Vaughn 2009

Molluscan Communities
of the Florida Keys

and Adjacent Areas
Molluscan Communities
of the Florida Keys
and Adjacent Areas
Edward J. Petuch
F l o r i d a A t l a n t i c U n i v e r s i t y, B o c a R a t o n , U S A
Robert F. Myers
C o r a l G r a p h i c s / S e a cl i c k s , We l l i n g t o n , F l o r i d a , U S A
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20140908
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4919-4 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Dedication
To Linda Petuch, Eric Petuch, Brian Petuch, and Jennifer Petuch and to Patrice
Marker, Laura Myers, and Robbie Myers
and
to the memory of Rachel Carson
Contents
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................xi
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. xiii
About the Authors....................................................................................................................... xix
Chapter 1 Marine ecosystems of the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, and the Ten
Thousand Islands: past and present.....................................................................1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Molluscan ecological research in the Florida Keys and adjacent areas...................................1
Molluscan faunas of the ancestral Florida Keys.......................................................................... 5
Geomorphology of the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, and the Ten Thousand Islands.............. 11
Marine ecological units of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas............................................. 15
Molluscan assemblages of the Florida Keys, Florida Bay,
and the Ten Thousand Islands.................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Molluscan faunas of the vegetated sediment shore macrohabitat

(estuarine regime)...................................................................................................23
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 23
Molluscan ecology of the Black Mangrove forests.................................................................... 23
Biodiversity of the Melampus coffeus Assemblage..................................................................... 27
Molluscan ecology of the Red Mangrove forests...................................................................... 29
Biodiversity of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage............................................................ 31
Molluscan ecology of the supratidal hypersaline and brackish pools................................... 35
Biodiversity of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage.............................................................. 37
Chapter 3 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated rocky shore macrohabitat

(nearshore marine regime)....................................................................................43
Introduction....................................................................................................................................43
Molluscan ecology of the supratidal rocky outcrops................................................................43
Biodiversity of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage................................................................ 45
Molluscan ecology of the littoral rocky outcrops...................................................................... 49
Biodiversity of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage........................................................................ 53
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral rocky outcrops................................................................ 53
Biodiversity of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage.................................................................... 58
Chapter 4 Molluscan faunas of the vegetated softbottom macrohabitat

(nearshore marine regime).................................................................................... 61
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 61
Molluscan ecology of the Shoal Grass beds............................................................................... 61
vii
viii Contents
Biodiversity of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage...................................................................... 66

Molluscan ecology of the Turtle Grass beds.............................................................................. 69
Biodiversity of the Modulus calusa Assemblage......................................................................... 81
Chapter 5 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated hardbottom macrohabitat

(nearshore marine regime)....................................................................................87
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 87
Molluscan ecology of the sponge bioherms............................................................................... 87
Biodiversity of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage....................................................................... 89
Mollusks of the Yellow Mussel beds........................................................................................... 94
Molluscan ecology of the gorgonian forests.............................................................................. 95
Biodiversity of the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage...................................................................... 97
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral exposed hardbottoms................................................... 99
Biodiversity of the Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage....................................................... 99
Chapter 6 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated softbottom macrohabitat

(nearshore marine regime)..................................................................................103
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 103
Molluscan ecology of the intertidal open mudflats................................................................ 103
Biodiversity of the Batillaria minima Assemblage.................................................................... 107
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral open carbonate sand seafloors................................... 109
Biodiversity of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage...................................................................... 113
Mollusks of the mixed carbonate sand and coral rubble seafloors...................................... 122
Mollusks of the Palm Beach coastal lagoons............................................................................. 125
Chapter 7 Molluscan faunas of the coral reef tract macrohabitat and gastropod
reef macrohabitat (nearshore marine regime)................................................135
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 135
Molluscan ecology of the coral reef tract.................................................................................. 135
Biodiversity of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage............................................................. 148
Molluscan ecology of the vermetid bioherms......................................................................... 156
Biodiversity of the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage................................................................. 161
Chapter 8 Molluscan faunas of the deep-reef talus macrohabitat

(neritic regime)............................................................................................... 169
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 169
Biodiversity of the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage................................................................... 172
Molluscan ecology of the deep coral reef ledges..................................................................... 175
Biodiversity of the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage................................................................ 180
Chapter 9 Molluscan faunas of deep softbottom and pelagic macrohabitats

(oceanic regime)....................................................................................................185
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 185
Molluscan ecology of the deep coralline algal beds............................................................... 185
Biodiversity of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage........................................................ 187
Molluscan ecology of the deep softbottom terraces............................................................... 196
Biodiversity of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage.................................................................... 203
Mollusks of the open oceanic pleuston..................................................................................... 211
Biodiversity of the Janthina janthina Assemblage..................................................................... 212
Contents ix
Chapter 10 Tree snails of the Florida Keys...........................................................................215

Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 215
Liguus tree snails of the Upper Florida Keys.......................................................................... 219
Liguus tree snails of the Middle and Lower Florida Keys.....................................................222
Endemic orthalicid and bulimulid tree snails of the Florida Keys...................................... 227
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 233
Systematic Appendix: additions to the molluscan biodiversity of the Florida Keys......... 237
List of macromollusks: Florida Keys and adjacent areas....................................................... 249
Ecologic, oceanographic, and geographic terms..................................................................... 283
Illustrated specimens.................................................................................................................. 287
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 293
Large water spout forming off Missouri Key.
Acknowledgments
For assisting in the gathering of data in the field and for collecting study specimens in
the Florida Keys and Lake Worth, we thank the following individuals: Nelson Jimenez,
Middle Torch Key, Florida; Eddie Matchett, Okeechobee, Florida; Clifford Swearingen,
Fort Lauderdale, Florida; Emyr Foxhall, Cardiff, Wales (Caerdydd, Cymru); Dr. Ron and
Mrs. Mary Jo Bopp, Sarasota, Florida; Stephen Tressel, Jupiter, Florida; Nicolas Mazzoli,
Pine Island, Florida; Shawn Webster, Conch Key, Florida; William Bennight, Jacksonville,
North Carolina; Mark Geiser, Winchester, Kentucky; Everett Long, Cedar Point, North
Carolina; Douglas Jeffrey, Key Largo, Florida; Robert Pace, Miami, Florida; James Lauriello,
Stuart, Florida; Dr. M.G. Harasewych, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; Carole
Marshall, West Palm Beach, Florida; Ida Bucheck, Singer Island, Florida; Jennie Petuch,
Tampa, Florida; Michael Black, West Palm Beach, Florida; Kevan Sunderland, Plantation
Key, Florida; Brian Morgan, Cudjoe Key, Florida; Günther Herndl, Vienna, Austria; the late
Theodore Kalafut, Largo, Florida; and Dr. Howard Peters, University of York, UK.
For guiding the senior author to the best-developed vermetid reefs of the Ten Thousand
Islands, we thank A. Kenneth (“Kenny”) Brown, Jr., Chokoloskee, Florida. For the donation
of valuable research specimens, many of which are illustrated in this book, we thank the
following: Thomas and Paula Honker, Delray Beach, Florida; Andrew Dickson, Miami,
Florida; Caitlin Hanley, Florida Atlantic University; Pierre Recourt, Egmond aan Zee, The
Netherlands; Jeff Whyman, Boynton Beach, Florida; Dr. Kenneth and Mrs. Wendy Keaton,
Lauderhill, Florida; Jodilynn Duggan, Florida Atlantic University; and also Everett Long,
Carole Marshall, Dr. M. G. Harasewych, and James Lauriello. Special thanks go to Robert
Owens, Boca Raton, Florida, for his invaluable assistance to the senior author while con-
ducting surveys of the molluscan fauna of the Ten Thousand Islands.
For many of the locality shots and live specimen photographs used in this book, we
thank Eddie Matchett, Dr. Howard Peters, Dr. Ron Bopp, Robert Owens, and William
Bennight. For many of the beautiful photographs of Florida Keys shells illustrated here, we
give special thanks to Dennis M. Sargent, Mount Dora, Florida. Thanks also to Dr. Manuel
Tenorio, University of Cadiz, Spain, for extracting and photographing the radulae of
Gradiconus burryae and Gradiconus mazzolii. Special thanks also go to Dr. M. G. Harasewych
(Division of Mollusks, Smithsonian Institution), and Dr. Thomas A. Frankovich (Florida
Bay Interagency Science Center, Key Largo) for reviewing the manuscript and offering
many helpful suggestions; to Carole Marshall, West Palm Beach Florida, for proofreading
the manuscript; and to Dr. Tobin Hindle, Florida Atlantic University, for technical assis-
tance in setting up the illustration files. Thanks also go to John Sulzycki, senior editor for
life sciences, and Marsha Hecht, project editor, CRC Press, for their valuable insights into
the technical aspects of publishing this book.
xi
iew of the shoreline of southernmost Lower Matecumbe Key, Middle Florida Keys, showing Indian
V
Key in the distance. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett)
Introduction
Endemism and biodiversity in the
Florida Keys and adjacent areas
Long admired for their exotic tropical beauty, the island chains of the Florida Keys consti-
tute one of the great natural wonders of North America. This extended archipelago, curv-
ing outward into the Gulf of Mexico, contains the only set of tropical marine environments
found anywhere in the continental United States. Anyone visiting this area cannot help
but notice that the shimmering turquoise and emerald waters of the Florida Keys literally
vibrate with life. This sense of motion was aptly described by the great marine naturalist
Rachel Carson, who stated, “In the multicolored sea gardens seen from a boat as one drifts
above them, there is a tropical lushness and mystery, a throbbing sense of the pressure of
life; in coral reef and mangrove swamp” (1955, p. 191). Each environment of the Florida
Keys is filled with swarming multitudes of marine organisms, all woven together into
some of the most intricate ecosystems seen anywhere in the Atlantic Ocean.
Unlike other localities along the coastlines of the eastern United States and Caribbean,
the Florida Keys archipelago is the only area known to harbor ecosystems composed of
organisms from two different oceanographic and climatological regimes. Within the shal-
low marine communities of the Florida Keys, many of the resident organisms are known
to be migrants from the cooler, temperate waters of the Carolinas and Georgia to the north,
while others are migrants from the tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea to the south. This
interweaving of two distinctly different marine biotas is further enhanced by a large suite
of endemic species: those that have evolved in, and are restricted to, the Florida Keys area.
The overlap of these three biotic elements, the warm-tolerant northern species, the cool-
tolerant southern species, and the restricted Keys endemics, has created characteristic
southern Florida marine communities that stand out from all the others of the world’s
tropical zones. This unusually rich composite marine world extends outward from the
Florida Keys island chain and is found from the Ten Thousand Islands of Collier and
Monroe Counties, to the islands of the Dry Tortugas, to Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay, and
northward to the deep reefs and coastal lagoons of Palm Beach County.
Of all the types of marine organisms found throughout this extended area, the phy-
lum Mollusca predominates, with individual gastropod and bivalve species often carpet-
ing entire seafloors or shorelines. This amazing abundance of individuals occurs in all
the habitat types seen throughout the Florida Keys and adjacent areas, including coral
reefs, sea grass beds, open sand bottoms, and mangrove forests. As demonstrated by the
biodiversity analyses in Chapters 2 through 9 of this book, the combined number of spe-
cies from all of these habitats, both macromollusks and micromollusks, approaches 1500
individual taxa. This large number of species is equivalent to the species richness seen on
xiii
xiv Introduction
many of the South Pacific islands, underscoring the special nature of the southern Florida
malacofauna. As the most species-rich group of animals, the mollusks of the Florida Keys
area take on a special prominence, acting as a “watch dog” for the overall health of the
resident marine ecosystems.
The unusual composite nature of the Florida Keys molluscan fauna is the direct result
of the regional geography, with the island chains projecting into tropical waters and at
the same time contiguous with cooler continental areas to the north. The unique habitats
that were created by this blending of oceanographic conditions, along with their resident
malacofaunas, have led to the evolution of a distinct marine biogeographical entity known
as the Floridian Molluscan Subprovince (extending from Cape Sable to Florida Bay and from
the Dry Tortugas to Biscayne Bay; see Petuch, 2013: 47–57, for the quantitative analysis and
description of the Floridian malacofauna). As a subprovince, this southern Floridian bio-
geographical unit is considered to be a subdivision of the much larger Carolinian Molluscan
Province, which encompasses the coastline of the entire southeastern United States and
Gulf of Mexico, from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, around the Florida Keys, to Texas
and Yucatan, Mexico. Of the five subprovinces of the Carolinian Molluscan Province
(see Petuch, 2013: 15–20, 31–74, for the quantitative analyses of the province and subprov-
inces), the Floridian Molluscan Subprovince alone contains faunal elements derived from
two adjacent subprovinces: the Georgian Molluscan Subprovince (extending from Cape
Hatteras to Palm Beach) and the Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince (extending from Cape
Sable, Florida, northward to the Mississippi River Delta). A general Carolinian Molluscan
Province influence is also present within the Floridian Subprovince in the form of a large
complement of widespread species that range from Yucatan, Mexico, all the way to Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina. These temperate water northern-derived taxa occur together
with widespread high tropical mollusks from the Caribbean Molluscan Province, most
of which range from the Bahamas and Bermuda south to northern South America (see
Petuch, 2013). The wide-ranging Carolinian and Caribbean components, along with the
Florida Keys endemics, produce a biogeographically hybridized malacofauna. The lists
that follow give examples of some of the more prominent species that occur within the
composite molluscan fauna of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas. These gastropods and
bivalves come from a wide bathymetric range, and these lists reflect only their biogeo-
graphical distributions (for the definitions and descriptions of western Atlantic molluscan
faunal provinces and subprovinces as used here, see Petuch, 2013). Some of the more well
known of these include the following:
FAUNAL ELEMENTS FROM THE CAROLINIAN MOLLUSCAN PROVINCE

(wide-ranging species found from Cape Hatteras to the Florida Keys and the entire
Gulf of Mexico as far as Isla Contoy, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico; not found in the
Caribbean region)
Gastropoda
Cypraeidae
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771) (Figure 7.5G, H; Chapter 7)
Cassidae
Cassis spinella Clench, 1944 (Figure 6.6G, H; Chapter 6)
Strombidae
Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 6.6E, F; Chapter 6)
Muricidae
Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855) (Figure 4.14D–F; Chapter 4)
Fasciolariidae
Introduction xv
Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811) (Figure 4.4C, D; Chapter 4)

Triplofusus papillosus (Sowerby I, 1825) (Figure 4.10H; Chapter 4)
Busyconidae
Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Hollister, 1958) (ranges from North Carolina to Louisiana)
(Figure 6.3E; Chapter 6)
Conidae
Dauciconus amphiurgus (Dall, 1889) (Figure 8.5G, H; Chapter 8)
Conasprelloides stimpsoni (Dall, 1902) (Figure 9.7A; Chapter 9)
Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942) (Figure Figure 6.9E, F; Chapter 6)
Conilithidae
Kohniconus delessertii (Recluz, 1843) (Figure 9.2F; Chapter 9)
Bivalvia
Pectinidae
Argopecten irradians taylorae Petuch, 1987 (ranges from southern Biscayne Bay to
Alabama) (Figure 4.12A–D; Chapter 4)
Nodipecten fragosus (Conrad, 1849) (Figure 6.7L; Chapter 6)
Veneridae
Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791) (ranges from North Carolina to Yucatan,
Mexico) (Figure 6.2E; Chapter 6)
FAUNAL ELEMENTS FROM THE CARIBBEAN MOLLUSCAN PROVINCE (wide-

ranging species found from the Bahamas and Bermuda southward to the Amazon
River Mouth; also southeastern Florida as far north as Palm Beach)
Gastropoda
Neritidae
Nerita (Linnerita) peloronta Linnaeus, 1758 (Figure 3.6E, F; Chapter 3)
Nerita versicolor Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 3.6A, B; Chapter 3)
Littorinidae
Cenchritis muricatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 3.3A, B; Chapter 3)
Strombidae
Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.10H, I; Chapter 6)
Lobatus raninus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.8K; Chapter 4)
Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758 (Figure 6.6C, D; Chapter 6)
Cassidae
Cassis flammea (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.7A, B; Chapter 7)
Cassis madagascariensis Lamarck, 1822 (Figure 6.6I, J; Chapter 6)
Casmaria atlantica Clench, 1944 (Figure 6.4E; Chapter 6)
Ovulidae
Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 5.6A–C; Chapter 5)
Cyphoma signatum Pilsbry and McGinty, 1939 (Figure 5.6I; Chapter 5)
Ranellidae
Cymatium (Ranularia) rehderi Verrill, 1950 (Figure 8.3E, F; Chapter 8)
Muricidae
Chicoreus mergus E. Vokes, 1974 (Figure 8.2I; Chapter 8)
Phyllonotus oculatus (Reeve, 1845) (Figure Figure 8.2G, H; Chapter 8)
Conidae
Attenuiconus attenuatus (Reeve, 1844) (Figure 6.9B; Chapter 6)
Atlanticonus granulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 8.3J; Chapter 8)
Dauciconus daucus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 6.9A; Chapter 6)
xvi Introduction
Gladioconus mus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 7.10K; Chapter 7)

Stephanoconus regius (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.10J; Chapter 7)
Bivalvia
Pectinidae
Argopecten nucleus (Born, 1778) (Figure 4.12E, F; Chapter 4)
Lindapecten exasperatus (Sowerby II, 1842) (Figure 4.12G, H; Chapter 4)
SPECIES ENDEMIC TO THE FLORIDIAN MOLLUSCAN SUBPROVINCE (taxa

restricted to the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, and Biscayne Bay; some also along Palm Beach)
Gastropoda
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma adelae Schwengel, 1951 (Figure 4.8D; Chapter 4)
Turbinidae
Lithopoma americana (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.8A; Chapter 4)
Modulidae
Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988 (Figure 4.7A–F; Chapter 4)
Ovulidae
Cyphoma rhomba Cate, 1978 (Figure 5.6G, H; Chapter 5)
Cyphoma sedlaki Cate, 1976 (Figure 5.6J; Chapter 5)
Muricidae
Favartia pacei Petuch, 1988 (Figure 5.2G; Chapter 5)
Murexiella caitlinae Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 5.2L, J; Chapter 5)
Murexiella kalafuti Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1G; Chapter 9)
Fasciolariidae
Cinctura tortugana (Hollister, 1957) (Figure 9.1L; Chapter 9)
Leucozonia jacarusoi Petuch, 1978 (Figure 9.1K; Chapter 9)
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827) (Figure 3.10I, J; Chapter 3)
Buccinidae
Hesperisternia sulzyckii Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.3E, F; Chapter 9)
Nassariidae
Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 5.3J–L; Chapter 5)
Uzita websteri Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.3G, H; Chapter 5)
Columbellidae
Zafrona taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 4.12B; Chapter 4)
Cancellariidae
Cancellaria adelae Pilsbry, 1940 (Figure 6.8I; Chapter 6)
Olividae
Americoliva matchetti Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.6D–F; Chapter 9)
Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.6A–C; Chapter 9)
Volutidae
Clenchina dohrni (Sowerby III, 1903) (Figure 9.5G, H; Chapter 9)
Rehderia schmitti (Bartsch, 1931) (Figure 9.5C, D; Chapter 9)
Scaphella junonia elizabethae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 6.8G, H; Chapter 6)
Marginellidae
Prunum frumari Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 9.4K; Chapter 9)
Conidae
Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995) (Figure 6.10A–D; Chapter 6)
Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942) (Figure 4.9A–F; Chapter 4)
Introduction xvii
Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.4F–K; Chapter 5)

Conilithidae
Jaspidiconus fluviamaris Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 6.9G, H; Chapter 6) (also
Palm Beach)
Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830) (Figure 4.9G–L; Chapter 4)
Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Rehder, 1944) (Figure 6.9I, J; Chapter 6) (also Palm Beach)
Drilliidae
Cerodrillia clappi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939 (Figure 5.2D; Chapter 5)
Bullidae
Bulla frankovichi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.4D, E, L; Chapter 5)
Haminoeidae
Haminoea taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 4.2F, G; Chapter 4) (also Palm Beach)
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 8.4A–C; Chapter 8)
Pectinidae
Caribachlamys mildredae (Bayer, 1941) (Figure 7.9H, I; Chapter 7) (also Palm Beach)
Chamidae
Chama inezae (Bayer, 1943) (Figure 7.11C; Chapter 7) (also Palm Beach)
For the ecological and biodiversity analyses given in each of the following chapters,
only the species in macromollusk families were utilized (gastropod and bivalve families
with species that have average lengths greater than 5 mm). For the Gastropoda, these
marine macromollusk groups include 86 families: Pleurotomariidae, Haliotidae, Lott
iidae, Fissurellidae, Solariellidae, Margaritidae, Calliostomatidae, Trochidae, Turbinidae,
Liotiidae, Phasianellidae, Neritidae, Phenacolepidae, Littorinidae, Planaxidae,
Litiopidae, Truncatellidae, Potamididae, Cerithiidae, Batillariidae, Turritellidae, Siliqua
riidae, Vermetidae, Modulidae, Strombidae, Xenophoridae, Epitoniidae, Nystiellidae,
Janthinidae, Architectonicidae, Calyptreidae, Capulidae, Hipponicidae, Vanikoridae,
Mathildidae, Capulidae, Cypraeidae, Lamellariidae, Triviidae, Pediculariidae, Natici
dae, Tonni dae, Cassidae, Ficidae, Ranellidae, Bursidae, Personidae, Muricidae,
Fasciolariidae, Melongenidae, Busyconidae, Buccinidae, Nassariidae, Colubrariidae,
Columbellidae, Harpidae, Turbinellidae, Costellariidae, Mitridae, Volutomitridae, Volu
tidae, Olivellidae, Olividae, Marginellidae, Cystiscidae, Cancellariidae, Conidae,
Conilithidae, Terebridae, Turridae, Cochlespiridae, Strictispiridae, Clathurellidae,
Crassispiridae, Horaiclavidae, Drilliidae, Raphitomidae, Zonulispiridae, Amathinidae, Acteo
nidae, Bullidae, Haminoeidae, Cylichnidae, Aplustridae, Ellobiidae, and Siphonariidae.
For the Bivalvia, these marine macromollusk groups include 54 families: Nuculidae,
Solemyidae, Nuculanidae, Yoldiidae, Arcidae, Noetiidae, Glycymeridae, Mytilidae,
Pteriidae, Isognomatidae, Malleidae, Ostreidae, Gryphaeidae, Pinnidae, Limidae, Limop
sidae, Pectinidae, Propeamussiidae, Spondylidae, Plicatulidae, Anomiidae, Crassitellidae,
Astartidae, Carditidae, Pandoridae, Lyonsiidae, Periplomatidae, Thraciidae, Verticordiidae,
Poromyidae, Cuspidariidae, Lucinidae, Ungulinidae, Thyasiridae, Chamidae, Lasaeidae, Hiate
llidae, Gastrochaenidae, Trapezidae, Sportellidae, Corbiculidae, Cardiidae, Veneridae, Tellinidae,
Donacidae, Psammobiidae, Semelidae, Solecurtidae, Pharidae, Mactridae, Dreissenidae,
Myidae, Corbulidae, and Pholadidae.
The micromollusks (gastropod and bivalve families with species that average less than
5 mm in length) of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas are still poorly studied, and their
systematics and taxonomy are still largely in a state of flux. Because of this, the many
xviii Introduction
families that fall into this size category are not covered in this book and are not used for
any ecological or biodiversity analyses. These tiny shells are abundant in many environ-
ments, and they constitute a large part of the total malacofauna, with as many as 300
species possibly present between all the gastropod and bivalve families. Future studies
will doubtlessly bring to light many new species of micromollusks in the Keys area. For
the Gastropoda, these marine micromollusk groups include 30 families: Scissurellidae,
Chilodontidae, Rissoidae, Rissoinidae, Rissoellidae, Seguenziidae, Skeneidae, Skeneop
sidae, Omalogyridae, Vitrinellidae, Torniidae, Caecidae, Cerithiopsidae, Alabidae,
Triphoridae, Melanellidae, Stiliferidae, Aclididae, Atlantidae, Carinariidae, Vaniko
roidae, Fossaridae, Pyramidellidae, Odostomiidae, Eulimidae, Tubonillidae, Ringiculidae,
Philinidae, Retusidae, and Volvatellidae.
For the Bivalvia, these marine micromollusk groups include only four families:
Manzanellidae, Philobryidae, Condylocardiitidae, and Spheniopsidae.
Other molluscan groups, such as the classes Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda,
Polyplacophora, and Aplacophora (including Caudofoveata and Solenogastres), are not
covered in this book; the soft-bodied nudibranch gastropod “sea slugs,” the teredinid
“shipworm” bivalves, and shell-less pelagic groups also are not covered. As in the case of
the micromollusks, the systematics, taxonomy, and life histories of many of these animals
are still poorly known, and these groups are not included in any of the subsequent ecologi-
cal and biodiversity analyses. Even without the micromollusks, chitons, tusk shells, and
soft-bodied groups, the macromollusks still provide the greatest insight into the work-
ings of molluscan ecosystems and the richness of molluscan faunas. As determined by
Mikkelsen and Bieler (2008), the 54 macrobivalve families found in the Florida Keys area
contain, altogether, 364 species (of a total of 375 bivalve species in 58 families). This rela-
tively small number of bivalves contrasts greatly with the over 850 species found in the 85
families of macrogastropods. Extrapolating on these patterns of species richness, further
research in the Florida Keys area, especially the deep reef talus slopes and deep terraces,
will surely uncover many more new and rarely seen species of mollusks. A list of the mac-
romollusks of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas, arranged systematically, is given at the
end of this book.
This book is meant to be simply a starting point for molluscan ecological studies
of the coral reef tracts, mangrove forests, and lagoon areas of the American biological
treasure known as the Florida Keys. It is hoped the ecological classification framework
that is presented in the following chapters will serve as a foundation for future marine
ecosystem studies in the Florida Keys and Ten Thousand Islands and along the Palm
Beach coast. By including color illustrations of over 500 different species, subspecies,
and forms, this book also serves as a conchological field guide for shell collectors, div-
ers, and naturalists. The mystery and beauty of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas, with
their spectacular molluscan faunas, was eloquently captured by Rachel Carson in The
Edge of the Sea (1955, p. 247), where she stated: “And as the years pass, and as the centu-
ries merge into the unbroken stream of time, these architects of coral reef and mangrove
swamp build toward a shadowy future. But neither the corals nor the mangroves, but
the sea itself will determine when that which they build will belong to the land, or when
it will be reclaimed for the sea.” For now, these unique American environments belong
to the marine world, and they offer years of excitement and discovery right here on our
own doorstep.
About the Authors
Edward J. Petuch was born in Bethesda, Maryland,
in 1949. Raised in a Navy family, he spent many of his
childhood years collecting living and fossil shells in
such varied localities as Chesapeake Bay, California,
Puerto Rico, Panama, Cuba, and Wisconsin. His early
interests in malacology and oceanography even-
tually led to BA and MS degrees in zoology from
the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. While in
Wisconsin, his thesis work concentrated on the mol-
luscan biogeography of West Africa. There, he col-
lected mollusks and traveled extensively in Morocco,
Western Sahara, the Canary Islands, Senegal, Gambia,
Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and the Cameroons. At this
time, he also made frequent research trips to both
coasts of Mexico and the Great Barrier Reef of Belize.
Continuing his education, Petuch studied marine biogeography and malacology
under Gilbert Voss and Donald Moore at the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric
Sciences at the University of Miami. During this time, his dissertation work involved inten-
sive collecting and fieldwork (often on shrimp boats) in Colombia, Venezuela, Barbados, the
Grenadines, Curacao, and Brazil. After receiving his PhD in oceanography in 1980, Petuch
undertook 2 years of National Science Foundation-sponsored postdoctoral research on mol-
luscan paleoecology and biogeography with Geerat Vermeij at the University of Maryland.
While there, he also held a research associateship with the Department of Paleobiology at
the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution (under the spon-
sorship of Thomas Waller) and conducted fieldwork on the Plio-Pleistocene fossil beds of
Florida and North Carolina and the Miocene of Maryland and Virginia.
Petuch has also collected and studied living mollusks in Australia, Papua New Guinea,
the Fiji Islands, French Polynesia, Japan, the Mediterranean coasts of North Africa and
Spain, the Bahamas, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Uruguay. This research has led to the pub-
lication of over 150 scientific papers and the descriptions of over 1000 new species of mol-
lusks and over 60 new genera. His previous 15 books are well-known research texts within
the malacological and paleontological communities, and some of the better known include
Cenozoic Seas: The View from Eastern North America (2004); The Geology of the Everglades and
Adjacent Areas (with Charles Roberts, 2007); Molluscan Paleontology of the Chesapeake Miocene
(with Mardie Drolshagen, 2010); Biodiversity and Biogeography of Western Atlantic Mollusks
(2013); New Caribbean Molluscan Faunas (1987); Atlas of Florida Fossil Shells (1994); Rare and
Unusual Shells of Southern Florida (with Dennis Sargent, 2011); and Atlas of the Living Olive
Shells of the World (with Dennis Sargent, 1986).
xix
xx About the Authors
Currently, Petuch is a professor of geology in the Department of Geosciences at Florida

Atlantic University in Boca Raton, where he teaches courses on oceanography, paleontol-
ogy, and physical geology. When not collecting and studying mollusks in the Florida Keys
or the nearby Lake Worth Lagoon, Petuch leads an active career as a musician, giving
regular concerts on the pipe organ and playing the recorder and harpsichord in university
chamber ensembles.
Robert F. Myers was born in 1953 and spent much of

his childhood in southeast Asia, where he developed
an intense interest in natural history. His diving and
passion for marine life took hold during his early
high school years in Hong Kong and continued at the
University of Hawaii. There, he assisted well-known
ichthyologist John E. Randall by collecting fishes for
both ciguatera research and fish population surveys.
After earning a BA degree in zoology, Myers moved
to Guam to pursue graduate studies and underwater
photography. There, he earned an MS degree in biol-
ogy from the University of Guam Marine Laboratory,
worked as a fisheries biologist for the government of
Guam, and founded Coral Graphics.
Myers retired from the government in 1995 and now pursues photography, writ-
ing, research, and consulting. He has written or coauthored numerous scientific papers
and popular articles on western Pacific fishes and several books. Some of these include
Micronesian Fishes (three editions, 1989–1999); Coral Reef Fishes (with E. Lieske, 1993); Coral
Reef Guide Red Sea (with E. Lieske, 2004); and Dangerous Marine Animals (with M. Bergbauer
and M. Kirschner, 2009). He has also developed an application for iPhones and iPads on
Florida-Caribbean reef fish identification. Now residing in Wellington, Florida, Myers is
currently working on a field guide to Florida and Caribbean marine life and serves on
the coral reef fishes Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
chapter one
Marine ecosystems of the Florida

Keys, Florida Bay, and the Ten
Thousand Islands: past and present
Introduction
The tropical marine biosphere of the extreme southern coast of the Florida Peninsula occu-
pies the most diverse set of oceanic habitats found anywhere in the United States (Figure 1.1).
These environments are an amalgamation of four ecological regimes (Estuarine, Nearshore
Marine, Neritic, and Oceanic) and 10 separate ecological macrohabitats (discussed further
in this chapter) and encompass the region of the South Florida Bight (a new geographical
term described later in this chapter), Florida Keys and its coral reef tracts, Florida Bay, the
Dry Tortugas, Biscayne Bay, and the Ten Thousand Islands (Figure 1.2). Elements of these
tropical marine environments also extend northward along the southeastern Florida coast
to Palm Beach, where a rich and highly endemic invertebrate fauna occurs on deep reefs
and in coastal lagoons and inlets. All of these areas together form a framework of habitats
that has allowed for the evolution of uniquely North American marine ecosystems, unlike
those found anywhere else on Earth.
Molluscan ecological research in the

