Chapter-I

INTRODUCTION

The concept of social work as a profession started developing in the

west almost a century ago. it was a response to need felt at that time. It

provided the framework for its development in other countries including India. In

west it started with the effort to provide help to poor and needy. In India

professional social work came with starting of Sir Dorabaji School of Social

Work now known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS). To have clear idea

about its development in west and in India, it is relevant here to trace its

development in both places.

Definition and scope of social work started expanding as practitioners

started experiencing. In this chapter an attempt is made to trace evolution of

social work practice, social work as profession, definitions, methods and

approaches to social work practice and education. Labour Welfare and

Industrial Relations as a field of social work unique to Indian situation. An

attempt is made to conceptualize industrial social work in Western context and

social work practice in business and industry in Indian context.

Evolution of Social Work

Three concerted efforts have been made to arrive at clear definition of

social work ( Morales & Sheafor) so far. The first effort was made in Milford

conference in 1920. Though common and concise definitions of social work was

not arrived at, yet the Milford conference encouraged further efforts at

articulating a definition of social work.

The second effort was made in 1950s when several specialized social

work practice organisations merged into the National Association of Social

Workers (NASW). Exercises to arrive at a definition of social work that would

reflect the commonality in diverse practice activities started. The result was the

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publication of the “working definition of social work practice” in 1958. It could

not give a comprehensive definition of social work, but established an important

basis for subsequent definitions. It identified three common goals of social work

practice (Barlett, 1958):

1. To assist individuals and groups to identify and resolve or minimize problems

arising out of disequilibrium between themselves and their environment.

2. To identity potential areas of disequilibrium between individuals or groups

and the environment in order to prevent the occurrence of disequilibrium.

3. To seek out, identify and strengthen the maximum potential of individuals,

groups and communities.

The third effort was in 1970s and 1980s when NASW published three

special editions of its major journal, Social Work. This effort also did not lead to

a commonly accepted definition of social work. However, the NASW Board of

Directors adopted a definitions of social work that has gained widespread

acceptance.

“Social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, or

communities to enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and

creating societal conditions favourable to that goal”.

Here it is important to note that social work is considered a professional

activity. And professional activity requires a particular body of knowledge,

values and skills and a discrete purpose that guides one’s practice activities.

Social Work as a Profession:

The social work is relatively new as profession compared to other

professions. There are seven common criteria of the profession (1) Body of

knowledge (2) Theoretical basis (3) University training (4) Income production (5)

Professional control of practitioners (6) Internal moral or ethical control of

professional activities and (7) Measurable or observable results.

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Common body of knowledge:
Social work has to a large degree common body of knowledge which is
derived mainly from social science and practice wisdom. It is highly general in

nature.
Theory base:
There is no clarity about the theory base as number of social work
theories are used, they seem to compete rather than complement each other.
University training:
The university training is available and master of social work degree is
provided as a part of university training. The exact professional position of
B.S.W. is still under development.
Income production:
Training and education in social work do lead to livelihoods.
Control of Practitioners:
An important requisite for professionals is that the profession as such
controls those who practice it. This control is usually achieved through
legislative influence. In field of social work there is no complete control of
practitioners. Some attempts are going on in this direction.

Internal moral and ethical control:

It is left to profession itself and involves internal or moral and ethical
controls with respect to the practice of professional activities. Social workers are
constrained by the National Association of Social Workers’ code of ethics to
keep the client’s interests, rather than the professionals interests, at forefront.
An implied contract exists between the client, on one hand, and the
professional practitioner, on the other. The professional agrees to be
competent, to put client’s interest first and not to take advantage of the client. A
code of ethics was developed in considerable detail by the National Association
of Social Workers. Ethical considerations are among the most important guides
that a profession has.
Measurable, observable results:
An important criterion for professional status is that the professional
perform a task, activity, or service that can in some way be publicly verified,

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observed, or seen. All social workers need to define goals for their practice.
Social workers at the individual level define goals for their clients and often set
benchmark periods for accomplishment. Those who work at organizational,
community and policy levels set goals as well their interventions, the goals may
be for e.g., changed community conditions, enhanced organizational
performance, legislation passed or legislative rules changed etc.

Definitions of Social Work

There are number of definitions of social work. The practitioners have
tried to define social work from their own perspectives and approaches to social
work. This is clearly evident from the few definitions given below out of
numerous definitions on social work.

Cheyney Alice (1926): Social work includes all voluntary attempts to extend
benefits in response to needs which are concerned with social relationships and
which avail themselves of scientific knowledge methods.

Fink (1942): Social work is the provision of services designed to aid

individuals, singly or in groups in coping with present of future social and
psychological obstacles that prevent or are likely to prevent, full or effective
participation in society.

Anderson (1943): Social work is professional service rendered to people for

the purpose of assisting them as individuals or in groups, to attain satisfying
relationship and standards of life in accordance with their particular wishes and
capacities and in harmony with those of the community.

