
that chance variation in species would be selected or rejected by nature according to adaptivity
and survival value. Darwin’s interest in individual differences led his half-cousin, Francis
Galton, to devise a number of measures for psychological variables.

Galton (1869) aspired to classify people “according to their natural gifts” and to ascertain
their “deviation from an average”. Along the way, Galton would be credited with devising or
contributing to the development of many contemporary tools of psychological assessment
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including questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories. Galton pioneered the use of a
statistical concept central to psychological experimentation and testing: the coefficient of
correlation.

Assessment was also an important activity at the first experimental psychology

laboratory; founded at the University of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Max Wundt (1832–1920.
Wundt and his students tried to formulate a general description of human abilities with respect to
variables such as reaction time, perception, and attention span. In contrast to Galton, Wundt
focused on questions relating to how people were similar, not different. In spite of the prevailing
research focus on people’s similarities, one of Wundt’s students at Leipzig, an American named
James McKeen Cattell, completed a doctoral dissertation that dealt with individual differences.
Inspired by his interaction with Galton, Cattell returned to the University of Pennsylvania in
1888 and coined the term mental test in an 1890 publication.

The Twentieth Century

The Measurement of Intelligence

The twentieth century brought the first tests of abilities such as intelligence. In 1905,
Binet and Simon developed the first intelligence test to identify mentally retarded Paris
schoolchildren. Before long, psychological tests were being used on a regular basis in schools,
clinics, courts, hospitals, and prisons. World Wars I and II brought the need for large-scale
testing of the intellectual ability of new recruits. After World War II, psychologists increasingly
used tests in large corporations and private organizations.

The Measurement of Personality

By the late 1930’s, over 4,000 psychological tests were in print. The Woodworth
Psychoneurotic Inventory was the first widely used self-report personality test. An advantage of
self-report is that respondents are arguably the best-qualified people to provide answers about
themselves. A potential disadvantage is that respondents may have poor insight into themselves.
People might honestly believe some things about themselves that in reality are not true. Some
respondents are unwilling to reveal anything about themselves that is very personal or paints
them in a negative light.

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 Filling the need for measures of personality that did not rely on self-report were various
methods. One such method or approach to personality assessment came to be described as
PROJECTIVE IN NATURE. A projective test is one in which an individual is assumed to
“project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and
motivation. The ambiguous stimulus might be an inkblot, a drawing, a photograph, or something
else. Perhaps the best known of all projective tests is the RORSCHACH, a series of inkblots
developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach.

The academic and applied traditions

Like the development of its parent field of psychology, the development of psychological
measurement can be traced along two distinct threads: THE ACADEMIC and THE APPLIED.
In the tradition of Galton, Wundt, and other scholars, psychological testing and assessment are
practiced today in university psychology laboratories as a means of furthering knowledge about
human and animal behaviour. There is also a very strong applied tradition, one that dates back in
modern times to the work of people like Binet and in ancient times to China and the
administration of competitive civil service examinations

Culture and Assessment

Culture may be defined as “the socially transmitted behaviour patterns, beliefs, and
products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people” (Cohen, 1994, p. 5).
Indeed, the influence of culture on an individual’s thoughts and behaviour may be a great deal
stronger than most of us would acknowledge at first blush. Professionals involved in the
assessment enterprise have shown increasing sensitivity to the role of culture in many different
aspects of measurement.

Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Issues

Henry H. Goddard, who had been highly instrumental in getting Binet’s test adopted for
use in various settings in the United States. Early on, Goddard raised questions about how
meaningful such tests are when used with people from various cultural and language
backgrounds. Goddard (1913) used interpreters in test administration, employed a bilingual
psychologist, and administered mental tests to selected immigrants who appeared mentally

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retarded to trained observers. Goddard’s research, although leaving much to be desired
methodologically, fuelled the fires of an on-going nature–nurture debate about what intelligence
tests actually measure.

If language and culture did indeed have an effect on mental ability test scores, then how
could a more un-confounded or “pure” measure of intelligence be obtained? One-way that early
test developers attempted to deal with the impact of language and culture on tests of mental
ability was, in essence, to “isolate” the cultural variable. So-called culture-specific tests, or tests
designed for use with people from one culture but not from another, soon began to appear on the
scene.

Even though many published tests were purposely designed to be culture-specific, it soon
became apparent that the tests were being administered – improperly – to people from different
cultures. Today, test developers typically take many steps to ensure that a major test developed
for national use is indeed suitable for such use.

Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment

Communication between assessor and assessee is a most basic part of assessment.

Assessors must be sensitive to any differences between the language or dialect familiar to
assessees and the language in which the assessment is conducted. Assessors must also be
sensitive to the degree to which assessees have been exposed to the dominant culture and the
extent to which they have made a conscious choice to become assimilated.

Verbal communication

Some meaning and nuance may be lost in translation; some interpreters may not be familiar
with mental health issues – pre-training may be necessary; in interviews language deficits may
be detected by trained examiners but may go undetected in written tests; assessments need to be
evaluated in terms of the language proficiency required and the current level of the test-taker.

