Three Trousseaux of Jewish Brides From The Fatimid Period

Three Trousseaux of Jewish Brides from the Fatimid Period
Author(s): Shelomo Dov Goitein

Source: AJS Review, Vol. 2 (1977), pp. 77-110
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Jewish Studies
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THREE TROUSSEAUX
OF JEWISH BRIDES
FROM THE FATIMID PERIOD
by
SHELOMO DOV GOITEIN
Institute for Advanced Study

Princeton, New Jersey
Dedicated to Richard Ettinghausen

in friendship and admiration
Trousseaulists in the hundreds,completeor fragmentary,have survived

in the CairoGeniza.Normallythey areincludedin marriagecontracts,rare-
ly in engagementsettlements,and many have been preservedseparately,
bearingonly the namesof the brideand the groomwith or withoutdate, and
often lackingeven these piecesof information.This happenedwhen the ex-
tant sheet had originallyformed part of a largerdocument,or when the
trousseauwas listed in a recordbook of the community.
Such a list detailed (a) the jewelry and other objects made of precious
metals, (b) the clothing of the brideand all that wentwith it, especiallythe
beautifulchests in which they were kept, (c) the beddingand hangings,(d)
the copper and other kitchenwareand householdgoods, as well as (e) the
real estate possessedby her, either as part of her dowry, or as her personal
property(in which case it was not underthe jurisdictionof her futurehus-
band).Occasionally,(f) one or severalmaidservantsaccompaniedthe bride
to her new home, and are listedwith theirnamesand, undercertaincircum-
stances,their function(kitchenmaid or personalattendant).In exceptional
cases, (g) books formed a valuablepart of the outfit.
The impactof the dowryon familylife and on the economy and society
77
78 SHELOMO DOV GOITEIN
in generalwas immense.The readeris referredto the third volume of my

book, A Mediterranean Society, subtitled The Family, at present in print,
and to MordechaiA. Friedman'sforthcomingcomprehensivestudyon the
marriagecontract accordingto Palestiniancustom.' The purpose of this
paperis to give the readeran inklingof the materialcivilizationsurrounding
the Jews in the lands of Islam at a time when the Jerusalemyeshiva, the
High Councilof the community,still was fully functioning,or whenJudah
ha-Levi,on his pilgrimageto the Holy Land,visitedEgypt.Materialon this
subjecthas beencollectedby me for manyyears,but what I have to offeris
by no meansdefinitive.Dr. YedidaKalfonStillman'sdissertation,"Female
Attire in Medieval Egypt accordingto the TrousseauLists and Cognate
Materialfromthe CairoGeniza,"2is an auspiciousbeginning,but muchad-
ditionalwork has to be done beforeall the availableinformationis brought
undercontroland satisfactorilyinterpreted.Somedetailsmay defyexplana-
tion altogether.
In orderto be able to use these trousseaulists as a sourcefor material
civilization,one must understandtheirlegal nature.Thenedunya,or dowry,
of a Jewishwife, was entrustedto her husband,but its full value had to be
restoredto her in the case of a divorceor the husband'sdeath. Unlikelater
in Europe,wherethe dowryconsistedlargelyof money and, thus, was en-
tirely at the disposal of the husband,in "classical"Geniza times, that is,
from the tenth throughthe thirteenthcenturies,it consistedexclusivelyof
jewelry,clothing,and other itemsunderthe personalcontrolof the wife. A
husbandcould, and often did, give a pieceof his wife'sjewelryor realestate
as collateralfor a loan, but for this he neededher cooperation.Only in the
fifteenthcentury,when Jews from Christiancountriesbegan to settle in
Egypt,do we findthatthe dowryhad to be providedpartlyor mainlyin cash.
Since the nedunya,by definition, should contain only durableitems,3
ceramics,so prominentin Islamiccivilization,are completelyabsent from
1. A MediterraneanSociety: The Jewish Communitiesof the Arab World,as Portrayed in

the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1967); vol. 2, The Community(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971); vol. 3, The Family (Berkeley
and Los Angeles, 1977), especially secs. B,4, "The Economic Foundations of Marriage" and
C,1,c, "Possessions and Pecuniary Obligations of Husband and Wife."
At the time of the writing of these lines, the final title of Friedman's massive opus has not
yet been fixed. Its particular importance lies in its detailed discussion of the data provided by
the Geniza in the light of Jewish law, both talmudic and medieval.
2. University of Pennsylvania, 1972. See also Yedida K. Stillman, "The Wardrobe of a
Jewish Bride in Egypt," Studies in Marriage Customs, Folklore Research Center Studies
(Jerusalem, 1974), pp. 297-304.
3. The maidservants (both black and white) were legally slaves and their monetary value
was indicated. They were, therefore, "replaceable."
TROUSSEAUX FROM THE FATIMID PERIOD 79
the trousseau lists. Copper and brass bowls, cups, and dishes, appear in
them regularly,but no china. But china, real china, has been found by the
excavatorsof Fustat,the ancientIslamiccapitalof Egypt,wherethe Geniza
peoplelived, and whena representativeof Jewishmerchantsin Aden, South
Arabia,sends to the Gaon of the Palestinianyeshiva(whichthen, in 1134,
had its seat in Cairo) a set of opaque Chinesebowls-familiar to us from
visitsto any largermuseum-we may safelyassumethat fine ceramicswere
not absentfrom a Jewishtable. A Geniza lettertells about a newlywed girl
in a provincialtown who was in greattroublewith her husbandbecauseshe
had to servehim his food in earthenwaresincethe "copper"formingpartof
her bridaloutfit had not yet arrivedfrom the capital. But these were poor
people, as may be concludedfrom other details in that letter.
Otheritems absentfromthe trousseaulists mighthavebeencustomarily
providedby the husband.Nowhereis therementionof footwear.In an early
stage of my study of the Geniza, I attributedthis to the Islamic taboo
against speakingof shoes in polite conversation.They were the "unmen-
tionables,"as underwearand trouserswerein Anglo-Saxonsocietynot long
ago. Newcomers to Jerusalemfrom Yemen speakingto me would never
referto shoes withoutadding mikkew6dokh,"it is beneathyour dignity."
a .haC
However, more intimate study of the Geniza letters showed that their
writerswerenot fussyat all in this matter.Shoes are often mentioned,their
make and colors (for instance,red or yellow) are described,and, it seems,
one tried to matchthese with one's clothing.The absenceof footwearfrom
the trousseau might have had another reason. Professor Sylvia Haim
Kedouriementionedto me that in past generationsit was customaryamong
the Jewsof Baghdadthat the fiancesent to his bride(andsome of herfemale
relatives)gifts of shoes. As is well known from the Bible (Deuteronomy
25:9,Ruth4:7)and othersources,the givingor takingof shoeswas a symbol
of the transferof authority.An Arabicpapyruscontainingthe detailsof the
"weddingequipment"sent by a groom to his bridelists at its end a pair of
shoes.4Most likely, a similarcustom prevailedin the society which left us
their recordsin the Geniza.
I have made mentionof the absencefrom the dowryof cash, ceramics,
and footwearin orderto impressupon the readerthat the interpretationof
the trousseau lists, as self-explanatoryas they appear, needs a certain
measure of circumspection.One more remark:textiles (for clothing and
bedding)were far more durablein those days than they are customarilyin
our own times. As is provedby wills, they were often left as heirlooms(by
4. Adolf Grohmann, From the Worldof Arabic Papyri (Cairo, 1952), p. 156: a list of wed-
ding articles, such as perfumes, henna, rose-water and wax candles. Eleventh century.
both men and women). Moreover, the husband was obliged to provide his
wife with clothing. Thus the textiles brought in by the bride, like her jewelry
and other goods made of metal, were destined not only for use, but served as
an investmentassuringin part her economic securityand independence.
In the following, three trousseaux are presented, the first of a lower
middle-class bride, the second of a well-to-do one, and the third-of the
richest girl found thus far in the Geniza. The first list is included in a mar-
riage contract, the second in an engagement agreement, and the third is a list
without name and date. Documents II and III are contemporary, as is
proved by the handwriting, which is that of none other than Nathan b.
Samuel he-HIiver, secretary of the Nagid Samuel b. Hananyah, and cor-
respondent and esteemed friend of the poet Judah ha-Levi. Documents
signed by Nathan during the years 1128-1153 have been preserved, but he
lived for another ten years.5
Document I differs from the two other documents in various respects. It
is Karaite. The Karaite ketubba widely differs from the Rabbanite. It was
created during the "bourgeois revolution" of the early centuries of Islam
and was, therefore, far more refined, expressive, and outspoken about the
relations between husband and wife than the rigid Rabbanite ketubba, a
remnant from antiquity. It was written in Hebrew, a language which could
easily be handled, while Aramaic, obligatory in the Rabbanite ketubba,
soon became a dead language. Finally, it spelled out the specific injunctions
which a Karaite couple had to observe. I translate the document in full,
because I believe that it reflects the attitude toward marriage in Geniza
times in general and not solely with respect to the Karaite denomination.
For legal and other details the reader is referred to the books mentioned in
notes 1 and 7.
The two documents from the second quarter of the twelfth century were
written in Fustat, the ancient Islamic capital.of Egypt; the Karaite ketubba
originated in Jerusalem in 1028. Attention must be paid to the date. Those
were the cruel years when the population of Palestine, and not only the
Jews, were exposed to pillage, murder, and rape, "the like of which never
had happened in Islam." The Fatimid government was unable to protect the
country from the Bedouin hordes which overran it.6 But nothing in our
document betrays the terrible times through which Jerusalem had gone. As
often happens in cataclysmic events, not everyone was affected.
5. See Mediterranean Society, 2:513, n. 18, and vol. 3, sec. D, n. 96.