Clarke (1947): Social work is a form of professional service comprising a

composite of knowledge and skills, parts of which are and parts of which are not
distinctive of social work, which attempts on the one hand to help the individuals
satisfy his needs in the social milieu and on the other to remove as far as

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possible the barriers which obstruct people from achieving the best of which

they are capable.

Friedlander (1951): Social work is the process which deals directly and
differentially with persons who have problems relating primarily to their social

situation and which endeavours, individual to individual to understand what help

is needed and to assist the individual to find and utilize the help indicated.

Konopka (1958): Social work is an entity representing three clearly

distinguished but inter-related parts: a network of social services, carefully

developed methods and process and social policy expressed through social

institutions and individuals. All three are based on a view of human being, their

interrelationships, and the ethical demand made on them.

Bohem (1959): Social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of the
individuals, singly and in groups, by activities focused upon their social

relationships which constitute the interaction between man and his environment.

These activities can be provision of individual and social resources and

prevention of social dysfunction’s.

Stroup (1960): Social work is the art of bringing various resources bear on
individual, group and community needs by the application of a scientific method

of helping people to help themselves.

Pincus and Minahan (1978): Social work is concerned with the interaction
between people and their social environment which affect the ability of people to
accomplish their life tasks, alleviate distress, and realize their aspirations and

values.

Indian Conference of Social Work (1957): Social work is a welfare activity

based on humanitarian philosophy, scientific knowledge and technical skills for

helping individual or groups or community, to live a rich and full life.

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Khinduka (1962): Social work helps an individual in his social functioning. It is
based on certain knowledge foundation, calls for skill in human relationships on
the part of its practitioner, and has a set of values furnishing its philosophical
base.

Mirza R. Ahmed (1969): Social work is a professional services based on

knowledge of human relation and skill in relationships and concerned with
problems of interpersonal and or interpersonal adjustments resulting from unmet
individual, or community need.

On the basis of these definitions it can be summarized that social work:

i) Is a professional service which includes specialized knowledge and skills
for dealing with human behaviour.
ii) its main emphasis is on the analysis and synthesis of human behaviour.
iii) Individual and social problem are solved by applying different methods and
techniques.
iv) Social work gives much emphasis on adjustment.
v) It’s main objective is to make individual self-dependent.
vi) It not only solve the problems but also prevents its occurring.
vii) It also integrates and co-ordinates means and resources of social
development.
viii) It believes in democratic values.

Social Work Perspectives

Johnson has discussed about five perspectives of social work practices.
These five perspectives are :
1. Social work as a response to concern/need
2. Social work as a developing profession
3. Social work as a creative blending of knowledge, values, and skills
4. Social work as problem solving process
5. Social work as intervention into human transactions.

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1. Social work as a response to concern/need
According to this perspective social workers respond to concern by
identifying any unmet needs in the situation. For that they use knowledge about
human development, human diversity and social systems. They identify unmet
need of the client and significant individuals and systems in the situation. The
focus is on helping individuals to cope with social functioning.

2. Social work as a developing profession

According to this perspective social work is a fairly new profession.
Social work as a young profession has experienced growth related to concerns
and phanging times as well as related to the process of developing its
knowledge, value and skill bases.

3. Social work as a creative blending of knowledge, values and

skills
According to this perspective professional social work has a body of
knowledge (ways of understanding), set of values (attitudes toward people) that
are operationalized through development of set of skills. This constellation of
knowledge, values and skills, is an important perspective of the nature of social
work practice. Knowledge is a part of the cognitive or thinking component of
practice; values are a part of the feeling or emotional component of practice as
well as part of thinking component of some extent. Skills are action or the doing
part of social work; they are part of behavioural component.
Application of knowledge, values and skills in each practice situation
calls for its creative blending. This creativity is the art of social work.

4. Social work as problem solving process

Problem solving is a process in which concern and needs are examined;
leading to identification of problems and seeking solutions for the same. The
knowledge, values and skills are used in understanding the nature of problem

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and in identifying possible solutions. The emphasis in this perspective more is

on thinking or cognitive part of practice.

5. Social work as intervention into human transactions

It is a contemporary perspective on the nature of practice. Intervention is
specific action by a social worker in relation to human systems or processes in
order to induce change. It is purposeful and goal directed. Human interaction is
transactional in nature; that is, all interactions are affected by other interactions.
Social work intervention focuses on these transactions in order to influence for
change. Influence brings about change depending on social worker’s capacity.
This capacity has a base in the worker’s knowledge, skills, and reputation,
among other factors. This calls for social worker to identify needs and problems
in social functioning, to apply knowledge professional values, and skills,
including the problem-solving process; and to influence ongoing transactions
relative to the needs and problems so as to bring about a change in the
transactions.

The perspective presented above are those, which are frequently

referred to in social work literature and when taken together, they explain well
the nature of contemporary social work practice.