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Non-verbal communication and behaviour

Non-verbal signs or body language may vary from one culture to another; psychoanalysis pays
particular attention to the symbolic meaning of non-verbal behaviour; other cultures may
complete tasks at a different pace, which may be particularly problematic for timed tests.

Standards of Evaluation
Judgments related to certain psychological traits can be culturally relative; cultures differ
in regards to gender roles and views of psychopathology; cultures also vary in terms of
collectivist vs. individualist value; collectivist cultures value traits such as conformity,
cooperation, interdependence, and striving toward group goals; individualist cultures place value
on traits such as self-reliance, autonomy, independence, uniqueness, and competitiveness.

Tests and Group Membership

Conflict often ensues when groups systematically differ in terms of scores on a particular
test; in vocational assessment, test users are sensitive to legal and ethical mandates concerning
the use of tests with regard to hiring, firing, and related decision making; conflicts may arise
from disagreements about the criteria for performing a particular job; some would argue that if
tests are measuring what they are supposed to then group membership should not be an issue,
while others seek to “level the playing field” through initiatives such as affirmative action.

Legal and Ethical Considerations

Laws are rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as a whole – or rules
thought to be for the good of society as a whole. Some laws are and have been relatively
uncontroversial. Whereas a body of laws is a body of rules, a body of ethics is a body of
principles of right, proper, or good conduct.
Samples: an ethic of the Old West was “Never shoot ’em in the back.” – two well-known
principles subscribed to by seafarers are “women and children leave first in an emergency” and
“a captain goes down with his ship.” – a principle of ethical research is that the researcher should
never fudge data; all data must be reported accurately.

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The Concerns of the Public
Concerns started after World War I when tests developed for military use were adapted
and became widespread in schools and industry. The fires of public concern about testing were
again fanned in 1969 when widespread media attention was given to the publication of an article,
in the prestigious Harvard Educational Review, entitled “How Much Can We Boost IQ and
Scholastic Achievement?” Its author, Arthur Jensen, argued, “Genetic factors are strongly
implicated in the average Negro-white intelligence difference” (1969, p. 82). What followed was
an outpouring of public and professional attention to nature-versus-nurture issues in addition to
widespread skepticism about what intelligence tests were really measuring.

Legislation
Minimal competency testing programs: many states in the 1970’s passed laws to the
effect that high school graduates should be able to meet “minimal competencies” in reading,
writing, and arithmetic.
Truth-in-testing legislation: passed at the state level, starting in the 1980’s, the
objective was to give testtakers a way to learn the criteria by which they are being judged. To
meet that objective, some laws mandate that disclosure of answers to postsecondary and
professional school admissions tests within 30 days of the publication of test scores. Some laws
require that information relevant to a test’s development and technical soundness be kept on file.
Some truth-in-testing laws require providing descriptions of (1) the test’s purpose and its subject
matter, (2) the knowledge and skills the test purports to measure, (3) procedures for ensuring
accuracy in scoring, (4) procedures for notifying testtakers of errors in scoring, and (5)
procedures for ensuring the testtaker’s confidentiality. Truth-in-testing laws create special
difficulties for test developers and publishers, who argue that it is essential for them to keep the
test items secret.
Some laws mandate the involvement of the executive branch of government in their
application. For example, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 created the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce the act. The EEOC has published sets
of guidelines concerning standards to be met in constructing and using employment tests. In
1978, the EEOC, the Civil Service Commission, the Department of Labour, and the Justice
Department jointly published the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures.

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Litigation
Rules governing citizens’ behaviour stem not only from legislatures but also from
interpretations of existing law in the form of decisions handed down by courts. This is why law
resulting from litigation – the court-mediated resolution of legal matters of a civil, criminal or
administrative nature – can impact our daily lives. Litigation has sometimes been referred to as
“judge-made law” because it typically comes in the form of a ruling by a court. A psychologist
acting as an expert witness in a civil matter could conceivably offer opinions on many different
types of issues ranging from the parenting skills of a parent in a divorce case to the capabilities
of a factory worker prior to sustaining a head injury on the job. In a malpractice case, an expert
witness might testify about how reasonable and professional the actions taken by a fellow
psychologist were and whether any reasonable and prudent practitioner would have engaged in
the same or similar actions (Cohen, 1979).

The Concerns of the Profession

The APA has published many works over the years to delineate ethical, sound practice in
the field of psychological testing and assessment. The APA and related professional
organizations in the United States have made available numerous reference works and
publications designed to delineate ethical, sound practice in the field of psychological testing and
assessment.
Test-user qualifications
Should just anyone be allowed to purchase and use psychological test materials? If not,
then who should be permitted to use psychological tests? As early as 1950, an APA Committee
on Ethical Standards for Psychology published a report called Ethical Standards for the
Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids. This report defined three levels of tests
in terms of the degree to which the test’s use required knowledge of testing and psychology.
 Level A - Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the
aid of the manual.
 Level B - Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction/use and
knowledge of psychology and education.