Florida Keys and adjacent areas
Although the ecosystems and biodiversity of the Florida Keys, Dry Tortugas, and Florida
Bay have been studied for nearly 200 years, the molluscan ecology of these areas is still
virtually unexplored. Since the 1960s, marine ecologists have concentrated primarily on
the ecology of sea grass beds (Dawes, 1987; Frankovich and Zieman, 1994); coral reefs
(Dunstan, 1985; Goldberg, 1973; Jaap, 1984; Shinn et al., 1989); and mangrove forests (Davis,
1940), and only preliminary molluscan ecological surveys have ever been conducted. Some
of these included brief descriptions of local bivalve ecology (Dame, 2011; Mikkelsen and
Bieler, 2008); the geology of the vermetid gastropod reefs of the Ten Thousand Islands
(Shier, 1969); and the general molluscan ecology of the mangrove forests (Coomans, 1969).
Updated systematic and taxonomic lists, including aspects of molluscan ecology, have
also been published within the past two decades. Primary among these were the spe-
cies lists given by Lyons and Quinn (1995) for the mollusks of the Florida Keys Marine
Sanctuary and Levy et al. (1996) for the infaunal and epifaunal mollusks of Florida Bay
and the Florida Keys. The taxonomy used in both of these major works, however, is now
outdated, and the species lists are incomplete, lacking many of the endemic taxa that are
now known to occur in these areas.
1
2 Molluscan communities of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas
Chapter one: Marine ecosystems of the Florida Keys, Florida Bay 3
Broad overviews of the general community types of the Florida Keys and Florida
Bay, such as exposed tidal flats, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, and coral reefs, also
have been given by several authors over the past two decades. Principal among these are
the studies of the functional ecology and local ecosystem trophodynamics undertaken
by Chiappone and Sullivan (1994, 1996), Porter (2001), Roessler et al. (2002) (for southern
Biscayne Bay and Card Sound), and Rudnick et al. (2005). These works together offered
the first conceptual ecological models for Florida Bay and the Florida Keys reef tract.
Details of the biogeochemical interactions of lucinid bivalves in Turtle Grass beds were
also recently given by Reynolds et al. (2007), as was a small, concentrated faunal survey
of the mollusks found within a single sediment core taken in Florida Bay (Trappe and
Brewster-Wingard, 2013). Much of this new data expanded on and enhanced the earlier
community and biotope studies undertaken by Voss and Voss (1955), Zischke (1973), and
Turney and Perkins (1972). Interestingly, this last work was the only one to focus on the
entire molluscan fauna, giving descriptions of habitats, faunal distributions, and eco-
logical limiting factors. Much of the molluscan taxonomy used in Turney and Perkins’s
1972 work, however, is now outdated, and the authors did not attempt to quantify the
overall molluscan biodiversity of the Florida Keys and Florida Bay. Using mollusks as
paleoenvironmental indicators, the shifting paleosalinities and paleoclimates of lat-
est Pleistocene and Holocene Florida Bay were recently studied in detail by Brewster-
Wingard and Ishman (1999), Brewster-Wingard et al. (2001), and Wingard and Hudley
(2011). Because the samples (mostly sediment cores) used in these studies were restricted
to only softbottom areas near sea grass beds, the molluscan faunas that they encoun-
tered were limited in species richness, containing only around 42 species of bivalves
and gastropods.
The senior author’s work in the Florida Keys and extreme southern Florida has
focused primarily on the systematics, biodiversity, and biogeography of the gastropods
and bivalves. To date, 60 new species of mollusks, collected on the reef tract, sea grass
beds, sponge bioherms, coastal lagoons of Palm Beach and off the Dry Tortugas, have
been described in a series of books and monographic treatments (including Petuch 1987,
1988, 2004, 2013, and Petuch and Sargent 2011b, 2011c). An important new endemic spe-
cies radiation of cone shells was also published recently by Petuch and Sargent (2011a),
which included the description of a new species of Gradiconus from the sponge bioherms
off the Lower Florida Keys (see Chapter 5). Broad overviews of the main biotopes that sup-
port molluscan communities, including those of the coral reefs, sea grass beds, and deep-
water coralline algal beds, were given by Petuch and Sargent (2011b, 2011c) and, in context
with western Atlantic marine biogeographical patterns, by Petuch (2013). All of these texts
together provide a systematic framework for the biodiversity sections of the chapters that
follow. The senior author has also described and illustrated 450 new species of fossil gas-
tropods and bivalves from the rich Plio-Pleistocene shell beds of the Everglades region
(see Petuch, 1994, 2004; Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011). These beautifully preserved fossils,
Figure 1.1 View of Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys, showing the complex interfingering
of three different marine biotopes: the Vegetated Sedimentary Shore Macrohabitat (mangrove
forests, with the Melampus coffeus Assemblage and the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage); the
Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat (exposed rocks and tide pools, with the Cenchritis murica-
tus Assemblage, the Nerita versicolor Assemblage, and the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage); and the
Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat (adjacent sea grass beds, with the Modulus calusa Assemblage).
(Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
4
Molluscan communities of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas
Figure 1.2 Image of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas from an altitude of 100 miles, showing the main geographical features. These include the
island chains of the Upper Florida Keys, Middle Florida Keys, Lower Florida Keys, Ten Thousand Islands, and Dry Tortugas; the headlands of Cape
Romano and Cape Sable; and the semienclosed embayments of Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay. The Florida Keys Reef Tract and the intervening
Hawk Channel parallel the seaward edges of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Florida Keys. The wide, shallow embayment off the Gulf of Mexico,
extending from Cape Romano and the Dry Tortugas in the west and connecting to Florida Bay in the east, and encompassing the Florida Keys and
Ten Thousand Islands, is here given a new geographical designation, the South Florida Bight. (Base satellite imagery courtesy of NASA.)
several of which are illustrated further in this chapter, represent the precursors of the
modern Florida Keys molluscan fauna, and their discovery gives insight into the patterns
of evolution and extinction in Neogene southern Florida.
Molluscan faunas of the ancestral Florida Keys

The surface landforms and the underlying geology of the Recent Florida Keys directly con-
trol the types of marine habitats that have become established over the past 10,000 years.
The present-day geomorphologic features are built on, and are a temporal extension of,
the immense coral reef tracts that flourished in southern Florida during the Pliocene and
early Pleistocene Epochs. These linear coralline structures were part of a huge atoll-like
reef system, referred to as the Everglades Pseudoatoll, which extended northward to Palm
Beach County on the east and Lee County on the west (Petuch, 2004; Petuch and Roberts,
2007; Petuch and Sargent, 2011c). This U-shaped reef system enclosed an immense lagoon
that was named the Okeechobean Sea (Petuch, 2004: 5–7, 2008; Petuch and Roberts, 2007),
and these two marine macroenvironments together laid down the carbonate sedimenta-
tion that created the geologic framework for the modern Florida Keys. The Everglades
Pseudoatoll itself was built on a depressional feature that formed on the Florida Platform
during the late Eocene Epoch, and the present-day geomorphology follows a template
established nearly 36 million years ago. Since that time, the Okeechobean Sea has gradu-
ally been filling with carbonate sediments, ultimately culminating in the formation of the
present-day Everglades (see Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 7–25 for details on the formation of
the basin and the effects, in Florida, of the late Eocene Chesapeake Bay asteroid impact and
its megatsunamis).
During the early Pleistocene (Aftonian Interglacial Stage of the Calabrian Age, 1.5
million years BP), deposition of carbonates on the Everglades Pseudoatoll reef system
had built up to the point that extensive island chains had formed along its southeastern
edge (Figure 1.3). Termed the Miami Archipelago (Petuch, 2004: 229, 236), this group of
large, wide islands now forms the core of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, the topographically
high geomorphologic feature that underlies the metropolitan areas of modern Miami,
Fort Lauderdale, and Palm Beach and the eastern section of Everglades National Park. In
response to higher sea levels and warmer water conditions during the Aftonian Stage, a
new reef tract began to form along the southern edge of the Miami Archipelago. This fast-
growing, zonated reef complex, termed the Monroe Reef Tract (Petuch, 2004: 229; Petuch
and Roberts, 2007: 149), now forms the core of the modern Florida Keys island chain, and
its remnants are present around 60–70 m below the younger coral rock that is exposed on
the surfaces of the central and northern Keys (Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 193). The main
platform of the Monroe Reef Tract was dominated by massive heads of the star corals
Montastrea annularis, Solenastrea hyades, and Siderastrea siderea and closely resembled the
reef platforms seen on the Recent Great Barrier Reef of Belize. Smaller coral species also
grew in the more sheltered areas of the main reef platform, including the mushroom cor-
als Scolymia lacera and Mussa angulosa and the extinct Thysanus (unnamed species). The
back reef areas of the Monroe Reef Tract contained a rich fauna of more delicate corals,
often housing dense thickets of the branching corals Porites furcata, Oculina diffusa, and the
extinct Arcohelia limonensis (see Petuch, 2004: 233–238, for illustrations of early Pleistocene
corals and descriptions of the early Pleistocene back reef communities).
The coral platform and coral thickets of the Monroe Reef Tract, along with the coral
bioherms and shallow carbonate banks of the adjacent Okeechobean Sea, housed one of the
richest and most interesting molluscan faunas known from the early Pleistocene tropical
6
Figure 1.3 Simulated image of Florida as it may have appeared 1.5 million years ago during the Aftonian Interglacial Stage of the early Pleistocene
Epoch. From an altitude of 200 miles, the Okeechobean Sea is visible in the bottom half of the image, as is the Miami Archipelago (the chain of wide,
vegetated islands) and the ancestor of the modern Florida Keys, the Monroe Reef Tract. (Taken from Petuch, E.J. and C.E. Roberts. 2007. The Geology
of the Everglades and Adjacent Areas. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.)
Americas. This uniquely Floridian prehistoric molluscan fauna is represented by beauti-

fully preserved shells that are contained in the Bermont Formation, the geologic unit that
encompasses both the Monroe Reef Tract coralline facies and the lime mud (calcarenite)
beds that underlie the entire Everglades area. Some of these reef-associated mollusks, such
as the cowries Luria voleki (Figure 1.4A), Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) spengleri (Figure 1.4G,
H), and Macrocypraea joanneae (Figure 1.4I); the egg shells Cyphoma tomeui (Figure 1.4D)
and Cyphoma voleki (Figure 1.4L); the triviids Pusula lindajoyceae (Figure 1.4E) and Pusula
bermontiana (Figure 1.4F); the cone shells Lindaconus swearingeni (Figure 1.5H), Gradiconus
capelettii (Figure 1.5F), and Gradiconus holeylandicus (Figure 1.5G); the muricid Vokesimurex
bellegladeensis (Figure 1.5B, C); the strombid Strombus erici (Figure 1.4K); and the volutid
Scaphella capelettii (Figure 1.5J), all have descendants that are now living in the Florida
Keys. Other typical Monroe Reef Tract mollusks, such as the tonnid Malea (Malea) petiti
(Figure 1.4J), the cowrie Pseudozonaria portelli (Figure 1.4B), the columbellid Microcithara
caloosahatcheensis (Figure 1.5L), and the eocypraeid Jenneria loxahatchiensis (1.4C), belong to
genera that are now extinct in the Atlantic Ocean but are still living along the western side
of Central America and northern South America (in the Panamic Molluscan Province).
Still others, such as the spectacular giant red-spotted olivid Lindoliva spengleri (Figure 1.5A;
with specimens of over 130 mm in length, the largest known olivid species) and the large
potamidid Pyrazisinus palmbeachensis (Figure 1.5D), belong to endemic genera that are only
known from the Okeechobean Sea area and are now extinct (other Bermont fossils are
shown here in Figures 1.4 and 1.5; see Petuch, 1994, 2004; Petuch and Roberts, 2007; and
Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011, for illustrations of the rich Bermont Formation molluscan
fauna). The extreme cold climate and lowered sea levels during the subsequent Illinoian
Glacial Stage at the end of the Calabrian Age (600,000 years BP) destroyed the Monroe Reef
Tract and decimated its unique molluscan fauna.
By the end of the late Pleistocene (Sangamonian Interglacial Stage of the Tarantian
Age; 150,000–75,000 years BP), sea levels again began to rise, flooding the Okeechobean
Sea area with warm, tropical water. At this time, the Okeechobean Sea had become filled
with carbonate sediments, and the main coral reef growth was then concentrated in
an area along the southern and southeastern edge of the rapidly growing peninsula
(Figure 1.6). This new late Pleistocene reef tract, which grew on top of the remnants
of the older early Pleistocene Monroe Reef Tract, is referred to as the Key Largo Reef
System (Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 174–175). The eroded remnants of this late Pleistocene
carbonate system now form the surficial limestones and coral limestone surfaces of the
Upper and Middle Florida Keys (the Key Largo Formation). The coral reef tract that is
currently growing offshore of the Florida Keys represents a temporal extension of this
late Pleistocene reef system. Another late Pleistocene geological feature that continues to
influence the geomorphology of the Florida Keys area is the immense oölitic limestone
bank that extends from southern Broward County, across Dade and Monroe Counties,
under all of Florida Bay, and west to Boca Grande Key near Key West. Referred to as
the Miami Oölite Banks (Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 174–175), this extensive carbonate
feature was developed by the massive accumulation of oöids (limestone pellets) that had
formed in the heavy surf zone areas of the Key Largo Reef System. These late Pleistocene
carbonate pellets washed into the quiet protected areas behind the reefs and produced
huge oölite banks that spread across most of then-submerged southern Florida. During
sea level drops in the latest Pleistocene (Wisconsinan Glacial Stage), these oölite banks
were exposed to subaerial conditions and cemented into an oölitic limestone. Today, this
limestone, the Miami Formation, forms the framework for the island chain that extends
A E
B
H D
J K L
from Scout Key and Big Pine Key westward to Key West and Boca Grande Key (Lower
Florida Keys) and for the southern section of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge.
By the time of the warm Sangamonian Interglacial Stage, much of the fauna of the
older Bermont Formation (both Holey Land and Belle Glade Members) and the Monroe
Reef Tract were now extinct or extirpated and were replaced by a much more impov-
erished set of molluscan assemblages (Petuch and Roberts, 2007; Petuch, 2008). This
last late Pleistocene malacofauna, represented by the fossils of the Fort Thompson
Formation, Anastasia Formation, and contemporaneous Miami Formation, closely
resembled the modern Florida Keys fauna but contained a number of distinct differences.
Classic southern Floridian reef-associated taxa such as the mitrid Nebularia barbadensis
(Figure 1.7A), the triton Cymatium (Septa) krebsii (Figure 1.7B), the cowrie Macrocypraea
(Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Figure 1.7C, D), the strombid Eustrombus gigas (Figure 1.7I), and
the vase shell Vasum muricatum (Figure 1.7E) were all present on the Key Largo Reef
System and adjacent areas by this time. Unlike the Recent Florida Keys, however, sev-
eral species that are now restricted to western Florida and the northern Gulf of Mexico
were also present on the reefs and carbonate environments of southeastern Florida. Two
of the more prominent of these were the buccinid Solenosteira cancellarius (Figure 1.7H;
now ranging from northwestern Florida to Texas) and the muricid Vokesinotus perruga-
tus (Figure 1.7L; now restricted to western Florida), both of which lived along with the
last-living member of the Okeechobean Sea endemic potamidid genus Pyrazisinus (P.
ultimus, Figure 1.7J). By the end of the late Pleistocene (Wisconsinan Glacial Stage of
the Tarantian Age; 75,000–10,000 years BP and the last major sea level drop), the com-
position of this transitional fauna was completely altered, with the genus Pyrazisinus
becoming extinct and with the impoverished local fauna having been enriched by an
influx of new Caribbean Province migrants (other representatives of this transitional
late Pleistocene fauna are shown in Figure 1.7). By the Holocene (11,000 years BP and
with rising sea levels flooding previously dry areas), a new modern faunal composition
was fully established in the Florida Keys and adjacent areas, and its ecological compo-
nents are examined in detail in the following chapters of this book.
Figure 1.4 Gastropods of the Monroe Reef Tract and early Pleistocene Okeechobean Sea (Calabrian
Age). A = Luria voleki Petuch, 2004, length 37 mm (ancestor of the Recent Luria cinerea). B = Pseudozonaria
portelli (Petuch, 1990), length 23 mm (genus extinct in the Atlantic Ocean; extant in the tropical Eastern
Pacific). C = Jenneria loxahatchiensis M. Smith, 1936, length 29 mm (genus extinct in the Atlantic Ocean;
extant in the tropical Eastern Pacific). D = Cyphoma tomeui Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011, length 24
mm (ancestor of the Recent Cyphoma mcgintyi). E = Pusula lindajoyceae Petuch, 1994, length 22 mm
(ancestor of the Recent Palm Beach and northern Florida Keys endemic Pusula juyingae). F = Pusula
bermontiana (Petuch, 1994), length 21 mm (related to the Recent Pusula pediculus). G, H = Macrocypraea
(Lorenzicypraea) spengleri (Petuch, 1990), length 121 mm [ancestor of the late Pleistocene and Recent
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea] cervus). I = Macrocypraea joanneae Petuch, 2004, length 65 mm (ancestor
of the Recent Macrocypraea zebra). J = Malea (Malea) petiti Petuch, 1989, length 122 mm (genus extinct in
the Atlantic Ocean; extant in the tropical Eastern Pacific). K = Strombus erici Petuch, 1994, length 94 mm
(ancestor of the Recent Strombus alatus). L = Cyphoma voleki Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011, length 22 mm
(ancestor of the Recent Florida Keys endemic Cyphoma rhomba). All of these fossil gastropods were col-
lected in the lower beds (Holey Land Member; Aftonian Interglacial Stage of the Calabrian Age, early
Pleistocene) of the Bermont Formation in Palm Beach and Dade Counties, Florida.
G
E
L
H I
K J
Geomorphology of the Florida Keys, Florida

Bay, and the Ten Thousand Islands
The southernmost area of the Florida Peninsula is geologically the youngest and is domi-
nated by a single large feature, the Florida Keys. Dating from the Sangamonian Interglacial
Stage of the Tarantian Age of the late Pleistocene, the Keys archipelago consists of four
main sections, each classified by its lithologic composition. These are the High Coral Keys
(extending from Virginia Key and Key Biscayne to Plantation Key), the Low Coral Keys
(extending from Windley Key to Bahia Honda Key), the Oölite Keys (extending from Scout
Key and Big Pine Key to Boca Grande Key and Key West), and the Distal Atolls (includ-
ing the Marquesas Keys and Dry Tortugas) (White, 1970; Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 6–7).
Both the High and Low Coral Keys are formed around eroded remnants of the reef plat-
form and back-reef sections of the Key Largo Reef System (Hoffmeister and Multer, 1968;
Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 192–193). The Oölite Keys together represent an extension of
the oölitic Miami Formation, while the Distal Atolls are new, late Pleistocene-Holocene
features that are composed primarily of living coral reefs and cemented coral rubble. The
circular atoll-like structure of the Marquesas Keys is unusual, and its origin is problemati-
cal. The Florida Keys Reef Tract, which parallels the High and Low Coral and Oölite Keys
along their seaward sides, is separated from the islands by the wide Hawk Channel. This
shallow (1- to 10-m depths), elongated, depressional feature contains the majority of the
open carbonate sand seafloors found in the Florida Keys.
The area stretching from Cape Romano and Cape Sable, along the southwesternmost
coast of Florida, encompasses the Reticulated Coastal Swamps (Figure 1.8). Composed pri-
marily of Red and Black Mangrove islands, this estuarine coastline is contiguous with
the Big Cypress Swamp area of the Everglades National Park and receives a large input
of freshwater. Named for its checkered appearance when seen on aerial photographs, the
Reticulated Coastal Swamps contain a series of marine environments that are the ecologi-
cal intermediates between the quartz sand and seasonably cooler-water macrohabitats of
western Florida and the carbonate mud and warmer-water macrohabitats of the Florida
Figure 1.5 Gastropods of the Monroe Reef Tract and early Pleistocene Okeechobean Sea (Calabrian
Age). A = Lindoliva spengleri Petuch, 1988, length 109 mm (genus extinct; known only from the
Bermont Formation fossil beds of the Everglades region and the largest-known olivid). B, C =
Vokesimurex bellegladeensis (E. Vokes, 1963), length 46 mm (ancestor of the Recent Vokesimurex mor-
risoni; see Figure 8.5K, L in Chapter 8). D = Pyrazisinus palmbeachensis Petuch, 1994, length 62 mm
(genus extinct; known only from the fossil beds of southern Florida). E = Cinctura capelettii (Petuch,
1994), length 78 mm (ancestor of the Recent Dry Tortugas endemic Cinctura tortugana). F = Gradiconus
capelettii (Petuch, 1990), length 36 mm (ancestor of the Recent Florida Keys endemic Gradiconus
mazzolii). G = Gradiconus holeylandicus Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011, length 51 mm (ancestor of the
late Pleistocene and Recent Florida Keys endemic Gradiconus burryae). H = Lindaconus swearingeni
Petuch and Drolshagen, 2011, length 54 mm (ancestor of the late Pleistocene and Recent Lindaconus
atlanticus). I = Americoliva edwardsae (Olsson, 1967), length 42 mm (ancestor of the Recent Americoliva
bollingi). J = Scaphella capelettii Petuch, 1994, length 105 mm (ancestor of the Recent Scaphella juno-
nia; this fossil species has a much lower spire than does its living descendant). K = Cariboconus
griffini (Petuch, 1990), length 18 mm (genus extinct in Florida; extant in the Bahamas and central
Caribbean). L = Microcithara caloosahatcheensis Petuch, 1994, length 18 mm (genus extinct in the
Atlantic Ocean; extant in the tropical Eastern Pacific). All of these fossil gastropods were collected
in the lower beds (Holey Land Member; Aftonian Interglacial Stage of the Calabrian Age of the
early Pleistocene) of the Bermont Formation in Palm Beach and Dade Counties, Florida.
12
Figure 1.6 Simulated image of Florida as it may have appeared 150,000 years ago during the Sangamonian Interglacial Stage of the late Pleistocene.
From an altitude of 200 miles, the almost completely filled Okeechobean Sea is visible in the bottom half of the image, as are the Miami Oölite Banks
(white areas) and the ancestor of the modern Florida Keys, the Key Largo Reef Tract (which is built on top of the older early Pleistocene Monroe Reef
Tract). (Taken from Petuch, E.J. and C.E. Roberts. 2007. The Geology of the Everglades and Adjacent Areas. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.)
Keys. Although having relatively impoverished molluscan faunas, the novel ecosystems of
the Reticulated Coastal Swamps are now known to contain at least two endemic subspe-
cies. These are discussed and listed in Chapter 7.
The seaward edge of the Reticulated Coastal Swamps houses the Ten Thousand
Islands, a unique archipelago that is actually made up of a labyrinth of over 11,000 low,
tightly packed keys and is composed of a bizarre mixture of worm gastropod reefs, oyster
banks, and Red and Black Mangrove jungles. Separating the Ten Thousand Islands from
the Big Cypress paludal coastline is a series of large open-water brackish lakes, referred
to as the Back Bays (White, 1970: 43). Some of these, such as Chokoloskee Bay, retain a
fairly high salinity all year round, while others can have low salinities during the rainy
summer months. The Ten Thousand Islands themselves fall into two broad categories:
the Outer Ten Thousand Islands (distal seawardmost), which are built on unusual mas-
sive vermetid gastropod bioherms (“worm shell reefs”; discussed in Chapter 7), and the
Inner Ten Thousand Islands (proximal landwardmost), which are composed primarily of
mangrove peat, mud, and oyster shells (Crassostrea virginica, Crassostrea rhizophorae, and
Ostreola equestris). No similar worm shell reef, oyster bank, and mangrove forest amalgam
is known from anywhere else in the western Atlantic.
Between Cape Sable and the High and Low Coral Keys (Upper and Central Keys) lies
the shallow, funnel-shaped embayment of Florida Bay. Connecting to Blackwater Sound in
the northeast, Florida Bay widens to the west and southwest, opening into a broad embay-
ment off the Gulf of Mexico north of the Lower Keys (Oölite Keys). Throughout its extent,
Florida Bay is composed of a densely intertwined network of narrow, shallow banks, man-
grove islands, and vast expanses of Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum). This distinctive
network of narrow banks is obvious even on photographic images from satellites. Most of
the Turtle Grass-based molluscan communities found in the Florida Keys area are located
within Florida Bay. This sea grass-dominated area characteristically houses a large num-
ber of endemic mollusks, making Florida Bay one of the most important centers for specia-
tion occurring anywhere along eastern North America. The Turtle Grass environments
of Florida Bay also house the richest sea grass-based molluscan fauna found in the entire
western Atlantic (see Chapter 4; also Petuch, 2013: 48–50). The large, shallow embayment
off the Gulf of Mexico, extending from the Dry Tortugas and Cape Romano in the west
and connecting to Florida Bay in the east and encompassing the Florida Keys and the Ten
Thousand Islands, is referred to as the South Florida Bight, a new geographical feature
proposed here for the first time. With the exception of the coral coasts of Dade, Broward,
and Palm Beach Counties to the northeast, all the environments and molluscan assem-
blages discussed in this book are unique to the area of the South Florida Bight.
The northern sides of the westernmost Oölite Keys and the Distal Atolls slope rapidly
downward to form a wide and deep (100- to 200-m depths) platform. These areas, par-
ticularly those north of the Dry Tortugas along the mouth of the South Florida Bight, are
under the influence of upwelling systems and contain high-productivity water conditions.
Because of this, the extreme distal region is a major shrimping and lobstering area and has
been commercially fished for the past century. Sedimentological data has shown that this
deep neritic terrace contains huge expanses of carbonate sand and coralline algae beds,
each containing a different set of molluscan assemblages. Off the southern and eastern
sides of the High and Low Coral Keys and the southern side of the Oölite Keys, the narrow
Florida Reef Tract drops off precipitously in a series of step-like terraces, ranging from 100-
to 400-m depths. Unlike the deep neritic terrace north of the Distal Atolls at the mouth of
the South Florida Bight, these terraces are composed of both talus slopes of coral debris
that had tumbled down from the steep reef faces and narrow shelves covered with fine
A
B C
I J K
L
carbonate mud and pelagic sediments. Some of the rarest and least-known mollusks reside
within the communities found on these deep terraces; these are discussed in Chapters 8
and 9.
Marine ecological units of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas

A standardized hierarchical classification scheme for the marine ecosystems of the South
Florida Bight, Florida Keys, and Florida Bay was not formulated until 2007, when Madden
and Goodwin first proposed their CMECS (Coastal Marine Ecological Classification
Standard) system. Until that time, most ecological studies involved individualized inter-
pretations that were skewed toward the specialty organisms of each author, such as sea
grasses, coral reefs, or mangroves (as discussed in the first sections of this chapter). The eco-
logical classification scheme proposed by Madden and Goodwin was the first to incorporate
aspects of bathymetry, substrate type (biotopes), geomorphology, and organismal biology.
Because of its wide-reaching and holistic approach, the CMECS model has been adopted by
most government agencies and private-sector environmental survey companies. When the
molluscan ecological data accumulated for this book was applied to the CMECS scheme, an
almost-perfect categorical fit presented itself. Every molluscan fauna and molluscan-based
biotope known from the South Florida Bight, Florida Keys, Florida Bay, the Ten Thousand
Islands, and adjacent deep-water areas corresponds to one of the CMECS units, producing a
hierarchical arrangement of ecosystems that allows for higher-order analyses of ecological
relationships. For this reason, we have adopted Madden and Goodwin’s CMECS hierarchy
for the molluscan community classification outlined in this book.
The CMECS for the South Florida Bight, Florida Keys, and Florida Bay takes into
account three levels of bathymetrically controlled biotopes that, in turn, influence a sin-
gle set of biotic units. The highest biotope level is that of the oceanic regime, which in
turn is composed of individual geomorphological formations (structural biotopes). Each
Figure 1.7 Gastropods of the Key Largo Reef Tract and adjacent areas (late Pleistocene).
A = Nebularia barbadensis (Gmelin, 1791), length 25 mm (extant in the Recent Florida Keys).
B = Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Mörch, 1877, length 28 mm (extant in the Recent Florida Keys). C, D =
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771), length 119 mm (extant in the Recent Florida
Keys). E = Vasum muricatum (Born, 1778), length 84 mm (extant in the Recent Florida Keys). F =
Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942), length 38 mm (this specimen was incorrectly identified as G.
patglicksteinae in Petuch, 2004, and Petuch and Roberts, 2007; the species is extant in the Recent
Florida Keys). G = Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004, length 21 mm (extant in the Recent Florida
Keys and Palm Beach coast). H = Solenosteira cancellarius (Conrad, 1846), length 29 mm (extinct in
southeastern Florida; extant along northwestern Florida and along the northern Gulf of Mexico
as far as Texas). I = Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758), length 178 mm (also found in the con-
temporaneous late Pleistocene Fort Thompson, Miami, and Anastasia Formations; extant in the
Florida Keys). J = Pyrazisinus ultimus Petuch, 2004, length 52 mm (genus now extinct, and this
is the last-living species; Pyrazisinus ranges from the late Oligocene to the latest Pleistocene).
K = Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942), length 55 mm (extant in the Recent Florida Keys). L =
Vokesinotus perrugatus (Conrad, 1836), length 22 mm (extinct in southeastern Florida but extant
along western Florida; this is the last-living member of the eastern American Neogene muricid
genus Vokesinotus, which reached its evolutionary peak during the Pliocene. Often incorrectly
placed in the genus Urosalpinx.) All of these fossil gastropods were collected in the upper beds
(Coffee Mill Hammock Member; Sangamonian Interglacial Stage of the Tarantian Age) of the
Fort Thompson Formation in Palm Beach and Dade Counties, Florida.
16
Figure 1.8 Image of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas from an altitude of 100 miles, showing the main geomorphological structures. These include
island archipelagoes such as the High Coral Keys and Low Coral Keys (built on the coral limestone of the Key Largo Formation), the Oölite Keys (built
on the oölitic limestone of the Miami Formation), and the Distal Atolls (composed of Recent coral reefs and coral rubble); estuarine and paludal areas
such as the Reticulated Coastal Swamps (composed of vermetid worm shell “reefs,” oyster banks, and mangrove forests) and Back Bays (brackish water
lagoons in mangrove forests); and headlands such as Cape Romano and Cape Sable (composed of quartz sand transported by longshore currents from
western Florida). All of these landforms are contained within the South Florida Bight and Florida Bay. (Base satellite imagery courtesy of NASA.)
formation consequently contains sets of ecological macrohabitat biotopes that, individu-

ally, support an array of molluscan assemblages (biotic units). The boundaries of the mac-
rohabitats listed here generally are not sharply defined but often blur together in a series of
ecotonal transition zones. The regimes, formations, and macrohabitats for the region cov-
ered by this book (originally proposed by Madden and Goodwin) include the following:
BIOTOPE-INFLUENCED UNITS
REGIMES (reflecting overall oceanographic parameters)
Estuarine (brackish water areas, shallow coastal lagoons, mangrove forests)
Nearshore Marine (sea grass beds, mud flats; coral reefs; sponge bioherms;
deep lagoons)
Neritic (deep coral reefs, deep reef talus slopes)
Oceanic (deep offshore terraces, deep offshore coralline algal beds, pleuston)
FORMATIONS (reflecting geomorphological patterns)
Land (hypersaline pools, terrestrial interface)
Lagoon (mangrove forests, sea grass beds, open sand seafloors)
Shallow Coral Reef (zonated coral reefs, coral bioherms)
Noncoral Reef (vermetid gastropod reefs)
Deep Coral Reef (deep photic zone hermatypic corals)
MACROHABITATS (reflecting individual biotopes)
Vegetated Sediment Shore
Unvegetated Rocky Shore
Vegetated Softbottom
Unvegetated Hardbottom
Unvegetated Softbottom
Linear Coral Reef
Spur and Groove Platform Reef
Individual Patch Reef
Aggregated Patch Reef
Gastropod Reef
Deep Reef Talus
Deep Softbottom
Pelagic
The Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat encompasses forests of the Red

Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans), and White Mangrove
(Laguncularia racemosa) and thickets of the Saltwort (Salicornia spp.), all of which grow on
unconsolidated mud and sand. Within the CMECS scheme, this macrohabitat falls under
the Estuarine Regime and Lagoon Formation and grades directly into the terrestrial Land
Formation. This transition is facilitated by a series of vegetative interfaces, especially those
provided by ecotonal plants such as Beach Morning Glories, Sea Grapes, and grasses. The
salt-tolerant land snail genus Cerion (with four endemic subspecies in the Florida Keys)
bridges this terrestrial-marine gap and is an indicator of this type of ecotonal habitat (see
Chapter 2).
In the Florida Keys, the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat includes the exposed
“iron rock” (eroded limestone) shorelines and tide pools of supratidal and intertidal lime-
stone platforms. Characteristically, these rocky areas are devoid of both angiosperms and
macroalgae and are exposed to extremes in temperature and salinity. A richer intertidal
rocky shore malacofauna is present on the exposed outcrops of the Anastasia Formation
found along the Palm Beach coast farther north. Here, the low cliffs and heavier wave
action create more available microhabitats and a broader vertical area for habitation.
Because of these factors, the Palm Beach rocky coastline houses a number of endemic spe-
cies (see Chapter 6). The Florida Keys tide pools, found along the seaward sides of both the
coral and oölite islands, also house several endemic mollusks, primarily the dwarf melon-
genid gastropod Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor. Within the CMECS scheme, this macrohabitat
falls under the Nearshore Marine Regime and Land Formation.
The Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat falls within the Nearshore Marine Regime
and the Lagoon Formation and consists of all intertidal-to-subtidal sand or mud substrates
that support dense growths of sea grasses and macroalgae. Within the South Floria Bight,
Florida Keys, and Florida Bay area, the principal sea grasses include Turtle Grass (Thalassia
testudinum), Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme), and Shoal Grass (Halodule wrightii); these
generally segregate themselves by depth, with Thalassia and Syringodium occurring in the
deepest water (averaging 1- to 10-m depths) and Halodule occurring in the shallowest inter-
tidal conditions. In some areas, such as on the labyrinthine shoals of Florida Bay and in
Lake Worth Lagoon, transition zones occur where two or all three of these species grow
together sympatrically. Because of its large leaf size, closely packed growth habit, and
dense rhizome root mat, Thalassia provides the ideal microtopography for supporting the
richest grass-associated invertebrate community. In the Florida Keys, the mollusk and
echinoderm faunas of the Turtle Grass beds are second in species richness only to those of
the coral reef platforms.
Within the Florida Keys area, the Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat is confined to
the Nearshore Marine Regime and Lagoon Formation and is generally highly localized in
distribution. Composed of oölitic limestone ramps (Miami Formation) that are covered by
thin (1- to 4-cm) layers of clean carbonate sand, this macrohabitat is best developed in the
channels between the Oölite Keys and in shallow areas bordering the northern sides of the
Oölite Keys and the Distal Atolls. Here, wide expanses of eroded microkarstic limestone
occur just below a thin sand veneer; these provide the substrate for the attachment of a rich
fauna of sessile invertebrates. Some of the more prominent types include solitary zooanthar-
ian cnidarians and large sponges, with the latter often forming dense biohermal structures
(Petuch and Sargent, 2011a). These “sponge reefs,” which are particularly well developed
along the northern sides of the Lower Keys and Distal Atolls, house a rich and highly
endemic molluscan fauna and are still virtually unstudied and unexplored. Other variants
of the Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat include beds of the Yellow Mussel Brachidontes
modiolus; thickets of the shallow-water gorgonian octocorals Antillogorgia, Plexaurella, Eunicea,
and Pterogorgia; and open ramps of highly eroded coral limestone (Key Largo Formation)
dominated by the rock-boring sea urchin Echinometra lucunter (all discussed in Chapter 5).
Like the sponges and sea anemones, the mussels and gorgonians attach themselves to the
hard limestone substrate and extend above the thin covering of carbonate sand.
Along the Florida Keys, throughout Florida Bay, and northward to the Palm Beach
coast, the most bathymetrically expansive set of biotopes is that of the Unvegetated
Softbottom Macrohabitat. Extending from the high intertidal zone to deeper subtidal
areas in channels (down to 50-m depth), this macrohabitat encompasses open mud and
sand flats, open sand seafloors, and tidal creeks in coastal lagoons. These open softbottom
areas, particularly the clean carbonate sand seafloor in the Hawk Channel, support a rich
fauna of sand-dwelling and burrowing echinoid echinoderms. Some shallow-burrowing
forms, such as the sand dollar Mellita, are the principal prey of the small cassid gastropods
(Scotch Bonnets) Semicassis granulata, Semicassis cicatricosa, and Casmaria atlantica. Other
echinoids, such as the large heart urchins Meoma and Plagiobrissus, serve as the main prey
items of the giant cassids (Helmet Shells) Cassis spinella, Cassis madagascariensis, and Cassis
tuberosa. All of these cassid species, along with two closely adjacent coral reef and rubble-
dwelling species (Cassis flammea and Cypraecassis testiculus) combine to produce the single
largest sympatric fauna of Cassidae found anywhere on Earth. This unusually rich shal-
low-water evolutionary radiation, composed of eight species in four genera, is unique to
the Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat of the Florida Keys (see Chapter 6).
Based on patterns of geomorphology and growth forms, Madden and Goodwin
(2007) divided the living coral reef areas of the Florida Reef Tract into four separate eco-
logical types: the Linear Coral Reef Macrohabitat, the Spur and Groove Platform Reef
Macrohabitat, the Individual Patch Reef Macrohabitat, and the Aggregated Patch Reef
Macrohabitat. Together, these make up the Shallow Coral Reef Formation of the Nearshore
Marine Regime. The Linear Coral Reef Macrohabitat is the most extensive type, making
up over 90% of the Florida Keys coral reefs and typified by wide, linearly elongated reef
platforms, such as those seen on French, Carysfort, Molasses, and Pickles Reefs off the
Upper Keys. The Spur and Groove Platform Reef Macrohabitat occurs along the seaward
edges of linear reef complexes that receive almost continuous wave action. This coralline
macrohabitat characteristically is composed of alternating elongated shallow coral knolls
(“spurs”) and deep sand-filled gullies (“grooves”), all oriented perpendicular to the wave
action. Found mostly off the Middle and Lower Florida Keys where seasonal trade winds
produce heavy wave action, these spur-groove reefs are found primarily on Looe Key (the
best developed) and sections of Sombrero and Alligator Reefs and Sand Key.
The other two reefal macrohabitats of Madden and Goodwin, the Individual and
Aggregated Patch Reefs, represent nonzonated coral bioherms. These small-scale patch
reefs are scattered throughout the South Florida Bight and Florida Bay and form on open
hardbottom surfaces that are exposed to the oceanographic conditions needed for coral
growth. Because the molluscan fauna of the patch reefs, spur-groove reefs, and platform
reefs are essentially the same, all the reef types are combined into a single new molluscan
ecological category, the Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat. This combined coral macrohabitat
supports an extremely rich invertebrate fauna, including the most ecologically diverse
and species-rich molluscan fauna found in the continental United States. Another mas-
sive biohermal structure that is included within the Nearshore Marine Regime is that of
the Noncoral Reef Formation and the Gastropod Reef Macrohabitat. Unique to the outer-
most keys of the Ten Thousand Islands, these large barrier reef-type structures are com-
posed of monocultures of the pseudocolonial vermetid gastropod Vermetus (Thylaeodus)
nigricans. These extensive worm shell reefs provide habitats for a wide variety of other
mollusks, several of which are endemic to the Ten Thousand Islands. Both the coral and
worm gastropod reef structures are discussed in Chapter 7.
The third type of large-scale ecological zone that was recognized by Madden and
Goodwin is that of the Neritic Regime, which encompasses the narrow strip of deep water
(100- to 300-m depths) along the base of the Florida Coral Reef Tract. This regime includes
the Deep Coral Reef Formation and its Deep Reef Talus Macrohabitat, an extensive area
of coral rubble and dead coral slabs that have tumbled down the steep seaward slopes
of the living coral reefs. This deep-water, high-angle coral rubble slope is cemented by
hexactinellid sponges and supports a rich fauna of invertebrates, such as antipatharian
gorgonians, comatulid crinoids, and large euspongia poriferans. Because of the difficulty
of sampling the biota of the steeply angled Deep Reef Talus Macrohabitat, little is known
of the composition of the malacofauna. The distinctive mollusks of the Deep Coral Reef
Formation range from the Dry Tortugas all the way northward to the coral reefs off Palm
Beach County (see Chapter 8).
The outermost seaward edge of the Florida Reef Tract and Dry Tortugas encom-
passes the Oceanic Regime. Within this large-scale ecological zone, the Deep Softbottom
Macrohabitat predominates and typically occurs on the deep (200- to 400-m depths) nar-
row terraces that edge the Florida Platform along the Florida Straits or on the deep car-
bonate ramp west and north of the Dry Tortugas. The deep terraces characteristically are
covered with thick layers of carbonate mud, foraminiferal oozes, and pelagic sediments.
In contrast, the carbonate ramp north of the Dry Tortugas supports extensive beds of the
deep-water red coralline alga Porolithon and bioherms of the deep-water purple lettuce
coral Agaricia. The rhodolith nodules of the coralline algae accumulate in immense aggre-
gations, often several meters thick, and this substrate supports an extremely rich and
highly endemic molluscan fauna. The Oceanic Regime also includes the open-ocean areas
of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico and the Florida Straits, within the influence of the Gulf
Loop and Florida Currents. Extending beyond the continental shelf and deep terraces of
the Florida Keys, this area houses the Pelagic Macrohabitat and its pleustonic (surface-
floating organisms) and planktonic (drifting organisms) molluscan faunas. These three
deep-water and open-oceanic ecological zones are discussed in Chapter 9.
Molluscan assemblages of the Florida Keys,

Florida Bay, and the Ten Thousand Islands
Each of Madden and Goodwin’s macrohabitats contains one or more characteristic
Molluscan Assemblages. These faunal units are composed of the resident mollusks that
occur on, and are restricted to, a specific biotope. Some species of mollusks are ecologically
plastic and can occur in two or more macrohabitats. A classic eurytopic gastropod of this
type is the algal film-feeding batillariid Batillaria minima, which lives in several intertidal
habitats, including the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat, the Vegetated Softbottom
Macrohabitat, and the Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. Other specialized stenotopic
gastropods, such as the ectocommensal pectinoidean-associated amathinid Amathina pacei,
the coral-feeding muricid Babelomurex scalariformis, and the fish-eating cone shell Chelyconus
ermineus, are tightly restricted to only the Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat. The vast majority
of the Florida Keys and South Florida Bight gastropods and bivalves, however, inhabit one,
two, or sometimes three of the 10 macrohabitats that are covered in this book.
Altogether, the macrohabitats recognized here have been found to contain 20 distinct
molluscan assemblages. These groupings of sympatric mollusks are named for the most
conspicuous and characteristic resident species, and these taxa act as proxies for the entire
malacofauna. The molluscan assemblages are listed here by regime and macrohabitat,
along with their preferred substrate types. These include the following:
ESTUARINE REGIME
Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat
Melampus coffeus Assemblage (Black Mangrove forests)
Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage (Red Mangrove forests)
Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage (hypersaline pools–terrestrial interface)
NEARSHORE MARINE REGIME
Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat
Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage (supratidal rocky outcrops)
Nerita versicolor Assemblage (intertidal rocky outcrops)
Cerithium lutosum Assemblage (subtidal rocky outcrops)
Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat

Bulla occidentalis Assemblage (intertidal Shoal Grass beds)
Modulus calusa Assemblage (Turtle Grass beds)
Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat
Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage (sponge bioherms)
Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage (gorgonian thickets)
Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage (sublittoral exposed hardbottoms)
Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat
Batillaria minima Assemblage (open intertidal mud flats)
Polinices lacteus Assemblage (sublittoral open carbonate sand)
Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat
Stephanoconus regius Assemblage (living coral reefs)
Gastropod Reef Macrohabitat
Vermetus nigricans Assemblage (vermetid gastropod reefs)
NERITIC REGIME
Deep Reef Talus Macrohabitat
Cymatium rehderi Assemblage (deep reef talus slopes)
Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage (deep reef ledges)
OCEANIC REGIME
Deep Softbottom Macrohabitat
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage (deep coralline algal beds)
Rehderia schmitti Assemblage (deep softbottom terraces)
Open Oceanic Pleustonic Macrohabitat
Janthina janthina Assemblage (floating on bubble rafts in the open ocean)
Several of these molluscan assemblages and their associated biotopes can occur
together along one single stretch of coastline, often interfingering in a complex network
of ecotones and transitional sedimentary lithofacies. A classic example of this com-
plex interfingering pattern is seen in the Big Pine–Little Torch Channel in the Lower
Keys, where the sponge-based Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage and the Turtle Grass-
based Modulus calusa Assemblage form a “patchwork quilt” arrangement of randomly
interspersed ecosystems. A similar interfingering pattern is seen along Missouri Key
in the Middle Keys, where the Modulus calusa Assemblage, the exposed hardbottom
Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage, the gorgonian thickets, and the Yellow Mussel
beds are all contiguous. Although occurring in close proximity, these assemblages and
macrohabitats retain their own distinctive faunal identities, with few species shared
between them. These ecotonal patterns are typical of the entire area of the South
Florida Bight, Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay, and the coral coast of Palm Beach. Bathymetric
interfingering also occurs throughout these areas, with many of the Nearshore Marine
Regime macrohabitats and molluscan assemblages forming ecotones with the deeper
water macrohabitats and molluscan assemblages of the Neritic Regime. These bathy-
metric ecotones are especially prevalent along the narrow Palm Beach continental
shelf area, where shallow-water reef communities (such as the Stephanoconus regius
Assemblage) often blur directly into deeper-water assemblages (such as the Cymatium
rehderi Assemblage). This pattern of faunal overlap is also seen along the reef tracts of
the Florida Keys.
Close-up of a clump of the Mangrove Oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae, growing on the prop roots of a
Red Mangrove tree in Lake Worth Lagoon, Palm Beach County, Florida. Mangrove oysters from this
sheltered environment are especially beautiful, with large fluted spines and serrated shell margins.
(Photograph by Eddie Matchett)
chapter two
Molluscan faunas of the vegetated

sediment shore macrohabitat
(estuarine regime)
Introduction
In the Florida Keys, the Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat supports three different
plant-based ecosystems: one centered on the Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) forests,
one centered on the Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) forests, and one centered on Saltwort
(Salicornia spp.) and Sea Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum) thickets growing in and near
hypersaline and brackish pools and salt flats. All three of these vegetation types prefer muddy,
soft sediment environments and are the first land-producing plants to become established
along low-energy sediment-filled shorelines. The pioneer Red Mangrove trees, with their
densely intertwined network of prop roots and massive growths of oysters, are iconic and
embody the mystery of the dark reaches of the impenetrable coastal jungles. The beauty of
these alien forests, half in and half out of seawater, was elegantly described by Rachel Carson
when she stated that: “A mangrove forest, its fringing trees literally standing in salt water,
extending back into swamps of its own creation, is full of the mysterious beauty of massive
and contorted trunks, of tangled roots, and of dark green foliage spreading an almost unbro-
ken canopy. The forest with its associated swamp forms a curious world” (1955, pp. 242–243).
Molluscan ecology of the Black Mangrove forests

Of the two partially submerged mangrove species, the Black Mangrove prefers higher
ground, often growing in areas that are flooded only during the highest spring tides. Here,
in the quiet low-energy water conditions of the Black Mangrove swamp, rotting leaves
and organic matter accumulate in thick layers, producing characteristic peat deposits.
These mangrove-derived soils are saturated with hydrogen sulfide, and oxic conditions
exist for only a few millimeters below the sediment surface. To facilitate the exchange of
vital gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, the mud-dwelling Black Mangrove has evolved
a system of fringe-like pneumatophores that grow directly from its shallow subsurface
roots (Figure 2.1). These vertically oriented “breather roots” provide areas of attachment
for numerous sessile bivalves and create the ideal microhabitat for an unusually rich fauna
of air-breathing ellobiid gastropods.
In the higher areas among the dense growths of pneumatophores, the large mytilid
bivalve Geukensia granosissima often occurs in dense aggregations, with each individual ani-
mal attached to a pneumatophore by a network of tough byssal threads (Figures 2.2 and
2.3A). In the lower areas of the Black Mangrove forests, the dense thickets of pneumato-
phores serve as areas of attachment for three sympatric isognomonid oysters: Isognomon
alatus (Figure 2.3B), Isognomon bicolor (Figure 2.3C), and Isognomon radiatus (Figure 2.3D). Like
23
Figure 2.1 View of a Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) forest along the shoreline of Lake Worth,
Palm Beach County. Forests like this extend all along the Florida coastline, from St. Augustine in
eastern Florida to Cedar Key in western Florida, and are best developed in Florida Bay and the
Florida Keys. Black Mangrove forests are components of the Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat
and support the Melampus coffeus Assemblage. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
Chapter two: Molluscan faunas of the vegetated sediment shore macrohabitat 25
Figure 2.2 Close-up of an aggregation of the mangrove mussel, Geukensia granosissima (Sowerby
III, 1914), attached to mangrove roots along Singer Island, Lake Worth Lagoon, Palm Beach County.
Numerous specimens of the eurytopic intertidal batillariid gastropod, Batillaria minima (Gmelin,
1791), can be seen crawling on the roots and mangrove peat. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
E
C
F
G
J
H
I K
Figure 2.3 Mollusks of the Melampus coffeus Assemblage. A = Geukensia granosissima (Sowerby III,
1914), length 95 mm. B = Isognomon alatus (Gmelin, 1791), length 103 mm. C = Isognomon bicolor
(C.B. Adams, 1845), length 58 mm. D = Isognomon radiatus (Anton, 1838), length 92 mm. E, F =
Melampus bidentatus Say, 1822, length 10 mm. G, H = Melampus coffeus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 18
mm. I = Melampus coffeus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 16 mm. J, K = Melampus monilis (Bruguiere, 1798),
length 15 mm.
the Geukensia mussels, the three “Tree Oysters” attach themselves to the pneumatophores
with strong byssal threads and are often partially buried in the mangrove peat. These four
bivalves, three isognomatids and one mytilid, are the largest and most prominent inverte-
brates within the Black Mangrove forests and, between them, contain the bulk of the mol-
luscan biomass for the entire ecosystem. In the Florida Keys, Isognomon alatus is the most
abundant of the three tree oysters, and Isognomon radiatus is the least frequently encountered.
The three Isognomon oysters and the Geukensia mussel are subject to heavy predation
by raccoons, and their empty shells are often heaped up in piles within the pneumato-
phore thickets. In the Florida Keys and South Florida Bight area, four separate subspecies
of the North American Raccoon (Procyon lotor) occur, with each geographically isolated
from the others. These major predators on the mangrove forest bivalves include the
Matecumbe Key Raccoon (subspecies inesperatus), which ranges throughout the Upper
Keys from Key Biscayne to Upper Matecumbe Key; the Vaca Key Raccoon (subspecies aus-
picatus), which ranges from Grassy Key to Vaca Key and adjacent smaller keys; the Torch
Key Raccoon (subspecies incautus), which ranges from No Name Key to Key West; and
the Ten Thousand Islands Raccoon (subspecies marinus), which ranges throughout the
mangrove islands between Cape Romano and Cape Sable. With few other available food
resources in the maze of small mangrove keys of the Ten Thousand Islands, Procyon lotor
marinus feeds almost exclusively on sessile marine bivalves such as the oysters Crassostrea,
Ostreola, and Isognomon and the mussel Geukensia.
Although not as dominant in overall biomass, the representatives of the gastropod
family Ellobiidae alone account for the largest number of species in the Black Mangrove
forests. At least 16 species, encompassing 11 genera, are now known from the Florida
Keys and adjacent areas, making the Ellobiidae one of the largest gastropod families in
Florida. These small air-breathing snails, typified by the Coffee Bean Shells Melampus
coffeus (Figures 2.3G–I and 2.4), Melampus monilis (Figure 2.3J, K), and Melampus biden-
tatus (Figure 2.3E, F), feed on algal and bacterial films and on rotting leaf litter and are
gregarious, often occurring in aggregations of thousands of individuals. Large ellobiids,
such as Melampus coffeus and Melampus monilis, are the most obvious species and are the
most easily collected; tiny species such as Apodopsis novimundi and Pedipes mirabilis are
far more cryptic and are easily overlooked. On the larger mangrove islands of the Key
West National Wildlife Refuge, the three Melampus species provide a food resource for the
endemic saltwater turtle, Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum (the Mangrove Terrapin, which
grazes on the ellobiids at low tide). Because the air-breathing semiland snail Melampus cof-
feus is the most abundant and characteristic gastropod in the Black Mangrove areas, we
have chosen this taxon to represent the entire molluscan assemblage and the molluscan
community.
Biodiversity of the Melampus coffeus Assemblage

Because of the harsh and mutable environmental conditions of the Black Mangrove for-
ests, the molluscan fauna of the Melampus coffeus Assemblage is relatively impoverished,
incorporating only 19 species of macrogastropods and 4 species of macrobivalves. These
are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche.
1. HERBIVORES (also plant detritus)

Gastropoda
Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) (eurytopic; occurs in several macrohabitats)
Figure 2.4 Close-up of two specimens of the ellobiid gastropod, Melampus morrisoni Martins, 1996,
crawling on the trunk of a Black Mangrove on Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys. (Photograph by
E. J. Petuch.)
Truncatellidae
Truncatella caribaeensis Reeve, 1842
Truncatella pulchella Pfeiffer, 1839
Ellobiidae
Apodopsis novimundi Pilsbry and McGinty, 1949
Blauneria heteroclita (Montagu, 1808)
Detracia bulloides (Montagu, 1808)
Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer, 1856)
Ellobium (Auriculoides) dominicense (Ferrusac, 1821) (= E. pellucens)
Laemodonta cubensis (Pfeiffer, 1854)
Marinula succinea (Pfeiffer, 1854)
Melampus bidentatus (Say, 1822) (Figure 2.3E, F)
Melampus coffeus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 2.3G–I)
Melampus monilis (Bruguiere, 1792) (Figure 2.3J, K)
Melampus morrisoni (Martins, 1996)(Figure 2.4)
Microtralia occidentalis (Pfeiffer, 1854)
Ovatella myosotis (Draparnaud, 1801)
Pedipes mirabilis (Megerle von Muhlfeld, 1816)
Pedipes ovalis (C.B. Adams, 1849)
Tralia ovula (Bruguiere, 1792)
2. CARNIVORES
No molluscan carnivores; (for bivalves) replaced by the Raccoons Procyon lotor
auspicatus, Procyon lotor incautus, Procyon lotor inesperatus, and Procyon
lotor marinus and (for ellobiid gastropods) by the Mangrove Terrapin
Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum)
3. SUSPENSION/FILTER FEEDERS
Bivalvia
Mytilidae
Geukensia granosissima (Sowerby III, 1914) (Figure 2.3A)
Isognomonidae
Isognomon alatus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 2.3B)
Isognomon bicolor (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 2.3C)
Isognomon radiatus (Anton, 1838) (Figure 2.3D)
See Abbott (1974) and Warmke and Abbott (1962) for photographs of species not illus-
trated in this book. A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Melampus cof-
feus Assemblage shows that herbivores dominate the Black Mangrove forests.
Molluscan ecology of the Red Mangrove forests

The Red Mangroves, with their interwoven network of stilt-like prop roots (Figure 2.5),
provide the substrate for a rich molluscan-based ecosystem. In the Florida Keys and adja-
cent areas of the South Florida Bight, the prop roots of the Red Mangroves are typically
heavily encrusted with the Mangrove Oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae, and the immense
aggregations of these sessile bivalves support a rich and ecologically diverse malacofauna.
As the most conspicuous molluscan faunal component of the Red Mangrove community,
we have here selected Crassostrea rhizophorae to represent the entire resident molluscan
assemblage. Living topographically higher than the tidally submerged Mangrove Oysters,
on the overhanging tree branches and leaves, is the other conspicuous component of this
30
Figure 2.5 Close-up of an aggregation of the Mangrove Oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 1828), attached to a Red Mangrove prop root in
Lake Worth. Specimens from this locality are particularly beautiful, having well-developed fluted spines on their shells. Red Mangrove forests are
components of the Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat and support the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
estuarine molluscan assemblage, the Mangrove Periwinkle, Littoraria angulifera (Figure 2.6

and 2.7A, B). Although also occurring on rocky outcrops, piers, and pilings, the Mangrove
Periwinkle prefers living on Red Mangrove branches, where it scrapes algal films from the
surface of the bark.
Larger clumps of Mangrove Oysters, particularly those at the bases of the prop
roots, create the habitat for several conspicuous macromollusks. Within the labyrin-
thine cavities between the interconnected oyster valves, several species of mytilids
occur, with Brachidontes exustus and Ischadium recurvus the most frequently encountered
(Figures 2.7D, F). These mussels attach themselves to the oyster valves with strong bys-
sal threads and often occur together with large aggregations of the encrusting anomiid
bivalve Anomia simplex (Figure 2.7E). The sessile mytilid bivalves are sympatric with the
filter-feeding calyptraeid gastropods Ianacus atrasolea and Crepidula convexa (Figures 2.7G
and 2.8C–E), and these all form a distinctive suspension-feeding deme or subcomponent
of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage. Within the cavities of the larger clumps of oys-
ters, two carnivorous gastropods are frequently encountered: the muricid Stramonita flori-
dana (illustrated and discussed in Chapter 3), which feeds on the oysters by drilling holes
through their shells, and the Measled Cowrie, Macrocypraea zebra (Figure 2.8A, B), which
is a generalist feeder and omnivore, preferring sponges, hydroids, carrion, or algae. Small
specimens of the Measled Cowrie often occur within dead valves of the oyster Crassostrea
virginica (Figure 2.8F), which frequently form large biohermal oyster banks around the
base of the Red Mangroves or within channels between individual mangrove forests.
Another conspicuous faunal component of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage is
the neritid gastropod Nerita (Theliostyla) fulgurans, which occurs throughout the prop root
oyster clumps and adjacent hard surfaces (Figure 2.8G, H). The species is particularly com-
mon in brackish water areas of estuaries, where it feeds on surficial algal films growing
on oyster shells and exposed limestone rocks, often in direct sunlight. In contrast, the
smaller mangrove neritid Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae is far more cryptic and photophobic,
completely shunning direct sunlight and often burying itself in mud beneath clumps of
Crassostrea virginica. As in the case of its larger relative, the smaller Nerita (Theliostyla) lin-
dae (Figure 2.8I, J) feeds on algal films and is most common along the Palm Beach coast,
where it is sympatric with Nerita (Theliostyla) fulgurans in the Lake Worth Lagoon. Nerita
(Theliostyla) lindae has also been reported from Biscayne Bay, Barnes Sound, and Black
Water Sound and from the coral rock shoreline of Scout Key near Bahia Honda Key.
Biodiversity of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage

Like the Black Mangrove forests, the Red Mangrove community is subject to extremes in
temperature, salinity, and desiccation, often during a single day’s time span. Because of
these harsh factors, the molluscan fauna of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage is rela-
tively impoverished, incorporating only seven species of macrogastropods and eight of
macrobivalves. These are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche.
1. HERBIVORES (including algivores)

Gastropoda
Neritidae
Nerita (Theliostyla) fulgurans Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 2.8G, H)
Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae Petuch, 1988 (Figure 2.8I, J)
Littorinidae
Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 2.7A, B)
32
Figure 2.6 Close-up of living Mangrove Periwinkles, Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck, 1822), crawling on a Red Mangrove branch on Missouri Key,
Middle Florida Keys. These conspicuous arboreal gastropods are characteristic of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage. (Photograph by E. J.
Petuch.)
G
E
Figure 2.7 Mollusks of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage. A, B = Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck,
1822), length 27 mm. C = Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 1828), length 43 mm. D = Brachidontes exus-
tus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 24 mm. E = Anomia simplex d’Orbigny, 1853, width 28 mm. F = Ischadium
recurvum (Rafinesque, 1820), length 29 mm. G = Close-up of the interior of a Crassostrea rhizophorae
valve, showing the calyptraeid gastropods Ianacus atrasolea (large white specimens) and Crepidula
convexa (small brown specimens) in life position.
F
D
E
G
H
J
Figure 2.8 Mollusks of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage. A, B = Macrocypraea zebra (Linnaeus,
1758), length 61 mm. C = Crepidula convexa Say, 1822, length 6 mm. D, E = Ianacus atrasolea (Collin,
2002), length 28 mm. F = Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791), clump length 106 mm. G, H = Nerita
(Theliostyla) fulgurans Gmelin, 1791, width 28 mm. I, J = Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae Petuch, 1988, width
15 mm.
2. CARNIVORES (including scavengers and obligate omnivores)

Gastropoda
Cypraeidae
Macrocypraea zebra (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 2.8A, B)
Muricidae-Rapaninae
Stramonita floridana (Conrad, 1837)
Gastropoda
Calyptraeidae
Crepidula convexa Say, 1822 (Figure 2.8C)
Ianacus atrasolea (Collin, 2002) (Figure 2.8D, E)
Bivalvia
Mytilidae
Brachidontes domingensis (Lamarck, 1819)
Brachidontes exustus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 2.7D)
Ischadium recurvum (Rafinesque, 1820) (Figure 2.7F)
Ostreidae
Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 1828) (Figure 2.7C)
Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 2.8F)
Ostreola equestris Say, 1834
Anomiidae
Anomia simplex d’Orbigny, 1853 (Figure 2.7E)
Dreissenidae
Mytilopsis sallei (Recluz, 1849)
trated in this book. A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Crassostrea
rhizophorae Assemblage shows that filter feeders dominate the Red Mangrove forests.
Molluscan ecology of the supratidal

hypersaline and brackish pools
In the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, and Ten Thousand Islands, the supratidal area landward
of the Black Mangrove forests normally contains large expanses of both hypersaline evap-
orite (Figure 2.9) and brackish water pools. These muddy, organic-rich transitory wetlands
receive inputs of salt water only during the highest spring tides or during violent storms,
and the water chemistry of this impounded environment fluctuates wildly throughout the
year. During the rainy summer months, diluted brackish water conditions predominate,
while during the dry winter months, highly concentrated saline conditions prevail. In
some cases, the shallow muddy pools actually dry out completely, creating thick crusts of
evaporite salts and forming sabkha-like conditions. Because of these extreme environmen-
tal parameters, with wildly shifting salinities and temperatures, only a few mollusks have
evolved the physiological mechanisms to flourish in such a dystrophic system.
Two of the dominant vegetation types found near the hypersaline pools are the
Saltworts (Salicornia), which comprise a species complex of at least three taxa (Salicornia
bigelovii, Salicornia maritima, and Salicornia herbacea), and the Sea Purslane (Sesuvium por-
tulacastrum). These succulent plants provide both the substrate and the habitat for a small
assemblage of semiterrestrial gastropods, principal among these being the truncatellids
Figure 2.9 View of a large hypersaline pool on Ohio Key, Middle Florida Keys. Salt ponds such as
this often house immense aggregations of small bivalves such as the corbiculid Polymesoda mari-
tima and the corbulid Caryocorbula contracta. These provide a major food resource for seabirds and
migrating water fowl. Supratidal salt ponds and saltwort thickets are components of the Vegetated
Sediment Shore Macrohabitat and support the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage. (Photograph by
Eddie Matchett.)
Truncatella pulchella and Truncatella caribaeensis and the potamidids Cerithideopsis costatus
(Figure 2.10A) and Cerithideopsis scalariformis (Figure 2.10B, C). The cryptic truncatellid
species live buried in moist leaf litter, where they feed on dead plant matter. The pota-
midids, on the other hand, live exposed on the Salicornia and Sesuvium stems and feed on
encrusting algal films. The ellobiid gastropods Melampus coffeus and Melampus bidenta-
tus occasionally may occur along with the Cerithideopsis species, particularly in supratidal
hypersaline pools that are very near, or are interspersed between Black Mangrove and
Green Buttonwood (Podocarpus erectus) forests. Only three species of bivalves are known
to occur in the Florida Keys hypersaline and brackish pools: the corbiculid Polymesoda
maritima, the dreissenid mussel Mytilopsis leucophaeta (Figure 2.10L), and the small corbu-
lid Caryocorbula contracta. These bivalves, which have adapted to the harsh environmental
conditions, often occur in vast aggregations and serve as a major food source for water
fowl. Since the ecologically tightly restricted potamidid Cerithideopsis costatus is one of
the most abundant and conspicuous mollusks of the hypersaline pool environs, we have
selected this taxon to represent the entire resident molluscan assemblage.
The higher, dry land areas immediately adjacent to the hypersaline pools, referred to here
as the Terrestrial Interface, are typically covered by dense growths of Salt Grass (Distichus
spicata), Seashore Paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum), Seashore Dropseed (Sporobolus virginicus),
and Cordgrass (Spartina patens). These beach grasses, along with the creeping tendrils of the
Railroad Vine (Ipomoea pes-caprae; Figure 2.11) and the Beach Morning Glory (Ipomoea impe-
rati), shelter a complex of salt-tolerant land snails in the genus Cerion. At least four subspecies
of the endemic Florida Keys species Cerion incanum are known to exist: Cerion incanum inca-
num (Figure 2.10D, E), which is found from Key Largo south to Key West; Cerion incanum vac-
cinum (Figure 2.10J, K), which is found from Vaca Key south to No Name Key; Cerion incanum
saccharimeta (Figure 2.10F, G), which is found on Sugar Loaf Key north to No Name Key; and
Cerion incanum fasciatum (Figure 2.10H, I), which is endemic to Key Biscayne. These tropical
Terrestrial Interface Cerion species belong to a group that is restricted to coastal southeastern
Florida, the Bahamas, the West Indian Arc, and the Dutch West Indies (ABC Islands), and
the Keys species complex is near the extreme northwestern edge of the range of the genus.
Although classified as land snails, most Cerion species live on beach grasses near the shore-
line, where they are continuously under the influence of salt spray.
Biodiversity of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage

Only seven species of macromollusks remain when the cerionid land snails are excluded
from the complete list of supratidal hypersaline and brackish pool molluscan inhabitants.
This extreme impoverishment is a direct reflection of the harsh and continuously mutable
environmental conditions of the Saltwort and Sea Purslane thickets and muddy saline
marshlands. The members of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage are listed here by feed-
ing type and ecological niche.
1. HERBIVORES (including algivores and leaf litter feeders)

Gastropoda
Potamididae
Cerithideopsis costatus (da Costa, 1778) (Figure 2.10A)
Cerithideopsis scalariformis (Say, 1825) (Figure 2.10B, C)
Truncatellidae
A
B
C E
F
G
H
L
J K
Figure 2.10 Mollusks of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage and Terrestrial Interface. A =

Cerithideopsis costatus (da Costa, 1778), length 11 mm. B, C = Cerithideopsis scalariformis (Say, 1825),
length 19 mm. D, E = Cerion incanum incanum (Binney, 1851), length 22 mm. (Missouri Key) F, G
= Cerion incanum saccharimeta Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1899, length 29 mm (Sugar Loaf Key). H, I =
Cerion incanum fasciatum (Binney, 1859), length 23 mm (Key Biscayne). J, K = Cerion incanum vaccinum
Pilsbry, 1902, length 27 mm (No Name Key). L = Mytilopsis leucophaeta (Conrad, 1831), length 26 mm.
Figure 2.11 View of living specimens of the endemic Florida Keys Peanut Snail, Cerion incanum
incanum (Binney, 1851), crawling on a Railroad Vine (Ipomoea pes-caprae) on Missouri Key. These
salt-tolerant land snails live in close proximity to the beach and are characteristic of the Terrestrial
Interface along the entire Florida Keys island chain. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
2. CARNIVORES
No molluscan carnivores; replaced by the Raccoons Procyon lotor auspicatus, Procyon
lotor incautus, Procyon lotor inesperatus, and Procyon lotor marinus and water fowl;
on the larger mangrove islands of the Key West National Wildlife Refuge, the
Mangrove Terrapin Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum was observed to feed on
Cerithideopsis scalariformis.
Bivalvia
Corbiculidae
Polymesoda maritima (d’Orbigny, 1842) (P. floridana is a synonym) (Figure 2.12)
Dreissenidae
Mytilopsis leucophaeta (Conrad, 1831) (Figure 2.10L)
Corbulidae
Caryocorbula contracta (Say, 1822)
TERRESTRIAL INTERFACE
Gastropoda
Cerionidae
Cerion incanum incanum (Binney, 1851) (Figure 2.10D, E)
Cerion incanum fasciatum (Binney, 1859) (Figure 2.10H, I)
Cerion incanum saccharimeta Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1899 (Figure 2.10F, G)
Cerion incanum vaccinum Pilsbry, 1902 (Figure 2.10J, K)
trated in this book. A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Cerithideopsis
costatus Assemblage shows that molluscan herbivores dominate the supratidal hypersaline
and brackish pools.
Another ecosystem that is unique to the Lower Florida Keys is one composed of Dwarf
Mangrove Meadows that grow primarily along the northern sides of the Oölite Keys, from
Big Pine Key west to at least Key West (Figure 2.13). The hard oölitic limestone shelves that
skirt these islands are covered with only a few centimeters of fine carbonate mud, and
the Red and Black Mangroves that grow there are stunted from the lack of soil and are,
essentially, naturally-occurring bonsai trees. Some of these mangroves may be over fifty
years in age but are only a meter or so in height, and these create a unique Lilliputian
forest that extends for kilometers. The intertidal meadows and dwarf forests support an
impoverished malacofauna composed of only a few hardy species, ones that can tolerate
extremes in temperature and salinity. Typically, aggregations of the purple-pink corbi-
culid bivalve Polymesoda martima literally carpet the algae-covered carbonate mud, often
forming a solid pavement of imbedded individuals (Figure 2.12). These small bivalves, in
turn, are the principal prey items for a distinctive dwarf form of the Keys endemic melon-
genid, Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor. The branches, prop roots, and pneumatophores of the
bonsai mangroves also support a rich fauna of ellobiid and potamidid gastropods, includ-
ing Melampus morrisoni, M. monilis, M. coffeus, Cerithideopsis scalariformis, and C. costatus.
Figure 2.12 Close-up of an open carbonate sediment area between bonsai mangroves in a Dwarf
Mangrove Meadow off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys. Here, the small purple-pink corbi-
culid bivalve Polymesoda maritima can be seen to form a virtual pavement, with many individuals
being embedded or partially-embedded in the algae-covered carbonate sediment. A dwarf indi-
vidual of the endemic Florida Keys Crown Conch, Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor, can be seen crawling
at the lower center. (Photograph by Howard Peters).
42
Figure 2.13 View of a Dwarf Mangrove Meadow, composed of naturally-occurring bonsai Red Mangroves, growing along the northern coast of
the Saddlebunch Keys, Lower Florida Keys. The open areas between the mangroves house large aggregations of the corbiculid bivalve Polymesoda
maritima and dwarf forms of the Keys endemic melongenid gastropod Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor. (Photograph by E.J. Petuch).
chapter three
Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated

rocky shore macrohabitat
(nearshore marine regime)
Introduction
The seaward coasts of all the keys, from Soldier Key on Biscayne Bay south to Garden Key
in the Dry Tortugas, are edged with narrow platforms of exposed, unvegetated carbonate
rocks (Figure 3.1). From Soldier Key to Bahia Honda Key, these rock platforms are com-
posed of outcrops of the Key Largo Formation and are made up entirely of weathered and
recrystallized heads of massive fossil corals. These exposed fossil reefs are the remnants of
the extensive late Pleistocene coralline systems that underlie the Upper and Middle Florida
Keys (discussed in Chapter 1). From Scout Key (formerly West Summerland Key) and Big
Pine Key westward to Key West and Boca Grande Key, these exposed rock platforms are
composed of outcrops of the Miami Formation and are made up of oölitic limestone, also
of late Pleistocene age (see Chapter 1). These eroded limestone outcrops, with their micro-
karstic surfaces, were aptly described by Rachel Carson when she pointed out, “On some
of the Keys the rock is smoothly weathered, with flattened surfaces and rounded contours,
but on many others the erosive action of the sea has produced a rough and deeply pitted
surface, reflecting the solvent action of centuries of waves and driven salt spray. It is almost
like a stormy sea frozen into solidity” (1955, p. 206).
These stark, eroded limestone outcrops, which often extend from the subtidal
(sublittoral) zone all the way up to the supratidal (supralittoral) and terrestrial zones,
support three separate zonated molluscan assemblages, with each restricted to only
one narrow band. The vertically separated faunules include the Cenchritis muricatus
Assemblage (highest supratidal zone), the Nerita versicolor Assemblage (intertidal zone),
and the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage (shallow subtidal zone and tidal pools). Despite
the harsh ecological conditions and physiological constraints placed on the biota of
these tidally influenced limestone shores, a rich and distinctive molluscan fauna has
managed to flourish. Although covered with films of green and blue-green filamen-
tous algae, these rocky shelves characteristically lack large complex algae or other more
advanced plants.
Molluscan ecology of the supratidal rocky outcrops

The area of the supratidal zone represents the topographically highest margin of the
marine environment. Here, the rocky environment is splashed with salt water only dur-
ing the highest spring tides and during strong storms, and the ecological parameters are
essentially terrestrial. In the Florida Keys and along the Palm Beach coast, this interface
43
Figure 3.1 View of the ocean side of Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys, showing a typical Florida
Keys rocky tide pool shoreline. This type of environment is a component of the Unvegetated
Rocky Shore Macrohabitat and supports the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage, the Nerita versicolor
Assemblage, and the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
Chapter three: Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated rocky shore macrohabitat 45
zone between the sea and the land characteristically supports five species of extremely
hardy, highly sculptured littorinid gastropods (known as “prickly winkles”). The ornate
beads, spines, and knobs seen on their shells aid in keeping the animals cooler, both by
reflecting the intense midday sunlight and by dissipating the baking tropical heat of this
harsh exposed rocky habitat. Living in the highest area above the water line, and flourish-
ing within this extreme environment, is the largest of the supratidal littorinids, Cenchritis
muricatus (Figure 3.2). This heavily beaded species, with its reflective pale shell color, is
abundant on the driest rocks and is frequently found crawling on Sea Purslane (Sesuvium
portulacastrum) plants along with the salt-tolerant land snails of the genus Cerion (see
Chapter 2). As the most conspicuous and characteristic gastropod of the rocky supratidal
zone, we have selected this distinctive littorinid to represent the entire molluscan faunule
(as the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage).
Living slightly lower on the exposed supratidal rocks than Cenchritis muricatus
(Figure 3.3A, B) are four other species of smaller prickly winkles: three species in the
genus Echinolittorina and one in the genus Tectininus. In the Florida Keys, Echinolittorina
tuberculata (Figures 3.3E and 3.4) is the most commonly encountered member of its
genus, occurring in abundance in eroded cavities and pits on the exposed rock sur-
faces. Along the rocky coquina limestone coastlines of Palm Beach County (made up of
outcrops of the late Pleistocene Anastasia Formation), the larger Echinolittorina antonii
(Figure 3.3F, G) is the most abundant species of the genus and frequently occurs along
with the small, extremely spiny Echinolittorina dilatata (Figure 3.3H, I). The proportion-
ally wider, flatter-shelled Tectininus nodulosus (Figure 3.3C, D), with its two rows of large
spines, is the most distinctive-appearing prickly winkle and ranges along the entire
Palm Beach coastline and Florida Keys island chain. All five of these highly specialized
littorinids feed on algal films that grow within small pits and crevices on the eroded
limestone outcrops.
Biodiversity of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage

The extreme environmental conditions of the highest rocky supralittoral zone prevent
the establishment of a diverse molluscan fauna. Because of this, only five algivorous
gastropods occur here, forming a very impoverished molluscan faunule. The members
of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage consist of only one gastropod family; these taxa
are listed next:

Gastropoda
Littorinidae
Cenchritis muricatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 3.3A, B)
Echinolittorina antonii (Philippi, 1846) (Figure 3.3F, G)
Echinolittorina dilatata (d’Orbigny, 1841) (Figure 3.3H, I)
Echinolittorina tuberculata (Menke, 1828) (Figures 3.3E and 3.4)
Tectininus nodulosus (Pfeiffer, 1839) (Figure 3.3C, D)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage
shows that molluscan herbivores dominate the supratidal rocky outcrops. As is typical of
stressed ecosystems, the low species diversity seen here is offset by a high frequency of
individuals. Most often, all five of these species occur by the thousands on any small area
of rocky coastline.
Figure 3.2 Close-up of living specimens of the littorinid gastropod Cenchritis muricatus (Linnaeus,
1758) in the highest supratidal area of the rocky shoreline on Missouri Key, Middle Florida
Keys. These conspicuous semiterrestrial gastropods are characteristic of the Cenchritis muricatus
Assemblage of the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
A
B
C
E
D
F
H
G
I
Figure 3.3 Littorinid gastropods of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage. A = Cenchritis muricatus
(Linnaeus, 1758), length 14 mm. B = Cenchritis muricatus (Linnaeus, 1758), highly colored variant,
length 15 mm. C = Tectininus nodulosus (Pfeiffer, 1839), length 12 mm. D = Tectininus nodulosus (Pfeiffer,
1839), length 10 mm. E = Echinolittorina tuberculata (Menke, 1828), length 10 mm. F = Echinolittorina
antonii (Philippi, 1846), length 12 mm. G = Echinolittorina antonii (Philippi, 1846), form major Usticke,
1969, length 15 mm. H = Echinolittorina dilatata (d’Orbigny, 1841), length 10 mm. I = Echinolittorina
dilatata (d’Orbigny, 1841), form thiarella Anton, 1838, length 11 mm.
Figure 3.4 Close-up of living specimens of the littorinid gastropod Echinolittorina tuberculata

(Menke, 1828) in the high supratidal area of the rocky shoreline on Missouri Key, Middle Florida
Keys. These small, ornately sculptured gastropods are typical components of the Cenchritis muri-
catus Assemblage of the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
Molluscan ecology of the littoral rocky outcrops

The intertidal environment of the Littoral Zone offers a more stable set of ecological param-
eters than does the topographically higher supratidal area. Here, the resident marine
organisms are exposed, alternately, to dry subaerial conditions twice a day during low
tides and to total submergence in seawater twice a day during high tides. This rhythmic
alternation of water levels has allowed for more predictable and less-extreme conditions to
prevail and has allowed for the evolution of a much richer malacofauna. The most conspic-
uous group of gastropods found in this intermediate zone is the Neritidae (Nerite Shells),
which often cover the rock surfaces in large aggregations (Figure 3.5). In the Florida Keys
and along the Palm Beach coast, the most abundant nerite species is Nerita (Ritena) versi-
color; this large and colorful intertidal gastropod is here chosen to be the namesake of the
entire molluscan faunule (the Nerita versicolor Assemblage). Three of the neritids found in
the Nerita versicolor Assemblage—Nerita versicolor itself (Figure 3.6A, B), Nerita (Theliostyla)
tessellata (Figure 3.6C, D), and Nerita (Linnerita) peloronta (Figure 3.6E, F)—range through-
out the Caribbean region, and their presence in Palm Beach and the Florida Keys marks
their northernmost biogeographical extent along the North American coastline.
Although having a much smaller combined biomass, the intertidal periwinkles
make up the most species-rich group of gastropods in the Nerita versicolor Assemblage,
with eight species in four different genera. Unlike the ornately sculptured shells of the
supratidal littorinids, with their spines and knobs, the shells of the intertidal littorinids
are relatively smooth, only faintly sculptured with fine spiral grooves. The predominant
higher taxon of littorinids in the intertidal zone, the genus Amerilittorina, is composed
of four sympatric species: A. angustior (Figure 3.6G, H), A. jamaicensis (Figure 3.6I, J), A.
ziczac (Figure 3.6K), and A. placida (Figure 3.6L). These four species make up the bulk
of the littorinid biomass and occur together with less-common, tiny littorinids such as
Fossarilittorina meleagris (Figure 3.7A) and Melarhaphe mespillum (Figure 3.7E) and other
rock-dwelling gastropods, such as the small planaxid Angiola lineata (Figure 3.7B) and
the air-breathing false limpets Siphonaria (Patellopsis) pectinata (Figure 3.7C, D) and
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) alternata (Figure 3.7F, G). All of these members of the Nerita versi-
color Assemblage are grazers on algal films, and their sympatry and great frequency of
individuals can be explained by a nonlimiting supply of algae food resources, prevent-
ing competition between species. This is a perfect example of the effects and interactions
outlined in the Volterra–Gauss principle, by which competition can be overridden by an
abundance of food resources.
The large herbivorous component of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage is, itself, the prin-
cipal prey for a small contingent of carnivorous-molluscivorous gastropods in the family
Muricidae. These highly specialized muricids, Stramonita rustica (Figure 3.7H), Stramonita
floridana (Figure 3.7I, J), and Plicopurpura patula (Figure 3.7K, L), feed almost exclusively on
the littorinids and planaxids, drilling holes through their thin shells and rasping out the
tissues with the file-like radula. The more eurytopic Stramonita species also occur in shal-
low subtidal depths, where they feed primarily on small oysters and other sessile bivalves.
In the Florida Keys, the Stramonita species live highest up on the rock faces, slightly
above the mean tide line, and feed on small periwinkles such as Amerilittorina angustior,
Amerilittorina jamaicensis, and Amerlittorina ziczac. The larger, flattened Plicopurpura pat-
ula is adapted for more turbulent water conditions and is found at, or slightly below, the
mean tide line, where it is often exposed to wave action. There, it feeds on larger littori-
nids such as Littoraria nebulosa and its color form tesselata and the large planaxid Planaxis
(Supplanaxis) nucleus.
Figure 3.5 Close-up of living specimens of the neritid gastropod Nerita (Ritena) versicolor Gmelin,
1791, in the rocky littoral zone on Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys. These conspicuous gastropods
are characteristic of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage of the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat.
(Photography by Eddie Matchett.)
D
B
J K L
Figure 3.6 Gastropods of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage. A, B = Nerita (Ritena) versicolor Gmelin,
1791, length 20 mm. C, D = Nerita (Theliostyla) tessellata Gmelin, 1791, length 18 mm. E, F = Nerita
(Linnerita) peloronta Linnaeus, 1758, length 24 mm. G, H = Amerilittorina angustior (Mörch, 1876),
length 8 mm. I, J = Amerilittorina jamaicensis (C.B. Adams, 1850), length 9 mm. K = Amerilittorina
ziczac (Gmelin, 1791), length 12 mm. L = Amerilittorina placida (Reid, 2009), length 3 mm.
A
C
E F
J L
Figure 3.7 Gastropods of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage. A = Fossarilittorina meleagris (Potiez and
Michaud, 1838), length 5.2 mm. B = Angiola lineata (da Costa, 1778), length 6 mm. C, D = Siphonaria
(Patellopsis) pectinata (Linnaeus, 1758), length 18 mm. E = Melarhaphe mespillum (Megerle von
Mühlfeld, 1824), length 4 mm. F, G = Siphonaria (Patellopsis) alternata Say, 1826, length 9 mm. H =
Stramonita rustica (Lamarck, 1822), length 27 mm. I, J = Stramonita floridana (Conrad, 1837), length
33 mm. K, L = Plicopurpura patula (Linnaeus, 1758), length 35 mm.
Biodiversity of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage

Although containing a richer malacofauna than that of the supratidal areas, the inter-
tidal zone still houses a relatively impoverished molluscan assemblage, with only
around 20 gastropods and no bivalves. These are listed here by feeding type and
ecological niche.

Gastropoda
Neritidae
Nerita (Theliostyla) tessellata Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 3.6C, D)
Nerita (Ritena) versicolor Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 3.6A, B)
Nerita (Linnerita) peloronta Linnaeus, 1758 (Figure 3.6E, F)
Puperita pupa (Linnaeus, 1767) (Middle and Lower Florida Keys only)
Littorinidae
Amerilittorina angustior (Mörch, 1876) (Figure 3.6G, H)
Amerilittorina jamaicensis (C.B. Adams, 1850) (Figure 3.6I, J)
Amerilittorina placida (Reid, 2009) (Figure 3.6L)
Amerilittorina ziczac (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 3.6K)
Fossarilittorina meleagris (Potiez and Michaud, 1838) (Figure 3.7A)
Littoraria nebulosa (Lamarck, 1822) (and color form tessellata Philippi, 1847)
Melarhaphe mespillum (Mühlfeld, 1824) (Figure 3.7E)
Planaxidae
Angiola lineata (da Costa, 1778) (Figure 3.7B)
Planaxis (Supplanaxis) nucleus (Bruguiere, 1789)
Siphonariidae
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) alternata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 3.7F, G)
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) pectinata Say, 1826 (Figure 3.7C, D)
Williamia krebsii (Mörch, 1877)
2. CARNIVORES (including drilling molluscivores)
Muricidae-Rapaninae
Plicopurpura patula (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 3.7K, L)
Stramonita floridana (Conrad, 1837) (Figure 3.7I, J)
Stramonita rustica (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 3.7H)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage
shows that molluscan herbivores dominate the rocky intertidal zone.
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral rocky outcrops

The rocky intertidal and subtidal pools of the Florida Keys island chain are unique in
the eastern United States in that they constitute the only hard substrate tide pool envi-
ronment south of New England. Unlike the cold-water, impoverished malacofauna of
the rocky New England coast (part of the Acadian Molluscan Province), the rocky coast
of the Florida Keys houses a rich tropical fauna that contains a number of endemic taxa.
The most prominent of these endemic Keys species is the dwarf crown conch, Melongena
(Rexmela) bicolor (Figure 3.8I, J) (and its color form estephomenos; Figures 3.8A and 3.9). Most
frequently encountered in rocky pools at low tide, this small melongenid is a voracious
predator, feeding on the small cerithiid and batillariid gastropods that carpet the rock
B
C
D
E
I
J
G H
Figure 3.8 Mollusks of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage. A = Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say,
1827), form estephomenos (Melvill, 1881), length 33 mm. B = Collisella leucopleura (Gmelin, 1791), view
of shell interior, length 11 mm. C, D = Trachypollia nodulosa (C.B. Adams, 1845), length 17 mm. E =
Barbatia cancellaria (Lamarck, 1811), length 29 mm. F = Arcopsis adamsi (Dall, 1886), length 12 mm. G,
H = Prunum apicinum virgineum (Jousseaume, 1875), length 11 mm. I, J = Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor
(Say, 1827), typical color form, length 37 mm.
surfaces, often by the thousands. The endemic Florida Keys dwarf crown conch ranges
from Biscayne Bay south to the Dry Tortugas and is occasionally found in exposed pools
in Florida Bay. Farther north of these areas, Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor is replaced by
other congeneric taxa, such as Melongena (Rexmela) corona corona (Ten Thousand Islands
northward to Cedar Key, western Florida; see Chapter 7) and Melongena (Rexmela) corona
winnerae (Palm Beach to the St. Lucie River estuary; see Chapter 6). The extremely abun-
dant prey item of the dwarf crown conch, the small rock-dwelling cerithiid Cerithium
lutosum, is here chosen as the namesake of the entire rocky subtidal molluscan faunule
(the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage).
The undersides of large rocks exposed in the tide pools act as refuges for a large
fauna of fissurellid and lottiid limpets, one of the richest known from the western
Atlantic. These algivorous species have 11 species in six different genera: Diodora,
Fissurella, and Lucapina (Fissurellidae) and Collisella, Lottia, and Patelloida (Lottiidae).
Although the limpets remain hidden at low tide, they are active at high tide, often graz-
ing on algal films several meters from their home rocks. Some of the more conspicuous
and commonly encountered limpets in the rocky tide pool areas include the fissurellids
(keyhole limpets) Diodora cayenensis (Figure 3.10A), Diodora listeri (Figure 3.10B), Diodora
minuta (Figure 3.10C), Lucapina sowerbii (Figure 3.10D), and Lucapina suffusa (Figure 3.10E)
and the lottiids Patelloida pustulata (Figure 3.10K) and Collisella leucopleura (Figure 3.8B).
Occurring under the rocks with the limpets is an interesting fauna of sessile ark shell
bivalves, including the arcids Cucullearca candida (Figure 3.10J) and Barbatia cancellaria
(Figure 3.8E) and the noetiid Arcopsis adamsi (Figure 3.8F). These small ark shells, which
attach themselves to the underside of rocks with their tough byssal threads, are, along
with the limpets, the principal prey items of the small, drilling carnivorous tide pool
murex, Trachypollia nodulosa (Figure 3.8C, D). Specimens of the larger drilling mollus-
civorous muricids Mancinella deltoidea and Stramonita floridana also occur in these tide
pool environments and compete with the small Trachypollia for sessile bivalve prey.
Other small tide pool carnivores include the dove shells (Columbellidae) Mitrella ocellata
(Figure 3.10I) and Mitrella argus (Figure 3.10H), which feed on sponges, hydroids, ecto-
procts, and other small invertebrates.
One of the more incongruous members of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage is the
stocky, pure white marginellid gastropod Prunum apicinum virgineum (Figure 3.8G, H),
a Florida Keys subspecies of the widespread Carolinian and Caribbean Prunum api-
cinum (North Carolina, the Gulf of Mexico, to the Virgin Islands). Most members of
the family Marginellidae prefer soft sandy or muddy substrates, but this distinctive
pure white Prunum is one of the few western Atlantic marginellids that lives in rocky
areas. On Missouri, Ohio, and Rachel Carson Keys, near Bahia Honda Key in the
Middle Keys, Prunum apicinum virgineum is abundant in sand-filled tide pools along the
rocky shorelines. This white Keys subspecies also occurs in the adjacent Turtle Grass
beds but seems to prefer the tide pool areas, where it is most frequently encountered.
Within these rocky pools, this small marginellid forms large aggregations of hundreds
of individuals, particularly when attracted to the presence of carrion, its favorite food
source. Further studies, particularly DNA analyses, of the wide-ranging amphiprovin-
cial Prunum apicinum may show that this common intertidal marginellid actually repre-
sents a complex of several closely related species, with virgineum being endemic to the
Florida Keys.
Figure 3.9 Close-up of living specimens of the melongenid gastropod Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor
(Say, 1827) form estephomenos (Melvill, 1881) in a tidal pool, at low tide, on Missouri Key, Middle
Florida Keys. These endemic gastropods are typical components of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage
of the Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat and are one of the main predators on cerithiid and
batillariid gastropods. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
A D
B
E
F
G H
J
I K
Figure 3.10 Mollusks of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage. A = Diodora cayenensis (Lamarck, 1822),
length 19 mm. B = Diodora listeri (d’Orbigny, 1842), length 22 mm. C = Diodora minuta (Lamarck,
1822), length 11 mm. D = Lucapina sowerbii (Sowerby II, 1835), length 17 mm. E = Lucapina suffusa
(Reeve, 1850), length 15 mm. F, G = Cerithium lutosum Menke, 1828, length 11 mm. H = Mitrella argus
d’Orbigny, 1842, length 6 mm. I = Mitrella ocellata (Gmelin, 1791), length 10 mm. J = Cucullearca can-
dida (Helbling, 1779), length 34 mm. K = Patelloida pustulata (Helbling, 1779), length 17 mm.
Biodiversity of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage

Although not species rich, the rocky subtidal pools contain the most ecologically diverse
faunule found in the entire Florida Keys rocky shoreline areas. The members of the
Cerithium lutosum Assemblage are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche.

