International Trends and Developments in

School Librarianship

Paper
for the 21st Brazilian Congress of
Librarianship, Documentation and Information Science
Curitiba, Brazil
17-21 July 2005

Laurel A. Clyde

(Dr) L. Anne Clyde, Professor

Faculty of Social Science
The University of Iceland
101 Reykjavik, Iceland
http://www.hi.is/~anne/
Email: [email protected]

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 International Trends and Developments in
School Librarianship

Laurel A. Clyde
The University of Iceland
[email protected]

Abstract: This overview of international trends and developments in school

librarianship is presented by the Chair of the IFLA Section of School Libraries and
Resource Centres. First, research evidence is marshalled to show that “school
libraries matter”, that they make a difference to student achievement. Secondly, two
aspects of school librarianship are discussed in some detail: information literacy as a
core concern of the curriculum; and literacy development. This will be followed by a
discussion of school libraries as agents of social justice and social inclusion.

Introduction

Why do we have school libraries? Are they important? What benefits do they
offer for teachers and students in schools? What developments and trends are
affecting school libraries today? These are some of the questions that I would like to
explore in this conference paper.

In the three days before this 21st Brazilian Congress of Librarianship,

Documentation and Information Science, some of us have been attending the South
American Seminar on IFLA/UNESCO Manifestos and Guidelines for Public and
School Libraries. It is therefore appropriate to use the IFLA/UNESCO School Library
Manifesto as a starting point for discussion of the first question: Why do we have
school libraries?

The mission of the school library, as stated in the Manifesto, is firmly based in
the educational programs of the school: “The school library provides information and
ideas that are fundamental to functioning successfully in today’s society, which is
increasingly information and knowledge-based. The school library equips students
with lifelong learning skills and develops the imagination, enabling them to live as
responsible citizens”. The school library provides “learning services”, books,
resources in all media formats, and links to information networks; school librarians
provide resources and work with teachers so that students “achieve higher levels of
literacy, reading, learning, problem-solving and information and communication
technology skills”. The school library supports the educational goals of the school,
supports learning, encourages reading, provides resources and opportunities for
students to develop information skills, provides access to resources inside and outside
the school (including “global networks”), and advocates intellectual freedom and
freedom of access to information. The school librarian is a “professionally qualified
staff member” who manages the school library with appropriate policies and
procedures in place. The Manifesto cites the United Nations Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and Freedoms as the basis for access to services and collections, free
of “any form of ideological, political or religious censorship” or “commercial

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pressure”. The School Library Manifesto is supported by the IFLA/UNESCO School
Library Guidelines (2002), which provide more detailed information for people who
are managing school library services.

School libraries are not new; indeed, they have a long history, and it is
possible that they are almost as old as schools themselves. This is despite the repeated
assertions that their origins lie in nineteenth or even twentieth century American
schools (see, for example, Internet School Library Media Center, undated; Dickson,
2001). It seems that libraries have existed in English schools at least since the eighth
century, and that England was not unique in this regard (Ray, 1972; Clyde, 1999).
Certainly, school libraries have existed in countries like Ireland, Poland and Denmark
for many hundreds of years. What is new is a curriculum focus on resource-based
learning, inquiry learning, and preparation for lifelong learning, all of which depend
to a considerable degree on students’ access to information resources and services and
the development of their literacy and information literacy skills. This brings the
school library, and indeed the public library, to the forefront in education. How can
students develop their reading skills, unless they have access to a collection of books?
How can students develop their information literacy skills, unless they have access to
information resources? How can students become lifelong learners, if they do not
become literate and information literate at school?

