MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT

Lesson 1. Basic Concepts in

Psychological
Assessment

Lesson 2. The Psychological Test

Lesson 3 Historical Foundations

of Psychological
Assessment

Lesson 4 Ethical Considerations

in Psychological
Assessment

Lesson 5 The Interview

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MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

 INTRODUCTION

This module will guide you in familiarizing and mastering the

concepts of and the difference between psychological testing and
assessment. The principles and roots of psychological assessment will be
tackled. This will also highlight the ethical considerations in psychological
assessment and its importance to educational, industrial, clinical situations.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. compare and contrast psychological testing and assessment

2. trace the historical foundations of psychological assessment
3. reason based on the ethical considerations in psychological
assessment
4. explain the assumptions of psychological testing and assessment

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read and internalize each
lesson then respond to the exercises/activities to find out how much you
have learned from it. Work on these exercises scholarly and submit your
output to your tutor or to the Humanities and Social Sciences Department.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor

messenger or email. If not contact your tutor at the Psychology
Department.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Basic Concepts in
Psychological
Assessment
Psychological testing and psychological assessment are oftentimes
being interchanged for a single meaning and purpose. For example, a person
is interested about his IQ and he was given an intelligence test, or a person
feels “uneasy” for days and went to a practitioner who asked a lot of
questions, gives test and asks permission to know about his lifestyle. Which
of the two situations is most probably psychological testing and
psychological assessment? A lightning strikes in your mind? Well, this chapter
will pinpoint some of the markers that separate the two concepts in terms
of its use.
Psychological Assessment is the gathering and integrating psychology
related data for the purpose of making psychological evaluation that is
accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case
studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and
measurement procedures.
It is different from Psychological testing. Psychological testing is the
process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior. It is the process of
administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological test.
In this case, you can already answer the question which of the two
situations is a process called psychological testing and assessment. You are
right. The one who is interested about his IQ underwent a process called
psychological testing, and the other one is psychological assessment.
The table below summarizes the difference between Psychological
assessment and testing in terms of objective, process, role of evaluator,
skill of evaluator and their outcomes.
Assessment Testing
Objective Typically, to answer question, Typically to obtain some
solve problem, or arrive at a gauge, usually numerical in
decision through the use of nature, with regard to an
tools of evaluation ability or attribute.
Process Individualized Individualized or grouped

Role of Key in the choice of tests May be substituted

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Evaluator
Skill of educated selection of tools of Technician-like skills in
Evaluator evaluation, skill in evaluation, terms of the standardization
and thought organization and of the test
integration of data

Outcome Logical problem solving Yields a test score or series

approach that brings to bear of test scores.
many source of data designed
to shed light to referral
question.

Still confused? If you haven’t experienced reaching for the help of a

psychology professional, I bet, you have some hospital experience. The
process is almost the same in a hospital. You have the doctor who
“assesses” you, and a medical technologist you “tests” you by the use of
laboratory equipment. Psychology practitioners also use equipment and we
call that psychological tests and we have psychologists who assesses
psychological situation or the reason for visiting a clinic. We call a “referral
question”, the essential one in order to arrive for a proper treatment by
psychological assessment.

FORMS OF ASSESSMENT
 Therapeutic Psychological Assessment – Through the process of
assessment, the client gains insight about the disorder and later on
develops psychological wellness.
 Collaborative Psychological Assessment – the client helps the clinician
to uncover the disorder.
 Dynamic Assessment – follows the process (1) evaluation, (2)
therapy/intervention, and (3) evaluation. (ABA Design)

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Lesson 2


PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST/TESTING
The Psychological
Test

 A Psychological test is a measurement device or technique used to

quantify behavior or aid in the understanding and prediction of
behavior (of both overt and covert).
 A set of items used for testing/ measuring/ determining individual
difference.
 Psychological Testing is the process of measuring psychology related
variables by means of a device.
 Individual difference may make people differ in measurable ways in
their behavior and that the differences persist over a sufficiently long
time.

TEST ITEM
 A stimulus wherein a sample is expected to respond overtly. It may
be a question, a drawing, etc.
 Suggests a sample of behavior of an individual that could be
evaluated using a scale.
 Scale – Process by which a response can be scored.