Fissurellidae
Diodora cayenensis (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 3.10A)
Diodora listeri (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 3.10B)
Diodora minuta (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 3.10C)
Fissurella barbadensis (Gmelin, 1791)
Fissurella rosea (Gmelin, 1791)
Lucapina sowerbii (Sowerby II, 1835) (Figure 3.10D)
Lucapina suffusa (Reeve, 1850) (Figure 3.10E)
Lottiidae
Collisella leucopleura (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 3.8B)
Lottia antillarum (Sowerby I, 1831) (rare in the Florida Keys; see Abbott, 1974)
Patelloida pustulata (Helbling, 1779) (Figure 3.10K)
Cerithiidae
Cerithium lutosum Menke, 1828 (Figure 3.10F, G)
Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) (eurytopic; most abundant on mud flats)
Gastropoda
Vermetidae
Dendropoma irregulare (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Petaloconchus erectus (Dall, 1888)
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Acar domingensis (Lamarck, 1819)
Barbatia cancellaria (Lamarck, 1811) (Figure 3.8E)
Cucullearca candida (Helbling, 1779) (Figure 3.10J)
Noetiidae
Arcopsis adamsi (Dall, 1886) (Figure 3.8F)
3. CARNIVORES (including scavengers)
Muricidae-Rapaninae, Ergalitaxinae
Mancinella deltoidea (Lamarck, 1822)
Stramonita floridana (Conrad, 1837) (eurytopic; also in Littoral Zone)
Trachypollia nodulosa (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 3.8C, D)
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827) (Figure 3.8I, J)
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827) color form estephomenos (Melville, 1881)
(Figure 3.8A)
Columbellidae
Mitrella argus d’Orbigny, 1842 (Figure 3.10H)
Mitrella ocellata (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 3.10I)
Marginellidae
Prunum apicinum virgineum (Jousseaume, 1875) (Figures 3.8G, H)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage
shows that there is a wide diversity of feeding types present, with 12 herbivores, 7 carni-
vores, and 5 filter feeders. The combined malacofauna of the rocky supralittoral, littoral,
and shallow sublittoral zones (the Cenchritis muricatus, Nerita versicolor, and Cerithium luto-
sum Assemblages) of the Florida Keys is now known to total 49 species of gastropods and
3 species of bivalves.
lose-up of living Cerithium lutosum Menke, 1828 on a block of algae-covered fossil coral at Missouri
C
Key, Middle Florida Keys, Florida. (Photograph by E.J. Petuch)
chapter four
Molluscan faunas of the vegetated

softbottom macrohabitat
Introduction
The most frequently encountered biotopes in the shallow-water areas of the South Florida
Bight, Florida Keys, and Florida Bay are the sea grass beds. These marine angiosperms
cover around 75% of the open, shallow, soft-sediment seafloors and create a set of habitats
that harbor some of the richest molluscan faunules found in southern Florida. Composed
of three genera of sea grasses—Thalassia (Turtle Grass), Halodule (Shoal Grass), and
Syringodium (Manatee Grass)—the grass beds often completely carpet the seafloor, form-
ing densely intertwined mats of rhizomes. These root mats provide shelter for a species-
rich assemblage dominated by shallowly burrowing bivalves. The three sea grass genera
segregate themselves by bathymetry, with Halodule preferring intertidal mud flats and
Thalassia and Syringodium preferring deeper-water areas (1- to 10-m depths, depending on
water clarity). Because of these bathymetric differences, two different molluscan assem-
blages occur in the Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat: the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage
(intertidal Halodule beds) and the Modulus calusa Assemblage (deeper-water Thalassia beds).
As between all the biotopes covered in this book, these two main habitat types interfinger
and often blur together in broad ecotonal transition zones.
Molluscan ecology of the Shoal Grass beds

Closest to the shore, and immediately adjacent to the Red Mangrove forests, beds of
Shoal Grass (generally Halodule wrightii) often cover large areas of the intertidal mudflats
(Figure 4.1). Although exposed at low tide and often subject to extremes in environmen-
tal conditions, these sea grass beds house a rich molluscan fauna, including a number
of endemic species. These muddy intertidal flats support a rich and interesting fauna
of carnivorous gastropods, comprising 10 species of thin-shelled bubble shells in the
families Bullidae, Haminoeidae, and Aplustridae. Some of these include the large, dark
brown, and mottled Bulla occidentalis (Figure 4.2J, K); the green-colored Haminoea antilla-
rum (Figure 4.2H, I); the brown-colored Haminoea taylorae (endemic to Palm Beach and the
Florida Keys; Figure 4.2F, G); the exquisite, net-patterned Micromelo undatus (Figures 4.2A,
B and 4.3); and the large striped Hydatina vesicaria (Figures 4.2L and 4.4). These occur along
with the fasciolariid Cinctura hunteria (Figure 4.2C, D), the melongenid Melongena (Rexmela)
bicolor (Figure 4.2E), the cystiscid Granulina hadria, and the small raphitomids Pyrgocythara
plicosa and Pyrgocythara filosa. Because Bulla occidentalis is the most frequently encountered
and most conspicuous mollusk in the Shoal Grass beds, we have chosen it to represent the
entire faunule (the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage).
61
Figure 4.1 View of a typical Shoal Grass (Halodule wrightii) bed at low tide in Lake Worth, Palm Beach
County. Note the dead specimen of the bubble shell Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850, an abundant
gastropod that is characteristic of the Shoal Grass beds of southern Florida. Likewise, the small, black
eurytopic batillariid gastropod, Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791), is abundant here but also occurs on
open intertidal mudflats and rocky tide pools. This type of environment supports the Bulla occidentalis
Assemblage of the Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
Chapter four: Molluscan faunas of the vegetated softbottom macrohabitat 63
A
B
F H
I
K L
Figure 4.2 Gastropods of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage. A, B = Micromelo undatus (Bruguiere,
1792), length 10 mm. C, D = Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811), length 48 mm. E = Melongena (Rexmela)
bicolor (Say, 1827), dark color form, length 33 mm. F, G = Haminoea taylorae Petuch, 1987, length 10
mm. H, I = Haminoea antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1841), length 8 mm. J, K = Bulla occidentalis A. Adams,
length 27 mm. L = Hydatina vesicaria (Lightfoot, 1786), length 38.4 mm.
64
Figure 4.3 View of the living animal of the aplustrid bubble shell, Micromelo undatus (Bruguiere, 1792), crawling in sand and shell rubble within
the Lake Worth Lagoon, Palm Beach County, Florida. This delicate, beautifully patterned gastropod is a typical component of the Bulla occidentalis
Assemblage of the Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
Figure 4.4 View of the living animal of the large aplustrid bubble shell, Hydatina vesicaria (Lightfoot,
1786), crawling in sand within the Lake Worth Lagoon, Palm Beach County, Florida. This distinc-
tive banded gastropod is a typical component of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage of the Vegetated
Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
The bubble shell species feed on a variety of small invertebrate prey, including the
hydroids and ectoprocts that attach to the grass blades and small bivalves, gastropods,
and crustaceans. Thin-shelled small bivalves, such as the mytilid Arcuatula papyria
(Figure 4.5A) and the tellinid Macoma cerina (Figure 4.5E) are the frequent prey of the
large Bulla occidentalis, while larger resident bivalves such as the lucinid Phacoides pectinata
(Figure 4.5C), the deep-burrowing venerid Petricolaria pholadiformis (Figure 4.5J) and phola-
did Barnea truncata (Figure 4.5K), the semelid Semele proficua (Figure 4.5F), the psammobiid
Heterodonax bimaculatus (Figure 4.5D), the carditid Carditamera floridana (Figure 4.5H), and
the mactrid Mactrotoma fragilis (Figure 4.5I) are the principal prey items of the molluscivo-
rous Cinctura and Melongena. The raphitomid gastropods, with their harpoon-like radular
teeth, are specialized feeders, preying totally on the small polychaete worms that are shal-
lowly buried among the Shoal Grass root system. In the Lake Worth Lagoon of Palm Beach
County, small specimens of the conilithid gastropod Jaspidiconus pfluegeri (see Chapter 6)
often occur on the intertidal mudflats of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage. Like the related
toxoglossate family Raphitomidae, these small cone shells hunt for polychaete worms and
subdue them with their harpoon-like radular teeth.
Biodiversity of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage

Although not as species rich or as ecologically diverse as the adjacent, deeper-water Turtle
Grass beds, the Shoal Grass bed molluscan assemblage contains a number of distinctive
elements. Primary among these is the unusually large fauna of bubble shells, comprising
at least 11 species in four families and six genera. The acteocinid, bullid, haminoeid, and
aplustrid bubble shells, together with at least 12 macrobivalves, dominate the Halodule-
associated molluscan faunule. The members of the bubble shell-dominated Bulla occidenta-
lis Assemblage listed by feeding preference and ecological niche follow.

Cerithiidae
Bittiolum varium (Pfeiffer, 1840)
Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) (eurytopic; found in several intertidal assemblages)
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Lunarca ovalis (Bruguiere, 1789)
Mytilidae
Arcuatula papyria (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 4.5A)
Lucinidae
Divaricella dentata (Wood, 1815)
Parvilucina costata (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Phacoides pectinata (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.5C)
Carditidae
Carditamera floridana Conrad, 1838 (Figure 4.5H)
Veneridae
Chione elevata Say, 1822 (eurytopic on all softbottom environments; see Chapter 6)
Cyclinella tenuis (Recluz, 1852)
Macrocallista nimbosa (Lightfoot, 1786) (Figure 4.5G)
Petricolaria pholadiformis (Lamarck, 1818) (Figure 4.5J)
C
B
E F
K
J
Figure 4.5 Bivalves of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage. A = Arcuatula papyria (Conrad, 1846), length
13 mm. B = Mulinia lateralis (Say, 1822), length 10 mm. C = Phacoides pectinata (Gmelin, 1791), length
30 mm. D = Heterodonax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 15 mm. E = Macoma cerina (C.B. Adams,
1845), length 9 mm. F = Semele proficua (Pulteney, 1799), length 29 mm. G = Macrocallista nimbosa
(Lightfoot, 1786), length 81 mm. H = Carditamera floridana Conrad, 1838, length 22 mm. I = Mactrotoma
fragilis (Gmelin, 1791), length 39 mm. J = Petricolaria pholadiformis (Lamarck, 1818), length 35 mm. K =
Barnea truncata (Say, 1822), length 33 mm.
Tellinidae
Angulus sybariticus (Dall, 1881)
Macoma cerina (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 4.5E)
Macoma constricta (Bruguiere, 1792)
Semelidae
Semele proficua (Pulteney, 1799) (Figure 4.5F)
Psammobiidae
Heterodonax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.5D)
Mactridae
Mactrotoma fragilis (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.5I)
Mulinia lateralis (Say, 1822) (Figure 4.5B)
Corbulidae
Caryocorbula caribaea (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Pholadidae
Barnea truncata (Say, 1822) (Figure 4.5K)
Cyrtopleura costata (Linnaeus, 1758) (illustrated in Chapter 6)
3. CARNIVORES (several specialized types)
3a. MOLLUSCIVORES
Fasciolariidae
Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811) (Figure 4.2C, D)
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827) (Figure 4.2E; mudflat variant)
3b. VERMIVORES
Raphitomidae
Pyrgocythara filosa Rehder, 1939
Pyrgocythara plicosa (C.B. Adams, 1850)
3c. GENERAL CARNIVORES
Nassariidae
Phrontis vibex (Say, 1822)
Cystiscidae-Granulininae
Granulina hadria (Dall, 1889)
Haminoeidae
Atys riiseanus Mörch, 1875
Atys sandersoni Dall, 1881
Haminoea antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1841) (Figure 4.2H, I)
Haminoea elegans (Gray, 1825)
Haminoea succinea (Conrad, 1846)
Haminoea taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 4.2F, G)
Bullidae
Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850 (Figure 4.2J, K)
Bulla solida Gmelin, 1791
Aplustridae
Hydatina vesicaria (Lightfoot, 1786) (Figures 4.2L and 4.4)
Micromelo undatus (Bruguiere, 1792) (Figures 4.2A, B and 4.3)
Acteocinidae
Utriculastra canaliculata (Say, 1822)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage
shows that carnivores dominate the faunule, with several specialized vermivorous and
molluscivorous predators. This high diversity of feeding types is offset by the much larger
biomass of the combined filter-feeding bivalve fauna.
Molluscan ecology of the Turtle Grass beds

In water depths greater than 0.5 m, and including the infralittoral subzone (areas exposed
to subaerial conditions only during the lowest spring tides), the larger Thalassia testudinum
beds begin to dominate the seafloor (Figure 4.6). In many localities, these Turtle Grass
meadows grade slowly into the intertidal Shoal Grass beds in a broad area of transition
that allows both species to live sympatrically. In these types of transitional zones, mem-
bers of both the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage and the resident Turtle Grass–associated
Modulus calusa Assemblage occur together in a rich ecotonal community. Also occurring
with the Thalassia meadows in slightly deeper water is the Manatee Grass, Syringodium,
which often grows together with the Turtle Grass to form dense thickets. In some areas
with just the right bathymetric conditions, all three sea grass genera (Halodule, Thalassia,
and Syringodium) can occur together, forming a rich and varied substrate for an excep-
tionally large assemblage of mollusks. Because the small, disk-shaped modulid gastropod
Modulus calusa (Figure 4.7A–F) is one of the most conspicuous and dominant mollusks of
the Turtle Grass beds, it has here been chosen to represent the entire malacofauna (the
Modulus calusa Assemblage).
With 109 species of resident macromollusks, both bivalves and gastropods, the Turtle
Grass beds shelter the third-largest molluscan assemblage found in the Florida Keys.
Unlike the Shoal Grass beds, the Thalassia-based malacofauna contains a large component
of algivorous herbivores, primarily in the families Lotiidae, Trochidae, Phasianellidae,
Turbinidae, Litiopidae, Neritidae, Cerithiidae, Modulidae, Xenophoridae (which also feeds
on foraminifera), and Strombidae. These algivores coexist with a very large and rich filter-
feeding bivalve fauna, comprising 17 families, 41 genera, and over 50 species, and this is
the second-largest bivalve assemblage found anywhere in the Florida Keys and Florida
Bay (the open sand bottom Polinices lacteus Assemblage contains the largest number of
bivalves; see Chapter 6). The large carnivore component of the Turtle Grass bed malaco-
fauna comprises 44 species in 30 genera and 15 families and is one of the most ecologically
diverse, encompassing general carnivores, scavengers, vermivores, echinoderm feeders,
hydroid feeders, spongivores, and molluscivores.
Ecologically, the Turtle Grass beds separate into three distinct biotopes: the
Individual Grass Blade Biotope, the Main Vegetative Mass Biotope of the grass bed,
and the thickly tangled Rhizome Root Mat Biotope buried in the soft sediments. All
three of these biotopes contain their own distinctive faunules. The individual grass
blades act as demes, or separate microcommunities, and each houses an entire dimin-
utive malacofauna. The main grass bed shelters many large gastropods and other
invertebrates, shading the animals beneath the forest of grass blades and allowing
them to avoid the detection of predators, such as stingrays (primarily Dasyatidae)
and large snappers (Lutjanidae) and other perciform fish. The dense root mats pro-
vide a firm substrate for shallowly burrowing bivalves, many of which have become
highly specialized and are restricted to Turtle Grass beds. The grass beds also house
several endemic Florida Keys gastropods, primary among these the calliostomatid
Calliostoma adelae (Figure 4.8D), the turbinid Lithopoma americana (Figure 4.8A), the
modulid Modulus calusa (Figure 4.7A–F), the conid Gradiconus burryae (Figures 4.9A–F
and 4.10A, B), and the conilithid Jaspidiconus pealii (Figure 4.9G–L).
70
Figure 4.6 View of a Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum) bed off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys, showing a resident Pinfish (Lagodon rhom-
boides). This type of sea grass environment supports the Modulus calusa Assemblage of the Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Ron
Bopp.)
A C
B
E
G
F
K L H
I
Figure 4.7 Gastropods of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A, B = Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988, typical
color form, width 13 mm. C = Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988, tan color form, width 12 mm. D = Modulus
calusa Petuch, 1988, speckled color form, width 14 mm. E, F = Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988, banded
color form, width 12 mm. This species has often been incorrectly referred to by many workers as
Modulus modulus (Linnaeus, 1758), which is actually a different-looking, heavily knobbed species
that is restricted to the southern Caribbean. G = Cerithium muscarum Say, 1822, length 24 mm. H =
Cerithium eburneum Bruguiere, 1792, length 22 mm. I = Cerithium atratum (Born, 1778), length 32 mm.
J = Crepidula ustulatulina Collin, 2002, on Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988, width 14.4 mm. K, L = Crepidula
ustulatulina Collin, 2002, length 8.3 mm.
A
B
C
I G F
H
K
L
Figure 4.8 Gastropods of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A = Lithopoma americana (Gmelin, 1791),
height 24 mm (endemic to the Florida Keys). B = Astralium phoebia Röding, 1798, width 22 mm. C =
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea (Gmelin, 1791), height 20 mm. D = Calliostoma adelae Schwengel, 1951,
height 17.4 mm. E = Tegula (Agathistoma) fasciata (Born, 1778), width 13.7 mm. F = Patelloida pulcher-
rima (Petit, 1856), length 15 mm. G, H = Cymatium femorale (Linnaeus, 1758), length 138 mm. I, J =
Cymatium (Ranularia) cynocephalum (Lamarck, 1816), length 68.5 mm. K = Lobatus raninus (Gmelin,
1791), length 97.5 mm. L = Turbo (Taenioturbo) canaliculatus Hermann, 1781, height 66 mm.
A B
D
H
G
F
K
J L
Figure 4.9 Cone Shells of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A = Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942), typ-
ical form, length 35.5 mm. B = Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942), solid brown color form, length 22.7
mm. C = Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942), broad-shouldered variant, length 43 mm. D = Gradiconus
burryae (Clench, 1942), dark color form, length 36 mm. E, F = Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942), pale
color form, length 37.8 mm. G, H = Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830), typical form, length 13.2 mm.
I = Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830), banded color form, length 13.2 mm. J = Jaspidiconus pealii (Green,
1830), yellow color form, length 16 mm. K = Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830), orange color form, length
17 mm. L = Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830), blue-and-green color form, length 12 mm.
C
The individual grass blade demes house entire microcosms, with their broad, flat sur-
faces characteristically encrusted with coralline algae, pennate diatoms, and other microal-
gae; ectoproct bryozoans (typically the cheilostome Schizoporella floridana); sponges; colonial
urochordate tunicates; and pinnatulid hydroids. These microcommunities support a large
number of small, grass blade–dwelling gastropods, such as the carnivorous columbellid
dove shells Costoanachis avara (Figure 4.11F), Costoanachis floridana (Figure 4.11D), Columbella
rusticoides (Figure 4.11A), and Zafrona taylorae (Figure 4.11B), which feed on hydroids,
tunicates, and small invertebrates; the highly specialized drilling molluscivore naticid
Haliotinella patinaria; the tiny scavenger marginellids Dentimargo aureocinta, Volvarina gary-
cooverti, and Volvarina avena; the colorful persiculine cystiscids Persicula pulcherrima and
Gibberula catenata; the vermivorous cone shell Jaspidiconus pealii; and grazing algivores such
as the limpet Patelloida pulcherrima (Figure 4.8F), the trochid Tegula fasciata (Figure 4.8E),
the phasianellid Eulithidium thalassicola, the tiny green neritid Smaragdia viridemaris, the
tiny litiopod Alaba incerta, and the modulid Modulus calusa. Frequently, the dorsum of the
Calusa Button Shell, Modulus calusa, serves as the substrate for the attachment of the small
filter-feeding calyptraeid Crepidula ustulatulina (Figure 4.7J–L). These two small gastropods
form an odd symbiosis that is unique to the sea grass beds of Florida Bay and the Keys.
A number of small but distinctive bivalves also attach to the individual grass blades and
are important components of the deme community. Some of these include the pectinid
scallops Antillipecten antillarum (Figure 4.12I, J) and Lindapecten exasperatus (Figure 4.12G,
H) and the pteriid pearl oyster Pinctada longisquamosa (Figure 4.13B, C). These small ses-
sile bivalves, which are attached to the grass blades by their byssal threads, serve as prey
items for the voracious molluscivorous gastropods Haliotinella patinaria and the six species
of columbellids.
The densely packed and tightly entangled Turtle Grass blades form huge undersea
meadows that often extend, uninterrupted, for kilometers. Larger carnivorous gastropods,
such as the molluscivorous fasciolariids Triplofusus papillosus (Figures 4.14H and 4.15)
and Fasciolaria tulipa (Figure 4.14G); the echinoderm-feeding ranellids Cymatium femorale
(Figure 4.8G, H) and Cymatium (Ranularia) cynocephalum (Figure 4.8I, J); the drilling mollusci
vores Chicoreus dilectus (Figure 4.14D–F) and Phyllonotus pomum (Figure 4.14A–C); the bucci-
nid Hesperisternia multangula (Figure 4.14I); and the vermivorous conid Gradiconus burryae,
all find shelter here and are protected from fish predation. Also sheltering among the grass
Figure 4.10 Living Animals of Florida Keys Gradiconus species. A = Gradiconus burryae (Clench,
1942), pale orange color form found in Turtle Grass beds off the eastern side of Missouri Key, Middle
Florida Keys. Note the bright orange animal; shell length 23 mm. B = Radular tooth of Gradiconus bur-
ryae (Clench, 1942); taken from the 23-mm Missouri Key specimen. C = Gradiconus mazzolii (Petuch
and Sargent, 2011), from the sponge bioherms off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys. Note the
lemon yellow animal; shell length 21 mm (discussed and illustrated in Chapter 5). D = Radular tooth
of Gradiconus mazzolii (Petuch and Sargent, 2011); taken from the 21-mm Middle Torch Key specimen.
These two closely related species were considered to be conspecific by several cone workers, but the
animals are very different in coloration and live in very different habitats. The harpoon-like radular
teeth of both species also differ from each other: The tooth of Gradiconus burryae is proportionally
thicker and has a wide, projecting lateral blade and a small terminal hook; the tooth of Gradiconus
mazzolii is proportionally more slender, with a narrow, reduced lateral blade and a larger terminal
hook. Along with the offshore, coral reef-associated Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995)
(Figure 6.10A–D, Chapter 6; which has a salmon-pink animal), these characteristic Florida Keys
species constitute an endemic species radiation that is unique in the Americas. (Live animal photo-
graphs by William Bennight; photomicrographs of radular teeth by Dr. Manuel Tenorio.)
B
A C D
F
E G H
I J
K L
Figure 4.11 Gastropods of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A = Columbella rusticoides Heilprin, 1886,
length 14.7 mm. B = Zafrona taylorae Petuch, 1987, length 10 mm (endemic to the Florida Keys). C =
Costoanachis sertulariarum (d’Orbigny, 1839), length 11 mm. D = Costoanachis floridana Rehder, 1939,
length 13 mm. E = Costoanachis sparsa (Reeve, 1859), length 11 mm. F = Costoanachis avara (Say, 1822),
length 10 mm. G, H = Prunum carneum (Storer, 1837), length 20 mm. I, J = Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn,
1817), dark color form, length 22 mm. K, L = Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn, 1817), pale color form,
length 21 mm.
A C
D
E
H J
Figure 4.12 Pectinid bivalves of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A, B = Argopecten irradians taylorae
Petuch, 1987, length 34 mm. C, D = Argopecten irradians taylorae Petuch, 1987, orange color form,
length 35 mm. E, F = Argopecten nucleus (Born, 1778), length 32 mm. G, H = Lindapecten exasperatus
(Sowerby II, 1842), length 22 mm (= acanthodes Dall). I, J = Antillipecten antillarum (Recluz, 1853),
length 19 mm.
D
A
F
G
I
H
Figure 4.13 Bivalves of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A = Arcopagia fausta (Pulteney, 1799), length
51 mm. B = Pinctada longisquamosa (Dunker, 1852), length 35 mm. C = Scissula similis (Sowerby I,
1806), length 21 mm. D = Tucetona pectinata (Gmelin, 1791), length 21 mm. E = Tellinella listeri (Röding,
1798), length 47 mm. F = Ctena orbiculata (Montagu, 1808), length 11 mm. G = Chione mazyckii Dall,
1902, length 21 mm. H = Pitar fulminatus (Menke, 1828), length 42 mm. I = Periglypta listeri (Gray,
1838), length 54 mm.
A C
D
E
J K
I
Figure 4.14 Gastropods of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A, B = Phyllonotus pomum (Gmelin, 1791),
length 69.4 mm. C = Phyllonotus pomum (Gmelin, 1791), length 67 mm. D, E = Chicoreus dilectus (A.
Adams, 1855), length 49 mm. F = Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855), dark color form, length 55 mm.
G = Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758), length 77 mm. H = Triplofusus papillosus (Sowerby I, 1825),
length 386 mm. I = Hesperisternia multangula (Philippi, 1848), length 22.4 mm. J = Eupleura sulcidentata
Dall, 1890, length 16 mm. K = Calotrophon ostrearum (Conrad, 1846), length 18 mm.
Figure 4.15 Close-up of a living Horse Conch, Triplofusus papillosus (Sowerby I, 1825), in a Turtle
Grass bed off Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys. Note the characteristic bright orange-red animal.
This species is the Florida State Shell and was formerly known as Pleuroploca gigantea Kiener, 1840,
a name that is now considered to be a synonym. This gigantic mollusk, the largest gastropod in
the Atlantic Ocean, is a common component of the Modulus calusa Assemblage of the Vegetated
Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Ron Bopp.)
blades and feeding on epiphytic algae is a large fauna of herbivorous gastropods, including
the large turbinids Turbo (Taenioturbo) canaliculatus (Figure 4.8L) and Turbo (Marmarostoma)
castanea (Figure 4.8C); the cerithiids Cerithium atratum (Figure 4.7I) and Cerithium muscarum
(Figure 4.7G); and the strombid Lobatus raninus (Figure 4.8K). Smaller scavengers and car-
rion feeders, such as the marginellids Prunum carneum (Figure 4.11G, H), Prunum guttatum
(Figure 4.11I–L), and Prunum apicinum virgineum and the nassariid Phrontis vibex, also occur
within these dense sea grass meadows. The bulk of the gastropod species making up the
Modulus calusa Assemblage, particularly the larger ones, are found in the main sections of
the grass beds.
The open Thalassia meadows also serve as the substrate for immense aggregations
of the pectinid scallop Argopecten irradians taylorae (Figure 4.12A–D), which continuously
swim and migrate from one Thalassia thicket to another. This large pectinid, Taylor’s Bay
Scallop, has often been confused (i.e., Mikkelsen and Bieler, 2008) with the Eastern Bay
Scallop, Argopecten irradians concentricus, a different subspecies that ranges from Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina, to Fort Pierce, Florida. No bay scallops are found anywhere along
the Palm Beach and Broward County coastlines of southern Florida, so there is a distinct
biogeographical separation and barrier between the two subspecies (which differ in rib
count, color, shell and rib shape, and DNA; see Marelli et al., 1997). Argopecten irradians tay-
lorae first appears in Biscayne Bay, Dade County, and extends throughout the Florida Keys
Turtle Grass beds and then northward up the western coast of Florida to the Mississippi
coast. The brackish water Mississippi River Delta acts as another biogeographical barrier
and has no resident bay scallops. Another subspecies, Argopecten irradians amplicostatus,
appears along the Texas coast and extends to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. North
of Cape Hatteras, the cold-water subspecies Argopecten irradians irradians ranges to Cape
Cod, the biogeographical terminus of the species complex (Petuch, 2013: 17). In some areas
of Florida Bay, such as in the Rabbit Key Basin, Argopecten irradians taylorae is so abun-
dant that, in the 1980s, it formed the basis of a commercial scalloping industry (officially
stopped by Everglades National Park in 1985). Another related scallop, Argopecten nucleus
(Figure 4.12E, F), also occurs along with Argopecten irradians taylorae in the Florida Bay and
Florida Keys Turtle Grass beds but is a much rarer species, only sporadically encountered.
The Turtle Grass root mats serve as the preferred substrate for several large and char-
acteristic sea grass bivalves, including the lucinids Codakia orbicularis (Figure 4.16A), Lucina
pensylvanica (Figure 4.16B), and Anodontia alba (Figure 4.16C); the cardiids Dallocardia muri-
cata (Figure 4.16D) and Laevicardium serratum (Figure 4.16E); the venerids Dosinia discus
(Figure 4.16G), Dosinia elegans (Figure 4.16H), and Periglypta listeri (Figure 4.13I); the pinnids
Atrina rigida (Figure 4.16J) and Pinna carnea (Figure 4.16I); the psammobiid Sanguinolaria
sanguinolenta; and the tellinids Arcopagia fausta (Figure 4.13A), Scissula similis (Figure 4.13C),
and Tellinella listeri (Figure 4.13E). Several highly specialized bivalves, such as the lyon-
siids Entodesma beana and Lyonsia floridana, build nests at the bases of the Turtle Grass
rhizomes and remain virtually undetectable. Smaller drilling carnivores, such as the
muricids Vokesimurex rubidus, Eupleura sulcidentata (Figure 4.14J), and Calotrophon ostrearum
(Figure 4.14K), all burrow among the Turtle Grass rhizomes, searching for small bivalve
prey such as lyonsiids, mytilids, and small semelids.
Biodiversity of the Modulus calusa Assemblage

The rich malacofauna of the Turtle Grass beds of the Florida Keys also extends into deeper-
water (2- to 5-m depths) areas of Florida Bay, where it inhabits the extensive meadows of
Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme). These sea grass shoals, with individual grass blades
A
B C
E F
D
Figure 4.16 Bivalves of the Modulus calusa Assemblage. A = Codakia orbicularis (Linnaeus, 1758),
length 63 mm. B = Lucina pensylvanica (Linnaeus, 1758), length 37 mm. C = Anodontia alba Link, 1807,
length 49 mm. D = Dallocardia muricata (Linnaeus, 1758), length 31 mm. E = Laevicardium serratum
(Linnaeus, 1758), length 30 mm. F = Laevicardium mortoni (Conrad, 1830), length 14 mm. G = Dosinia
discus (Reeve, 1850), length 52 mm. H = Dosinia elegans (Conrad, 1846), length 48 mm. I = Pinna carnea
Gmelin, 1791, length 98 mm. J = Atrina rigida (Lightfoot, 1786), length 142 mm.
over 1 m tall, are especially well developed in the areas of the Oxfoot, Schooner, Sprigger, and
Tripod Banks and within the intervening “Sluiceway” channel (Thomas Frankovich, 2013
personal communication by email). The members of the Thalassia and Syringodium-dwelling
Modulus calusa Assemblage are listed here by feeding type and ecological preference.
1. HERBIVORES (including grazers on epiphytic algae)

Gastropoda
Lotiidae
Patelloida pulcherrima (Petit, 1856) (Figure 4.8F)
Trochidae
Tegula (Agathistoma) fasciata (Born, 1778) (Figure 4.8E)
Turbinidae
Astralium phoebia Röding, 1798 (Figure 4.8B)
Lithopoma americana (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.8A)
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.8C)
Turbo (Taenioturbo) canaliculatus Hermann, 1781 (Figure 4.8L)
Neritidae
Smaragdia viridemaris Maury, 1917
Phasianellidae
Eulithidium affine (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Eulithidium thalassicola (Robertson, 1958)
Litiopidae
Alaba incerta (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Cerithiidae
Cerithium atratum (Born, 1778) (Figure 4.7I)
Cerithium eburneum Bruguiere, 1792 (Figure 4.7H)
Cerithium muscarum Say, 1822 (Figure 4.7G)
Modulidae
Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988 (Figure 4.7A–F) (often incorrectly referred to as Modulus
modulus, which is a southern Caribbean species that is not found in Florida)
Strombidae
Lobatus raninus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.8K)
Xenophoridae
Xenophora conchyliophora (Born, 1780) (feeds on both algae and foraminifera)
2. CARNIVORES
2a. GENERAL CARNIVORES/SCAVENGERS
Buccinidae
Hesperisternia multangula (Philippi, 1848) (Figure 4.14I)
Columbellidae
Astyris lunata (Say, 1826)
Astyris multilineata (Dall, 1889)
Columbella rusticoides Heilprin, 1886 (Figure 4.11A)
Costoanachis avara (Say, 1822) (Figure 4.11F)
Costoanachis floridana Rehder, 1939 (Figure 4.11D)
Costoanachis sertulariarum (d’Orbigny, 1839) (Figure 4.11C)
Costoanachis sparsa (Reeve, 1859) (Figure 4.11E)
Parvanachis obesa (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Parvanachis ostreicola (Sowerby II, 1882)
Zafrona taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 4.11B)
Nassariidae
Marginellidae
Dentimargo aureocincta Stearns, 1872
Dentimargo eburneola Conrad, 1834
Dentimargo idiochila Schwengel, 1943
Dentimargo reducta (Bavay, 1922)
Prunum apicinum virgineum (Jousseaume, 1875)
Prunum carneum (Storer, 1837) (Figure 4.11G, H)
Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn, 1817) (Figure 4.11I–L)
Prunum succinea (Conrad, 1846) (= veliei Pilsbry)
Volvarina avena (Kiener, 1834)
Volvarina garycooverti Espinosa and Ortea, 1998
Cystiscidae-Persiculinae
Gibberula catenata (Montagu, 1803)
Persicula pulcherrina (Gaskoin, 1849)
Haminoeidae
Haminoea antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Haminoea taylorae Petuch, 1987
Bullidae
Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850 (Figure 4.2J, K)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES
Naticidae
Haliotinella patinaria (Guppy, 1876)
Muricidae-Muricinae, Ocenebrinae
Calotrophon ostrearum (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 4.14K)
Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855) (Figure 4.14D–F)
Eupleura sulcidentata Dall, 1890 (Figure 4.14J)
Phyllonotus pomum (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.14A–C)
Vokesimurex rubidus (F.C. Baker, 1897)
Fasciolariidae
Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811)
Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.14G)
Triplofusus papillosus (Sowerby I, 1825) (Figure 4.14H)
2c. VERMIVORES
Conidae-Puncticulinae
Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942) (Figures 4.9A–F and 4.10A, B)
Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942)
Conilithidae-Conilithinae
Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830) (Figure 4.9G–L)
Drilliidae
Cerodrillia thea (Dall, 1889) (rare in the Florida Keys; common along western
Florida)
Raphitomidae
Daphnella lymnaeiformis (Kiener, 1840)
Pyrgocythara hemphilli Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Stellatoma stellata (Stearns, 1872)
2d. ECHINODERM FEEDERS

Ranellidae
Cymatium femorale (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.8G, H)
Cymatium (Ranularia) cynocephalum (Lamarck, 1816) (Figure 4.8I, J)
Gastropoda
Calyptraeidae
Crepidula ustulatulina Collin, 2002 (Figure 4.7J–L)
Bivalvia
Glycymeridae
Tucetona pectinata (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 4.13D)
Mytilidae
Musculus lateralis (Say, 1822)
Pteriidae
Pinctada longisquamosa (Dunker, 1852) (Figure 4.13B)
Pinnidae
Atrina rigida (Lightfoot, 1786) (Figure 4.16J)
Atrina seminuda (Lamarck, 1819)
Atrina serrata (Sowerby I, 1825)
Pinna carnea Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 4.16I)
Pectinidae
Antillipecten antillarum (Recluz, 1853) (Figure 4.12I, J)
Argopecten irradians taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 4.12A–D)
Argopecten nucleus (Born, 1778) (Figure 4.12E, F)
Lindapecten exasperatus (Sowerby II, 1842) (Figure 4.12G, H)
Crassitellidae
Crassinella lunulata (Conrad, 1834)
Carditidae
Carditamera floridana Conrad, 1838
Pteromeris perplana (Conrad, 1841)
Lyonsiidae
Entodesma beana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lyonsia floridana Conrad, 1849
Lucinidae
Anodontia alba Link, 1807 (Figure 4.16C)
Callucina keenae Chavan, 1971
Codakia orbicularis (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.16A)
Ctena orbiculata (Montagu, 1808) (Figure 4.13F)
Lucina pensylvanica (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.16B)
Lucinisca nassula (Conrad, 1846)
Parvilucina crenella (Dall, 1901)
Ungulinidae
Phlyctiderma semiaspera (Philippi, 1836)
Cardiidae
Dallocardium muricata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.16D)
Laevicardium mortoni (Conrad, 1830) (Figure 4.16F)
Laevicardium serratum (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 4.16E)
Veneridae
Chione elevata Say, 1822
Chione mazyckii Dall, 1902 (Figure 4.13G)