Many countries, including the United States of America, Canada, and

Australia, and many states or provinces within countries (for example, Michigan,
Missouri, Massachusetts and Kentucky in the United States, New South Wales in
Australia, and Lagos State in Nigeria) have their own statements regarding school
libraries and school library programs. Probably the best known internationally is the
American document Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning (1998)
with its nine “information literacy standards for student learning”. The American
Library Association provides support for this document with its Position Statement on
Staffing for School Library Media Centers by stating that “all students, teachers and
administrators in each school building and at all grade levels must have access to a
library media program provided by one or more certified library media specialist
working full-time in the school’s library media center”. The Canadian School Library
Association (CSLA) has its Position Statement on Effective School Library Programs
in Canada, which states that “the school library is an essential component of the
educational process, contributing to the achievement of educational goals and
objectives through programs and services that implement and support the instructional
programs of the school”, particularly in developing “informed, self-directed and
discriminating learners”. It is supported by a statement of Students’ Information
Literacy Needs in the 21st Century: Competencies for Teacher-Librarians, prepared
jointly with the Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada (ATLC). The
Australian document, Learning for the Future: Developing Information Services in
Schools (second edition, 2000), is also well known inside and outside the country, and
is supported by a range of documents and implementation resources. One of these is
the 2004 statement from the Australian School Library Association (ASLA) and the
Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA), Standards of Professional
Excellence for Teacher Librarians; these standards “represent the goals to which all
teacher librarians should aspire, and provide inspiration for quality teaching and
ongoing professional practice” (Mitchell, 2005, p.1) as a basis for quality school
library service.

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School Libraries Make a Difference

The professional documents discussed above, are based on the notion that
school libraries play an important part in education. However, do school libraries
really matter? Do school libraries have any impact on student learning? Do school
libraries make a difference in the educational process? Research carried out in several
countries through the past decade indicates that they do:

“The school library has long been regarded as the cornerstone of the school
community — a learning hub integral to teaching and learning. By providing teachers
and students with a full range of print and electronic resources to support learning, the
school library impacts on student achievement.
A substantial body of research since 1990 clearly demonstrates the importance of
school libraries to students’ education. Whether student achievement is measured by
standardized reading achievement tests or by global assessments of learning, research
shows that a well-stocked library staffed by a certified library media specialist has a
positive impact on student achievement, regardless of the socio-economic or
educational levels of the community.” (Scholastic, 2004)

Keith Curry Lance’s groundbreaking “Colorado Study” (1993) found that

there was a direct relationship between, on the one hand, a school library’s levels of
funding, collection, staffing, and library staff involvement in the school’s educational
programme, and, on the other hand, the scores of students on standardised tests. “In
other words, no matter how well- or poorly-endowed a school library may be, student
test scores are likely to rise if its funding and staffing are increased, it its staff spend
more time being involved in instruction, and if the variety of formats and number of
items in its collection are increased” (Galeski, 2001, p.3). This was regardless of other
well-known predictors of academic success such as socioeconomic status of the
school community, teacher-student ratios, or the educational levels of parents. The
Colorado Study has been replicated in other places with similar findings (Lance,
Rodney & Hamilton-Pennell, 2000); for example, studies conducted in Alaska and
Pennsylvania in 2000 show that school librarians and school libraries influence the
performance of children on standardised tests, particularly in reading (Manzo, 2000).
In Alaska, factors that had direct or indirect effects on academic achievement
included the level of librarian staffing, the number of hours the school library is open,
library staff activities (particularly information literacy instruction and collaborative
work with teachers), use of the library, cooperative relationships with the public
library, the availability of access to online information, and an appropriate collection
development policy (Lance, et al., 1999). The conclusion of the researchers in
Colorado, Alaska and Pennsylvania is that “school libraries matter” (Hamilton-
Pennell, et al., 2000). The findings in the three states indicate that “a strong library
media program helps students learn more and score higher on standardized
achievement tests than their peers in library-impoverished schools. The findings ..
hold true for every school and in every grade level tested…” (Hamilton-Pennell, et
al., 2000). They are supported by findings from similar studies in Minnesota (Baxter
& Smalley, 2003) and New Mexico (Lance, Rodney & Hamilton-Pennell, 2002) that
show that reading achievement is related to the development of school library
programs.

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 A National School English Literacy Survey carried out by the Australian
Council for Educational Research (ACER) in 1996 and published as Mapping
Literacy Achievement also provides evidence for the value of school libraries (1997,
pp.206-209). This study was the result of a new “awareness of the relationship
between effective literacy skills and individual life chances”; “the levels of students’
literacy skills at the end of primary school are an important determinant of their likely
success in secondary school and a significant influence on their abilities to capitalise
on post-secondary education, training and work opportunities later in life”. It was also
recognised that “proficiency in English literacy is of major importance for each
individual’s personal, social, and cultural development…” (from the Introduction to
the report). Detailed student achievement data from a variety of sources were
considered in the light of an analysis of a range of school, home, and community
variables. Schools differed markedly in average levels of literacy achievement, and
there appeared to be a number of factors associated with higher levels of literacy
achievement in schools. One of these was school library use, which correlated with
literacy achievement to a greater extent than location of the school (and the
socioeconomic status of the school community), teachers’ experience of teaching, or
computer use.