Social Work Practice Approaches

Traditional Practice Method Approach:
Social work to become unique among helping professions developed
distinct methods of practice. These methods are social case work, social group
work, community organization, social welfare administration and research.
Social case work is the first social work method pioneered by Mary Richmond.
‘Social Diagnosis’ is the first classic book on ‘Social Work Practice” written by
her. This book filled an important void in social work by introducing a practice
literature. The principles of social casework identified by Mary Richmond were
later on adopted by social workers and professionals who focussed exclusively
on individuals and families. The popularity of Freudian Psychology in 1920s and

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1930s also directed social work toward individual practice and as a result many

models of social work practice developed focussing on individuals and families.

During 1930 to 1945, Gordon Hamilton conceptualized helping process
as “study, diagnosis and treatment”, which led to development of “Diagnostic
approach” in social work practice. Hamilton’s classic formulation greatly
influenced the subsequent practice. At the same time another approach to
practice was developing, which was different from diagnostic approach. This
was known as functional approach.

Some of the most popular and widely practiced models of social case
work are presented below:

• Psychosocial Model developed by Florence Hollis is an outgrowth of

traditional diagnostic case work of 1930’s and influenced by work of Gordon
Hamilton. It puts emphasis on psychoanalytical theory and ego functioning. It
has also used social science concepts of culture, role, communications
theory and social systems theory. Study, diagnosis and treatment are the
major process included in this model. The goal is adjustment of the individual
through change in perception, response, and communication. It can be used
with motivated verbal client willing to commit long-term involvement and with
a desire for self-knowledge or insight.
• Functional Model was developed in 1930s by Jessie Taft and Virginia
Robinson. In this model the focus is on release of power for increased
social functioning. It can be used in most situations and with individuals,
families, groups and communities.
• Problem Solving Model evolved by Helen H. Perlman, is a blending of
psychosocial and functional models. In this model it is assumed that all
human living is a problem solving process. Here the emphasis is on
identifying and explaining the nature of problem, focussing on aspects of
personality involved in the problem. It conceptualizes that a person with a
problem comes to a place where he or she is offered help through a process.
It be used with the individuals who are motivated to use help in a cognitive
and interactive process.

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• Socialization Model was developed by Elizabeth McBroom, It was in
response to help ‘multi-problem’ families. It has utilized socialization theories
developed by anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Here the focus is on
client in milieu and looks for “islands of competence”, and barriers to
competent functioning. The goal in helping is to increase competence in
areas of work and parenting. It creates success experiences as models. It is
appropriate for individuals and families who have not learned basic
socialization skills and who need help of a concrete nature.
• Situational Model developed by Max Siporin has generalist formulation. It
has used field theory, structural and functional theory, situational analysis,
territoriality and culture. This model focusses on the situation including social
networks, resources, demands, obstacles, and reward-and-sanction
systems. Here the goal is to change situations so they will be functional for
persons. It is used in wide variety of situations that need change so that
individuals can function more adequately.
• Integrative Model was developed on basic ideas of Ackerman and
influenced by work of Poliak, Spiegal, Beatman and Sherman. Frances
Scherz is an important contributor for this model. It is based on a
psychoanalytical frame of reference with particular emphasis on ego
psychology and role theory. It’s focus is on family structure, functioning and
history with emphasis on current problems. The goal is to modify or change
aspects of the family relationship system that are not functional. It is used
with families that have time, energy and motivation to change structure and
functioning over a period of time.
• Life Model or Ecological Model was developed by Carel B. Germain in
1970s. It puts emphasis on concepts about transactions between people and
their environment. It also considers growth and development, identity,
competence, autonomy and relatedness. It focusses on person and problem
in order to set objectives and devise appropriate action, as well as on life
transactions, unresponsiveness of environments, crisis events, and
communication - relationship difficulties. It also works to facilitate group

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 functioning and influence organizational structure, social networks and
physical settings.
• Crisis Intervention Model was developed on the basis of study of natural
disaster. Main contributors to this model are Erich Limderman and Gerald
Caplan. Work of Lydia Rapport and Howard Parad also contributed in its
development. It lays emphasis on ego-psychology and stress theory. Here
the goal is the restoration of social functioning and enhancement of coping
capacity. It is used in situations where developmental or situational crisis is
limiting adequate social functioning. It can be used with individuals, families
or groups of individuals in crisis.
• Communicative Interactive Model was developed on the basis of work of
Don Jackson and Jay Haley in the project on “Family Therapy in
Schizophrenia”. Virginia Satir exemplified social work use of this model.
Important concepts used are communication, meta communication and
family Homeostasis, it lays emphasis on improved family functioning,
particularly improved communication. It can be used with family group with
verbal orientation and willingness to make a time investment. It is particularly
useful when communication is problematic.
Social workers, providing services to groups took long time to identify
with social work profession. There was no agreement on whether to identify with
social work profession or with others such as recreation and continuing
education. They came to the agreement in 1930s and second distinct method of
social work practice evolved. Social group work placed more emphasis on
people than it did on conditions. It also placed considerable emphasis on the
activity and group process as means to enhance growth, democratic functioning
and change. Group work was influenced by work of John Dewey. Later on
Gisela Konopka and Helen Northen continued to develop the practice theory of
this method. Some of the well known models of group work are as under:
• Developmental Model developed from work of Coyle, Wilson and Ryland,
and Philips. It was articulated by Emanual Tropp. It uses an existential
humanistic philosophy. Human beings are seen as free responsible, and