Dosinia discus (Reeve, 1850) (Figure 4.16G)
Dosinia elegans (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 4.16H)
Gouldia cerina (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Periglypta listeri (Gray, 1838) (Figure 4.13I)
Pitar fulminatus (Menke, 1828) (Figure 4.13H)
Pitar simpsoni (Dall, 1895)
Timoclea pygmaea (Lamarck, 1818)
Tellinidae
Angulus tampaensis (Conrad, 1866)
Arcopagia fausta (Pulteney, 1799) (Figure 4.13A)
Eurytellina alternata (Say, 1822)
Macoma brevifrons (Say, 1834)
Scissula candeana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Scissula similis (Sowerby I, 1806) (Figure 4.13C)
Tellidora cristata (Recluz, 1842)
Tellinella listeri (Röding, 1798) (Figure 4.13E)
Psammobiidae
Sanguinolaria sanguinolenta (Gmelin, 1791)
Semelidae
Abra aequalis (Say, 1822)
Cumingia vanhyningi Rehder, 1939
Solecurtidae
Tagelus divisus (Spengler, 1794)
Tagelus plebeius (Lightfoot, 1786)
Mactridae
Spisula raveneli (Conrad, 1832)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Modulus calusa Assemblage
shows that the faunule comprises a mixed ecosystem, with 16 herbivores, 44 carnivores,
and 52 filter feeders. The filter feeders, mostly infaunal bivalves, dominate the assemblage
and make up the largest biomass.
chapter five

hardbottom macrohabitat
Introduction
In the shallow-water areas of the Florida Keys, particularly in the channels between the
Lower Keys and along the smaller islands north of the Lower Keys, large expanses of
eroded limestone are exposed within the sublittoral zone, usually at depths of 1–3 m.
These heavily pitted carbonate rocks, with their microkarstic surfaces, are extensions of
the islands themselves and are covered with a thin veneer of carbonate sand. This coarse
surficial sediment layer, which constantly shifts with tidal movement, prevents the growth
of sea grasses and macroalgae. As a result, only organisms that can attach themselves to
the underlying solid rock surface can flourish in this type of environment. In other areas
of the Keys, primarily along the seaward sides of the Upper and Middle Keys, these sublit-
toral rocky platforms are devoid of the thin carbonate sand layer. Here, rock-boring sea
urchins have excavated large pits across the entire exposed rock surface, creating a unique
hardbottom habitat of miniature caves and cavities.
The Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat, with its exposed rock pavements,
houses three separate biotopes, each containing its own resident molluscan assemblage:
the Sponge Bioherm Biotope (“sponge reefs”), with the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage; the
Gorgonian Forest Biotope, with the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage; and the Rock-Boring Sea
Urchin Microcave Biotope, with the Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage. Several smaller,
ancillary demes also occur along the sand-covered open rock seafloors, the most notable
being the Yellow Mussel beds and their associated predatory muricid gastropod faunule.
In many areas, particularly in the channels between the Lower Keys, all of these types
of biotopes and their thin sand veneers (usually 1- to 10-cm thick) interfinger with Turtle
Grass beds and form a reticulated, “patchwork quilt” arrangement of habitats.
Molluscan ecology of the sponge bioherms

The shallow subtidal (1- to 3-m depths) oölitic limestone platforms found along the north-
ern sides of the Lower Florida Keys and within the intervening channels typically har-
bor large biohermal structures composed completely of various species of sponges. Many
of these sponges, such as the Green Sponge (Haliclona viridis), the Loggerhead Sponge
(Spheciospongia vesparia), the Vase Sponge (Ircinia campana; Figure 5.1), and the Cake Sponge
(Ircinia strobilina), attach directly to the rock substrate; others, such as the Branching
Candle Sponge (Verongia longissima) and the Sprawling Sponge (Neopetrosia longleyi), form
ropy intertwined masses that either lie on top of the thin sand layer or coil around the
larger attached species. On most of the sponge bioherms of the Lower Keys, at least 12
87
Figure 5.1 Close-up of a large Basket Sponge, Ircinia campana, growing in a sponge bioherm off
Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys. These sponge “reef” environments, which contain a large
number of unusual endemic species, typically support the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage of the
Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Ron Bopp.)
Chapter five: Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated hardbottom macrohabitat 89
to 14 different species of sponges occur together, producing a unique ecosystem unlike

any other found in the southeastern United States. This sponge “reef” environment was
recently found (Petuch and Sargent, 2011b) to contain a highly endemic malacofauna, also
unlike any other in the Florida Keys or adjacent areas.
Although not particularly species rich, and containing only around 29 gastropods
and 3 bivalves, the molluscan fauna of the sponge bioherms is highly localized and is
restricted to the sand-covered oölitic limestone platforms. One of the most character-
istic gastropods of the sponge bioherm areas is the Keys endemic drilliid gastropod,
Cerodrillia clappi (Figure 5.2D), and we have chosen this ecologically restricted species to
represent the entire molluscan faunule (the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage; the similar C.
perryae from western Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and the widespread C. thea are often
misidentified as the Keys endemic C. clappi). This distinctive little endemic turroidean
occurs together with a host of other sponge bioherm-associated endemic gastropod spe-
cies, including the muricid Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis (Figure 5.3D, E), the
nassariids Uzita websteri (Figure 5.3G, H) and Uzita swearingeni new species (described in
the Systematic Appendix at the end of this book); the busyconid Fulguropsis spiratum key-
sensis (Figure 5.4C); the slender, high-spired conid Gradiconus mazzolii (Figure 5.4F–K;
Figure 4.10 in Chapter 4), and the bullid Bulla frankovichi (Figure 5.4D, E, L). These
endemic taxa also occur together with a large complement of other toxoglossate gas-
tropods, such as the crassispirid Crassispira mesoleuca (Figure 5.2B), the zonulispirids
Zonulispira crocata and Pilsbryspira leucocyma (Figure 5.2F), the strictispirid Strictispira
redferni (Figure 5.2C), the raphitomid Pyrgocythara hemphilli (Figure 5.2E), and the dril-
liid Neodrillia blacki (Figure 5.2A). The species richness of this vermivorous turroi-
dean fauna, along with the conoideans Gradiconus mazzolii, Lindaconus atlanticus, and
Jaspidiconus pealii, indicates the presence of a diverse polychaete worm fauna with a
large biomass.
The sponge masses themselves host a small but interesting molluscan fauna, com-
prising one pectinid bivalve and several gastropods. Living near and within encrusting
sponges such as Haliclona rubens and Haliclona viridis, and frequently encased entirely in a
sponge coating, is the small spiny pectinid scallop, Lindapecten muscosus (Figure 5.4A, B).
This characteristic sponge scallop comes in a variety of colors, ranging from red to brown
and to bright yellow. Also buried in the sponge masses along with the sponge scallop is
the small turritellid worm gastropod, Vermicularia knorri (Figure 5.3F). This sessile Keys
sponge bioherm worm shell differs from typical specimens from elsewhere in Florida and
the Caribbean by having a much smaller, more tightly coiled shell, and it may actually
prove to represent a new endemic species or subspecies. Living on the surface of the large
sponge species such as Speciospongia vesparia is a small fauna of algivorous gastropods.
Primary among these are the turbinids Lithopoma americana and Turbo (Marmarostoma) cas-
tanea, both of which also occur in adjacent Turtle Grass beds. These turbinids scrape algal
films off the surface of the sponge pellis and frequently congregate in large numbers on
Loggerhead Sponges.
Biodiversity of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage

The distinctive and characteristic sponge-associated malacofauna of the Lower Florida
Keys, with its large number of endemic, ecologically restricted taxa, stands out as one of
the most unusual in the tropical western Atlantic. The members of the oölitic limestone
platform and sponge bioherm-dwelling Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage are listed here by
feeding type and ecological niche preference.
B
A D
C
F
H
K
I J L
Figure 5.2 Mollusks of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage and the Yellow Mussel beds. A = Neodrillia
blacki Petuch, 2004, length 23.4 mm. This large drilliid possibly may be a shallow-water form or sub-
species of the larger, deeper-water Neodrillia moseri (Dall, 1889). B = Crassispira mesoleuca Rehder, 1943,
length 13.5 mm (endemic to the Florida Keys). C = Strictispira redferni Tippett, 2006, length 16.5 mm.
D = Cerodrillia clappi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939, length 12 mm. E = Pyrgocythara hemphilli Bartsch and
Rehder, 1943, length 8.2 mm. F = Pilsbryspira leucocyma (Dall, 1883), length 11 mm. G = Favartia pacei
Petuch, 1988, length 15.6 mm. Animal and foot are pure white in color. H = Favartia cellulosa (Conrad,
1846), length 12 mm. Animal and foot are pale orange in color. I, J = Murexiella caitlinae Petuch, new
species. Holotype, length 30 mm. Often referred to as M. mcgintyi, which is actually a late Pliocene–
early Pleistocene fossil (see Systematic Appendix). K = Murexiella glypta (M. Smith, 1938), length 18 mm.
L = Brachidontes modiolus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 29 mm. Varies in color from yellow to black.
A
C
F
H
G
I
J
K L
Figure 5.3 Mollusks of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage. A = Columbella mercatoria (Linnaeus, 1758),
length 13.6 mm. B = Vexillum exiguum (C.B. Adams, 1845), length 7 mm. (= V. hanleyi Dohrn, 1861)
C = Vexillum moniliferum (C.B. Adams, 1850), length 9 mm. (= V. albocinctum C.B. Adams) D, E =
Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis (Sowerby III, 1900), length 28.4 mm. (Note the bright purple
aperture and high spire that are characteristic of this distinctive ecomorph). F = Vermicularia knorri
(Deshayes, 1843), length 22 mm. G, H = Uzita websteri (Petuch and Sargent, 2011), holotype, length 8
mm. I = Uzita consensa (Ravenel, 1861), length 9 mm. J, K = Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers, new
species, length 7 mm. (holotype; see Systematic Appendix) L = Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers,
new species, length 8.5 mm.
A B
C
D
F
I K
J
L
1. HERBIVORES (including algal film grazers)

Turbinidae
Astralium phoebia Röding, 1798
Lithopoma americana (Gmelin, 1791)
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea (Gmelin, 1791)
2. CARNIVORES
Nassariidae
Uzita consensa (Ravenel, 1861) (Figure 5.3I)
Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 5.3J–L) (see Systematic
Appendix)
Uzita websteri (Petuch and Sargent, 2011) (Figure 5.3G, H)
Columbellidae
Columbella mercatoria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 5.3A)
Columbella rusticoides Heilprin, 1886
Costellariidae
Vexillum exiguum (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 5.3B) (= hanleyi Dohrn, 1861)
Vexillum moniliferum (C.B. Adams, 1850) (Figure 5.3C) (incorrectly referred to as
Vexillum albocinctum C.B. Adams, which is a nomen dubium)
Marginellidae
Prunum carneum (Storer, 1837)
Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn, 1817)
Bullidae
Bulla frankovichi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.4D, E, L)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling molluscivores)
Muricidae-Muricinae
Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855)
Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis (Sowerby III, 1900) (Figure 5.3D, E)
Fasciolariidae
Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dolicholatirus cayohuesonicus (Sowerby II, 1878)
Figure 5.4 Mollusks of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage. A = Lindapecten muscosus (Wood, 1828),
length 20 mm, yellow color form. B = Lindapecten muscosus (Wood, 1828), length 27 mm, normal color
form. C = Fulguropsis spiratum keysensis Petuch, 2013, holotype, length 57.8 mm. This endemic Florida
Keys subspecies of the Texan and Yucatanean Fulguropsis spiratum spiratum has the same aperture
sculpture as the nominate subspecies but differs in having more numerous and much coarser spi-
ral cords on the body whorl and spire. This is the most strongly sculptured and ornate member
of the genus Fulguropsis. Compare with the smooth Fulguropsis pyruloides (Figure 7.14). D, E = Bulla
frankovichi Petuch and Sargent, 2011, holotype, length 10.2 mm. (Note the slender shell shape, very
narrow aperture, flat spire, and four dark brown color bands that distinguish this sponge bioherm-
dwelling species from the much larger, mud-flat-dwelling Bulla occidentalis; see Figure 4.5A, B). F,
G = Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011. Holotype, length 16.7 mm. H = Gradiconus mazzolii
Petuch and Sargent, 2011, length 20.8 mm. I = Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011, dark
color form, length 22 mm. J = Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011, length 19.4 mm. K =
Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011, striped color form, 21 mm. For an illustration of the
living animal of Gradiconus mazzolii, see Figure 4.10 in Chapter 4. L = Bulla frankovichi Petuch and
Sargent, 2011, pale color variant, length 9 mm.
Busyconidae
Fulguropsis spiratum keysensis Petuch, 2013 (Figure 5.4C)
2c. VERMIVORES
Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.4F–K; Figure 4.10C, D in
Chapter 4)
Lindaconus atlanticus (Petuch, 1942)
Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830)
Drilliidae
Cerodrillia clappi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939 (Figure 5.2D)
Neodrillia blacki Petuch, 2004 (Figure 5.2A)
Strictispiridae
Strictispira redferni Tippett, 2006 (Figure 5.2C)
Raphitomidae
Pyrgocythara hemphilli Bartsch and Rehder, 1939 (Figure 5.2E)
Turridae
Crassispira mesoleuca Rehder, 1943 (Figure 5.2B)
Zonulispiridae
Pilsbryspira leucocyma (Dall, 1883) (Figure 5.2F)
Zonulispira crocata (Reeve, 1845) (= sanibelensis Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Vermicularia knorri (Deshayes, 1843) (Figure 5.3F)
Vermicularia spirata (Philippi, 1836)
Bivalvia
Pectinidae
Lindapecten muscosus (Wood, 1828) (Figure 5.4A, B)
Glycymeridae
Tucetona pectinata (Gmelin, 1791)
Tellinidae
Scissula similis (Sowerby I, 1806)
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage
shows that gastropod carnivores dominate the ecosystem, with 26 species divided
between general carnivores and scavengers and specialized feeders such as vermivores,
and molluscivores.
Mollusks of the Yellow Mussel beds

Beds of the Yellow Mussel, Brachidontes modiolus (Figure 5.2L; varies in color from yel-
low to black), occur in scattered patches on open carbonate sand bottoms adjacent to the
sponge bioherms and Turtle Grass meadows. These small mytilid bivalves form dense
aggregations, with byssally anchored individuals literally touching one another and with
just a small amount of fine sediment filling in between each shell. All of the individual
mussels are oriented in the same direction, with the gaping posterior ends of their shells
protruding slightly above the sediment layer in which they are buried. This almost solidly
packed amalgamation of individuals often covers many square meters of shallow sea-
floor and provides the habitat for several predatory muricid gastropods. Throughout the
Florida Keys, these buried mussel beds occur most frequently in channels and open sand
areas where there is a swift current during tidal changes. The best-developed mussel beds
have been found along the shorelines of southernmost Key Largo (Harry Harris Park),
Plantation Key, Vaca Key (Three Sisters Rocks), and Missouri Key.
The Yellow Mussels are subject to heavy predation by several small muricid gastro-
pods, all of which drill holes through the shells of their bivalve prey with their specialized
radular teeth. Once the hole is drilled, the muricids insert their proboscises and feed on
the soft tissues of the mytilids, consuming the entire animal. Although some species can
occur in other environments throughout the Keys, three of the four muricids found on the
Brachidontes modiolus beds are most frequently encountered on the mytilid aggregations,
usually nestled down between the individual mussels. These include the following preda-
tory species:
Gastropoda
Muricidae-Muricopsinae
Favartia cellulosa (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 5.2H)
Favartia pacei Petuch, 1988 (Figure 5.2G)
Murexiella glypta (M. Smith, 1938) (Figure 5.2K)
Murexiella caitlinae Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 5.2I, J) (see Systematic
Appendix)
Of special importance in this mytilid deme is the presence of the Keys endemic species
Murexiella caitlinae, which appears to be ecologically tightly bound to the Yellow Mussel
beds. This large and impressive muricid, which is found mostly in the Brachidontes modio-
lus beds, has been referred to by most previous authors as Murexiella mcgintyi. That spe-
cies, however, is an ancestral fossil taxon that was originally described from the early
Pleistocene Caloosahatchee Formation of southern Florida (Gelasian Age). The living spe-
cies and its fossil ancestor differ considerably in shell morphology, and these differences
are discussed in the Systematic Appendix at the end of this book. Another small sympatric
muricid, Murexiella glypta, was also named from earliest Pleistocene fossil specimens, and
the living representative does have a number of subtle morphological differences. Future
research, involving the comparison of the morphometrics of the living and fossil forms,
may show that the Recent Keys glypta actually represents another new, unnamed species.
Molluscan ecology of the gorgonian forests

On many of the exposed limestone platforms around the Keys, in depths of 1 to 3 m, an
unusually rich fauna of octocorallian cnidarians forms immense thickets, typically car-
peting the seafloor (Figure 5.5). These shallow-water gorgonian forests are made up of as
many as 16 separate species, some of which include the Sea Whips Pterogorgia anceps and
Pterogorgia citrina, the Sea Plumes Antillogorgia americana and Antillogorgia acerosa, the Sea
Rod Plexaura flexuosa, the Corky Sea Fingers Briareum asbestinum, and Palmer’s Eunicea
Eunicea palmeri, a species that is endemic to the Florida Keys area. The gorgonian thickets
of the Florida Keys house the largest shallow-water ovulid gastropod fauna found any-
where else in the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean Sea. This remarkable fauna of ovulids (“Egg
Cowries”) lives in close association with the gorgonians, feeding on the octocoral colonies
Figure 5.5 View of a gorgonian octocoral thicket off Dania Beach, Florida, showing the Sea Whips
Eunicea and Plexaurella, the Sea Plume Antillogorgia, and the Sea Fan Gorgonia ventalina. These types of
gorgonian aggregations house a large fauna of cnidarian-feeding ovulid gastropods, including endemic
species such as Cyphoma sedlaki and Cyphoma rhomba. This type of environment supports the Cyphoma
rhomba Assemblage of the Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
by cropping individual polyps. The ovulid gastropods move around the gorgonian colony,
grazing on the polyps, while the octocoral colony regenerates the half-eaten polyps in a
non-ending cycle. As is presently understood, eight different species of ovulids live on
these gorgonian forests, including five species of the genus Cyphoma and one each of the
genera Pseudocyphoma, Cymbovula, and Simnialena. We have chosen the endemic Florida
Keys species Cyphoma rhomba (Figure 5.6G, H) to represent the entire molluscan faunule
(as the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage).
Living with Cyphoma rhomba on the gorgonians, often in abundance, are four other
congeneric species (all referred to as “Flamingo Tongues”): the wide-ranging Caribbean
Cyphoma gibbosum (Figure 5.6A–C) and Cyphoma signatum (Figure 5.6I), the widespread
Carolinian Province Cyphoma mcgintyi (Figure 5.6D–F), and the tiny, rare Keys endemic
Cyphoma sedlaki (Figure 5.6J). The color patterns of the exposed mantle tissue of the five
Flamingo Tongues all differ greatly and can be used to tell the various species apart (see
Figure 5.6 for illustrations of the preserved mantle color patterns). The multiple species of
Cyphoma all live together with the rare Caribbean Pseudocyphoma intermedium (Figure 5.6K)
and the small, thin, and delicate Cymbovula acicularis and Simnialena uniplicata. Attached to
the different gorgonian species by hook-like shell prongs is the ostreid bivalve Dendostrea
frons (Figure 5.6L), often referred to as the “Gorgonian Oyster” or “Coon Oyster.” These
bizarre, heavily rippled oysters conform to the shape and thickness of their resident gor-
gonian, often taking on an elongated body form.
Biodiversity of the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage

All the members of the gorgonian-dwelling Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage live in close asso-
ciation with the octocoral colonies, either as predators on the living polyps or as ectocom-
mensals that attach themselves to the gorgonian stems. These are listed here by feeding
type and ecological niche preference.
1. CARNIVORES (including cnidarian feeders)

Gastropoda
Ovulidae
Cymbovula acicularis (Lamarck, 1810)
Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 5.6A–C)
Cyphoma mcgintyi Pilsbry, 1939 (Figure 5.6D–F)
Cyphoma rhomba Cate, 1978 (Figure 5.6G, H)
Cyphoma sedlaki Cate, 1976 (Figure 5.6J)
Cyphoma signatum Pilsbry and McGinty, 1939 (Figure 5.6I)
Pseudocyphoma intermedium (Sowerby II, 1828) (Figure 5.6K)
Simnialena uniplicata (Sowerby II, 1849)
Bivalvia
Pteriidae
Pteria colymbus (Röding, 1798) (attached to gorgonians)
Ostreidae
Dendostrea frons (Linnaeus, 1758) (attached to gorgonians; Figure 5.6L)
A review of the feeding preferences of the members of the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage
shows that cnidarivore predators dominate the ecosystem.
A
C
D
B F
H
K
J L
Figure 5.6 Mollusks of the Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage. A, B = Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758),
length 28.7 mm. C = Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758), length 37 mm. Specimen with preserved
mantle, showing color pattern. D, E = Cyphoma mcgintyi Pilsbry, 1939, length 37.6 mm. F = Cyphoma
mcgintyi Pilsbry, 1939, length 27.7 mm. Specimen with preserved mantle, showing color pattern.
G, H = Cyphoma rhomba Cate, 1978, length 16.9 mm. Endemic to the Florida Keys. I = Cyphoma sig-
natum Pilsbry and McGinty, 1939, length 33.4 mm. J = Cyphoma sedlaki Cate, 1976, length 13.5 mm.
Endemic to the Florida Keys. K = Pseudocyphoma intermedium (Sowerby II, 1828), length 26.5 mm. L =
Dendostrea frons (Linnaeus, 1758), length 41 mm. (Note the hook-like shell prongs that are attached
to the fragment of gorgonian skeleton.)
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral exposed hardbottoms

On the shallow subtidal limestone platforms of the Florida Keys, large aggregations of
the rock-boring sea urchins Echinometra lucunter and Echinometra viridis excavate innu-
merable cavities and pits and create a distinctive, highly eroded seafloor (Figure 5.7).
Using their spines as rasps, these specialized urchins carve out rounded microcaves
and spend their entire lives within their small, self-created worlds. As the echinoids
move around their caves while they feed on algal films, they gradually enlarge their liv-
ing spaces, and these often anastomose and connect with other microcaves to produce
a labyrinth of open cavities. This microcosm of interconnected hidden spaces provides
a sheltered habitat for a small but characteristic molluscan assemblage. Because the
cerithiid gastropod Bayericerithium litteratum (Figure 5.8C, D) is abundant here, we have
chosen this small cerith to represent the entire molluscan faunule (the Bayericerithium
litteratum Assemblage).
Several small sessile bivalves live within the labyrinthine caves of these rock sur-
faces, all attached by their strong byssal threads. These include the arcids Arca imbri-
cata (Figure 5.8H), Arca zebra (Figure 5.8L), Acar domingensis, Barbatia cancellaria, and
Cucullearca candida (with the last three species also occurring in the Cerithium lutosum
Assemblage) and the mytilid Modiolus americanus (Figure 5.8J). The sea urchin cavi-
ties also shelter a small fauna of suspension-feeding sessile gastropods, including
the encrusting vermetid Serpulorbis decussatus (Figure 5.8G), the hipponicid Hipponix
antiquatus (Figure 5.8F), and the calyptraeid spiny slipper shell Bostrycapulus aculeatus
(Figure 5.8I). These sessile forms, along with barnacles, provide the food source for
several voracious small carnivorous gastropods, including the fasciolariid Leucozonia
nassa (Figure 5.8E) and the buccinids Gemophos tinctus (Figure 5.8A, B) and Pisania pusio
(Figure 5.8K). Along many of the intertidal areas of the Florida Keys, the shallow sublit-
toral Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage intergrades with the littoral Cerithium luto-
sum Assemblage in a broad ecotonal system. The sea urchin minicaves also house a
large fauna of polyplacophoran chitons, several of which may prove to be new endemic
species.
Biodiversity of the Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage

The malacofauna of the open limestone platforms and sea urchin cavities is relatively
impoverished, comprising only a few species. The members of the Bayericerithium littera-
tum Assemblage, listed here by feeding type and ecological niche, are:

Gastropoda
Cerithiidae
Bayericerithium litteratum (Born, 1778) (Figure 5.8C, D)
2. CARNIVORES (Molluscivores)
Gastropoda
Fasciolariidae
Leucozonia nassa (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 5.8E)
Buccinidae
Gemophos tinctus (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 5.8A, B)
Pisania pusio (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 5.8K)
100
Figure 5.7 Close-up of a highly eroded hardbottom seafloor off Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys, showing the rock-boring sea urchin
Echinometra lucunter. These echinoids use their spines to excavate deep cavities into the soft limestone, creating a system of interconnected mini-
caves and crevices. This type of environment supports the Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage of the Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat.
(Photograph by Ron Bopp.)
C
A
B D
J K
L
Figure 5.8 Mollusks of the Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage. A, B = Gemophos tinctus (Conrad,
1846), length 27.7 mm. C, D = Bayericerithium litteratum (Born, 1778), length 28 mm. E = Leucozonia
nassa (Gmelin, 1791), length 37 mm. F = Hipponix antiquatus (Linnaeus, 1767), length 14 mm. G =
Serpulorbis decussatus (Gmelin, 1791), length 28 mm. H = Arca imbricata Bruguiere, 1789, length 52
mm. I = Bostrycapulus aculeatus (Gmelin, 1791), length 19 mm. J = Modiolus americanus (Leach, 1815),
length 40 mm. K = Pisania pusio (Linnaeus, 1758), length 32 mm. L = Arca zebra (Swainson, 1833),
length 54 mm.
Gastropoda
Vermetidae
Dendropoma corrodens (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Petaloconchus mcgintyi (Olsson and Harbison, 1953)
Petaloconchus varians (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Serpulorbis decussatus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 5.8G)
Capulidae
Capulus (Krebsia) incurvatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Hipponicidae
Hipponix antiquatus (Linnaeus, 1767) (Figure 5.8F)
Hipponix subrufus (Lamarck, 1819)
Calyptraeidae
Bostrycapulus aculeatus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 5.8I)
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Arca imbricata Bruguiere, 1789 (Figure 5.8H)
Arca zebra (Swainson, 1833) (Figure 5.8L)
Barbatia cancellaria (Lamarck, 1811)
Cucullearca candida (Helbling, 1779)
Mytilidae
Modiolus americanus (Leach, 1815) (Figure 5.8J)
Pteriidae
Pteria colymbus (Röding, 1798)
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Bayericerithium lit-
teratum Assemblage shows that the suspension feeders dominate the ecosystem.
chapter six

softbottom macrohabitat
Introduction
Vast areas of the shallow waters off the Florida Keys are composed of thick accumula-
tions of carbonate sand and mud that, characteristically, are devoid of sea grasses and
macroalgae. Typically, these submarine “deserts” occur in areas of strong tidal currents,
which produce rapidly shifting sediments that are not conducive to plant growth. As is
frequently observed, the open unvegetated softbottom areas are scattered among sea
grass beds and mangrove forests, usually in tidal channels, and often intergrade into
these other environments in broad ecotonal transition zones (Figure 6.1). In the Florida
Keys, two main unvegetated softbottom areas occur, both of which are bathymetrically
controlled: the Intertidal Open Carbonate Mudflats, which are found primarily along
the intertidal zone of the South Florida Bight sides of the islands; and the Sublittoral
Open Carbonate Sand Seafloors, which are found primarily within the deeper waters
of the Hawk Channel between the Keys and the offshore reef tract. Each of these soft
sediment macrohabitats contains its own resident molluscan assemblage, and those
of the Hawk Channel habitats are now known to harbor a large number of endemic
species.
Molluscan ecology of the intertidal open mudflats

Although not particularly species rich, and encompassing only around 34 species
of mollusks, the unvegetated mudflats of the Florida Keys typically house immense
aggregations of these gastropods and bivalves. The most obvious inhabitant of the
exposed mudflats is the small batillariid gastropod Batillaria minima (Figure 6.2C, D),
which is so abundant that we have designated it to be the namesake of the entire
molluscan faunule (the Batillaria minima Assemblage). This molluscan assemblage also
contains some of the largest mollusks found within the intertidal zone, including the
Left-Handed Whelk, Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Figure 6.3E), the second-largest gastro-
pod found in Florida, and the Campeche Venus, Mercenaria campechiensis (Figure 6.2E),
one of the largest Florida bivalves. These gigantic mollusks occur along with a host of
smaller, shallowly buried bivalves, including the venerids Chione elevata (Figure 6.2A)
and Anomalocardia cuneimeris (Figure 6.3G); arcids such as Anadara transversa, Anadara
floridana, Caloosarca notabilis (Figure 6.3I), Lunarca ovalis, and Scapharca brasiliana
(Figure 6.3K); the noetiid Noetia ponderosa (Figure 6.3J); the donacid Iphigenia brasiliana
(Figure 6.2B); the multicolored psammobiid Asaphis deflorata (Figure 6.2K); the lucinid
103
104
Figure 6.1 Close-up of an aggregation of living Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) crawling on an exposed mudflat in Lake Worth, Palm Beach County,
Florida. This type of intertidal biotope supports the Batillaria minima Assemblage of the Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by
Eddie Matchett.)
Chapter six: Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated softbottom macrohabitat 105
A B
E D
I
F
J
H
L K
Figure 6.2 Mollusks of the Batillaria minima Assemblage. A = Chione elevata Say, 1822, width 23 mm.
B = Iphigenia brasiliana (Lamarck, 1818), length 45 mm. C, D = Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791), length
13 mm. E = Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791), width 81 mm. F = Tagelus plebeius (Lightfoot,
1786), length 29 mm. G = Neritina (vitta) virginea (Linnaeus, 1758), length 12 mm. H = Cyrtopleura
costata (Linnaeus, 1758), length 131 mm. I = Neritina (vitta) clenchi Russel, 1940, length 13 mm. J =
Neritina (vitta) usnea (Röding, 1798), length 13 mm. K = Asaphis deflorata (Linnaeus, 1758), length 42
mm. L = Tagelus divisus (Spengler, 1794), length 28 mm.
B C
A
H
E
L
J K
Figure 6.3 Mollusks of the Batillaria minima Assemblage. A, B = Phrontis polygonatus (Lamarck, 1822),
length 11 mm. C, D = Phrontis vibex (Say, 1822), length 10 mm. E = Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Hollister,
1958), length 185 mm. F = Olivella (Dactylidia) pusilla (Marrat, 1871), length 7 mm. G = Anomalocardia
cuneimeris (Conrad, 1846), length 12 mm. H = Raeta plicatella (Lamarck, 1818), length 41 mm. I =
Caloosarca notabilis (Röding, 1798), length 45 mm. J = Noetia ponderosa (Say, 1822), length 46 mm.
K = Scapharca brasiliana (Lamarck, 1819), length 58 mm. L = Divalinga quadrisulcata (d’Orbigny, 1842),
length 19 mm.
Divalinga quadrisulcata (Figure 6.3L); and the solecurtid razor clams Tagelus divisus
(Figure 6.2L) and Tagelus plebeius (Figure 6.2F). These bivalves are the principal food
resource for the large busyconid Sinistrofulgur sinistrum, which opens its clam prey by
chipping the valve edges with the chisel-like blade of its shell’s lip and then inserting
its tooth-filled proboscis.
The open intertidal mudflats of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas also harbor an
interesting and characteristic fauna of small gastropods, all of which occur in large aggre-
gations of thousands of individuals. The most important of these is a species radiation of
estuarine, mud-adapted neritids, including Neritina (vitta) clenchi Russel, 1940 (Figure 6.2I),
Neritina (vitta) usnea (Figure 6.2J), and Neritina (vitta) virginea (Figure 6.2G), which feed
on algal films on the mud surface; and small scavengers such as the nassariids Phrontis
polygonatus (Figure 6.3A, B) and Phrontis vibex (Figure 6.3C, D) and the olivellid Olivella
(Dactylidia) pusilla (Figure 6.3F). The mudflats also harbor a small but important fauna
of deeply burrowing infaunal bivalves, including the pearly periplomatid Periploma mar-
garitaceum; the pholadiform venerid Petricolaria pholadiformis; the pholadids Barnea trun-
cata, Pholas campechiensis, and Cyrtopleura costata (Figure 6.2H); and the paper-thin mactrids
Anatina anatina and Raeta plicatella (Figure 6.3H). Several of these mudflat gastropods and
bivalves also occur in the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage, which has a similar bathymetric
range and soft-sediment biotope.
Biodiversity of the Batillaria minima Assemblage