6. See Jacob Mann, The Jews in Egypt and in Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphs(London,
1920), 1:158-61 and passim.
A KARAITE MARRIAGE CONTRACT

FROM JERUSALEM, JANUARY 26, 1028
University Library Cambridge, ULC Add. 3430.7
In the Name of the Living God.

"And they built and were successful."8
"In God they will triumph and glory."9
"And the Judean elders build and are successful."'t
On Friday, the twenty-sixth of the month of Shevat of the year 1339 ac-
cording to the era of the Greeks," in Jerusalem, the Holy City, may it be
rebuilt soon, Amen, on this very day appeared Hezekiah, the fine young
man, son of Benjamin, before the elders signing this document and said to
them:
Give witness against me, and make the symbolic purchase from me,
write down and sign as a legal obligation on me, conveying rights, that I
make the following declaration without being compelled, mistaken, erring,
or forced, but acting in full capacity and out of my free will;12
That I take, gain possession of, and marry Sarwa,'3 the virgin maid, the
daughter of Sadaqa b. Jarir, by means of the nuptial gift, this contract, and
consummation, as ordered by Moses, the man of God, of blessed memory,
and in accordance with the law of Israel, the pure and holy.
I shall provide her with clothing for home and street, as well as food,
supply all her needs and appropriate wishes according to my ability and to
7. See Shaul Shaked, A Tentative Bibliography of Geniza Documents (Paris and The
Hague, 1964), p. 41, 2*. (At that time the manuscript had not yet been identified.) The full text,
including the trousseau, is edited in my Ha- Yishuvba-'Are?ba-Tequfahha-'Arvit ve-ha-Salbanit
[Jewish Palestine in Arab and Crusader Times] (Jerusalem, 1977), pt. 3, sec. 9.
8. 2 Chronicles 14:6, "Built"-they will have children, as in Ruth 4:11. Also in Rabbanite
ketubbot.
9. Isaiah 45:25.
10. Ezra 6:14. See n. 8.
11. The so-called Seleucid era (normally named "the Era of Documents"), which began in
September 312 B.c.
12. The usual legal phrases by which a person takes upon himself an obligation toward
another.
13. The word means "cypress."
the extent I can afford. I shall conduct myself toward her with truthfulness
and sincerity, with love and affection. I will not grieve or oppress her but
let have her food, clothing, and marital relations to the extent habitual
among Jewish men, who... 14
As nuptial gift I have assigned her fifty pieces of silver, as due to a
virgin,"5with an additional gift of forty good and complete gold pieces of
full weight. Of these, I have already given her five gold pieces. The fifty
silver pieces I am giving her today at the wedding ceremony, and thirty-five
good gold pieces remain as a fully certified and established debt incumbent
on me and on my possessions during my life time and after my death.'6
The above-mentioned Sarwa listened to the words of Hezekiah and
agreed to marry him and to be his wife and companion" in purity, holiness,
and fear of God, to listen to his words, to honor and to hold him dear, to be
his helper,'" and to do in his house what a virtuous Jewish woman is ex-
pected to do, to conduct herself toward him with love and considerateness,
to be under his rule, and her desire will be toward him.'9
Sarwa, out of her free will, appointed as her representative Joseph b.
Abraham ha-Kohen20 to take care of the affairs of her marriage. Two
trustworthy persons, Mevorakh b. David and Jacob b. Fallan, were the
witnesses of this appointment.21
This Joseph, the representative, appeared before the elders and testified
that he had received from Hezekiah the preliminary payment of five gold
pieces and that he agreed to marry off the above-mentioned Sarwa to
Hezekiah with this nuptial gift on the conditions specified above in this
document.
These are the valuables brought in by Sarwa to the house of her husband
Hezekiah:
14. The same obligations are repeated in other words.

15. This was obligatory among Karaites; with the Rabbanites twenty-five silver pieces were
the gift due to a virgin.
16. In practice, the "additional" bridal gift was the main one.
17. As in Malachi 2:14.
18. Genesis 2:18.
19. Genesis 3:16. From the husband love and affection, bibba, is expected; from the wife,
love and considerateness, a standard term in Karaite ketubbot.
20. Not of her kin, since her father was not a Kohen. Probably a communal official, or
.zsa,
otherwise a trustworthy person, who would count and lock away the silver pieces and be the
legal representative who formally confirmed the conditions agreed upon before.
21. Which was made, of course, prior to the wedding, and probably many months before.
The Gold [meaning,jewelry in general]