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 capable of self-realization. Its main focus is on the commonality of members.
It can be used in voluntary situation with peer groups or formed groups.
• Mediating Model was developed by Willium Schwartz, Lawrence Shulman
is a major contributor to this model. It mainly uses systems theory, game
theory and small group theory. It focusses on individual interaction, group
process and impinging environment. Goals are related to mutual need for
self-fulfillment as individuals and society reach out to each other. It is used
for helping people negotiate difficult environments.
• Remedial Model was developed by Robert Vinter and colleagues and is
influenced by the work of Fritz Redl, David Wineman and Gisela Konopka. It
is an outgrowth of the use of the group in clinical social work setting. It has
utilized social role theory, social behaviour theory, ego psychology, group
dynamics, and systems theory. Here the goal is individual change that is
remedy for social dysfunctioning. Its focus is on individual in group. It can be
used to help malperforming individuals achieve a more desirable state of
social functioning.
• Social Goals Model was an outcome of practice wisdom in traditional
group service agencies. Contributors to this model were Grace Coyle, Helen
Philips, Allen Klein, Gertrade Wilson and Hyman Wiener. It is more
philosophic than scientific and is influenced by neo-frudian thoughts and
social systems theory. It focus is on individual functioning, group process
and the environment. It mobilizes the group as a force for social change. It
can be used in situations in which group is used to change any part of its
environment.

Community organization is third practice method. This distinct practice

method was evolved to coordinate and evaluate the effectiveness of various
social agencies and social programs in communities. It is primarily concerned
with the distribution of financial resources and building linkages among existing
services. Important models of community organizations are:
• Social Action Model was developed by Saul Alinsky and Richard Cloward.
It has used concepts of disadvantaged population, social injustice,

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 deprivation and inequality. Here community is seen as made up of conflicting
interests that are not easily reconcilable and is having scarce resources. In
this model client is seen as victim and strategy is to cryatalize issues to
develop organization to take action against enemy target. It manipulates
mass organizations and political processes. It is used when individuals are
seen as victims of an unjust system.
• Social Planning Model was developed on the basis of conventional
community organization in planning and funding organizations and
governmental planning agencies. It sees community as an entity with many
interacting systems. It lays emphasis on decision making, power control and
the agency system. Its focus is on identifying social problem, its cause, and
its possible resolution. It is used where rational planning toward the
alleviation of social problems is desired.

Besides the three direct practice methods, two other practice methods
also evolved which are administration and research. These two methods are
considered as secondary methods.

Multimethod Practice Approach:

In 1951, Hollis - Taylor report, a major study on social work and social
work education, recommended that, because the breadth of social work practice
required social workers to intervene at more than one level of client system,
social work education should prepare students with a beginning level of
competence in each of the five practice methods. The multimethod practice
approach proved appropriate to meet with these varied demands of the social
work practice. But this approach failed to fulfill the commitment of the
profession for unifying practice method.

Generalist Practice Approach:

The generalist approach to practice started evolving in the late 1960s.
This approach provided the versatility and met with the requirement for flexible
approach to social work practice demanded by the growing profession.

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Generalist practice contains two fundamental components. It provides a

perspective from which the social worker view® the practice situation. These
perspectives are very comprehensively discussed by Johnson in his book social
work practice: a generalist approach.

Second, instead of attempting to make the client’s situation fit the

methodological orientation of the social worker, the situation is viewed as
determining the practice approach to be used. Thus, the social worker is
required to have a broad knowledge and skill base, and to have the ability to
appropriately select from that base to meet the needs of the clients (Morales &
Sheafer, 1998).

It has been contended by many social workers that generalist approach

was there right from the beginning of social work practice. However, there is
demand to train both graduates and master’s level as generalist practitioners
due to accreditation requirement. This has led to analyse this approach in detail.
Schatz, Jenkins, and Sheafor have developed a model of initial and advance
generalist social work, based on their research that documented areas of
agreement among experts who have written about generalist social work
practice or administered educational programmes that prepared students as
generalist. This model recognizes a generic foundation for all social work
practice. The generic foundation includes knowledge about social work
profession, social work values, the purpose of social work, ethnic/diversity
sensitivity, basic communication skills, understanding of human relationships

etc.

At the initial generalist level of practice the social worker builds on the
generic foundation. The advanced generalist social worker operates from an
expanded knowledge base about individuals, groups, organizations and
communities. The advance generalist must also develop increased skills to
intervene in direct service provision with individuals, families, and groups at one
end of the multiple level practice spectrum, and at the other end, address more

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complex indirect practice situations such as supervision, administration, and
policy and program evaluation.