Are the “psychological tests” that we usually see in social media credible?
Let’s see what are the characteristics of a good psychological tests.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

 Objective – psychological test results are free from the subjective
perception of the test administrator
 Standardized – Uniformity exists in administration, scoring, and
interpretation of psychological test data and this addresses issues in
objectivity.
 Reliable – there is consistency in test results
 Valid – the test measures what it purports to measure
 Good Predictive Validity – test results suggest future behavior.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

I. According to the number of test taker
Individual Tests - Administered by a registered Psychologist
one by one, face to face.
▪ Requires special training to be able to administer
▪ Assessor are free to interact with the test takers.

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▪ Information gathered are usually extensive and more

than what the tests intends to measure.
▪ Usually given in a clinical setting and purpose.
▪ Ex. Wechsler Scales, Rorschach Inkblot Test
Group Tests - Administered by a test administrator to large
number of people, preferably with a ratio of 1:25, all at the
same time.
 Usually in a paper and pen tests.
 Administered in educational and industrial setting.
 Information gathered is limited to purpose to which the
test is created.
 Ex. MBTI, RPM

II. According to the variable being measured

 Ability
▪ Achievement - Measures previous learning.
 Used to measure the effectiveness of an
educational or training program.
 Result of a relatively structured input
Ex. National Achievement Test
▪ Aptitude - Measures the potential for acquiring specific
skill.
 Suggests how well a test taker might succeed in a
certain area of vocation.
 Tend to focus on informal learning than formal
learning
 Also called as prognostic test or readiness test,
used to make predictions and measures the
readiness of the test taker to a certain program.
Ex. Differential Aptitude Test
▪ Intelligence - Measures the potential to solve problems
adapt to changing circumstances and profit from
experience.
Ex. Raven’s Progressive Matrices
 Personality
▪ Objective/Structured - Paper and pencil tests, often in
multiple-choice or true or false formats, that assess
various aspects of personality. Often used to increase
client insight.
 Faster and easier to score.
 Interpretations are ready made and manual
based.
Ex. MBTI

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▪ Projective/Unstructured - Tests that present a stimulus,

usually ambiguous stimuli, to which individuals can
respond freely. Personality factors are based on the
individual’s response. Often used to identify
psychopathology and to assist in treatment planning.
 Trained psychologists are able to administer,
score, and interpret.
▪ Interests - Tests that measure likes and dislikes as well
as one’s personality orientation toward the world of
work.
 Generally used in career counseling.

THINK!

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Lesson 3

 Historical
Foundations of
Psychological
Assessment

HanDynasty – Believed to whom / where tests and testing program first came
 First used test batteries, administration of a number of test.
 Is believed to have been used in Civil Service Examinations
Charles Darwin – First studied individual difference
Sir Francis Galton – Credited for devising questionnaires, rating scales, and self-
report inventories.
 Pioneered in the use of statistical tools in studying human beings
 Helped Karl Pearson in developing the Product Moment Correlation
Formula
 Examined relationship of sensory motor responses to intelligence.
Jean Esquirol
 Used language to identify intelligence, which is the forerunner of verbal IQ.
 Worked with individuals with mental retardation in the French mental asylums
and began to use language to identify varying levels of intelligence.
Eduard Sequin
 Developed the form board to increase motor control, which is the forerunner
of performance IQ.
Wilhelm Wundt – Founded the first psychology laboratory at the University of
Leipzig.
 Used introspection to study human mind.
 Weber – Studied the psychological threshold
Gustav Fechner – Suggested that as a stimulus intensifies, strength of sensation
increases.
Charles Spearman – Originated the concept of reliability and the mathematical
framework for factor analysis.
Victor Henri – Collaborated with Binet suggesting how mental tests could be used to
measure higher mental processes.
Emil Krapelin – Devised word association test as a formal test to study
schizophrenia.
James McKeen Cattell – Brought statistics to the field of Psychology, coined the
term mental testing.
LightnerWitmer – Succeeded JM Cattell, coined the term Clinical Psychology