a pair of wristbands22 5 dinars
a pair of earrings 2
one finger ring of gold and three of silver 2
Jewelrytotal 9 dinars
[The Clothing]23
a greenishfestive robe 3 dinars
a translucentveil I
a mantle-likewimple24 6
a kohl-colored'aq(a)biyya25 2
a Sicilian robe 21/2
a snow-whiteslip and wimple 2
a wrap26 2
two white robes and a veil 2
two red robes, a cloak27and two wimples 2
22. The dastaynaq (a Persian word) was a precious, broad wristband, normally inlaid with
pearls. Our women normally wear one bracelet of the same type; in Geniza times-as in those
of the biblical patriarchs, see Genesis 24:22-invariably bracelets were worn in pairs, one of the
same type on each arm. When only one was available (e.g., as reported in the Geniza, when a
mother gave one to each of her two daughters) the list notes expressly: one single bracelet.
23. I complemented the two missing superscriptions from TS 16.80 (fragmentary), also
Karaite and fairly contemporary with our ketubba; the bride was well-to-do.
24. The mi'jar, or wimple, that is a turban-like cloth wound around the head and then flow-
ing down over the body, was a main, and, as here, often the most costly part of the female dress.
The term ridawdni, "like a ridd, or mantle," describes the wimple as particularly long and
broad.
25. The 'aq(a)biyya is very common in the Geniza, but has not yet been found by me
elsewhere. Dominique Chevalier, "Les tissus ikat6s d'Alep et de Damas," Syria 39 (1962): 310,
gives al-'aqqdbfyatayn"the two green almonds," as the color of an ikate textile. But, as is evi-
dent also from the example here, 'aq(a)biyya designates the form of a dress, not its color. I
derive the word from 'aqb, heel, and explain it as a robe reaching down to the ground, unlike
the usual dress, which exposed the lower end of the pants to the eye (as may be seen on all
thirteenth century miniatures depicting women. We have no earlier ones.). The long dress, with
the train on the ground, shows the woman as noble, that is, doing no manual work-a common
theme in Arabic poetry.
26. The muld'a was (and still is) worn as a cloak covering the woman's body while going
out. At night, it served also as a blanket.
27. Ar. wiqdya (or waqqdya), literally, "protective clothing," not found in other ketubbas,
but mentioned in commercial correspondence.
a Rumi bathrobe 28 and a piece of red lddh silk29 1

a kerchief for the face I
a gown of khazz silk30 and a pink slip 2
a linen [prayer] mantle3' 11/2
a Sicilian robe I
four kerchiefs and a bathrobe 1
Clothing total 30 dinars
The Copper [household and toilet utensils and

containers]
a Baghdadi bucket and a wash basin 3 [?] dinars
a basin and a ewer 2
a chandelierand an [oil] lamp 2
a Damascene pot 2
a large qashwa32 1?/2
a bucket 1?/2
a complete set for soda ash,33a water container, a
washtub,a smallbucket,a washbasin 3
a vasewithperfumesand musk34 5
a box forointments,a chest[forperfumes]
anda purse 2
"Copper"total 22 dinars
[Bedding]35
a Tabari36sofa and pad 3 dinars
28. Rilmi-imported from Christian Europe, mostly southern Italy and Sicily. The
minshafa (literally, "towel") appears in numerous ketubbas at the very end, mostly close to the
bureau containing the female "unmentionables." Sylvia Kedourie explained to me the term
rightly as bathrobe.
29. Lddh was a red Chinese silk imitated in Sicily; see my paper "Two Arabic Textiles,"
Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 19 (1975): 221-24.
30. A dress of fine silk with sleeves, see Mediterranean Society, 1:454, n. 53.
31. Ar. izdr designates the Jewish prayer mantle or anything like it.
32. Defined by the classical Arab dictionaries as a basket, quffa, made of palm leaves con-
taining a woman's perfumery and toilet utensils. It was probably an imitation in brass; it is
mentioned repeatedly. They also had baskets made of silver, TS 8 J 21, fol. 4, 1. 16.
33. Used like soap for washing and cleaning. It is found in almost every list.
34. Such containers of perfumes, often made of silver, were intended to keep bad odors out
of the house. They are rarely absent from a trousseau. The ginger vases used in England until
the end of the eighteenth century (then made of porcelain) served the same purpose. Note the
high price of this vase here.
35. In almost all lists bedding comes before "Copper" and is more valuable than the latter.
Since the values are reversed here, the scribe also changed the usual sequence.
36. A textile originally manufactured in Tabaristan, a province in northern Iran south of
a brocade bed cover 3

a Buziy6n37 sofa 2
a quilt coverlet and six pillows 1?/2
Bedding total 91/2dinars
Total value 611/2dinars.38
The above-mentioned Hezekiah declared in the presence of the elders

that all these valuables had come into his house and were now in his posses-
sion and under his hand; and that he had undertaken to keep them as if they
were his own;39and that he would not make any change with them without
the knowledge and consent of his wife Sarwa.40He took upon himself and
upon his estate after his death responsibility that nothing should be lost or
spoiled.
The two agreed between themselves that should Sarwa, God beware,
leave this world without a child from him, all that she brought in with her
would go back to her heirs from her kin.41 Contrariwise, her heirs would
have no claim on the final instalment of the nuptial gift incumbent on
Hezekiah.
They also agreed to keep the holidays by the observation of the new
moon and of the ripening of the ears in Eretz Israel; that they would not eat
beef and mutton in Jerusalem until the altar of God is erected; and that they
would not apply to a gentile court in exchange for the laws of the Torah.42
the Caspian sea. It was imitated in many places, especially in Ramle (probably the Egyptian,
not the Palestinian town of that name).
37. A place in Iran, near Herat: Buziydn, pronounced Buziy6n.
38. The actual grand total seems to be 701/2,not 611/2dinars, but long experience has taught
me that it is I, not the Geniza clerks, who make mistakes in additions. Here, something special
might have happened. As often at weddings of people with little money, there was probably a
squabble over the estimate, and finally an agreement about the total owed by the husband was
reached.
39. The dowry remains the property of the wife; the husband may use it with her consent.
40. Rabbinical law was not as outspoken and liberal in this matter as the Karaite dispensa-
tion.
41. Literally, "her families," that is from her father's side. Most of the Rabbanite Geniza
marriage contracts have adopted the Palestinian custom that one half of the dowry reverts to
the wife's paternal family in case she has no child from the man she married. But this is not
general rabbinical law.
42. In theory, at least, the Karaites, like the Muslims, have no fixed calendar. As in ancient
Israel, the new month was "declared," when the new moon was actually sighted, and a second
Adar was "intercalated," when the grain in Israel had not greened in time. The Geniza has
preserved actual reports by Karaites about the greening of the ears, as well as a letter about a
particularly pious Karaite who refrained in Jerusalem not only from beef and mutton, but also
We made the symbolic purchase from Hezekiah, son of Benjamin, with

regard to all that is written and stated above. We have written down all that
happened in our presence, signed the document and put it into the hand of
Sarwa, the daughter of Sadaqa, so that it should be in her hand as a proof,
an instrument of claims, and a testimony in accordance with the law of
Moses and Israel.
And they built and were successful [signatures].
$.43
Solomon b. David ha-Kohen ha-melammed, witness. Joshua b. Eli ha-
Kohen Ben Ziti,44 witness. Nathan ha-Kohen b. Yby, [may his] s[oul] r[est
in peace].45 Joshua b. Adayah ha-Kohen, witness.
Bushr46b. Abraham ha-Levi, witness. Nathan b. Nisan ha-Levi ha-
melammed, witness.
Eli b. Ma'mar, maker of potions, witness.
Omar47 b. Joshua, witness. Joseph b. Samuel [witness. b.
Zechariah, witness." Sim].ha
Note that the document is signed by ten witnesses, of whom four were
Kohens, two Levis, and only four, ordinary Jews. The bride's representative
also was a Kohen.
II
This document, too, is translated in full because it shows the reader the
arrangements and conditions common at a Rabbanite marriage in Geniza
times. To be sure, every case was different, but the basic stipulations
specified below were fairly common. The ketubba was not a formulary, but
a real contract, reflecting the social and economic positions of the con-
tracting parties.
The bride, Sitt al-KhaSSa ("Mistress over the Upper Class"), was the
from chicken. (The Karaite calendar to this day differs from the Rabbanite. The Yom Kippur
War was for them an Erev Yom Kippur war, for in 1973 their Day of Atonement fell one day
later.)
Any dispute arising in married life must be settled in a Jewish court.
43. I take this as an abbreviation of s(ibbtlr), meaning "ten men"; see S. D. Goitein, "The
Hebrew Elements in the Vernacular of the Jews of Yemen" [Hebrew], Leshonenu3 (1931): 368.
44. Probably a variation of Ztiti, "Mr. Small."
45. Here the word 'ed, witness, is omitted. I do not know how Ybhypronounced his name.
46. "Good tidings." This could also be read Bishr.
47. Typical Arabic names such as 'Omar or 'Amr, or Jarir (the grandfather of the bride,
name of an Arab poet in Umayyad times) were common among Syro-Palestinian Jews.
granddaughter of Joseph Lebdi, a great India trader.48Her father Barakat