Specialist Practice Approach:

Specialist social work practice is characterized by the application of
selected knowledge and skills to a narrowed area of practice based on practice
setting, population served, social problems addressed and/or practice
intervention mode used. The areas of specialization identified so far are
according to fields of practice like services to family, child and youth, elderly;
health; education; business and industry; community development; or according
to problem areas, like crime and delinquency; substance abuse; family violence;
poverty etc. The other specialization areas are population-at-risk like children,
women, aged. Specialization according to intervention methods or role include
specific practice approaches with individuals, families and groups; community
organization and social planning; research etc. Specialization from practice
contexts and perspectives include practice in industry; hospitals; rural and urban

areas.

Social Work Practice and Education in India

Social work in India has a very long and ancient history. The act of
helping needy and underprivileged is considered to be duty of those who have
plenty. The traditional practice of social work is based on religious and
humanitarian principles. There is also history of social movement and social
reforms and this too is considered as social work. In India the term social work is
generally used to include almost any activity which is intended to help, restore
or promote some aspects of the physical, economic and social well being of
individuals and groups. In its restricted sense it has come to refer to charity
giving and other type of helping activities for the economically under privileged
and dependent persons (Nagpal, 1996).

The professional practice of social work dates back to 1936 when the first
school of social work, then named Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social Work, now

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known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), was established in Bombay.
Even before this school was started, there were very definite efforts made to
provide training for social workers. The social service league in Bombay,
founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, used to train social work practitioners
based in several welfare agencies. In 1926 Dr. Clifford Manshardt came to
Bombay and worked to set up a neighbourhood house in Nagpada. Nagpada
Neighbourhood House tried out a combination of the methods of professional
social work (the methods developed in U.S.A.) under the direction of Manshardt.
Ten years of experience showed that those methods when judicially adapted to
local situation, brought very positive results. This positive experience led to the
idea of formal training of social workers, which ultimately culminated into
establishing Tata School of Social Work under directorship of Manshardt. That
was the beginning of professional social work in India. Before introducing
western content of curriculum in Indian setting, it was subjected to critical
analysis for its adaptability to Indian conditions. However, lot of debate was
generated over it. Academicians in India have expressed their own opinions
about it on number of occassions either in their speeches or through their
writings.

Thomas (1967) recognized that social work “in broad sense is the sum
total of all efforts directed towards the betterment and enrichment of human life”.

Gore (1973) was of the opinion that it is more useful to define a

profession not by the clients groups they serve or problem areas in which they
operate, but by the nature of contribution they make, (to the persons with whom
they work), by the type of skills they utilize, by their knowledge base, and work
values (Pathak, 1997).

Dasgupta had, in 1968, accepted the concept and methods of social work
as they evolved in the west. He believed that modern social work had a
substantial universal base in theory and philosophy. But in its practice, that is

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the application of methods in a specific cultural situation, some modification
were necessary.

Kulkarni opined, 'professional social work as it has evolved in India is a

graft on the ancient heritage, and not an independent transplant. In terms of
origin, initial efforts and evolution in the pattern of training, areas of
specialization, types of jobs, and the status and composition, the professional
social work in India has a very distinct model of its own’. He further added, ‘It
has undoubtedly adopted and adapted a lot from other countries, but it has a
soul and body of its own. (Kulkarni, 1993).

It is clear that everyone agrees about the influence of American Social

Work on Indian Social Work education and hence on practice of professional
social work. But opinions are divided on its impact. On one extreme there is
study by Mandal (1989) showing that American influence on Indian social work
education is irrelevant, where as on the other extreme the study of social
workers’ perception by Ejaz(1991) has brought out positive impact and positive
perceptions of the American social work influence on social work in India.

There are number of issues concerning social work education in India

which are discussed and debated over since last sixty five years. But one thing
is clear that in most of the schools of social work in India there is adoptation and
adaptation of social work education developed in west particularly in U.S.A.

The review of literature on social work education shows two models of

social work education are in operation. One having specialization and the other
generic in nature.

Social work schools in which specialization is offered, it is offered in the

second year of the training. The field of specialization include; Medical and
Psychiatric Social Work, Labour Welfare and Industrial Relation, Family Youth

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and Child Welfare, Community Development including urban, rural and tribal

Communities and Correctional Social Work and Administration.

In the first year of training common exposure to method courses such as

case work, group work and community organization, social work research as

well as to social science courses from social work perspective is given. It is

relevant here to take note of the comment by Desai which states ‘At this stage,

there is need to have a fresh look at the specializations we really need to setup

and which are feasible in a developing country like India” (Desai M., 1994).

In generic course of social work education exposure to all method

courses and social science courses like Man and Society, Human Development

and Human Behaviour is provided in first year and in second year of training

exposure to all field courses is provided.

Field work is given equal emphasis in training of social workers. It

provides real experiences of working with people. It is through field work the

social work skills are developed and professional attitude is cultivated. In most

of the schools of social work two type of field work programmes are followed.

One is concurrent field work and the other is block placement.

The research is the third important component of social work training. In

the initial period of social work education, working on research dissertation was
compulsory in almost all the schools but later on it is no more compulsory, in

some schools project work has taken place of research where as others have

continued with research dissertation as partial requirement for M.S.W. degree.