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 Level C - Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting
psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices.
Testing people with disabilities
Some challenges in testing people with disabilities may include:
 Transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker;
 Transforming the responses of the testtaker so that they are scorable; and
 Meaningfully interpreting the test data.
Under Oregon’s the first state to enact “Death with Dignity” legislation, a request for
assistance in dying may be granted only contingent on the findings of a psychological evaluation;
life or death literally hangs in the balance of such assessments.

Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation

Computer-assisted psychological assessment (CAPA). An ever-growing number of
psychological tests can be purchased on disc or even administered and scored online.  In many
respects, the relative simplicity, convenience, and range of potential testing activities that
computer technology brings to the testing industry have been a great boon. Offers convenience,
simplicity, and greater range of assessment. Some major issues with regard to CAPA are:
 Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software.
 Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of tests.
 The value of computerized test interpretations.
 Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online.

The Rights of Testtakers

As prescribed by the Standards and in some cases by law, some of the rights that test
users accord to testtakers are: the right of informed consent; the right to be informed of test
findings; the right to privacy and confidentiality; and the right to the least stigmatizing label.

The right of Informed Consent

Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be
used, and what (if any) information will be released to whom. With full knowledge of such
information, testtakers give their informed consent to be tested.

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 Competency in providing informed consent has been broken down into several
components: (1) being able to evidence a choice as to whether one wants to participate; (2)
demonstrating a factual understanding of the issues; (3) being able to reason about the facts of a
study, treatment, or whatever it is to which consent is sought, and (4) appreciating the nature of
the situation. Competency to provide informed consent may be assess informally, and in fact
many physicians engage in such informal assessment. Marson et al. (1997) cautioned that
informal assessment … Another consideration related to competency is the extent to which
persons diagnosed with psychopathology may be incompetent to provide informed consent […]
Competence to provide informed consent may be improved by training. Therefore, clinicians
should not necessarily assume that patients are not capable of consent based solely on their
diagnosis.
If a testtaker is incapable of providing an informed consent to testing, such consent may
be obtained from a parent or a legal representative.
One grey area involves research and experimental situations wherein the examiner’s
complete disclosure of all facts pertinent to the testing might irrevocably contaminate the test
data. In some instances, DECEPTION is used to create situations that occur relatively rarely.
Various professional organizations have created policies and guidelines regarding deception in
research. For example, the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
(2002) provides that psychologists (a) do not use deception unless it is absolutely necessary, (b)
do not use deception at all if it will cause participants emotional distress, and (c) fully debrief
participants. Situations in which it is deemed advisable not to obtain fully informed consent to
evaluation, professional discretion is in order. Testtakers might be given a minimum amount of
information before the testing.

The right to be informed of test findings

In the past testtakers were often not told of diagnostic findings or anything that might
hurt their self-image. Currently, giving information about test performance to examinees is
ethically and legally mandated and may be useful from a therapeutic perspective as well. Test-
takers have a right to know about test findings and recommendations. Test-users should
sensitively inform test-takers of the purpose of the test, the meaning of the score relative to those
of other testtakers, and the possible limitations and margins of error of the test.

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The right to privacy and confidentiality
In most states, information provided by clients to psychologists is considered privileged
information. Privilege is not absolute – psychologists may have to disclose information if
ordered by the courts or the client may harm self or other. Another ethical mandate, regarding
confidentiality, pertains to safe-guarding test data.

The right to the least stigmatizing label

The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when
reporting test results.

The history of psychological testing in the United States has been brief but intense.
Although these sorts of tests have long been available, psychological testing is very much a
product of modern society with its unprecedented technology and population growth and unique
problems. Conversely, by helping solve the challenges posed by modern developments, tests have
played an important role in recent U.S. and world history. You should realize, however, that
despite advances in the theory and technique of psychological testing, many unsolved technical
problems and hotly debated social, political, and economic issues remain. Nevertheless, the
prevalence of tests despite strong opposition indicates that, although they are far from perfect,
psychological tests must fulfil some important need in the decision-making processes permeating
all facets of society. Because decisions must be made, such tests will probably flourish until a
better or more objective way of making decisions emerges. Modern history shows that
psychological tests have evolved in a complicated environment in which hostile and friendly
forces have produced a balance characterized by innovation and a continuous quest for better
methods. One interesting thing about tests is that people never seem to remain neutral about
them. If you are not in favour of tests, then we ask that you maintain an open mind while
studying them. Our goal is to give you enough information to assess psychological tests
intelligently throughout your life. [KAPLAN, R.M. & SACCUZZO, D. P., 2012 p. 23]

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References:

1. Robert M. Kaplan and Dennis P. Saccuzzo. Psychological Testing: Principles,

Applications, and Issues, Eighth Edition.

2. Cohen−Swerdlik. Psychological Testing and Assessment: An Introduction to Tests

and Measurement.

3. Susana Urbina. Essentials of Psychological Testing. Second Edition.

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