("Blessings") also was engaged in the India trade. Both possessed houses in
Fustat. Of her grandfather's house Sitt al-KhdiSa had inherited five out of
twenty-four shares, of her father's house, one half of the property. Her
mother Sitt al-Sida ("Mistress over the Lords"), the daughter of a physi-
cian, acted on her behalf, for the girl, despite her pompous epithet, no doubt
was a teenager who knew little about men and money. In general, only
women previously married dealt directly with their future husbands. Docu-
ment III is a sheet containing solely the details about a rich dowry, matched
by an exceptionally high nuptial gift. It was written in Fustat, approximately
between 1128 and 1153 (see above, note 5). The girl, like that of Document
II, certainly was orphaned by her father. She received books worth 250
dinars, and who would be prepared to part with his library during his
lifetime? The father probably was a physician; a scholar would hardly have
been able to leave 1,600 dinars to his daughter. But there were, of course,
scholarly physicians.
The notes accompanying the translation of Documents I and III should
not be taken as full commentaries on the terms occurring in them. They in-
tend to enable the reader to form an idea of how a woman and the interior
of her house looked in those far away times and places. In order to facilitate
this task, a short summary concludes this paper.
Bodl. MS Heb. d 66 (Cat. 2878), fols. 47 and 48.

(1) This is a copy of the engagement contract of Abdi Manfir
son of Rabbana Japheth [known as] the elder
Semal.,49
(2) Abi 'Alf, the perfumer, to Sitt al-Khana, the daughter of the elder
Abu 'l-Barakat Ibn al-Lebdi.
(3) On Monday, the fifth day of the month of Kislev of the year 1458
(4) of the era of the documents [November 11, 1146], in Fustat, Egypt,
which is situated on the Nile River and which is under the jurisdiction
(5) of our lord Samuel, the great Nagid-may his name be forever, M.
Semab, the young man, son of M.
(6) and R. Japheth50the elder, son of M. and R. Tiqvd, the elder, the
48. The first chapter of my "India Book," that is, a collection of Geniza items (now 376)
related to the India trade, is dedicated to him.
49. "Sprout," a messianic name; see Jeremiah 23:5.
50. Heb. marina we-rabbina, "our master and lord," originally (and here) preceding the
name of a man with some learning, but often simply meaning "Mr."
Friend of the yeshiva-may he rest in Eden-concluded a match with

Sitt al-KhaSa, his fiancee,
(7) a virgin, the daughter of M. and R. Berakh6t, the elder-may he rest
in Eden.
His obligation is a first instalment of 40
(8) certified dinars, to be given as a gift at the time of the wedding, and a
final instalment of 100 certified
(9) dinars. Abu ManSur Semah, the fianc6, presented the 40 dinars of the
first instalment,
(10) and the elder Abu 'l-'Ali Musallam, the perfumer, son of Sahl,
received them from him.5 The wedding is set for the month of
(11) Kislev of the coming year-may we be destined for life in it-which is
the year 1459.
Semah assumed these obligations toward Sitt al-KhaSSa:She
(12) will be regarded as trustworthy in all that concerns food and drink
(13) in the house, no suspicion may be cast upon her, nor can he demand
from her an oath concerning any of these
(14) things, not even a supplementary oath.52 He may not marry another
woman, nor retain
(15) a maidservant whom she dislikes. Should he do any of these things,
the final instalment is hers, and he must
(16) release her [from the marriage bond by divorce]. In the case that there
are no children, half of what remains of the dowry returns to her
family.53 She may choose the place
(17) and the domicile where she wishes to live. The rent of her properties is
hers, she may spend it for whatever purpose she prefers;
(18) he has no say in the matter.
Should he nullify this engagement contract and not
(19) marry her during the said Kislev, she will receive 20 dinars. This is a
debt
(20) and an obligation, binding [as from now]. We made the symbolic
purchase54from M. Semab, the young man, for Sitt al-Khi$a, the
fiancee,
(21) according to all that is recorded above, a purchase which is definite
51. The gold pieces were deposited with a third party.
52. When a person is obliged, for any reason, to take an oath, the opposing party might,
under certain circumstances, impose on him an additional oath.
53. See n. 41, above.
and strict,madewiththe properobjectfor sucha transaction.

(22) We also made the symbolic purchase from Sitt al-Sada, the daughter
of the elder Abi Nagr, the physician, the mother of Sitt
(23) al-KhaSSa, the fiancee, in the most rigorous terms, binding as from
now: Should her
(24) daughter Sitt al-Khdi$a nullify the engagement contract and refuse to
marry
(25) the fiance during the said month of Kislev, she would owe the fiance
(26) 20 [dinars ... J This has taken place after the verification of
her identity.55
(27) Signatures: Mev6rikh b. Solomon [of] b[lessed] m[emory]. Sadaqa
b[.
[Column I]
(1) The Estimate

[Jewelry and utensils of precious metals]
(2) a pair of inlaid earrings 5 dinars
(3) a gold tiara inlaid with pearls 70
(4) a pair of pins with clusters of pearls, enameled,
(5) and inlaid with pearls 20
(6) a pair of inlaid pins 3
(7) a wristband 6
(8) a pair of niello-work56 bracelets 28
(9) a tannar57inlaid with pearls 6
(10) a bracelet of pearls with gold luster 4
(11) four gold rings 6
(12) a choker of pearls 3
(13) an amber mayman58necklace 6
(14) an ornamented mirror 8
(15) two crystal kohl containers 3
55. A phrase commonly used, even when the woman concerned was well known to the
judge or notary.
56. Ar. mujraya(t sawad); see Al-Rashid b. al-Zubayr, Kitdb al-Dhakhd'ir (Kuwait, 1959),
p. 63, 11.5-6. The term needs further examination. It occurs again in Doc. III, 1. 8, below.
57. As in Heb. tannar means "oven." The term has not yet been found elsewhere. Since it is
mentioned between bracelets, I take it to be a cuff made of silver. The fem. tannzra is a piece of
clothing, but not in the Geniza.
58. "Auspicious," a very common ornament.
(16) a silver jewel box and two silver kohl containers59

(17) and a kohl stick 3
(18-19) Total 171 dinars
[Clothing]
(20) a white brocaded festive robe, and its wimple60 20 dinars
(21) a pomegranate-colored festive robe, and its wim-
ple 15
(22) a j]kdniyya6' of fine white dabiqi linen
and a scarf of dabiqi linen 5
(23) a kerchief of blue dabiqi and a blue scarf 8
(24) a jfikiniyya of cloud-colored dabiqi and a cloud-
colored hood62 8
(25) a gown with hamd'ili3 ornaments and a Maghrebi
veil 5
(26) a kerchief of white dabfqi linen and a greyish
headband 10
(27) a broad belt and a scarf 3
(28) a basket cover and two covers for cooling jars 8
(29) a silk wimple with hama'ili ornaments 2
[Marginal Column I]
(30) a dabiqi wrap64in two pieces and a pearl-colored
veil with gold threads 11
(31) a bedspread with lozenge decorations and a pearl-
colored veil 5
59. The nineteenth century kohl containers in Egypt, Tunisia, and Algeria still had the form
of a little amphora, as was the case in ancient Egypt and Greece; see E. W. Lane, Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, n.d.), p. 38, and Paul Eudel, Dictionnairedes bijoux
de l'Afrique du nord (Paris, 1906), pp. 138-39, 163.
61. This term occurs hundreds of times in the Geniza but, as far as I can see, not in Arabic
dictionaries. I derive it from jakdn, polo stick or play, and explain it as a robe shorter than the
regular thawb. See the paper noted in n. 29, above.
62. Text kSy ( khsy). Reading and translation tentative.
63. Cf. F. J. Steingass, A ComprehensivePersian-English Dictionary (London, 1947), p. 430,
bamd'il, necklace with flowers or small coins. Coins joined together to form an ornament have
been preserved from the Fatimid period.
(32) a cloud-colored chest cover with gold threads and

a bureau cover
(33) and a serving-tray cover 8
(34) thirteen pieces of clothing and two coffers with
silk 16
(35) eight collars 6
(36) brocade bags and two mijnab65curtains 30
(37) two new dabiqi maqla's66 6
(38) a brocade handbag 15
[Total Clothing 171]
[Marginal Column II]