Social Work Practice in Industry in Western Context

According to western perspective, the direct service model, or EAP, has

been identified as having its roots in corporate alcoholism program of 1940s

(Blomquist, 1979, cited in Abramovitz and Epstern, 1983; Wycers and

Kaulukukai, 1984) or, alternatively, in the earlier role of the “Welfare secretary”,

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who was employed by management in the beginning decades of 20th century

(Mor-Borak et al, 1993; Popple, 1981). In making a range of services available

to workers and their families, the role of welfare secretary fulfilled the function of

social control of the workforce, aiding in employee’s efforts to avoid unionization

of the workforce (Popple, 1981).

Perspectives on the role of the profession vis-a-vis the labour movement

have focussed on the changing nature of social work’s relationship with

organized labour throughout the century, beginning with the period of union

formation, through to the development and expansion of social work practice

within labour organizations. This history has been distinguished by both shared

goals and periods of conflict, with fluctuation in the nature of this relationship

described as owing to labour’s perception of social work as having primary

allegiance to management goals (Karger, 1988; Straussner & Phillips, 1988).

In describing the development of practice in this field, other authors have

traced its root to social reform movement, documenting need among the

growing, largely immigrant, industrial labour force and paving the way for the

passage of legislation aimed at improving the social and work conditions of this

population (Lewis, 1990; Malloy & Kurzman, 1993).

Models of Social work practice in business and industry

(corporate sector)
Shank & Jorve identified three models of social work practice in business

and industry which are as under:

i) The employee service model

ii) The consumer service model and

iii) The corporate social responsibility model.

The employee service model:

The employee service model of occupational social work focuses on

activities that provide direct service to the employees of a business or industry.

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The social worker using this model might develop and implement employee
assistance programs and various supervisory training programs. Employee
assistance programmes (EAPs) are programmes to assist employees, and their
families with personal problems that interfere with employment. Most EAPs are
part of the organizational structure of management. EAPs are the largest and
most established mode of social work practice in the workplace. EAPs are now a
common part of human resources programming. According to U.S. Bureau of the
census, 1995. Sixty two percent of those working in medium sized or large firms
are covered under EAPs. Nature of services provided under EAPs vary, some
programs offer round the clock diagnostic and referral services, short-term
treatment, and consultation on work, family problems where as some may simply
be a telephone number to an information and referral hotline. In addition, the
social worker might provide counseling to individuals or families in relation to
marital, family, substance abuse, aging, health, and retirement problems; offer
referral to other community agencies or self-help groups such as Alcoholics
Anonymous; and consult with management on individual problems. Typical
problems the social worker might also address would be the identification of job-
related factors such as boredom or stress, an employee's desire to find
resources to upgrade his or her job skills, the need for preretirement, or a
linkage to Worker’s Compensation or unemployment insurance programs.

The consumer service model:

The occupational social worker following the consumer service model
might serve as the company’s representative to various consumer groups and
focus on identifying consumer needs and methods of meeting them. Typically
found in banks, public utilities, and government agencies, these social workers
help to provide a liaison between consumer groups and social service agencies,
develop outreach programs, and provide counseling to customers to. meet,
unique needs.

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The corporate social responsibility model:
The third model of practice, the corporate social responsibility model,
places the social worker in the role of assisting corporations and businesses to
make a commitment to the social and economic well-being of the communities in
which they are located. The social workers consult with management on their
policies concerning human resources, their donations to nonprofit organizations,
and social legislation they may wish to support. In addition, social workers may
administer health and welfare benefit programs for employees, represent the
company in research and community development activities, and provide
linkage between social service, social policy, and corporate interests.

Drawing on previous work in the field, Straussner has developed a

typology of five models of occupational social work (Straussner, 1990)
1. Employee service model
2. Employer/work organization service model
3. Consumer service model
4. Corporate social responsibility model
5. Work related public policy model

In America during these last twenty five years the practice of social work
in the workplace started developing. It began, when there was increased
recognition that employees’ well-being was essential to employee productivity.
This created place for social workers into the workplace. The abuse of alcohol
provided the most substantial opening wedge for social worker in the workplace.
Drinking on the job and then sick days off because of alcohol-related accidents
became subjects of concern. The need to intervene for the sake of workplace as

well as the individual was strongly felt.

*

Although initial interventions occurred due to alcohol and substance

abuse concerns specifically, needs for other kinds of counseling rapidly
emerged. If alcohol and drug abusers can be counseled, why not others be
consoled who are child abuser or wife abuser? Why not intervene in the

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situations leading to absenteeism at workplace? And thus employee assistance

programme started expanding rapidly. Employers realized that it may be

cheaper to have your own counselors than to pay on an adhoc basis. This is

how self-interest and concern for others became the two powerful and operative

factors for occupational social work.

Social workers not only work in employee assistance programmes but

also in other areas. Social workers work as members of human resources

departments doing, in effect, community organization, organizational

development, cultural change, and whole range of organizational improvement

activities that do not have much to do specifically with the clinical process of

interpersonal helping. Social workers are also becoming influential in the area of

corporate philanthropy. And social workers are beginning to seek personnel

positions.