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EMERGENCE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Alfred Binet
 Commissioned in 1904 by the Ministry of Public Education in Paris and with
the help of Theodore Simon, he created the first modern individual
intelligence test. The test was used to identify the “subnormal” children in
school.
Binet- Simon Scale
1905 scale – 50 samples; 30 items
 Introduction of representative samples, which is a group that reflects all
segments of the population in proportion to their actual numbers.
1908 scale – 200 samples
 The 1908 Binet-Simon Scale determined a child’s mental age, which is the
measurement of child’s performance on the test relative to other children
of that particular age group.
1911 scale
 Minor revisions has been done.
Lewis Terman
 Enhanced Binet’s work and brought it to USA to create Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale
 He was the first to incorporate in his test the ratio of chronological age to
mental age, calling it the intelligence quotient or IQ as suggested by William
Stern.
 Did a longitudinal study about IQ changes among gifted children. He found
out that IQ is a stable psychological variable.
Wechsler Scales – produces many subscales of intelligence and IQ composite scores.
 Was initially intended to measure adult IQ.
 Created by David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist at Bellevue Hospital
 Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale changed it into Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale.
Robert Yerkes
 Chairman of the committee that developed the Army Alpha, which requires
reading ability, and Army Beta, which was given to illiterate adults, that were
used to recruit soldiers during the world war I.
James Bryant Conant
 Right after world war II, he developed Scholastic Aptitude Test (now SAT
Reasoning Test) to equalize educational opportunities.
Edward Thorndike
 Developer of the Stanford Achievement Test.
 Made a research that gave evidence to the bell curve.

EMERGENCE OF PERSONALITY TESTS

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Emil Kraepelin
 Developed a crude word association test to study schizophrenia in late
1880.
Woodworth’s Personal Data Sheet
 Also called as Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory
 First modern personality inventory used during the WWI.
 Though highly criticized, the introduction of the Woodworth test was
enthusiastically followed by the creation of a variety of structured
personality tests.
Carl Jung
 Used word association test to identify mental illness.
 Jung came up with the word complex to describe sets of unusual and
delayed responses that individuals had to group of words that seemed to
point to a problematic or neurotic area of their lives.
Herman Rorschach
 A student of Carl Jung, developed the famous Rorschach Inkblot test, a
test that
Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan
 Developed Thematic Apperception Test, wherein themes are analyzed to
investigate on the needs and motivations of the test takers.

NEW APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY TESTING

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
 567 true – false statements
 Created by Starke Hathaway and John McKinley to aid psychiatric diagnosis.
 Most widely used psychological test.
Factor Analysis
 A method of finding the minimum number of dimensions, called factors, to
account for a large number of variables.
Lesson 4

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 Ethical
Considerations in
Psychological
Assessment

ETHICAL STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES IN SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

We subscribe to the following ethical standards and procedures related to the

following specific functions of psychologists: psychological assessment, therapy,
education and training, and research.

VII. ASSESSMENT

A. Bases for Assessment

1. The expert opinions that we provide through our recommendations, reports, and
diagnostic or evaluative statements are based on substantial information and
appropriate assessment techniques.
2. We provide expert opinions regarding the psychological characteristics of a person
only after employing adequate assessment procedures and examination to support our
conclusions and recommendations.
3. In instances where we are asked to provide opinions about an individual without
conducting an examination on the basis of review of existing test results and reports,
we discuss the limitations of our opinions and the basis of our conclusions and
recommendations.

B. Informed Consent in Assessment

1. We gather informed consent prior to the assessment of our clients except for the
following instances:
a. when it is mandated by the law
b. when it is implied such as in routine educational, institutional and organizational
activity
c. when the purpose of the assessment is to determine the individual’s decisional
capacity.
2. We educate our clients about the nature of our services, financial arrangements,
potential risks, and limits of confidentiality. In instances where our clients are not
competent to provide informed consent on assessment, we discuss these matters with
immediate family members or legal guardians. (See also III-J, Informed Consent in
Human Relations)

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3. In instances where a third party interpreter is needed, the confidentiality of test

results and the security of the tests must be ensured. The limitations of the obtained
data are discussed in our results, conclusions, and recommendations.