[Bedding]
(39) a brocade sofa, six pieces 25
(40) a brocade couch, five pieces 7
(41) a Tabari sofa from Tabaristdn,67 five pieces [2
dinars] 4
(42) a Tabaristdn couch, three pieces 2
(43) a pair of susanjird68pillows 8
(44) a pair of pomegranate-colored pillows of fine
(45) linen and a grey-colored pair and a green pair 5
(46) a pair of pillows of dabiqi linen 3
(47) a pad of white dabiqi linen and one of blue dabiqi
(48) and four sleeping pillows69 5
(49) a brocade bedspread and a saffron wrap 10
[Total Bedding 69]
[Fol. 47v]
[Copper and other utensils and containers]
(1) a wax candle wedding lamp and a small wedding
lamp,
65. Ar. mijnab is a common word for curtain; but since the regular term for curtain in the
Geniza is sitr, the mijnab must have been a specific type at that time and, thus far, has not been
found elsewhere.
66. The maqta' is a piece of cloth large enough for one dress but was also worn as a wrap.
67. Since Tabari textiles were frequently imitated, see n. 36, above, a genuine "Tabaristan"
was identified as such.
68. Whether this common term is derived from Persian susan, lily, or suzan, needle, is not
yet sure.
69. Text: mikhadd lil-khadd, "pillows for the cheek." Since in a society without chairs pil-
lows were used all day long for reclining, sleeping pillows were often characterized as such.
(2) a pitcher, a large and a small basin, a bucket, a

candlestick, a
(3) box, a soda ash container,70 a ewer, a bucket, a
washing basin, and a jug for olive oil
(4) a [portable oil] lamp and a bathrobe 40
(5) a chest and its stand of mother-of-pearl and ivory
and a bureau and all that is in it [women's pants
and other "unmentionables"]
(6) and its stand of mother-of-pearl and ivory 15
(7) two vases of mother-of-pearl and ivory 3
(8) two painted vases 4
(9) a maid servant named Zuhr ("Flower") 20
[Total, Varia 82]
[Grand Total, dowry 496 dinars, estimated 500 dinars]
(10) The entire ketubba, namely, the nuptial gift, the
additions, and the dowry amounts to:
(11) 640 dinars, a dinar being worth a dinar,
(12) real value, not doubled
(13) plus five shares in the house which is in Migr
[Fustat] in the Fortress of the Candles
(14) which is known as that of Ibn al-Lebdf; Abu 'l-
Surir, the perfumer, the Levi,
(15) b. Binyam [= Benjamin] shares it,
(16) and half of the house which is in the MamfiSa
quarter and which is known as that of the elder
Abu'l-Barakdit
(17) b. al-Lebdi7'
(18) may God have mercy upon him.

71. The other half probably belonged to her brother (known from another source),
wherefore the partner is not noted.
III
THE DOWRY AND NUPTIAL GIFT OF A RICH BRIDE

In the hand of Nathan b. Samuel
ca. 1128-1153 he-H.var
TS Box J 1, fol. 29
Column I
(1) With good luck and success
[Jewelry]
(2) a gold tiara 80 dinars
(3) a shoulder band with eleven disks of gold and
twenty of amber72 70
(4) a pair of pins with clusters of pearls 20
(5) a pair of peacock pins 18
(6) a pair of earrings 5
(7) a pair of pins 5
(8) a pair of niello-work bracelets 52
(9) a pair of braided bracelets 30
(10) a single enameled [bracelet] 25
(11) a maymuinnecklace of amber divided by cylinders
and a box of gold 8
(12) a pearl band divided by [beads of] gold 8
(13) gold tubes73 6
(14) two rings 4
(15) an ornamented mirror 10
(16) a water container74 [for the table], and a cover, a
silver goblet, and a ladle 15
(17) a qihf [shallow bowl] 4
(18) a tureen,75an 6tagere,76a mixing vessel77with feet 5
72. That is, ten disks of amber and five of gold on each side and one of gold forming the
middle piece.
73. Ar. qawddrs,sing. qadas (Greek kados), pieces of ornaments similar to the "cylinders,"
bakar, in 1. 11; see R. P. A. Dozy, Suppldmentaux dictionnairesarabes (Leiden and Paris, 1927),
2:314b.
74. All these vessels were of silver or other precious materials.
75. Ar. zabdiyya, still in common use.
76. Text: majma', a utensil with compartments, also used at the visit to a bathhouse. See
Dozy, Suppldment, 1:217a, TS 10 J 10, fol. 29, 1. 14: majma' lil-bammam.
77. Ar. madhaf, a vessel for mixing ingredients of medicaments or food.
(19) a crystal mixing vessel 5

(20) another mixing vessel 3
(21) a gold [...] 2
(22) an ivory kohl container 3
(23) a crystal cock [a knickknack] 4
(24) a pen-box made in China, with two knives, a sand
sprinkler [for blotting], and an ivory plate [on
which the pen is nibbed] 13
(25) a silver comb 4
(26) a pair of gold bracelets 15
(27) three gold rings 4
(28) a locally-made scent-box of porcelain ornamented
with silver 20
(29) a round ornamented mirror 6
(30) a lion78 and a needle for perfuming 5
(31) two silver vases and a jewel box 5
(32) an amber qihlf [shallow bowl] with a gold rim 5
(33) a chest and its stand 10
(34) equipment for blood-letting 2
(35) Total [value of jewelry] 471 dinars
II
(1) The Clothing
(2) a cloud-colored festive attire, consisting of a robe,
(3) a wimple, and a greyish headband 50
(4) a white wimple with gold threads 15
(5) a hood with stripes, "as the pen runs""79 and a
robe, both with gold threads 10
(6) a kerchief of dabiqi linen 8
(7) a skull-cap of dabiqi linen
78. Ar. sab' (the same probably in Heb. sheva'. Be'er Sheva': The Lion's Well). Whether
this lion was a knickknack like the crystal cock in 1. 23, and whether the needle served for stir-
ring perfumes, is not evident. The lion was perforated and contained the needle.
79. Ar. jary al-qalam. In calligraphic writing the lines ended with an elegant curve turning
upwards. This was imitated in textiles and, as I learned from pictures from Sa'da in northern
Yemen shown to me by Brinkley G. Messick III, also in architecture. This turning up of the left
end of a line was common in documents from the Fatimid chancelleries and is found also in the
Geniza as well as in present-day legal documents from Yemen. $a'da was a great center of book
learning.
(8) a wrap with two ends in gold threads