Social workers use specific social work skills in counseling, interpersonal

practice, community organization, and elsewhere to good effect within the

workplace. Large number of social worker use social work training as a generic

basic training for a wide range of corporate positions.

Kurtzman provided list of job description of tasks which social workers

might undertake in business or industry which is as under:

• Counseling or other activities with troubled employees in jeopardy of losing

their job to assist them with their personal problems and to help them

achieve and maintain a high level of performance;

• Advising on the use of community services to meet the needs of clients and

establishing linkages with such programs;

• Training front-line personnel (union representatives, foreman, line

supervision) to enable them to determine when changes in an employee’s

job performance warrant referral to a social service unit and carrying out an
appropriate approach to the employee that will result in a referral;

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• Developing and overseeing the operation of a union or management

information system which will record information on services and provide

data for analysing the unit’s (human resources) program;

• Conceiving of a plan for the future direction of the (human resources)

program that it based on the identification of unmet needs and current

demographic trends;

• Offering consultation to labor or management decision makers concerning

the development of a human resource policy;

• Helping to initiate welfare, community health, recreational or educational

programs for active or retired employees or members;

• Assisting in the administration of the benefit and health care structure and

helping plan for new initiatives;

• Consulting on the development and administration of an appropriate

affirmative action plan for women, minorities and the disabled;

• Advising on corporate giving or labor coalition building and organizational

positions in relation to pending social welfare legislation.

These kinds of tasks could be carried out through a variety of positions.

Hurtzman mentioned, among others, the following jobs:

personnel services worker, educational program director, occupational

safety and health officer, health and security plan manager, membership

services coordinator, career training and upgrading advisor,

preretirement services, workaday care consultant, legislative analyst,

benefit plan administrator, community service coordinator, alcoholism

program supervisor and director of retiree services.

Industry as Main Field of Social Work in Indian Context

From the beginning of social work education and professional practice in

India, labour welfare and industrial relations was considered as one of the

important fields of social work practice. It was not considered as a field of social

work practice in America at that time. And therefore the practice of social work in

industry in considered as an indigenous development.

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 Here it is important to note that this field is included in social work as field
of practice because industrial labour was thought to be an under privileged
group of population needing special welfare services in industrial setting.

The impetus for training of personnel in this field came as a result of

enactment of Factories Act 1948. It stated “every factory employing five
hundred or more workers should have a labour welfare officer who must be a
graduate of an approved institution”. This act not only deals with welfare
functions, but also substantially covers the increasingly important
responsibilities of industrial relations and personnel administration at the factory
level. The industrial concerns and government departments had pressed the
Tata Institute to train personnel in this field since its inception. In response to
this need, Mr. D.M.Vasudev Moorthy, member of Faculty of Tata Institute, was
sent for specialized training and observation to U.S. After his return to India in
1948, he was placed in charge of the new specialization in Industrial relations
and personnel management (Desai, M.; 1991).

The opening of tremendous job opportunities for social work graduates in

this field attracted the students to this field. In a survey of twenty seven schools
of social work in India, Labour welfare and personnel management was found to
be the most popular specialization. Nineteen schools listed it as a social work
specialization (U.G.C., 1980). In the same survey it was revealed that several
institutions offered only labour welfare and one other specialization. This was
because of students’ interest in the specializations that carry greater salaries
and benefits (Desai, M.; 1991). Kulkarni also noted, “Labour welfare and
personnel management, alone accounted for a major part of the students intake
and largest single percentage of jobs to which they were recruited (Kulkarni,
1993).

The other reason to take up career in this field is, it provides ample
scope for upward mobility in career.

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 A M.S.W. who joins as an assistant welfare officer or a trainee soon

moves to the position of Manager, Personnel and Administration, reaching to the

positions of vice president, H.R. or President, H.R. No other field of social work

provides these kind of opportunities for rapid promotions during their careers. In

the other fields like Medical and Psychiatric social worker, the M.S.W. joins an

Medical and/or psychiatric social worker and retires as same.

Knowledge, Values and Skills for Social Work

Knowledge, Values and Skills are used in the social work practice.

Knowledge is that part of reality that is confirmable. The knowledge base of the

social work is complex, partly borrowed from other disciplines. It explains the

functioning of persons and social situation. It also directs the response to need.

Values are what is preferred or can be considered as guide for behaviour.

Values that concern social work are those of the client, the social worker, the

profession, as well as the general cultural and societal values of the situation.

These calues can conflict with one another in fact, a value system usually has

conflicting parts. Social work values contain preferred conceptions of persons,

preferred outcomes for persons, and preferred instrumentalities for dealing with

persons. The social work code of ethics expresses what ought to be done in

professional practice. Skills bring knowledge and values together and convert

them into action. Skills must be developed through use over time. Social

workers should have a variety of skills for use in practice. Choices are made to

which knowledge, values and skills are applied in each practice situation.

The Knowledge base of Social Work Practice

Brown has tried to identify knowledge that is common and relevant to the

practice. It includes:
Knowledge that informs the practitioner about the clients experience and

context. This knowledge is derived from other social sciences like sociology and

psychology.