C. Assessment Tools

1. We judiciously select and administer only those tests which are pertinent to the
reasons for referral and purpose of the assessment.
2. We use data collection, methods and procedures that are consistent with current
scientific and professional developments.
3. We use tests that are standardized, valid, reliable, and has a normative data directly
referable to the population of our clients.
4. We administer assessment tools that are appropriate to the language, competence
and other relevant characteristics of our client.

D. Obsolete and Outdated Test Results

1. We do not base our interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations on outdated

test results.
2. We do not provide interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations on the basis
of obsolete tests.

E. Interpreting Assessment Results

1. In fairness to our clients, under no circumstances should we report the test results
without taking into consideration the validity, reliability, and appropriateness of the
test. We should therefore indicate our reservations regarding the interpretations.
2. We interpret assessment results while considering the purpose of the assessment
and other factors such as the client’s test taking abilities, characteristics, situational,
personal, and cultural differences.

F. Release of Test Data

1. It is our responsibility to ensure that test results and interpretations are not used by
persons other than those explicitly agreed upon by the referral sources prior to the
assessment procedure.
2. We do not release test data in the forms of raw and scaled scores, client’s responses
to test questions or stimuli, and notes regarding the client’s statements and behaviors
during the examination unless regulated by the court.

G. Explaining Assessment Results

1. We release test results only to the sources of referral and with a written permission
from the client if it is a self-referral.

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2. Where test results have to be communicated to relatives, parents, or teachers, we

explain them through a non-technical language.
3. We explain findings and test results to our clients or designated representatives
except when the relationship precludes the provision of explanation of results and it is
explained in advanced to the client.
4. When test results needs to be shared with schools, social agencies, the courts or
industry, we supervise such releases.

H. Test Security

The administration and handling of all test materials (manuals, keys, answer
sheets, reusable booklets, etc.) shall be handled only by qualified users or personnel.

I. Assessment by Unqualified Persons

1. We do not promote the use of assessment tools and methods by unqualified

persons except for training purposes with adequate supervision.
2. We ensure that test protocols, their interpretations and all other records are
kept secured from unqualified persons.

J. Test Construction

We develop tests and other assessment tools using current scientific findings and
knowledge, appropriate psychometric properties, validation, and standardization
procedures.

What are Ethics?

Ethics refer to issues or practices that influence the decision making process in
terms of “doing the right thing”. In other words ethics reflect the morals – what is
considered right or wrong – of a society, a culture or an organization.
Ethical dilemmas arise when problems for which there are no clear or agreed
on moral solutions. However, the Code of Ethics guides psychology practitioners on
the proper way of handling such dilemmas.

Sample Ethical dilemma Case: APA 2004 Convention.

A company has released a new edition of an assessment tool. Can a
psychologist still use the older version that he or she knows to be obsolete or not
useful for the current purpose. Based on COE, what possible actions/solutions can we
take?
Ethical standards are NOT laws established by governmental bodies. Violation
of ethical standards, however, has various penalties – including expulsion from the
organization. No one can be tried or sued in a court of law for violating ethical

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standards; rather these standards are statements by professionals regarding what they
believe are appropriate and inappropriate behaviors when practicing their profession.
Psychological testing plays an important role in individual’s opportunities for
education, employment, and mental health treatment. When people use test
improperly, there is a great potential harm to individuals – often without the victim’s
awareness. Therefore, ethical use of psychological test is paramount importance to
psychologist and other professionals who rely on them (Balita, 2017)

MORAL ISSUES:
1. Human Rights
 Right to Informed Consent
 Right to know their test results and basis of any decisions that affect their lives
 Right to know who will have access to test data and right to confidentiality of
test results.
2. INFORMED CONSENT
 Permission given by the client after assessment process in explained.
 Informed consent involves the right of clients to obtain information about the
nature and purpose of all aspects of the assessment process and for clients to
give their permission to be assessed.
*NON REQUIREMENT OF INFORMED CONSENT:
1. Mandated by the law.
2. Testing as routine educational, institutional, or organizational activity.
3. Evaluation of decisional capacity.
3. LABELING – name calling that impose negative effects to target individuals/group
Effects of Labeling
 Results to Stigmatization
 Affects one’s access to help
 Make a person passive
4. INVASION OF PRIVACY
 The codes generally acknowledge that, to some degree, all test invade one’s
privacy and highlight the importance of clients understanding how their
privacy and highlight the importance of clients understanding how their
privacy might be violated upon.