A number of studies carried out in other places have also shown a positive
correlation between the quality of school libraries and the academic performance of
school students. For example, a small-scale study of secondary schools in the
Oshodi/Isolo Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria (Obajemu, 2002)
showed that schools with libraries that had met the minimum standards for
collections, staffing and facilities (as laid down in the Lagos Library Board for
Schools Libraries Standards) had better records of academic achievement in the West
African Examination Council examinations than schools with libraries that did not
meet those standards. “Although there is no evidence that the schools that performed
excellently did so solely because they had good libraries, nevertheless, this study has
shown that the quality of school libraries correlates with the educational performance
of schools” (Obajemu, 2002, pp.65-66).

School libraries also emerged as important in the international study of

reading skills attainment that was carried out in 1990-1991 under the auspices of the
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Data were
collected in 26 countries (including the United States but not Australia). Again, the
influence of school libraries was regardless of the location of the school and the
socioeconomic level of the school community. “The more effective school [in terms
of student achievement in reading skills] has a library that is well stocked with books
and in which the book stock constantly grows to meet the demands of the school
enrolment. In addition to the library there is a reading room for students and a
separate room that has been set up as a professional library for teachers”
(Postlethwaite & Ross, 1992, p.42).

While the research base of school librarianship is still small, nevertheless a

growing number of studies point to the importance of school libraries in the
educational process. It is clear that school libraries do matter, if schools are to help
students to become independent, lifelong learners. School libraries make a difference
to teaching and learning. Furthermore, the better the school library and its staff, the
greater the impact.

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Information Literacy

An important development of recent years is an understanding of information

literacy as a foundation of the curriculum — like thinking skills (Moulds, 2005),
information literacy underpins all curricula within our school systems. We cannot
master any subject in the curriculum if we are not information literate. Information
literacy skills lie behind curriculum statements like “overarching learning outcomes”,
“new basics”, “across curriculum perspectives”, “generic skills”, “broad learning
outcomes”, “essential learnings”, “problem solving skills”, even “meta-learnings” (all
from Australian curriculum statements). The underlying basis of information literacy
is promoting independent and autonomous lifelong learning, promoting a positive
contribution to learning communities and to society as a whole (introducing a social
justice perspective), and enabling people to make sense of their world.

“To understand information literacy, it is useful to look at Bloom’s Taxonomy, where

the differentiation between lower order cognitive skills (knowledge, comprehension,
application) and higher order cognitive skills (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) is
articulated. Traditionally, the focus in school libraries has been on the former, but
now there is a need to develop the latter. These are best developed within the
curriculum and so the mandate for librarians to collaborate with teachers in creating
good learning experiences for students is stronger than ever. The Guidelines for
Secondary School Libraries detail steps that librarians can take and the roles that all
stakeholders have to play in developing information-literate schools. Leading on
information literacy is demanding, but it takes the library out of isolation and places it
at the heart of learning.” (Barrett, 2004, pp.30-31).

But what do we mean by information literacy? “Information literacy is the

ability to find, evaluate and disseminate information using traditional, currently
available and evolving technologies for the purposes of investigation, education and
the solving of real world problems.” (Canning, 1999). Information literacy is viewed
as the ability to use information technology for information retrieval and
communication, find information, carry out a process, control or manage information,
construct a personal knowledge base on a topic, work with knowledge and personal
perspectives to produce new insights, and use information wisely for the benefit of
others (Bruce, 1997). The American Library Association (1998) defines an
information literate school student as one who “accesses information efficiently and
effectively, evaluates information critically and competently, and uses information
accurately and creatively”. With information technology becoming more and more
important in information access and provision, in schools as in the community, so the
nature of information literacy is changing, and becoming increasingly technology-
related.