(9) and a veil with gold threads 22
(10) a wrap of dabiqi linen and silk 4
(11) a blue 6
Rdmim0o
(12) a silk wimple in double layers 6
(13) a silken festive attire consistingof a robe
(14) [damaged ?]
(15) a greyish robe of silk and dabiqi linen and a
greyish Rimi 15
(16) a greyish cloak 5
(17) a pomegranate-coloredfestive robe and its wim-
ple 15
(18) a blue wimple with gold threads 5
(19) a jfikiniyya with bird patterns 4
(20) a poultice-coloredwimple 5
(21) an apricot-coloredjiikiniyya, and a silk cloak
with
(22) gold threadsand an apricot-coloredsilk Rimi 10
(23) a greenrobewith gold threads,and a wax-colored
wimple 5
(24) a home-made makhtzama8' 6
(25) a jikiniyya of siglaton82 3
(26) a jfikiniyya of red siglaton 4
(27) a makhtomaof siglaton 7
(28) a home-madetabby makhtoma 6
(29) a starch-coloredtabby makhtiima 5
(30) a jcikiniyya of brocade with borders 10
III
(1) a jtikiniyya of red brocade 10
80. This dress of European style is mentioned together either with a thawb, robe, or jrkd-
niyya, polo robe, or bulla, festive robe, and a cloak or a wimple; see 11. 15-16, 21-22, and
column III, 3-4. It must have been something special, and should not be confused with the
mindil Rami,the R. kerchief, found in countless ketubbas.
81. I take makhtama ("with a signature") to be a piece of clothing on which the name of the
giver (with or without a dedication) was embroidered, usually referred to as lirdz, which simply
means "embroidery." Cf. talmudic sarbeld battmj (Bab. Talmud, Shabbat 58a) clothing of the
scholars bearing "the signature" of the Resh Gilutha, or Head of the Diaspora.
82. A precious brocade, widely used also in medieval Europe.
(2) a makhttma of pistachio brocade 15

(3) a greenishfestiveattire,consistingof a robe,a
wimple,
(4) a headband,and a Rtmi 30
(5) paneled robes and pieces of cloth 30
(6-7) [Totaldeleted,becausetherewas an addition:]
(8) a handbagof siglaton 12
(9) a handbagof blue brocade 20
(10-11) Total of the Clothing 373 dinars
[Bedding]
(12) a bedspreadof RMmibrocade 10
(13) anotherbedspread 10
(14) two chameleon-coloredcanopies 60
(15) a sofa of Rimf brocade,six pieces 40
(16) a sofa of "Islets"83brocade 15
(17) a sofa of brilliantcolor, four pieces 15
(18) an "Islets"sofa, three pieces 15
(19) a sofa of Rfimi brocade,three pieces 15
(20) a siglaton couch 5
(21) a siglaton sofa 5
(22) a couch made of reeds84 3
(23) a brocadepad 5
(24-25) Total of the spreadsand hangings 198 dinars
(26) The Copper

(27) a candle-lamp,an oil lamp,two completeSpanish
(28) lamps, a large box and anotherbox inside it,
(29) a pitcher,a large washbasin,a large ewer
(30) and another washbasin,a ewer, a soda ash con-
tainer, a box,
(31) a part of a box, an oven, a round bucket, three
candlesticks,
83. Ar. Al-Jazd'ir became the name of the town of Algiers, called so after the islets near its
coast. But I have little doubt that in the Geniza the word designates the Greek islands of the
Aegean Sea. Cf. Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d ed., s.v. "Djaza'ir-i Balr-i Safid."
84. Ar. sdmdn, a fine reed growing in the Jordan valley near Beisan (Beth She'an); see
Dozy, Suppldment,s.v. A Karaite ketubba, TS 12.658, 1. 15 lists a mat made of this material.
(32) a copperstool, anda bathrobewithhems85

(33) Total 200 dinars
(34) Vases with their perfume 8 dinars
IV
(1) The Maids
(2-3) 'Izz ["Glory"] and Dalal ["Coquetry"] and two
personal attendants, Nusa ["Rainbow,"
"Lantern"] and Wafi ["Fidelity"] 100
(4-5) Total [of outfit] 1350
(6) The books 250
(7) Total 1600
(8) The first and the final instalment 500
(9) Grand total 2100 dinars
Comments
Any evaluation of a bride's trousseau must start out with the considera-
tion of whether the prices given are real, or inflated in honor of the young
couple and their families. The remark in Document II, fol. 47v, 1. 12, "a
dinar is worth a dinar, real value, not doubled," assures us that here we have
to do with the actual cost of the outfit. The writer, judge Nathan b. Samuel
he-Hiavarand, even more so, his son Mev6rikh (from whose hand we have
over a hundred documents) adhered to the rule of providing the real es-
timates (unless expressly stated otherwise), and as the prices in Document
III, also written by Nathan, prove, the latter was no exception. Here, the
remark "a dinar is a dinar," certainly was included in the marriage contract,
which we do not possess. The prices in Document I, according to all we
know, also were real.
As is natural, the dowries of the poor and the rich differed most with
regard to the precious metals. The jewelry of the well-to-do bride of Fustat
was twenty times as valuable as that of the lower middle-class girl from
Jerusalem, and that of the anonymous rich bride was worth three times
more than that of her well-to-do contemporary. In all other respects the
85. Ar. mudhayyal.

greatestvariety prevailed,because a large part of the outfit consisted of

heirloomsand dependedon many other circumstances.For example,the
Karaite girl from Jerusalem,who had so little, possessed a number of
two Sicilianrobes, two white and two red robes, two buckets,
duplicates:86
two washbasins,etc. Probably,a sister of hers had died, and the items
preparedfor the dead girl went to the survivor.
At the Dressing Table
Earrings,bracelets(alwaysin pairs,and of at least five differenttypes),

and finger rings (also of the greatestvariety)were the minimum"gold"
adorning a bride. Any more affluent girl possessed an 'isdba,or pearl-
studdedheadband,or tiara,and often morethan one. The valueof this car-
dinal piece of jewelrybroughtin by the two girls from Fustat(seventyand
eightydinars,respectively)could providea livingfor aboutthreeyearsfor a
modest family. Necklaces, shoulder bands, and chokers of different
materials(such as gold and amber) and forms (disks, beads, cylinders)
without or with a middle piece, such as a golden apple or a little box
(originallycontainingan amulet),followedclose in value, and most brides
in bettercircumstancespossessedone or severalpairs of ornate pins (the
Romanfibulae) with which the usually very loose garmentswere kept in
place. Anklets, however,so prominentin the Bible (Joshua 15:16,Isaiah
3:16-18) and in the Islamicworld,wereextremelyrareand disappearfrom
the Geniza around 1040;somehow,they did not fit into the Jewishurban
society of those days; and nose rings, still in use in Cairo during the
nineteenthcentury,are entirelyabsent from the Geniza.
The toilet utensils,such as mirrors,scent and ointmentboxes, and the
kohl sticks and containersusuallywere also made of, or decoratedwith,
preciousmaterials.It is characteristic,however,that bric-a-bricwas rare.
The crystalcock (and perhapsalso the lion, see note 78) of the rich bride,
and the tamathil,or figurines,found in other ketubbas,are exceptional.
In clothing, the headgeartook pride of place. Since the head is the
body's most importantpart, its cover receivedparticularattention.Cor-
respondingto the man's turban,the woman had her wimple(see note 60)
and manytypes of veils, kerchiefs,and mantillas.The skullcap, ma'raqaor
mi'raqa(literally,"coverfor perspiration")worn beneaththe other, more
86. Not to be confused with "pairs," as the pairs of bracelets possessed by her.
sumptuous,coveringsof the head,is alwayslistedin ketubbaswhen madeof