5. CONFIDENTIALITY
 Ethical guideline to protect client information.
 Whether conducting a broad assessment of a client or giving one test, keeping
information confidential is a critical part of the assessment process and
follows similar guidelines to how one would keep information confidential in
a therapeutic relationship.

*WHEN CAN ONE REVEAL CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION?

 According to Neukrug (2007):
1. If a client is in danger of harming himself or herself or someone else;

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2. If a child is a minor and the law states that parents have a right to information
about their child;
3. If a client asks you to break confidentiality (for example, your testimony is
needed in court)
4. If you are bound by the law to break confidentiality (for example you are hired
by the courts to assess an individual’s capacity to stand trial);
5. To reveal information about your client to your supervisor in order to benefit
the client;
6. When you have a written agreement from your client to reveal information to
specified sources (for example, the court has asked you to send a test report to
them).

The APA 2002 Ethical Principles

Principle A :Beneficence and Nonmalficence . Psychologists strive to benefit

their clients and to do no harm.
Principle B :Fidelity and Responsibility – Psychologist establish relationships of
trust and they are aware of their professional and scientific
responsibilities to societies.
Principle C :Integrity – Psychologist seek to promote accuracy, honesty and
truthfulness in the science, teaching and practice of psychology.
Principle D :Justice – Psychologist recognize that all persona should have access
to their services and to equal quality of those services
Principle E :Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity – Psychologists respect the
dignity and worth of all people and the rights of individuals to privacy,
confidentiality, and self-determination.

Issues of Primary Concern

The Right to Privacy – APA affirms the rights of individuals to privacy,

confidentiality and self-determination. Confidentiality means that the

individuals are assured that all personal information disclose will be kept private and
will not be disclosed without the explicit permission. Anonymity – the practice of
administering tests or obtaining information without obtaining the identity of the
participant.

The Right to informed consent – individuals have the right of self-determination.

This concept means that individuals are entitled to full explanations of why they are
being tested, how the test data will be used and what their test scores mean. Informed
consent should be communicated in language the test takers can understand.

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The Right to know and understand results – everyone concerned is entitled to a

nontechnical explanation of the scores of all scores of all tests.

The Right to Protection from Stigma – refrain from using stigmatizing labels such
as “feebleminded” and “addictive personality”. Test results should facilitate positive
growth and development.

Lesson 5

 The Interview

INTERVIEW - Method of getting information by talk, discussion, or direct question.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW:
 Directive Interview – Interviewer directs, guides, and controls the course
of the interview.
 Non directive Interview – the interviewee guides the interview process.
 Selection Interview – it was designed to elicit information pertaining an
applicants qualifications and capabilities for particular employment duties

SOCIAL FACILITATION IN INTERVIEW

 Interviewers serve as a model for the interviewee.
 Ex. If the interviewer creates conditions of openness, the interviewee becomes
open.

PRINCIPLES IN EFFECTIVE INTERVIEW

1. Proper Attitudes
 Interpersonal Influence – degree to which one person can influence another.
 Interpersonal Attraction – degree to which people share a feeling of
understanding mutual respect similarity and the like.
A. Warmth D. Understanding
B. Genuineness E. Honesty
C. Acceptance F. Fairness
2. Responses to Avoid
A. Judgmental/Evaluative Statement – evaluating the thoughts, feelings, or
actions of another.
▪ Ex. Good, Bad, Excellent, Terrible, Disgusting
B. Probing Statement – Demanding more information than the interviewee
wishes to provide voluntarily
▪ Ex. WHY questions

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C. Hostile Statements – statements directing anger toward interviewee