The Canadian document A Position Statement on Effective School Library

Programs in Canada (see above), says “The school library program is most effective
when it is an integral part of the instructional program of the school and when
information skills are integrated in a developmental and sequential way with subject-
specific skills and content”. Ross Todd (1995) has shown that information literacy
instruction integrated into the teaching in a school subject area such as science
“appears to have a significant positive impact on students’ mastery of prescribed
science content” as well as on their information literacy, and specifically “on their

6
ability to use a range of information skills to solve particular information problems”
(Todd, 1995, p.137). Indeed, Marian Lees and Bronwyn Macdonald (2003, p.8)
suggest that “it is almost impossible to run an information studies program in isolation
from a topic”, and it makes sense that the topic be drawn from the school’s
curriculum, particularly when information skills are critical to learning within the
curriculum. Carol Kuhlthau’s research provides a theoretical foundation for a process
approach to information literacy instruction across the curriculum, based on
“extensive research into students’ experiences in gathering information for research
assignments” (Kuhlthau, 1993), while Mike Eisenberg offers suggestions for school
librarians who are implementing school-wide programs (Eisenberg & Miller, 2002).
An integrated and process approach to information literacy in schools is probably best
illustrated by the new document, Focus on Inquiry: A Teacher’s Guide to
Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning, from Alberta Learning (Canada), written by
Dianne Oberg and Jennifer Branch. Since “inquiry-based learning is a component of
all Alberta curricula”, the document provides an instructional model that can be used
from Kindergarten to the last year of high school, and across all curriculum areas, to
assist teachers and school librarians to focus on information literacy.

Literacy and Reading

As we know, 2005 is the Ibero-American Year of Reading. The success of a

Year of Reading in the United Kingdom a couple of years ago has been well
documented, and the work of the United Kingdom organising committee is carried on
by organisations like The Literacy Trust, whose superb web site provides access to a
wide range of resources for reading promotion. The International Reading Association
is another organisation whose web site supports reading and literacy — and access to
school libraries. In several Australian states, the state premiers (the leaders of
government) have sponsored an annual “reading challenge” to encourage reading in
schools; in each case, this initiative is supported by major booksellers and state and
local newspapers. On 12 August this year, the IFLA Section of School Libraries and
Resource Centres with the IFLA Section on Reading is organising a high-level one-
day working conference in Oslo, Norway, on “Literacy for Life”, a conference that
will make recommendations for action to IFLA and other organisations.

Reading is a key skill in education; it is also a foundation for information

literacy. “Independent reading has been identified as one of the major sources of
building reading and writing fluency. Avid readers typically engage in twenty times
more independent reading than do less frequent readers” (California School Library
Association, 2001). “Kids develop literacy skills by reading books. And they learn by
reading books that engage them, books that are appropriate to their emotional
maturity, books to which they can be guided by a librarian…” (Hume, 2003).
Children who are avid readers typically “come from schools in which teachers and
professional library specialists promote programs which build a love of reading and
allow regular student access to adequate library collections of print and non-print
materials” (Krashen, 1993). In his research in the United States of America on
children’s free voluntary reading, Stephen Krashen (1998) has found that “to develop
literacy, students need access to many interesting reading materials”. School libraries
are an important source of those reading materials. In addition, Krashen found that
having a school librarian on staff “makes a positive contribution to the amount of
voluntary reading being done” (Krashen, 1998). The larger the school library

7
collection and the longer the opening hours of the school library, the greater was
number of books borrowed and the amount of reading being done by students. To
summarise:

“To become life-long readers, students must have:

• Access to current, quality, high-interest, and extensive collections of books
and other print materials in their school libraries, classrooms, and public libraries;
• Contact with adults who read regularly and widely and who serve as positive
reading role models;
• Certified library media specialists and classroom teachers who demonstrate
their enthusiasm for reading by reading aloud and booktalking;
• Time during the school day dedicated to reading for pleasure, information
and exploration…”
The Value of Independent Reading in the School Library Media Program, A Position
Statement of the American Association of School Librarians. Revised July 1999.

Further, Donna Baumbach’s recent research in 1700 schools in Florida shows that
“well-staffed, well-stocked libraries drive up elementary reading scores by nine per
cent, middle-school scores by three per cent, and high-school scores by 22 per cent”
(Shanklin, 2003).