The members of the unvegetated intertidal mudflat-dwelling Batillaria minima Assemblage
are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche preference.
1. HERBIVORES (including algal film feeders)

Gastropoda
Neritidae
Neritina (vitta) clenchi Russel, 1940 (Figure 6.2I)
Neritina (vitta) usnea (Röding, 1798) (Figure 6.2J)
Neritina (vitta) virginea (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.2G)
Assimineidae
Assiminea succinea (Pfeiffer, 1840)
Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.2C, D)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. MOLLUSCIVORES
Busyconidae
Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Hollister, 1958) (Figure 6.3E)
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827)
2b. GENERAL CARNIVORES/SCAVENGERS
Nassariidae
Phrontis polygonatus (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 6.3A, B)
Phrontis vibex (Say, 1822) (Figure 6.3C, D)
Marginellidae
Cystiscidae-Granulininae
Olivellidae
Olivella (Dactylidia) pusilla (Marrat, 1871) (Figure 6.3F)
Bullidae
Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Anadara floridana (Conrad, 1869)
Anadara transversa (Say, 1822)
Caloosarca notabilis (Röding, 1798) (Figure 6.3I)
Scapharca brasiliana (Lamarck, 1819) (Figure 6.3K)
Noetiidae
Noetia ponderosa (Say, 1822) (Figure 6.3J)
Periplomatidae
Periploma margaritaceum (Lamarck, 1801)
Lucinidae
Divalinga quadrisulcata (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 6.3L)
Phacoides pectinata (Gmelin, 1791)
Veneridae
Anomalocardia cuneimeris (Conrad, 1846) (Figure 6.3G)
Chione elevata Say, 1822 (Figure 6.2A)
Macrocallista nimbosa (Lightfoot, 1786)
Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.2E)
Petricolaria pholadiformis (Lamarck, 1818)
Tellinidae
Macoma tenta (Say, 1834)
Donacidae
Iphigenia brasiliana (Lamarck, 1818) (Figure 6.2B)
Psammobiidae
Asaphis deflorata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.2K)
Solecurtidae
Tagelus divisus (Spengler, 1794) (Figure 6.2L)
Tagelus plebeius (Lightfoot, 1786) (Figure 6.2F)
Mactridae
Anatina anatina (Spengler, 1802)
Raeta plicatella (Lamarck, 1818) (Figure 6.3H)
Pholadidae
Barnea truncata (Say, 1822)
Cyrtopleura costata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.2H)
Pholas campechiensis Gmelin, 1791
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Batillaria minima
Assemblage shows that the suspension/filter feeders dominate the ecosystem and make
up the greater portion of the biomass.
Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral

open carbonate sand seafloors
The unvegetated carbonate sand seafloors, in depths of 1 to 20 m, house the second-largest
molluscan assemblage found in the Florida Keys area. With over 152 species of resident
mollusks, the malacofauna of these open sand substrates is comparable in species rich-
ness only to the molluscan assemblage found on the coral reef tract platforms (with over
192 species). Along the Keys archipelago, most of the seafloors of this type are concen-
trated within the Hawk Channel and run in a narrow band from Key Biscayne south
to the Marquesas Keys. Large patches of this open carbonate sand substrate also occur
in the channels between the Lower Keys (Figure 6.5), near the Marquesas Keys and Dry
Tortugas, and in Florida Bay along the western sides of the Upper Keys. One of the most
characteristic open sand seafloor gastropods found in these areas (Figures 6.6) is the Moon
Snail Polinices lacteus (Figure 6.4G), which is restricted to clean carbonate sand substrates
and is here chosen to represent the entire macrohabitat (the Polinices lacteus Assemblage).
The sand seafloors of the Hawk Channel contain one of the richest macrobivalve fau-
nas found in the tropical western Atlantic, with over 87 species in 48 genera and belong-
ing to 14 different families (see species list at the end of this section). Of these, the family
Tellinidae is the largest, containing at least 32 species and including conspicuous forms
such as Laciolina magna (Figure 6.7I) and Eurytellina lineata (Figure 6.7K). Second in spe-
cies richness to the Tellinidae are the Venus Clams of the family Veneridae, with over 18
species. The largest of the venerids, and also one of the most conspicuous species, is the
Checker-Board Venus, Callista maculata (Figure 6.7H), which occurs in the deeper parts of
the Hawk Channel. This very large bivalve fauna, which also includes the pectinid scal-
lops Argopecten gibbus (6.7J) and Nodipecten fragosus (Figure 6.7L) and the semelid Semele
purpurascens (Figure 6.7M), serves as the principal food resource for an exceptionally large
and distinctive fauna of drilling molluscivorous naticid gastropods, including the afore-
mentioned Polinices lacteus (Figure 6.4G), the small Polinices uberinus (Figure 6.6H), the
highly colored Naticarius canrena (Figure 6.4F), Stigmaulax sulcatus (Figure 6.4M), and the
flattened Sinum maculosum (Figure 6.8J).
A large fauna of general carnivores and scavengers also occurs on the open carbon-
ate sand substrate areas, some of which include the nassariids Uzita alba (Figure 6.4I, J),
Uzita paucicostata (Figure 6.4K, L), and Uzita antillarum; the olivellids Jaspidella jaspidea
(Figure 6.7A), Olivella (Dactylidia) dealbata (Figure 6.7B), Olivella floralia (Figure 6.7C), and
Olivella (Dactylidia) mutica (Figure 6.7E); the olivid Americoliva bollingi (and its color form
pattersoni; Figure 6.8A–E); the volutid Scaphella junonia elizabethae (Figure 6.8G, H); the
marginellid Hyalina avenacea (Figure 6.8K); and the cystiscids Gibberula lavalleeana and
Pugnus serrei. The coarse coralline sand also supports a rich fauna of infaunal polychaete
worms, which are the principal prey items of a diverse vermivorous gastropod fauna,
some of which include the terebrids Hastula hastata (Figure 6.7D), Strioterebrum protex-
tum (Figure 6.7F), Myurellina taurina (Figure 6.8F), and Strioterebrum dislocatum onslowensis
(Figure 6.7G; a subspecies, or possibly full species, that is found in clean carbonate sedi-
ments near coral bioherms off North Carolina and Florida); the conids Dauciconus daucus
(Figure 6.9A), Attenuiconus attenuatus (Figure 6.9B), Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus
(Figure 6.9C, D), and Lindaconus atlanticus (Figure 6.9E, F); and the conilithids Jaspidiconus
fluviamaris (Figure 6.9G, H), Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Figure 6.9I, J), and Jaspidiconus pfluegeri
(Figure 6.9K–M). All of these vermivores bury themselves in the sand during the day and
become active at night, when they search for their free-crawling sea worm prey. Another
C
A
E
G
K
J L M
Figure 6.4 Gastropods of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage. A, B = Semicassis granulata (Born, 1778),
length 64 mm. C, D = Semicassis cicatricosa (Gmelin, 1791), length 32 mm. E = Casmaria atlantica
Clench, 1944, length 26 mm. F = Naticarius canrena (Linnaeus, 1758), width 28 mm. G = Polinices lac-
teus (Guilding, 1834), length 24 mm. H = Polinices uberinus (d’Orbigny, 1842), length 14 mm. I, J = Uzita
alba (Say, 1826), length 7 mm. K, L = Uzita paucicostata (Marrat, 1877), length 8 mm. M = Stigmaulax
sulcatus (Born, 1778), length 18 mm.
Chapter six: Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated softbottom macrohabitat
Figure 6.5 View of an open carbonate sand seafloor off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys, showing the red spiny sea star Echinaster. This type
111
of environment supports the Polinices lacteus Assemblage of the Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Ron Bopp.)
C
A B
E
G
K
I
J
L
Figure 6.6 Gastropods of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage. A, B = Macrostrombus costatus (Gmelin,
1791), length 114 mm. C, D = Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758, length 83 mm. E, F = Strombus alatus
Gmelin, 1791, length 99 mm. G, H = Cassis spinella Clench, 1944, length 263 mm. I, J = Cassis mada-
gascariensis Lamarck, 1822, length 272 mm. K, L = Cassis tuberosa (Linnaeus, 1758), length 173 mm.
carnivorous gastropod, the cancellariid Cancellaria adelae (Figure 6.8I), possibly feeds on

sleeping stingrays, inserting its proboscis and needle-like teeth into the gill chambers
and sucking the blood from the gill filaments.
The open sand seafloors also house a large fauna of irregular echinoid echino-
derms (Heart Urchins and Cake Urchins), including large species with thin tests such as
Plagiobrissus grandis and Meoma ventricosa, and several species of flattened sand dollars,
including Mellita quinquesperforata and Mellita sexiesperforata. The large, inflated Meoma and
Plagiobrissus echinoids serve as the principal food source for three large echinoid-feeding
cassid gastropods, including Cassis spinella (a Carolinian Molluscan Province endemic spe-
cies; Figure 6.6G, H), Cassis madagascariensis (a Caribbean Molluscan Province species that
ranges to Florida; Figure 6.6I, J), and Cassis tuberosa (a widespread western Atlantic species;
Figure 6.6K, L). These large species occur together with three smaller cassids: Semicassis
granulata (Figure 6.4A, B), Semicassis cicatricosa (Figure 6.4C, D), and Casmaria atlantica
(Figure 6.4E), all of which feed on the abundant Mellita sand dollars. In a similar fashion
to the naticids, these cassids use their radular teeth to rasp holes in the thin tests of the
echinoids and tear into the internal organs. The large tonnid gastropods Tonna galea and
Tonna pennata (Figure 6.8L) also feed on sand-dwelling echinoderms, in this case several
species of infaunal holothurians sea cucumbers.
Interestingly, the only prominent algivores found on this open carbonate sand macro-
habitat are strombid gastropods. Two of these algivores, the small Florida Fighting Conch
(Strombus alatus, a Carolinian Molluscan Province endemic species; Figure 6.6E, F) and the
Caribbean Fighting Conch (Strombus pugilis, a Caribbean Molluscan Province species that
ranges into southern Florida; Figure 6.6C, D), live in huge shoal-like aggregations, often
numbering in the thousands of individuals. These small fighting conchs crawl across the
open seafloor, utilizing their long, elephantine proboscises to feed on the algal films that
grow on the sand surface. Occurring with the small Strombus species, but never as abun-
dantly, is the Milk Conch, Macrostrombus costatus (Figure 6.6A, B). This conch with a much
larger shell often feeds on blue-green algal films and can accumulate toxins (especially
ciguatoxins) within its tissues, producing ciguatera poisoning in any human who con-
sumes it.
Biodiversity of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage

The open sand substrates of the Hawk Channel and adjacent areas house a number
of important endemic Florida Keys and southeastern Florida mollusks. Some of these
include gastropods such as the cancellariid Cancellaria adelae; the shallow-water volutid
Scaphella junonia elizabethae; the conid Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus (which ranges
from Palm Beach to the Dry Tortugas); and the conilithids Jaspidiconus fluviamaris (which
ranges from Palm Beach to the Dry Tortugas), Jaspidiconus pfluegeri (which ranges from
eastern Florida to the Middle Florida Keys; several specimens were recently collected
on open sand areas off Missouri Key), and Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (which ranges from
Palm Beach to the Upper Keys); and the bivalve Tivela floridana (also found along the
Palm Beach coast). For illustrations of the bivalves listed here (under Suspension/Filter
Feeders), see Mikkelsen and Bieler (2008). The members of the sublittoral open carbonate
sand-dwelling Polinices lacteus Assemblage are listed here according to feeding type and
ecological niche preferences.
1. HERBIVORES (including algal film feeders)

Gastropoda
Strombidae
Macrostrombus costatus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.6A, B)
Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 6.6E, F)
Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758 (Figure 6.6C, D)
Architectonicidae (also feeds on foraminifera)
Architectonica nobilis Röding, 1798
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
Eulimidae (only large species listed here; possibly feed on sand-dwelling zoantherians)
Niso aeglees Bush, 1885
Niso hendersoni Bartsch, 1953
Buccinidae
Antillophos candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1842) (in deeper areas of the Hawk Channel)
Nassariidae
Uzita alba (Say, 1826) (Figure 6.4I, J)
Uzita antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Uzita paucicostata (Marrat, 1877) (Figure 6.4K, L)
Olivellidae
Jaspidella blanesi (Ford, 1898)
Jaspidella jaspidea (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.7A)
Olivella floralia (Duclos, 1853) (Figure 6.7C)
Olivella lactea Marrat, 1871 (= adelae Olsson, 1956)
Olivella nivea (Gmelin, 1791)
Olivella (Dactylidia) dealbata (Reeve, 1850) (Figure 6.7B)
Olivella (Dactylidia) mutica (Say, 1822) (Figure 6.7E)
Olividae
Americoliva bollingi (Clench, 1934) (Figure 6.8A–D)
Volutidae-Lyriinae
Enaeta cylleniformis (Sowerby I, 1844) (This small volute, which is common in the
Bahamas, has been reported from northern Biscayne Bay by several collectors
and workers; apparently known from only a few specimens, its presence in
the Florida Keys Reef Tract area has yet to be firmly established.)
Volutidae-Scaphellinae
Scaphella junonia elizabethae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 6.8G, H)
Marginellidae
Hyalina avenacea (Deshayes, 1844) (Figure 6.8K)
Prunum bellum (Conrad, 1868)
Volvarina albolineata (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Cystiscidae (Persiculinae and Granulininae)
Gibberula lavalleeana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Pugnus serrei (Bavay, 1911)
Pyramidellidae (large species only)
Pyramidella dolabrata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cylichnidae
Cylichnella bidentata (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Haminoeidae
Atys macandrewi E.A. Smith, 1872
Acteocinidae
Acteocina candei (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Acteocina inconspicua Olsson and McGinty, 1958
Acteocina recta (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Acteonidae
Acteon candens Rehder, 1939
Acteon punctostriata (C.B. Adams, 1840)
2b. SUCTORIAL FEEDERS (possibly on stingrays)
Cancellariidae
Cancellaria adelae Pilsbry, 1940 (Figure 6.8I)
2c. ECHINODERM FEEDERS
Cassidae
Cassis madagascariensis Lamarck, 1822 (Figure 6.6I, J)
Cassis spinella Clench, 1944 (Figure 6.6G, H)
Cassis tuberosa (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.6K, L)
Casmaria atlantica Clench, 1944 (Figure 6.4E)
Semicassis cicatricosa (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.4C, D)
Semicassis granulata (Born, 1778) (Figure 6.4A, B)
Tonnidae
Tonna galea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tonna pennata (Mörch, 1852) (Figure 6.8L)
2d. MOLLUSCIVORES (drilling predators)
Naticidae
Naticarius canrena (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.4F)
Naticarius tedbayeri (Rehder, 1986)
Natica livida Pfeiffer, 1840
Natica marochiensis (Gmelin, 1791)
Polinices hepaticus (Röding, 1798)
Polinices lacteus (Guilding, 1834) (Figure 6.4G)
Polinices uberinus (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 6.4H)
Sigatica semisulcata (Gray, 1839)
Sinum maculosum (Say, 1831) (Figure 6.8J)
Sinum perspectivum (Say, 1831)
Stigmaulax sulcatus (Born, 1778) (Figure 6.4M)
Tectonatica pusilla (Say, 1822)
2e. VERMIVORES
Attenuiconus attenuatus (Reeve, 1844) (Figure 6.9B)
Dauciconus daucus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 6.9A)
Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942) (Figure 6.9E, F)
Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus (Clench, 1942) (Figure 6.9C, D)
Jaspidiconus fluviamaris Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 6.9G, H)
Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004 (Figure 6.9K–M)
Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Rehder, 1944) (Figure 6.9I, J)
B C
F
D
G J
K L
Terebridae
Hastula cinerea (Born, 1778) (Figure 6.8E)
Hastula hastata (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.7D)
Hastula maryleeae Burch, 1965
Hastula salleana (Deshayes, 1859) (Figure 6.8M)
Myurella taurina (Lightfoot, 1786) (Figure 6.8F)
Strioterebrum concavum (Say, 1827)
Strioterebrum dislocatum onslowensis (Petuch, 1974) (Figure 6.7G)
Strioterebrum glossema (Schwengel, 1940)
Strioterebrum protextum (Conrad, 1845) (Figure 6.7F)
Drilliidae
Neodrillia moseri (Dall, 1889)
Neodrillia wolfei (Tippett, 1995)
Clathurellidae
Nannodiella melanitica (Bush, 1885)
Nannodiella oxia (Bush, 1885)
Nannodiella pauca Fargo, 1953
Raphitomidae
Glyphoturris quadrata (Reeve, 1845)
Bivalvia
Nuculidae
Nucula proxima Say, 1822
Nuculanidae
Nuculana concentrica (Say, 1824)
Glycymeridae
Glycymeris decussata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Glycymeris spectralis Nicol, 1952
Glycymeris undata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pectinidae
Argopecten gibbus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.7J)
Euvola ziczac (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nodipecten fragosus (Conrad, 1849) (Figure 6.7L)
Crassitellidae
Crassinella martinicensis (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Eucrassatella speciosa (A. Adams, 1852)
Figure 6.7 Mollusks of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage. A = Jaspidella jaspidea (Gmelin, 1791), length
15 mm. B = Olivella (Dactylidia) dealbata (Reeve, 1850), length 6 mm. C = Olivella floralia (Duclos, 1853),
length 8 mm. D = Hastula hastata (Gmelin, 1791), length 27 mm. E = Olivella (Dactylidia) mutica (Say,
1822), length 6 mm. F = Strioterebrum protextum (Conrad, 1845), length 28 mm. G = Strioterebrum dislo-
catum onslowensis (Petuch, 1974), length 32 mm. This subspecies (or possible full species) is confined
to clean carbonate sand areas near coral bioherms off North Carolina, Georgia, and the Florida
Keys. Although originally described from the coral bioherms in Onslow Bay, North Carolina, this
finely ribbed specimen was found on an open carbonate sand area off Missouri Key, Middle Florida
Keys (see Petuch, 1974). H = Callista maculata (Linnaeus, 1758), length 54 mm. I = Laciolina magna
(Spengler, 1798), length 71 mm. J = Argopecten gibbus (Linnaeus, 1758), width 30 mm. K = Eurytellina
lineata (Turton, 1819), length 28 mm. L = Nodipecten fragosus (Conrad, 1849), width 87 mm. M = Semele
purpurascens (Gmelin, 1791), width 28 mm.
A C
B D
I
G
E F
K L
J M
Lucinidae
Divalinga dentata (Wood, 1815)
Divalinga quadrisulcata (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Carditidae
Pleuromeris tridentatus (Say, 1826)
Chamidae
Arcinella cornuta Conrad, 1866
Cardiidae
Acrosterigma magnum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Americardia guppyi (Thiele, 1910) (Note: Lee and Huber, 2012, have pointed out
that Mikkelsen and Bieler, 2008, incorrectly placed Americardia guppyi and A.
media in Ctenocardia, which is a South Pacific genus.)
Americardia media (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dallocardia muricata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Papyridea semisulcata (Gray, 1825)
Papyridea soleniformis (Bruguiere, 1789)
Trigonocardia antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Veneridae
Callista maculata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.7H)
Chione cancellata (Linnaeus, 1767) (rare in Florida; deeper water only)
Chione elevata (Say, 1822)
Chionopsis intapurpurea (Conrad, 1849)
Chionopsis pubera (Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1827)
Cooperella atlantica Rehder, 1943
Gemma gemma (Totten, 1834)
Parastarte triquetra (Conrad, 1846)
Pitarenus albidus (Gmelin, 1791)
Pitarenus cordatus (Schwengel, 1951)
Pitar circinatus (Born, 1778)
Pitar dione (Linnaeus, 1758)
Figure 6.8 Gastropods of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage. A, B = Americoliva bollingi (Clench, 1943),
length 49 mm. This common endemic eastern Florida and Florida Keys olive has often been mis-
identified as Oliva bifasciata Küster, 1878, or has been considered a subspecies of it (as Oliva bifasciata
bollingi). The true Americoliva bifasciata is actually a larger, more inflated species that is confined to
the West Indian Arc and Caribbean Basin and is not found in the Florida Keys area. (For illustra-
tions of true West Indian bifasciata, see Petuch and Sargent, 1986, Plate 21, Figures 9–12, 15.) C =
Americoliva bollingi (Clench, 1943), banded color form, length 46 mm. D = Americoliva bollingi (Clench,
1943), melanistic color form pattersoni Clench, 1934, length 45 mm. E = Hastula cinerea (Born, 1778),
length 28 mm. F = Myurella taurina (Lightfoot, 1786), length 113 mm. G, H = Scaphella junonia elizabe-
thae Petuch and Sargent, 2011, length 65 mm. This Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas endemic subspe-
cies differs from the nominate subspecies in having a smaller shell with a proportionally lower spire
and in having fewer, smaller, more rounded spots (a color pattern similar to the subspecies butleri
from Yucatan, Mexico). Although the other three subspecies of S. junonia live in deeper-water areas,
S. junonia elizabethae lives in shallow-water sandy areas near coral reefs, often in depths of as little as
3 m (as on Pickles Reef off Plantation Key, where the figured specimen was collected). I = Cancellaria
adelae Pilsbry, 1940, length 39 mm. J = Sinum maculosum (Say, 1831), width 28 mm. K = Hyalina avena-
cea (Deshayes, 1844), length 10 mm. L = Tonna pennata (Mörch, 1852), length 59 mm. (= T. maculosa).
M = Hastula salleana (Deshayes, 1859)
B
A C
F
E
H
J
L
I M
K
Figure 6.9 Cone Shells of the Polinices lacteus Assemblage. A = Dauciconus daucus (Hwass, 1792),
length 28 mm. B = Attenuiconus attenuatus (Reeve, 1844), length 22 mm. C = Tuckericonus flavescens
caribbaeus (Clench, 1942), length 15 mm. D = Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus (Clench, 1942), length
15.5 mm. E, F = Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942), length 51 mm. G, H = Jaspidiconus fluviamaris
Petuch and Sargent, 2011, length 16 mm. I, J = Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Rehder, 1944), length 16 mm.
K, L = Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004, length 17 mm. M = Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004,
length 17 mm, from off Missouri Key, where it lives sympatrically with Jaspidiconus pealii.
Timoclea grus (Holmes, 1858)

Tivela abaconis Dall, 1902
Tivela floridana Rehder, 1939
Tivela mactroides (Born, 1778)
Transenella conradiana (Dall, 1884)
Transenella cubaniana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Tellinidae
Acorylus gouldi (Hanley, 1846)
Angulus agilis (Stimpson, 1857)
Angulus merus (Say, 1834)
Angulus paramerus (Boss, 1964)
Angulus probinus (Boss, 1964)
Angulus texanus (Dall, 1900)
Angulus versicolor (DeKay, 1843)
Elliptotellina americana (Dall, 1900)
Eurytellina angulosa (Gmelin, 1791)
Eurytellina lineata (Turton, 1819) (Figure 6.7K)
Eurytellina nitens (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Eurytellina punicea (Born, 1778)
Laciolina laevigata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Laciolina magna (Spengler, 1798) (Figure 6.7I)
Leporimetis intastriata (Say, 1826)
Macoma extenuata Dall, 1900
Macoma limula Dall, 1895
Macoma pseudomera Dall and Simpson, 1901
Macoma tageliformis Dall, 1900
Merisca aequistriata (Say, 1824)
Merisca crystallina (Spengler, 1798)
Merisca martinicensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Phyllodina squamifera (Deshayes, 1855)
Scissula consobrina (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Scissula iris (Say, 1822)
Strigilla carnaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Strigilla mirabilis (Philippi, 1841)
Strigilla pisiformis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tellina radiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Psammobiidae
Gari circe (Mörch, 1876)
Semelidae
Abra americana Verrill and Bush, 1898
Abra lioica (Dall, 1881)
Cumingia coarctata Sowerby I, 1833
Ervilia concentrica (Holmes, 1858)
Ervilia nitens (Montagu, 1808)
Ervilia subcancellata E.A. Smith, 1885
Semele proficua (Pulteney, 1799)
Semele purpurascens (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 6.7M)

Semelina nuculoides (Conrad, 1841)
Solecurtidae
Solecurtus cumingianus (Dunker, 1861)
Pharidae
Ensis minor Dall, 1900
Corbulidae
Caryocorbula chittyana (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Caryocorbula dietziana (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Juliacorbula aequivalvis (Philippi, 1836)
Variacorbula limatula (Conrad, 1846)
Variacorbula philippii (E.A. Smith, 1845)
4. CHEMOSYNTHETIC FEEDERS (containing symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria)
Solemyidae
Solemya velum Say, 1822
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Polinices lacteus
Assemblage shows that the suspension/filter-feeding bivalves dominate the ecosystem.
Mollusks of the mixed carbonate sand

and coral rubble seafloors
Immediately adjacent to the living reef corals of the Florida Reef Tract are large rubble
piles that are composed of broken fragments of dead coral. These coral shards often mix
with the coarse clean carbonate sand to form a wide transitional biotope between the
open sand seafloors (the Polinices lacteus Assemblage) and the living coral reef platforms
(the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage; see Chapter 7). The coral fragments act as a sub-
strate for the attachment of small brown algae, such as Dictyota, which form the basis
of a small subsidiary ecotonal community. One of the more prominent and conspicu-
ous gastropods found in this transitional deme is the large Queen Conch, Eustrombus
gigas (Figure 6.10H, I), which continuously crops the algal growth in a bovine fashion.
Although occurring on a number of different biotopes, including Turtle Grass beds and
open sand substrates, Eustrombus gigas prefers the mixed-coral rubble zone and can be
found there in large aggregations. These algivorous giants cooccur in the brown algae
beds with a number of other smaller herbivorous gastropods, including the turbinids
Lithopoma caelata and Lithopoma tuber, the amphiatlantic cerithiid Cerithium guinaicum,
and the xenophorid Carrier Shell Xenophora conchyliophora. In deeper areas, in depths
ranging from 10 to 25 m, beds of Star Grass (Halophila engelmanni) often grow on these
mixed sand and coral rubble substrates. North of the Dry Tortugas, in the crystal clear
waters of the Tortugas Gyre, this deep-dwelling marine angiosperm has been found
growing in over 30 m of water, and its beds may house a completely new and unexplored
malacofauna.
A small but interesting fauna of specialized carnivorous gastropods also occurs in
the coral rubble zone, including a radiation of epitoniid cnidarian predators. These deli-
cate and beautiful gastropods feed primarily on large sand-dwelling zoantherian sea
anemones, from which they suck the body fluids through their elongated, needle-tipped
proboscises. At least four species of epitoniids are found in this area, with Gyroscala
lamellosa (Figure 6.10J) the largest and most commonly encountered. Of special interest
in the coral rubble zone is the vermivorous cone shell Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami
(Figure 6.10A–D), which is ecologically confined to this transitional ecotone. This Florida
Keys endemic conid is found in coral rubble areas near living reefs from Key Biscayne
south to the Dry Tortugas. Throughout its range, Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami varies
greatly in color, being white with orange patches (Figure 6.10A, B; similar to the juve-
nile holotype from Pickles Reef), tan with rows of darker spots, or pink with tan spots
(Figure 6.10C, D). In the Dry Tortugas area, all of these color forms occur together, and this
local population is the most colorful known for the species.
The small and delicate muricid Vokesimurex rubidus (Figure 6.10E, F) is frequently
encountered in the coral rubble zone, where it is often found nestled among the algal
clumps. Like the Queen Conch, this eurytopic muricid occurs on a number of different
biotopes, including Turtle Grass beds, but appears to prefer a mixed sand and rubble
habitat. Here, it feeds on small gastropods and interstitial bivalves, drilling through
their shells with its radular teeth. Vokesimurex rubidus lives sympatrically with several
other rare and seldom-seen carnivorous gastropods, including the Florida Keys endemic
mitrid Dibaphimitra florida (Figure 6.10G) and the suctorial-feeding cancellariid Bivetopsia
rugosum.
The members of the mixed coral rubble and carbonate sand habitat are arranged here
by feeding type and ecological niche preference. Some of the most frequently encountered
species include the following:

Gastropoda
Turbinidae
Lithopoma caelata (Gmelin, 1791)
Lithopoma tuber (Linnaeus, 1767)
Cerithiidae
Cerithium guinaicum Philippi, 1849
Strombidae
Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 6.10H, I)
Xenophoridae
Xenophora conchyliophora (Born, 1780)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
Mitridae
Dibaphimitra florida (Gould, 1856) (Figure 6.10G)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES (drilling predators)
Muricidae-Muricinae
Vokesimurex rubidus (F.C. Baker, 1897) (Figure 6.10E, F; also found in Turtle Grass beds)
2c. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (suctorial on zoantherians)
Epitoniidae
Epitonium albidum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Epitonium foliaceicostum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Gyroscala lamellosa (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 6.10J)
Pictoscala rupicola (Kurtz, 1860)
C
F
E
B
G
D
J
I
H
2d. VERMIVORES
Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995) (Figure 6.10A–D)
Jaspidiconus fluviamaris Petuch and Sargent, 2011
Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004
Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Rehder, 1944)
2e. PROBLEMATICAL (suctorial on fish or polychaete worms?)
Cancellariidae
Bivetopsia rugosum (Lamarck, 1822)
Mollusks of the Palm Beach coastal lagoons