fine Egyptianlinen, red Sicilian silk, and the like.87
The robes, eitherwith sleevesor coveringthe entirebody includingthe
arms,had no buttons.(Thesecame into use far later,underthe influenceof
WesternEurope.)The preciouspins, mentionedbefore, did the serviceof
fasteningthe garments.Belts, too, althoughfound,were not common.One
tried to match the colors of robe, cloak, and wimple. In general,colors
playeda greatrole in a woman'schoice of herwardrobe.Whereverwe have
a more detailedlist, one can observethat the bride had preferences.Thus
our rich brideseemsto have likeddiscreetcolors, such as greyish"8 (column
II, 11.3, 15-16), or colors definedby clouds (1. 2), poultice(1.20), wax (1.
23), starch(1.29), apricots(1.20), or pistachios(columnIII, 1.2). Women's
underwearwas subsumedunderthe item "a bureau89and that which is in
it," certainlya pre-Islamicscribalusage,sincethe phrase"andthat whichis
in it" is mostly in Aramaic.Only slips, ghildla,of fine, sometimestranslu-
cent, linen are regularlylisted, when they were high-priced.(Even the girl
fromJerusalemof modestcircumstanceshad two slipsworthyenoughto be
noted.) ButjudgeNathan preferredto banishsuch piecesof clothing,which
wereworn directlyon a woman'sbody, into the anomymityof the "bureau"
or "pieces of clothing" (Document III, fol. 47v, 1. 5).
As a rule, clothes werenot hung up in wardrobes,but kept in chests or
trunks beautifiedwith ornamentsin mother-of-pearland ivory or wood
carvings,or both. Since clothes kept in this way needed frequentairing,
well-to-do women enjoyed the unendingpleasureof tryingon their things
and preening with them before admiringmembersof the household or
friends.
A final piece of a bride's outfit was the equipmentfor the visit to the
publicbathhouse,namelythe mazarra,a handbagmade of precioustextiles
and calledthus (derivedfromzirr,button)becauseit was fashionedby but-
87. The term mi'raqa (pronounced, perhaps, ma'raqa) extremely common in the Geniza,
seems to be absent from the dictionaries of classical Arabic. Instead, up to the present day, 'ara-
qiyya is used. Since men also wore skull caps, in inventories one would note "a female skull
cap," e.g., TS NS J 184. The entry ma'raqa in Dozy, Suppldment, 2:121a, is based on a
nineteenth century North African glossary.
88. Ar. mannf, from mann (the biblical mdn, manna), "honey dew," "fine dust," often
found in the Geniza, but seemingly absent from Arabic dictionaries.
89. Ar. muqaddama,common in the Geniza but apparently not known from elsewhere. The
translation "bureau" was chosen in order to differentiate that item from the numerous other
terms for chest or trunk mentioned in the Geniza and serving the same purpose. It is likely that
the muqaddama was a chest with drawers, but this has not yet been definitely established.
tons,90 and the minshafa,or bathrobe,probablydecoratedwith trinkets,as

was the case in later times.
Furnishings
"Spreadsand hangings"was the term for that section of the trousseau
which we called for short "bedding."9' The various sofas, couches, and
divans which formed such a prominentpart of the bride'soutfit were not
pieces of furniture,but ratherheavy textilesand items of upholsterywhich
were, or were not, put on some cheap structureof wood or wickerwork.
Only exceptionallyone would read in a ketubbathat a bridebroughtin a
bed of ebonywood92 Ora benchof Indianoak, or teak.93Padsto be put on a
divan, mattressesof differentmake, valuablebead covers and wrapscom-
pleted the "beddings."
Therewas no "bedroom"calledby this namein a Genizahouse.Evenin
the most detaileddescriptionsof a house I have neverencounteredsuch a
term,nor have I foundone elsewherein the descriptionsof housesin Egypt.
In winter, one slept in a small closet which could be easily heatedwith a
brazier;in summerone preferreda largeroom with good ventilation.The
"two chameleon-coloredcanopies," or bed awnings, worth sixty dinars,
broughtin by our rich bride, probablywere put up only in winter.Only a
few other ketubbashave this costly item, and then it is always only one
canopy (albeit, in one case, listed as being worth 100 dinars).94
Tablewarein silver was rare. They did not use forks and spoons (one
"drank"the soup). A commonitem was the marfa',the silveror brasscon-
tainerof fluidsstandingon the table, accompaniedby a ladle,or largesilver
spoon. Therewas a greatvarietyof table and kitchenwarein brassand cop-
90. Why then did they not use buttons for clothing? Human inventions have their peculiar
ways. The so-called Arabic numerals were never applied by the Arabs to daily use. They served
science, not commerce. The Near Eastern merchants learned the use of Arabic numerals from
Europe.
91. See Doc. III, col. III , 11.24-25. Ar. busul wa-ta'diq, also, e.g., in TS 24.1, the ketubba
of the Ndsi David b. Daniel b. Azaryah of the year 1082. See Sh. Shaked, Bibliography,p. 76.
The term busul should not be translated as "carpets," but rather by the general term "spreads."
92. ENA NS 17, fol. 12, 1. 5: sarfr sa'sam.
93. TS 24.2, 1. 5: dakka sdj.
94. Doc. III, col. III, 1. 14: Surddiqayn qalamzan(s = s). "Chameleon-colored," (biu)
qalamat, means, "changing color," appearing differently when looked at from different angles.
Only here, the canopy is called Surddiq.Elsewhere its name is killa, also used for mosquito net-
ting (in which meaning the word entered modern Hebrew).
per (both called nubds,or, in Hebrew,neh6shet),far greaterthan the three

documentstranslatedabove would let one believe.In viewof this, I refrain
from commenting on this item. Many of these objects were imported.
Among others, the rich bride of Fustat broughtin two brass lamps from
Spain; the Karaite girl of Jerusalem possessed items in copper from
Baghdad and Damascus. To be sure, the textiles were largely of inter-
national provenance.
It is hard to tell whetherthere was anythingspecificallyJewishin the

outfits of the bridesdiscussedabove. The veils, cloaks, and wrapsworn by
women while going out differedwidely in their colors. Thus there was no
specificJewish,Samaritan,or Christiancolor as in later times. In general,
the discriminatorylaws concerningthe clothing of the non-Muslimswere
not enforcedin the Fatimidperiod. There is no reasonto assumethat the
Arabictermsusedby the Jewsweredifferentfromthose in voguein theiren-
vironmentor that the piecesof clothingdesignatedby these termsweredif-
ferentin make. For most of theseobjectsappearalso in lettersas boughtor
sold on the markets.Whetherthere were any specifictraits in the selection
of pieces and the compositionof the outfit, we cannot say, sincewe do not
have Christianor Muslim lists similarto those discussedabove.
As is known from Geniza finds and other sources, women dedicated
Torahscrollsto synagogues.A Torahscrollwas keptin a woodencontainer
often overlaid with silver, and was decoratedwith a silver crown, silver
chains,and ramdmin(Heb. rimm6nmm), "pomegranates,"that is, sphericor-
namentsof silver,occasionallygilded,and sometimesembellishedby water
lilieswroughtof the same material.Not a few of the preciousmetalsaccom-
panyinga young woman to her husband'shouse, to embellishher looks,
afterhavingdone theirservice,might have been turnedinto ornamentsfor
the Torah.95
Furthermore,the walls and columns of the synagogueswere covered
with precioustextiles-exactly the same that appearin the trousseaulists.
An elderlywoman, after having taken care of the outfits of her daughters
95. See S. D. Goitein, "The Synagogue Building and its Furnishings," [Hebrew with
detailed English summary], Eretz-Israel 7 (1964): 81-97, especially pp. 90-96. The missing part
of the inventory printed on p. 95 is contained in TS Box 28, fol. 51; see "Kele Kesef u-Vadde
Pe'er be-Vatte ha-Kenesiyyot shel Fustat bi-Shenat 1159," Tarbiz 38 (1969): 397. The
"unknown term of silversmithing" mentioned there is bi-nawfaratayn,"with two water lilies."
and granddaughters,would assign the remnants of her trousseau to