D. False Reassurance – Statements that tries to comfort the hopeless case of
the interviewee.
3. Effective Response – Keeps the communication flowing
A. Open-ended Questions – interviewees can respond freely to the interviewer
to the manner they want to.
 Ex. What kinds of cars do you like?
B. Transitional Phrase – Phrases that allow the interviewee to continue,
elaborate on the topic, at hand
 Ex. Yes, Go on
C. Verbatim Playback – repeat exactly what the client have said
D. Paraphrasing and Restatement – Repeat interviewee’s response using
different words.
E. Summarizing – pulls together the meaning of several interviewee responses
F. Clarification response – directly clarifies vague or conflicting information
given by the interviewees
G. Empathy and Understanding – communicating that the interviewer
understands the interviewee through his response.
▪ Ex. It must have been difficult for you …

MEASURING UNDERSTANDING
Level 1 Response – Little or no relationship to the interviewee’s response

Level 2 Response – Communicates superficial awareness of the meaning of a

statement

Level 3 Response – Interchangeable to interviewee’s statements (ex.

Paraphrasing, Verbatim Playback, clarification, restatement)
Sarah: I got new dress and I love it.
Victor: I see, so, you have a new dress.
Sarah: Yeah, I got this from the store nearby my house for a cheap
price.
Victor: Ah, so, you bought that near your place.

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Level 4 Response – Communicates empathy and adds minimal

information/idea

Level 5 Response – Communicates empathy and adds major information/idea

Sarah: I got new dress and I love it.
Victor: I can clearly see that you’re really happy about you new dress.
Sarah: That is true! It has red and blue stripes on it.
Victor: Wow! When are you planning to wear it?

*In interviewing, interviewers must achieve the level 5 response. If Clients

respond at Level 1 or 2, further assessment is recommended.

THE ROLE OF ACTIVE LISTENING

 The foundation of good interviewing skills for many different types of
interviews.

FORMS OF INTERVIEWS
1. Intake interviews – Entails detailed questioning about the present complaints.
 Used as preliminary information in diagnosis or evaluation
 Used in counseling and psychotherapy
2. Diagnostic Interviews – assignment of DSM (diagnostic and statistical manual of
mental disorder)
 Structured based on the symptoms
 Clinician tailored
3. Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews
 Structured Interview – predetermined, planned sequence of questions that an
interviewer asks a client
 Usually diagnostic
 Standardized
 Rigid, inhibits rapport and client’s opportunity to elaborate
 Does not discuss personal issues related to the case
 Examples of structured interviews: Structured Clinical Interview for
DSM IV (SCID);Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines-Revised (DIB-
R)
 Unstructured Interview – no predetermined plan of questions
 Interviewers improvise questions
 Interviewees are free on how they will share information
 Semi-structured – Usually starts with unstructured followed by
structured targeting a diagnostic classification.

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4. Mental Status Examination (MSE) – quick assessment of how the

client/client is functioning at the time of evaluation.
 Usually a paragraph that captures the psychological and cognitive
processes of an individual “right now”
 Components: Appearance, Behavior/Psychomotor, Attitude toward
examiner, Affect and Mood, Speech and Thought, Perception,
Orientation, Memory and Intelligence, Reliability/Judgment/Insight
5. Crisis Interview – Usually for suicidal or abuse cases
 Used when there is a need to secure the safety of the client/client.
6. Case History Interview – Discuss developmental stages of the client
 Takes the chronology of major events, work history, medical history,
life style information of an individual.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN INTERVIEW

I. Interview Validity
 A. Halo Effect – a tendency for an impression/evaluation created in
one area influences the impression/evaluation in another area.
Example: when an interviewer was amazed about how articulate a
client and this influences how he evaluates the content of what the
client says
 B. General Standoutishness – one prominent characteristic that can
bias the interviewer’s judgments and prevent an objective evaluation.
Example: during group interview, one interviewee stands out because
of not wearing recommended attire. As a result, the content of what he
says during interview wasn’t given much attention
 C. Cultural Differences – cultural differences such as language and
beliefs may serve as a barrier in evaluating responses.
 D. Interviewer Bias – interviewers have their own personal biases that
may affect the validity of the interview.
II. Interview Reliability
 A. Memory and Honesty of Interviewee
 B. Clerical Capabilities of Interviewer

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Congratulations! You have just studied Module I. now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. Discuss the role of ethics in your life as a person.

2. Distinguish ethics and morality.

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