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 Ideas drawn from sociology, social theory and political theory offer
practitioners ways of understanding the society and institutions within which
they practice. One of the major ways sociology has contributed to social work
has been by its contribution to an understanding of social problems. An
understanding of poverty, crime, mental illness, deviance, substance abuse,
communatism and violence has been facilitated by the input of sociological
theories into social work’s knowledge base.

Psychology offers explanations of individual’s behaviour and

relationships with others. Social work has used psychological ideas within two
separate frameworks: human growth and development and psychopathology.
Social workers need a working understanding of human development to make
an assessment of their clients’ circumstances. Behavioural psychology has
offered models of understanding behaviour and models of change.
Knowledge that helps the practitioner plan appropriate intervention. This
covers variety of theory, models and approaches. It also covers methods of
social work intervention and process involved in social work intervention.
Practitioners need knowledge for formulating a complex circumstances,
experience and context. They should also be familiar with models of social work
interventions and the proceses involved in intervention. This is the area often
referred to as the social work knowledge and it covers variety of theories,
models and approaches. All the three aspects viz. theories and their
corresponding models, methods of intervention and processes involved in
intervention, are the core of social work’s knowledge base. However, well social
workers understand a clients situation and experience, if they cannot intervene
in an informed and effective way they are of little use.
Knowledge that clarified the practitioners understanding of the legal
policy, procedural and organisation context in which their practice takes place.
A working understanding of legislation, policies and procedures is an
essential component of the knowledge base of social work. It is also the aspect
of social work knowledge that practitioners feel most familiar with, particularly in
relation to procedures. They also need to have knowledge of their own agency.
This involves a practical knowledge of the agency’s structure, how it is

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managed, and how the individual worker fits within the organization1 policies and
procedures relevant to the social worker’s context; roles and responsibilities
relationships to other relevant agencies and their operations, in terms of their
structures, policies, procedures, provisions and personnels.

Values of the Social Work

The preamble to the code of ethics of the National Association of Social
Worker(NASW) state, “The mission of the Social Work Profession is rooted in a
set of core value. These core values embraced by social workers throughout the
professions history are the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and
perspective.

The core values are

1. Service
2. Social Justice
3. Dignity and Woth of the Prson
4. Importance of Human Relations
5. Integrity
6. Competence

Based on these values NASW developed ethical principles which leads

to development of professional attitudes. These principles are as under.

Value I: Service
Ethical Principle: Social worker’s primary goal is to help people in need

and to address social problems.

Social workers elevate service to other above self-interest. Social
workers draw on their knowledge, value, and skill to help people in need and to
addredd social problems. Social workers are encouraged to volunteer some
portion of their professional skills with no expectation of significant financial
return.

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Value II: Social Justice
Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice.
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and no behalf of
vulnerable and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers
social change efforts are focussed primarily on issues of poverty, discrimination,
and other forms of social injustice. These activities seek to promote sensitivity to
and knowledge about oppression, and cultural ethnic promote sensitivity to and
knowledge about oppression, and cultural ethnic diversity, social workers strive
to ensure equality of opportunity, access to needed information, services and
resources and meaningful participation in decision making for all people.

Value III: Dignity and Worth of the Person

Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth
of the person.
Social worker treat person in caring and respectful fashion, mindful of
individual differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social Workers promote
clients socially responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance
clients capacity and opportunity to change and to address their own needs.
Social workers are congnizant of their dual responsibility to clients and to the
broader society. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ interest and the
broader society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent with the
values, ethical principle, and ethical standards of the profession.

Value VI: Importance of Relationship

Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of
human relationships.
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people
are an important vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners
in the helping process, social workers seek to strengthen relationships among
people in purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the well­
being of individuals, families, social groups, organization, and communities.

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Value V: Integrity

Ethical Princiuple: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.

Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values,
ethical principle, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent
ethical principle, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with
them. Social workers act honestly and responsibly and promote ethical practice
on the part of the organization with which they are affiliated.

Value VI: Competence

Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of
competrence and develop and enhance their profession expertise.
Social worker continually strive to increase their professional knowledge
and skills and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to
contribute to the knowledge base of the profession.

Skills for Social Work Practice:

Skills is the practice component that brings knowledge and values
together and converts them into action.

Datton and Kohil have identified five broad categories of skills. These are
1. Cognitive skills: This category covers analytical skills, evaluative skills and

research skills.
2. Administrative skills: It includes record keeping, report writing and working

knowledge of information technology.

3. Interpersonal skills: It includes communication both verbal and non-verbal
skills. Understanding of self/self-awareness, making and sustaining working
relationships, using authority, working with difference, working in
partnership, advocacy and negotiation.
4. Decision making skills.
5. Use and Management of resources.

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 Social work knowledge values and skills give direction to the practice and
if there are gaps in knowledge or values or skills or in all the three, it will have
impact on his practice and therefore it is important to understand the gaps
perceived by social work practitioners so that efforts can be made to bridge the
gaps, through developing appropriate educational programmes.

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