charitableand religiouspurposesand to her own, often elaborate,burial
dress. Numerous wills of women with such dispositions have been
preserved.And the veryfirstitemof textilesdonatedto the synagogueof the
Iraqiansin Fustatin 1080,that is, afterthe terribletimesof anarchyandpil-
lage throughwhich Egypt had gone, was "a robe of siglaton, yellow and
... , a new one, from the house of Saniyal-Dawla,on whichis written:To
the Synagogueof the Iraqians.""House" means "wife," and "written"
means "embroidered."A new, unused, piece from a trousseau,perhaps
originallyearmarkedby the proprietressas her burialdress,had as its final
destinationthe House of God.96
Finally, the real estate brought in by a woman at her marriage,or,
rather,a partof it, often was donatedor willedby herto the communityfor
the maintenanceof the poor or the upkeepof a synagogue,especiallyfor the
oil needed to illuminatethe buildingfor nightlystudy. I was particularly
impressedby this detail in an Arabicdeed of conveyancefrom April 1260
describingthe boundariesof a valuablepiece of propertyin the Zuwayla
quarter(then a Jewishneighborhood)of Cairo:"East-the houseknownby
the nameof Nishi'a, the daughterof Ibrahfm,son of Sa'fd,the Jew,known
today as the Synagogue."97
Two hundredand fifty years at least prior to this documentthere was
alreadya synagoguein the newly foundedimperialcity of Cairo.98But the
increasingnumberof the Jewishresidentsof Fustat, the ancientcapitalof
IslamicEgypt,who had movedto the new city, requiredadditionalhouses
96. TS 20.47, 11.7-8, see Eretz-Israel 7 (1964): 92. Three Jewish government officials, bear-
ing the title Saniy al-Dawla ("High-ranking") are known to me: Moses ha-Kohen, active
around 1080 (TS 10 J 6, fol. 5, 1. 11; TS 16.188); Abu 'l-Munajjl, Solomon Ibn Sha'ya, promi-
nent around 1110 (see Mann, Jews in Egypt, 1:215-17); and Moses ha-Levi b. Japheth, living
around 1170 (TS 12.104, TS 16.208, etc.). Here, the first is intended.
97. D. S. Richards, "Arabic Documents from the Karaite Community in Cairo," Journalof
the Economic and Social History of the Orient 15 (1972): 109. Since part of the building whose
boundaries were described in the document was donated in 1324 (that is, sixty-four years after
the original purchase) to the poor of the Karaites, it is likely, but not certain, that the syn-
agogue referred to was a Karaite place of prayer.
Another synagogue donated by a woman was "the upper synagogue," or rather four syn-
agogues on the third floor of four adjacent houses willed by Elea Nomico to the Jewish com-
munity of Candia, Crete, in 1432; see David Jacoby, "Quelques aspects de la vie juive en Crete
dans la premiere moiti6 du xve si&cle,"Kritologikon Synedrion (Athens, 1974), pp. 113-16.
98. See Mediterranean Society, 2:243.
of prayer.One such place was donated or willed by this woman.99

Thus we see that the relative independencegained by Jewish women
throughtheir dowry providedthem also with the means for good deeds.
99. However, the kanisat al-mu'allima, literally, "the synagogue of the school mistress,"
given as an address in a Geniza letter, was not a house of prayer dedicated by her, but rather the
place where she taught. She is mentioned elsewhere; see ibid., vol. 3, chap. D., n. 204.
APPENDIX
Text of Document Two*
1146 ,1111.' n1t

12•01--I'00
Bodl. MS Heb. d 66 (Cat. 2878), fols. 48 and 47 (in that order)
Fol. 48
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*The originaltext of DocumentOne appearsin my forthcomingPalestinein the

Arab and Crusader Periods.
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Text of Document Three

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Three Trousseaux of Jewish Brides From The Fatimid Period

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Three Trousseaux of Jewish Brides from the Fatimid Period

Author(s): Shelomo Dov Goitein

Institute for Advanced Study

Dedicated to Richard Ettinghausen

Trousseaulists in the hundreds,completeor fragmentary,have survived

in generalwas immense.The readeris referredto the third volume of my

1. A MediterraneanSociety: The Jewish Communitiesof the Arab World,as Portrayed in

5. See Mediterranean Society, 2:513, n. 18, and vol. 3, sec. D, n. 96.

A KARAITE MARRIAGE CONTRACT

University Library Cambridge, ULC Add. 3430.7

In the Name of the Living God.

14. The same obligations are repeated in other words.

The Gold [meaning,jewelry in general]

a Rumi bathrobe 28 and a piece of red lddh silk29 1

The Copper [household and toilet utensils and

a brocade bed cover 3

Total value 611/2dinars.38

The above-mentioned Hezekiah declared in the presence of the elders

We made the symbolic purchase from Hezekiah, son of Benjamin, with

granddaughter of Joseph Lebdi, a great India trader.48Her father Barakat

Bodl. MS Heb. d 66 (Cat. 2878), fols. 47 and 48.

Friend of the yeshiva-may he rest in Eden-concluded a match with

and strict,madewiththe properobjectfor sucha transaction.

(1) The Estimate

(16) a silver jewel box and two silver kohl containers59

(32) a cloud-colored chest cover with gold threads and

[Marginal Column II]

(2) a pitcher, a large and a small basin, a bucket, a

70. See n. 33, above.

THE DOWRY AND NUPTIAL GIFT OF A RICH BRIDE

(19) a crystal mixing vessel 5

(8) a wrap with two ends in gold threads

(2) a makhttma of pistachio brocade 15

(26) The Copper

(32) a copperstool, anda bathrobewithhems85

85. Ar. mudhayyal.

greatestvariety prevailed,because a large part of the outfit consisted of

At the Dressing Table

Earrings,bracelets(alwaysin pairs,and of at least five differenttypes),

sumptuous,coveringsof the head,is alwayslistedin ketubbaswhen madeof

tons,90 and the minshafa,or bathrobe,probablydecoratedwith trinkets,as

per (both called nubds,or, in Hebrew,neh6shet),far greaterthan the three

It is hard to tell whetherthere was anythingspecificallyJewishin the

and granddaughters,would assign the remnants of her trousseau to

of prayer.One such place was donated or willed by this woman.99

Text of Document Two*

1146 ,1111.' n1t

Otrpt K 'RT flr 1NK-K pT ITvnn nf w 11n3 1 K 1nKx1

*The originaltext of DocumentOne appearsin my forthcomingPalestinein the

aRninxnn -1*] ,1nf'n 15

R3T %,rmnn [!] 13xno 'wi [!] 13?tn Ii'STM M'IN31 24

R3T mn:) @1)ri 1u8m1 *-Wnn -.131 25

R31IT 19 '3n 113xyW1 tX'1 "17"31 ?T"Mn 26

itr -i=n 7.01-1 UD1 27

R3-T rrxn b 71- 1'H1371? M1 }!CP ?"Mn 28

71NPTX3' "?"Xnn -i"n ) 29

xr"T f7tvy ,"Tn wrm rTD 3x-P31 7'n9mp '1

RT -io n:l ) N-- 3-ph 1 -.i! 31

In-Timh ?"nl 37-1'ST KnO tDUDD ?"Mn 32