As was the case with information literacy, information technology is having an

impact on literacy too. Reading from a computer screen is not quite the same process
as reading from the printed page. Further, electronic books for which there is no print
equivalent, are becoming more and more common. A trend that began with electronic
reference works such as dictionaries and encyclopaedia for school libraries, now
encompasses electronic textbooks and even computer-based fiction. Current research
suggests that reading electronic books has a lot in common with reading printed
books, but also requires some new skills (Clyde, 2005).

School Libraries and Social Inclusion

What is social justice? What does it mean for school libraries? Why is it
important that the school library be involved in social justice issues and take a
positive approach to social inclusion as a basis for active citizenship? The concept of
social justice is variously defined but it encompasses gender equality, democratic
government, economic opportunity, intellectual freedom, environmental protection
and human rights for all people (Goforth & Goforth, 2003). Article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights expands on the idea of intellectual freedom: it
is “the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers”. The implications for literacy and
information literacy education are clear; if people are not literate and information
literate, then they will find it difficult to exercise these basic human rights. In
addition, as Article 26 says, “everyone has a right to education … Education shall be
directed to the full development of the human personality and the strengthening of
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.” Schools, among other
institutions, are charged with the responsibility for being pro-active in relation to
social justices: The Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that
“every individual and every organ of society … shall strive by teaching and education
to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures,

8
national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and
observance…”.

For a school that places a high priority on developing student mastery of the
processes of using information, human rights and social justice issues will be of
enormous importance. An emphasis on social justice helps to ensure that all teachers
and all students have the same opportunities to become literate and information
literate. Since one cannot become literate and information literate without having
access to a range of reading materials and information sources representing different
viewpoints and without having the opportunity to acquire the skills necessary to use
the information in those sources, then schools need to be aware of the social justice
issues raised by documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
School policies and school library policies are an important strategy for creating an
environment in which human rights are respected, social justice is furthered, and all
students have the opportunity to learn more about both.

Professional documents in the field of school librarianship reflect and provide

support for these ideas. The IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto states that
access to school library “services and collections should be based on the United
Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms, and should not be
subject to any form of ideological, political or religious censorship, or to commercial
pressures”. In addition, “school library services must be provided equally to all
members of the school community, regardless of age, race, gender, religion,
nationality, language, professional or social status”. This should be true regardless of
the state, province, or region of a country in which the child happens to live. The
IFLA/UNESCO School Library Guidelines recommend that the “school library
should be managed within a clearly structured policy framework” (p.3) that includes,
among other things, a collection management policy that reflects “the diversity of
society outside the school” (p.9) and carries statements about intellectual freedom and
freedom of information. The IFLA Internet Manifesto (2002) presents school library
staff with another responsibility: “Users should be assisted with the necessary skills
and a suitable environment in which to use their chosen information sources and
services freely and confidently”.

Thus school librarians are challenged to support the rights of members of the
school community, including students of all ages, to have access to materials
representing different viewpoints, including minority viewpoints, on social and other
issues. The school library not only has a responsibility to develop policies and
procedures that enhance all students’ access to a wide range of information; it also has
a responsibility to provide support for furtherance of social justice in the school
library, even if some of the materials provided by or through the school library are
controversial.

Conclusion

School libraries matter; school libraries make a difference. They make a

difference to students’ learning in schools, They make a difference in terms of
teaching the information literacy skills that will help students to become lifelong
learners. They make a difference to student’s literacy development. School library
programmes help to address issues of social inclusion and social justice. There is a

9
developing research literature that supports these statements. In addition, professional
documents from many countries, and from organisations such as IFLA, can assist in
developing quality school library programs.

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Biographical Information:

Dr L. Anne Clyde is Professor and Chair of the Library and Information Science
Department at the University of Iceland. An Australian citizen, she has worked in a
number of countries, including Canada and Namibia, as well as in Australia and
Iceland. Her teaching and research interests are related to the use of online
information services and the Internet in libraries, and she has published several books
in this field, including School Libraries and the Electronic Community and Managing
InfoTech in School Library Media Centers. A new book, Weblogs and Libraries,
appeared late in 2004. She also undertakes research about research through her
ongoing “Research and Researchers in School Librarianship” project. She is
Webmaster for the International Association of School Librarianship, and Chair of the
IFLA Section of School Libraries and Resource Centres.

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