The coastline of Palm Beach County marks the northern terminus of the high tropical
environments that characterize the coral coast and Florida Keys area. Prominent intertidal
and shallow subtidal Caribbean Molluscan Province index species, such as the gastropods
Cenchritis muricatus, Plicopurpura patula, Stramonita rustica, and Strombus pugilis, range only to
Palm Beach, demonstrating that the oceanographic conditions undergo a dramatic change
just north of this area. From Miami, Dade County, to Jupiter, Palm Beach County, the warm
Gulf Stream current hugs the shoreline, often meandering to within less than 1 km of the
coast. This high tropical water mass regularly spins off small current loops, which can actu-
ally enter some of the coastal embayments, bringing Caribbean-type conditions to the shore-
lines. North of Jupiter, the Gulf Stream curves away from the shoreline, carrying the tropical
water far offshore and causing the central Florida coastal water conditions to more closely
resemble those of cooler areas such as Georgia and South Carolina. This is particularly
noticeable during the winter months, when water temperatures along the Central Florida
coast (Fort Pierce northward) can dip below minimum tropical temperatures (below 68°F),
while those of Palm Beach County remain far warmer. This oceanographic transitional
area is referred to as the Palm Beach Provinciatone, where cold-tolerant mollusks from the
Georgian Molluscan Subprovince (to the north) coexist with both tropical mollusks from the
Floridian Molluscan Subprovince (to the south) and mollusks that are endemic to the transi-
tional area (provinciatonal endemics; see Petuch, 2013: 40–44).
North of Broward County, the coastline is characterized by a series of large saltwater
lagoons, tidal creeks, and estuaries, the largest of these being the Lake Worth lagoon system
Figure 6.10 Gastropods of the Mixed Carbonate Sand and Coral Rubble Substrates. A, B = Gradiconus
anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995), length 26 mm, from Pickles Reef, Plantation Key (topotype
specimen from the type locality; similar in shape and color pattern to white specimens of anabath-
rum tranthami from the Dry Tortugas). The holotype from Pickles Reef, although similar in color to
this specimen, was a juvenile individual and had a more pyriform shell outline (a character that
disappears as the animal matures). C, D = Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995), length
31 mm. This is the pink color form from the Dry Tortugas that was named tortuganus Petuch and
Sargent, 2011 (antoni Cargile, 2011, is another name for this distinctive color variety). Brown, pink,
yellow, and white color forms all occur together on the reefs off the Dry Tortugas; white and yellow
color forms predominate along the northern and central Keys. E, F = Vokesimurex rubidus (F.C. Baker,
1897), length 33 mm. Compare with Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis (Figure 5.5D, E, Chapter 5),
which has a higher spire, more sloping whorls, a more rounded shoulder, and a purple aperture. G
= Dibaphimitra florida (Gould, 1856), length 47 mm. H, I = Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758), length
240 mm. J = Gyroscala lamellosa (Lamarck, 1822), length 23 mm.
of central and northern Palm Beach County (Figure 6.11). This extensive mangrove-lined
coastal lagoonal complex is the remnant of a series of large estuarine systems that occurred
along the southeastern Florida coast during the late Pleistocene (Petuch and Roberts,
2007: 173–174). Several of these ancient estuaries, such as the Seminole Lagoon System
(Sangamonian Stage of the Tarantian Pleistocene; see Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 174–175),
evolved highly endemic molluscan faunas, and many of these local endemics are still living
in the Recent coastal lagoon systems. Some classic examples of Pleistocene Seminole Lagoon
species that are extant in Lake Worth include gastropods such as the melongenid Melongena
(Rexmela) corona winnerae (Figure 6.12J) and the modulids Modulus pacei (Figure 6.12E, F)
and Modulus calusa foxhalli new subspecies (Figure 6.13H) and bivalves such as the semelid
Semele donovani (Figure 6.13B). These lagoonal endemics are also known as late Pleistocene
fossils, and their shells are frequently encountered in the highly fossiliferous beds of the Ft.
Thompson Formation (Coffee Mill Hammock Member) [see Abbott, 1974: 513, for Semele don-
ovani and Petuch, 2004: 252–253; Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 183–186 for Melongena (Rexmela)
corona winnerae and Modulus pacei]. The shallow intertidal muddy-sand areas of the Palm
Beach coastal lagoons also house a distinctive subspecies of the Texan and Gulf of Mexico
moon snail Neverita delessertiana. This endemic southeastern Floridian subspecies, Neverita
delessertiana patriceae (Figure 6.12G–I; described in the Systematic Appendix at the end of
this book), differs from its Texan and Gulf of Mexico relative in having a much higher spire,
distinct conical shape, flattened shell base, smaller umbilical callus, and larger, deeper, and
more open umbilical area. Of the resident naticid moon snails in Lake Worth Lagoon, patri-
ceae is the largest taxon and is one of the largest drilling molluscivorous carnivores in the
Palm Beach Provinciatone region (see Petuch, 2013: 40–44).
The very large “living fossil” subspecies of Melongena (Rexmela) corona, described as
corona winnerae, ranges only from the St. Lucie River estuary of Martin County to Lake
Worth and is the farthest-south member of the Melongena corona species complex living
along southeastern Florida. The coastline between Lake Worth and northern Biscayne Bay
is devoid of any melongenids, and the family reappears in Biscayne Bay as the closely
related, but different, Melongena bicolor. Other closely related corona subspecies reappear
in the Ten Thousand Islands and range northward to Mobile Bay, demonstrating that the
species is bifurcated into two separate complexes: one ranging from St. Augustine to Lake
Worth on the east and one from Mobile Bay to the Ten Thousand Islands on the west. The
Keys endemic Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor occupies the area between the two complexes of
Melongena corona subspecies, and the Florida Keys carbonate environments appear to act
as a biogeographical and genetic barrier.
The shorelines of Lake Worth characteristically contain small outcrops of highly
weathered coquina limestone of late Pleistocene age (the Anastasia Formation), and these
are typically randomly scattered among the coastal mangrove forests. The hard surfaces
of the Anastasia outcrops provide a substrate for the attachment of three species of oysters:
Crassostrea virginica, Crassostrea rhizophorae, and Ostreola equestris. These sessile bivalves
often accumulate in immense masses. The oyster clumps and exposed rock surfaces house
Figure 6.11 View of a tidal creek at the northern end of the Lake Worth lagoon system, at
MacArthur State Park, Palm Beach County, Florida. Note the small rocky outcrops of the Anastasia
Formation along the shore on the right. Typically, these limestone substrates harbor the Palm Beach
Provinciatone endemic gastropods Modulus pacei, Cerithium lindae, and Stramonita buchecki. The
intervening muddy sand substrates provide the habitat for the endemic lagoonal bivalves Semele
donovani and Mercenaria hartae and the large predatory gastropods Melongena (Rexmela) corona win-
nerae and Neverita delessertiana patriceae. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
A C
F
D
J
H
I K
L
an interesting fauna of hard substrate–loving endemic gastropods, including the muricid

Stramonita buchecki (Figure 6.12C, D, K, L; also found in sea grass beds in Lake Worth); the
cerithiid Cerithium lindae (Figure 6.12A, B); and the neritid Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae (shown
on Figure 2.8I, J in Chapter 2; also found in the Florida Keys). Both Stramonita buchecki and
Cerithium lindae have very small ranges along the southeastern Florida coast, extending
only from the St. Lucie River estuary at Stuart, Martin County, southward to southern
Palm Beach County.
Of special interest on the intertidal mudflats of these mangrove-lined coastal lagoons
are the provinciatonal endemic bivalves Semele donovani (Figure 6.13B) and Mercenaria har-
tae (Figure 6.13A), both of which range only from the St. Lucie River estuary southward
to southern Palm Beach County. The diminutive endemic Mercenaria hartae lives sympatri-
cally with the much larger and more wide-ranging Mercenaria campechiensis and is morpho-
logically similar to Mercenaria texana, another small venerid that is restricted to the coastal
lagoons of Texas (in the Texan Molluscan Subprovince of the Carolinian Molluscan Province;
see Petuch, 2013: 16, 42, 225–226). Both the Texan Mercenaria texana and the southeastern
Floridian Mercenaria hartae have evolved within enclosed coastal lagoons and represent spe-
cialized evolutionary offshoots that are capable of living in the highly variable environmen-
tal conditions that are typical of these extensive estuarine systems. In deeper-water areas of
the Palm Beach coastal lagoons, Mercenaria hartae often lives in association with beds of the
Oval Seagrass (Halophila ovalis), an introduced Indo-Pacific marine angiosperm that ranges
from Fort Pierce to the Lake Worth Lagoon. This exotic invasive sea grass was originally
thought to be an endemic Floridian species and was given the name Halophila johnsonii.
Figure 6.12 Coastal Lagoon Mollusks of the Palm Beach Provinciatone. A, B = Cerithium lindae
Petuch, 1987, length 12 mm. It is endemic to the coastal lagoons and rocky shorelines of Martin and
Palm Beach Counties and differs from the widespread Cerithium lutosum (Figure 3.10F, G, Chapter
3) in that it is a narrower and much more elongated shell with a paler shell color composed of a
white background with black speckles. C, D = Stramonita buchecki Petuch, 2013, holotype, length
28 mm. This small muricid, with its bright orange aperture, has also been found in sea grass beds
within the Lake Worth Lagoon. This endemic muricid is most similar to the sympatric S. rustica
(Figure 3.7H, Chapter 3) but differs in having an orange aperture instead of white and in having a
wider shell with a broader shoulder. Both S. buchecki and S. rustica occur together with S. floridana
in Lake Worth but can easily be separated from their congener by their smaller shell sizes. E, F =
Modulus pacei Petuch, 1987, width 14.5 mm. This distinctive endemic species is the largest modu-
lid found in Florida. Unlike its grass-dwelling congeners from other areas in Florida, Modulus
pacei lives on exposed rocky outcrops and algae-covered rocks in Lake Worth. This Palm Beach
Provinciatone endemic is often incorrectly referred to as Modulus modulus (Linnaeus, 1758) by many
workers, but that species is actually a smaller and more heavily knobbed shell that is restricted to
the southern Caribbean. G–I = Neverita delessertiana patriceae Petuch and Myers, new subspecies.
Holotype, height 52 mm; dorsal, ventral, and basal views. See the Systematic Appendix at the end
of the book. Compare with the nominate subspecies from quartz sand substrates in the Gulf of
Mexico, Neverita delessertiana (Recluz, 1843) (Figure 7.16E–G, Chapter 7). J = Melongena (Rexmela)
corona winnerae Petuch, 2004, length 147 mm. This southeastern Florida subspecies of the western
Florida Melongena corona is found only in coastal lagoons and tidal creeks, from the St. Lucie Inlet
to Boynton Beach, and is the largest melongenid found along southeastern Florida. Also known as
a late Pleistocene fossil (Ft. Thompson Formation) in Palm Beach County (see Petuch and Roberts,
2007, Figure 7.6G). K, L = Stramonita buchecki Petuch, 2013, length 30 mm. Found on oysters near
mudflats and Red Mangroves at Pine Point, northern side of Singer Island, Lake Worth Lagoon.
D
C
E
F
H
I K
J L M
Some of the more biogeographically important mollusks that are endemic to the
coastal lagoons of the Palm Beach Provinciatone of the Carolinian Molluscan Province are
listed here by feeding type and ecological niche preferences.

Gastropoda
Neritidae
Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae Petuch, 1988 (see Chapter 2)
Cerithiidae
Cerithium lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 6.12A, B)
Modulidae
Modulus calusa foxhalli Petuch and Myers, new subspecies. (Figure 6.13H) (Turtle
Grass beds in Lake Worth)
Modulus pacei Petuch, 1987 (Figure 6.12E, F) (Often, this is incorrectly referred
to as Modulus modulus, which is a different species that is restricted to the
southern Caribbean; this large endemic species lives only on exposed rocky
outcrops in Lake Worth.)
Strombidae
Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758) form verrilli McGinty, 1946 (Ranging from Fort
Pierce to Boynton Beach, this northern subspecies or form of gigas differs from
typical shells by lacking spines on the body whorl, in having more numerous
and upward-pointing spines on the spire, and in having a pointed posterior
end on the lip; see Petuch and Sargent, 2011: 120.)
Figure 6.13 Coastal Lagoon Mollusks from the Palm Beach Provinciatone. A = Mercenaria hartae
Petuch, 2013, holotype, width 44.3 mm. This endemic lagoonal species occurs together with the
much larger Mercenaria campechiensis (Figure 6.2E) but differs in that it is a smaller, broader, and
much flatter shell with stronger concentric lamellae; in having a characteristic smooth, shiny patch
on the shell dorsum near the commissure; and in that it is a canary yellow color with purple patches
along the escutcheon. This small, thin-shelled species is similar to Mercenaria texanum from the
coastal lagoons of Texas and is found only in the lagoons and tidal creeks of Martin and Palm
Beach Counties. B = Semele donovani McGinty, 1955, length 13 mm. This pure white Palm Beach
endemic has a large, smooth, unsculptured area that covers most of the shell; it is also known as a
late Pleistocene fossil (Ft. Thompson Formation) in Palm Beach County. C = Olivella elongata Marrat,
1871, length 10 mm. This high-spired species, which is common near Peanut Island in Lake Worth, is
often incorrectly synonymized with the similar, but less elongated and less colorful, Olivella floralia.
D = Cyclinella tenuis (Recluz, 1852), width 36 mm. Giant variety from the intertidal sand flats in Lake
Worth. E = Divaricella dentata (Wood, 1815), width 30 mm. This is a Palm Beach coastal lagoon variant
with bright pinkish-red umbos and early growth areas. F = Angulus sybariticus (Dall, 1881), length 13
mm. G = Parvilucina costata (d’Orbigny, 1842), width 10 mm. H = Modulus calusa foxhalli Petuch and
Myers, new subspecies Holotype, width 12 mm. (See Systematic Appendix.). I, J = Prunum evelynae
(Bayer, 1943), length 22 mm. This endemic Palm Beach Provinciatone marginellid is similar to the
widespread western Atlantic Prunum carneum (Storer, 1837) but differs in that it is a larger, broader,
and more inflated shell with a more heavily callused spire area. Note the large brown spot on the
outer lip. K, L = Prunum apicinum (Menke, 1828), length 11 mm. This has a typical color form, with
three brown spots on the outer edge of the lip and one brown spot near the spire; compare with the
stocky, pure white Florida Keys subspecies Prunum apicinum virgineum (Jousseaume, 1875) (Figure
3.9G, H, Chapter 3). Collected at Pine Point, Singer Island, Lake Worth Lagoon. M = Prunum gutta-
tum nobilianum (Bayer, 1943), length 25 mm. This endemic Palm Beach Provinciatone marginellid is
similar to the widespread western Atlantic Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn, 1817) but differs in that it has
a larger, heavier, broader, and more calloused shell.
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
Olivellidae
Olivella elongata Marrat, 1871 (Figure 6.13C) (often misidentified as Olivella floralia)
Olividae
Americoliva bollingi (Clench, 1943) (Figure 6.8A–D; common around Peanut Island)
Americoliva sayana (Ravenel, 1834) (common around Peanut Island)
Marginellidae
Prunum apicinum (Menke, 1828) (Figure 6.13K, L) (typical dark-banded form with
three brown spots on the lip; compare with the pure white Prunum apicinum
virgineum from the Florida Keys)
Prunum evelynae (Bayer, 1943) (Figure 6.13I, J) (endemic to sand bottom areas, in
10- to 50-m depths, offshore of the Palm Beach lagoon system; for an illustra-
tion of the living animal, see Petuch, 2013: 44)
Prunum guttatum nobilianum (Bayer, 1943) (Figure 3.13M) (endemic to sand bottom
areas, in 10- to 50-m depths, offshore of the Palm Beach lagoon system)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) corona winnerae Petuch, 2004 (Figure 6.12J)
2c. MOLLUSCIVORES (drilling predators)
Naticidae
Neverita delessertiana patriceae Petuch and Myers, new subspecies (Figure 6.12G–I)
Muricidae-Rapaninae
Stramonita buchecki Petuch, 2013 (Figure 6.12C, D, K, L)
2d. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (suctorial on zoantherians)
Epitoniidae
Alexania floridana (Pilsbry, 1945) (found under rocks at Peanut Island)
Bivalvia
Veneridae
Cyclinella tenuis (Recluz, 1852) (Figure 6.13D) (giant variant from Lake Worth)
Mercenaria hartae Petuch, 2013 (Figure 6.13A) (This lagoonal endemic is smaller
and flatter than M. campechiensis and has a broader and more oval-shaped
shell with a distinctive smooth, shiny oval patch near the commisure; most
specimens are a pale canary yellow color.)
Lucinidae
Divaricella dentata (Wood, 1815) (Figure 6.13E) (Lake Worth variant with bright
pink-red umbos and early shell areas)
Parvilucina costata (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 6.13G) (Lake Worth variant with
reduced shell sculpture)
Semelidae
Semele donovani McGinty, 1955 (Figure 6.13B)
Tellinidae
Angulus sybariticus (Dall, 1881) (Figure 6.13F)
Macoma cerina (C.B. Adams, 1845) (bright orange variant from Lake Worth)
The malacofauna of the Palm Beach coastal lagoons and immediate offshore areas has
been found to be extremely rich, with over 750 species of mollusks having been collected,
alone, near Peanut Island in Lake Worth (Carole Marshall, 2013, personal communication
via email). The mangrove-lined tidal creeks and lagoons of Little Lake Worth, Munyon
Island, and MacArthur State Park, in the North Palm Beach area of Palm Beach County,
are under the influence of freshwater effluent and contain an impoverished but interest-
ing malacofauna. Here, the endemic lagoonal bivalves Mercenaria hartae and Semele don-
ovani occur on the intertidal mudflats, and the endemic lagoonal gastropods Melongena
(Rexmela) corona winnerae and Stramonita buchecki can be found on, or near, large beds of the
oysters Crassostrea virginica, Crassostrea rhizophorae, and Ostreola equestris.
lose-up of the Giant Sea Anemone, Condylactis gigantea, growing on a sponge and calcareous algae
C
bioherm off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys. These large, bright purple and pink anthozoans
are common faunal components of the massive sponge bioherms that house the Cerodrillia clappi
Assemblage. (Photograph by Ron Bopp)
chapter seven
Molluscan faunas of the coral reef

tract macrohabitat and gastropod reef
macrohabitat (nearshore marine regime)
Introduction
The Coral Reef Tract of the Florida Keys, which extends from Soldier Key to the Dry
Tortugas, is composed of an immense complex of linear reef platforms that is equiva-
lent, structurally and biologically, only to the Great Barrier Reef of Belize and the linear
reef tracts of the Bahama Banks. Throughout the Florida Keys, these shallow-water (1- to
20-m depths) coral aggregations are geographically constrained, existing only in a narrow,
curving band lying between the sand-filled Hawk Channel and the depths of the Florida
Straits. This unique biogenic geomorphological feature, the largest coral reef system in the
continental United States, also houses one of the largest coral-associated malacofaunas
in the entire tropical western Atlantic. To date, over 200 species of macrogastropods and
macrobivalves are known from the Keys reef complexes.
Besides coral reefs, the South Florida Bight area harbors another type of biogenic
hard substrate environment, one that is nearly equivalent in size to the Keys Reef Tract
itself. Extending for almost 100 km along the Ten Thousand Islands of Collier and Monroe
Counties, massive biohermal complexes of vermetid gastropods have formed linear geo-
morphological structures along the outermost keys. These worm shell “reefs,” running
from Cape Romano south to Cape Sable, have developed actual barrier systems, complete
with back reef lagoons. This immense linear worm shell reef complex is unique in the
Americas and provides yet another type of hard substrate macrohabitat within the Florida
Keys region. In this chapter, the coral reef tract and worm shell reef macrohabitats are
discussed individually.
Molluscan ecology of the coral reef tract

The Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat, as defined here, is an amalgamation of several of the
Coastal Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS) coral macrohabitats. Because
all of these coral aggregations (summarized in Chapter 1) shelter the same basic malaco-
fauna, they are considered, collectively, to represent a single molluscan biotope. These can
include isolated small, shallow-water patch reefs that are dominated by the hermatypic
corals Porites furcata (Figure 7.1), Porites porites, and Siderastrea radians and the ahermatypic
Oculina diffusa, or they can encompass the massive reef platforms that are dominated by
hermatypic corals such as Orbicella cavernosa, Montastrea annularis, Diploria clivosa, Diploria
labyrinthiformis, and Acropora palmata (Figure 7.2). The molluscan fauna of the reef systems
is overwhelmingly dominated by gastropods, many of which live cryptically beneath indi-
vidual coral heads or within piles of coral rubble. One of these cryptic species is the large
135
136
Figure 7.1 Close-up of a Porites furcata coral colony, exposed during an extreme low tide, off Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys. Clusters of the
sessile chamid bivalve Chama congregata Conrad, 1833, can be seen growing on the right side of the top branches of the coral colony. These types of
coral bioherms are typical of the shallower-water, nearshore areas of the Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat. (Photograph by E. J. Petuch.)
Chapter seven: Molluscan faunas of the coral reef tract macrohabitat
Figure 7.2 View of a large colony of the Elkhorn Coral, Acropora palmata, a typical shallow-water coral reef tract species. This well-developed colony
is growing on the open reef platform off Key Largo, Upper Florida Keys, and shelters a school of the snapper Lutjanus apodus. Coralline environ-
137
ments such as these support the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage of the Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
cone shell, Stephanoconus regius, which is completely restricted to reef platform environ-
ments and is here chosen to represent the entire reef molluscan faunule (the Stephanoconus
regius Assemblage). Considering the size of the Keys reef malacofauna, there are surpris-
ingly few endemic species present, with most of the resident mollusks simply classic
Caribbean or tropical western Atlantic coral-associated taxa. Some of the better-known
Florida Keys endemic coral reef species include gastropods such as the liotiids Cyclostrema
tortuganum and Arene vanhyningi; the ovulid Cyphoma alleneae (which also may occur in
Cuba); the muricids Dermomurex pacei (which may also occur in Cuba) and Quoyula kalafuti;
and the amathinid Amathina pacei; and bivalves such as the pectinid Caribachlamys mildre-
dae and the chamid Chama inezae. These are discussed and illustrated later in this chapter.
One of the most species-rich herbivorous gastropod groups found on the Keys reef
systems is the family Fissurellidae (the Key Hole Limpets), which is represented by at least
14 species. One of the largest of these reef fissurellids is the striking green-color Lucapina
aegis (Figure 7.3H), which is also among the rarest and most seldom-seen species of its
family. These herbivorous gastropods, which graze on algae growing on dead or eroded
coral heads, live sympatrically with a large fauna of other herbivores, including the liotiid
Arene cruentata (Figure 7.3A); the trochids Tegula lividomaculata (Figure 7.3E) and Tegula hot-
essieriana (Figure 7.3F); the phasianellids Eulithidium bellum and Eulithidium pterocladia; and
the cerithiid Bayericerithium semiferrugineum (Figure 7.4J). The undersurfaces of the dead
coral slabs also harbor large growths of colonial urochordates (tunicates), most typically
Didemnum candidum, Clavelina picta, and Botryllus planus. These colonial tunicates serve as
the principal food source for an unusually large fauna of triviid gastropods, represented
by at least 11 different species. Some of the more commonly encountered of these urochor-
date ectocommensal predators include Pusula pediculus (Figure 7.5A, B), Niveria quadripunc-
tata (Figure 7.5C), Pusula pullata (Figure 7.5M), and Hespererato maugeriae (Figure 7.5E).
Of special interest on the Florida Keys Reef Tract is an unusually large fauna of ton-
noidean gastropods of the families Ranellidae and Bursidae, collectively comprising
over 12 species. The bursids, including both common-encountered species such as Bursa
(Colubrellina) cubaniana (Figure 7.6J) and Bursa (Lampasopsis) rhodostoma thomae (Figure 7.6H)
and rare species such as Bursa (Lampasopsis) grayana (Figure 7.6I) and Bursa (Colubrellina)
corrugata (Figure 7.6F, G), feed almost entirely on polychaete annelid worms and sipun-
culid peanut worms such as Phascolion cryptum. These worm prey are anesthetized and
digested extragastrically by the bursids’ acid saliva and then ingested through their elon-
gated proboscises. Members of the closely related family Ranellidae, although occasion-
ally preying on other mollusks, are more specialized predators, feeding almost entirely on
small reef-dwelling echinoderms such as the echinoid Echinoneus cyclostomus, the asteroid
Asterina folium, and the ophiuroids Ophiocoma echinata, Ophiocoma wendti, and Ophioderma
appressum. Also feeding on echinoids and asteroids, the small reef-dwelling Helmet Shells
(Cassidae) Cassis flammea (Figure 7.7A, B) and Cypraecassis testiculus (Figure 7.7C, D) are
direct competitors with the bursid Frog Shells for echinoderm prey.
Within the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage, the coral colonies themselves support
a large combined fauna of cnidarian feeders in the gastropod families Ovulidae and
Muricidae. The ornately sculptured Coral Shell muricids, all in the subfamily Magilinae,
live attached directly to the coral heads and feed suctorially on the body fluids of the pol-
yps. At least five species of Coral Shells are found on the Florida Reef Tract, with the most
commonly encountered forms being Coralliophila caribaea (Figure 7.4A), Coralliophila galea
(Figure 7.4C), Coralliophila aberrans, Babelomurex scalariformis (Figure 7.4E), and Quoyula kala-
futi (Figure 7.8K, L). This last-mentioned species is the only known Atlantic representative
of the tropical Pacific Ocean genus Quoyula, and it is presently thought to be endemic to the
Chapter seven: Molluscan faunas of the coral reef tract macrohabitat 139
F G
L
J
I K
M
Figure 7.3 Gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A = Arene cruentata (Mühlfeld, 1829),
width 12 mm. B = Arene vanhyningi Rehder, 1943, width 11 mm; endemic to the Florida Keys. C =
Calliostoma pulchrum (C.B. Adams, 1850), height 13.2 mm. D = Calliostoma jujubinum (Gmelin, 1791),
height 19 mm. E = Tegula (Agathistoma) lividomaculata (C.B. Adams, 1845), width 15.4 mm. F = Tegula
(Agathistoma) hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842), width 5 mm. G = Calliostoma javanicum (Gmelin, 1791),
height 21 mm. H = Lucapina aegis (Reeve, 1850), length 28 mm. I = Polygona carinifera (Lamarck,
1822), length 61 mm. J = Polygona angulata (Röding, 1798), length 42 mm. K = Fenimorea halidorema
(Schwengel, 1940), length 27 mm. L = Zafrona pulchella (Blainville, 1829), length 7 mm. M = Pilsbryspira
albocincta (C.B. Adams, 1845), length 15 mm.
C
A
B
D
E G
F
H
I K
J L
Figure 7.4 Gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A = Coralliophila caribbaea Abbott,
1958, length 27 mm. B = Bailya intricata (Dall, 1884), length 14 mm. C = Coralliophila galea (Dillwyn,
1823), length 28 mm. D = Neodrillia moseri (Dall, 1889), length 28.5 mm. E = Babelomurex scalarifor-
mis (Lamarck, 1822), length 27 mm. [Often, this is incorrectly referred to as Babelomurex mansfieldi
(McGinty, 1940), which is actually an early Pleistocene fossil from the Caloosahatchee Formation
of southern Florida.] F = Leucozonia lineata Usticke, 1969, length 28 mm (most common on Palm
Beach reefs). G = Gemophos auritulus (Link, 1807), length 27 mm. H = Bailya parva (C.B. Adams, 1850),
length 14 mm. I = Engina turbinella (Kiener, 1835), length 9 mm. J = Bayericerithium semmiferrugineum
(Lamarck, 1822), length 21 mm. K = Vasum muricatum (Born, 1778), length 62 mm. L = Colubraria
testacea (Mörch, 1852), length 34 mm.
A
B
J L M
Figure 7.5 Cowries and Allied Cowries of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A, B = Pusula
pediculus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 12 mm. C = Niveria quadripunctata (Gray, 1827), length 4 mm.
D = Macrocypraea zebra (Linnaeus, 1758), length 78 mm (large reef form). E = Hespererato maugeriae
(Gray, 1832), length 3 mm. F = Cyphoma alleneae Cate, 1973, length 33.5 mm; lives on Porites corals.
G, H = Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771), length 101 mm. I, J = Erosaria acicularis
(Gmelin, 1791), length 24 mm. K, L = Luria cinerea (Gmelin, 1791), length 24 mm. M = Pusula pullata
(Sowerby II, 1870), length 9 mm.
C
A B
E H
J
I K
L
Figure 7.6 Gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A, B = Charonia variegata (Lamarck,
1816), length 258 mm. C = Cymatium (Gutturnium) muricinum (Röding, 1798), length 22 mm. D =
Cymatium (Gutturnium) nicobaricum (Röding, 1798), length 32 mm. E = Cymatium (Tritoniscus) labio-
sum (Wood, 1828), length 21 mm. F, G = Bursa (Colubrellina) corrugata (Perry, 1811), length 53 mm. H =
Bursa (Lampasopsis) rhodostoma thomae (d’Orbigny, 1842), length 26 mm. I = Bursa (Lampasopsis) grayana
Dunker, 1862, length 25 mm. J = Bursa cubaniana (d’Orbigny, 1842), length 51 mm. K = Dolicholatirus
cayohuesonicus (Sowerby III, 1879), length 13 mm. L = Calliostoma tampaense (Conrad, 1846), height 19
mm (also found near sea grass beds).
C
B
A
E
F
G
H
I K L
J
Figure 7.7 Gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A, B = Cassis flammea (Linnaeus,
1758), length 83 mm. C, D = Cypraecassis testiculus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 33 mm. E = Neodrillia
cydia (Bartsch, 1943), length 23 mm. F = Tritonoharpa lanceolata (Menke, 1828), length 15 mm.
G, H = Cymatium (Monoplex) pileare (Linnaeus, 1758), length 44 mm. I, J = Cymatium (Monoplex)
aquatile (Reeve, 1844), length 73 mm. K, L = Cymatium (Septa) occidentale Clench and Turner,
1947, length 31 mm.
A
C
D
B
I
G
K
H
J L
Figure 7.8 Muricid gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A, B = Dermomurex pacei
Petuch, 1988, length 16 mm. C, D = Dermomurex pauperculus (C.B. Adams, 1856), length 24 mm. E,
F = Dermomurex (Gracilimurex) elizabethae McGinty, 1940, length 18 mm. G, H = Muricopsis oxytatus
(M. Smith, 1938), length 33 mm. I = Tripterotyphis triangularis (A. Adams, 1850), length 17 mm.
J = Trachypollia turricula (Maltzan, 1884), length 8 mm. K, L = Quoyula kalafuti Petuch, 1987, length
12.9 mm.
Florida Keys Reef Tract. Although belonging to a group that normally lives on gorgonians,
the large ovulid Cyphoma alleneae (Figure 7.5F) actually lives on Porites coral colonies and
feeds directly on the exposed polyps, particularly those of the branching forms, such as
Porites divaricata and Porites furcata. Cyphoma alleneae is the only western Atlantic ovulid
known to occupy the ecological niche of direct grazing on hard corals. Another cnidarian-
associated gastropod is the small endemic muricid Dermomurex pacei (Figure 7.8A, B), which
is most commonly encountered within the interconnected cavities inside the holdfasts of
large Sea Fans (Gorgonia ventalina). Within this labyrinth of eroded chambers, small rock-
burrowing bivalves such as Gregariella coralliophaga, Lamychaena hians, and Gastrochaena
ovata often occur in large aggregations, and these provide the principal prey items for the
molluscivorous Dermomurex pacei.
The living coral reefs of the Florida Keys also house an interesting and distinc-
tive fauna of sessile pectinid bivalves, comprising at least four species in the scallop
genus Caribachlamys. These extremely ornate and colorful species live on the undersides
of large slabs of dead coral and coral rubble, attached by their strong byssal threads.
This Caribachlamys fauna, the richest known in the western Atlantic, is composed of
such impressive species as Caribachlamys sentis (Figure 7.9A–C); Caribachlamys imbrica-
tus (Figure 7.9F, G; Mikkelsen and Bieler, 2008, incorrectly referred to this species as
Caribachlamys pellucens, a dubious name); Caribachlamys mildredae (Figure 7.9H, I; endemic
to the Florida Keys and the Palm Beach coral coast); and Caribachlamys ornatus (Figure 7.9J,
K). Along the Florida Keys Reef Tract and on the deep reefs off the Palm Beach coast, a
special ecological relationship exists between these Caribachlamys scallops and the small
amathinid gastropod Amathina pacei (Figure 7.9D, E). This unusual limpet-like pyra-
midelloidean (originally described as a Cyclothyca species), with its characteristic large
radiating ribs, attaches itself to the auricles and bottom valves of reef-dwelling scallops,
leaving behind a dark settlement spot (Figure 7.9C). This small commensal species may
be feeding directly on the pectinoideans, in a typical suctorial fashion like most other
pyramidelloideans, or it may actually be grazing on encrusting sponges growing on the
valves of the scallops (Robert Pace, 2013, verbal communication). As far as is presently
known, Amathina pacei is endemic to the Florida Keys and Palm Beach coast and differs
from its Indo-Pacific relative Amathina tricarinata (Linnaeus, 1767) in having a smaller,
more slender, and much more laterally compressed shell. Along Palm Beach, Amathina
pacei has also been collected on the spines of deep-water specimens of the spiny oyster
Spondylus americanus.
Also of special interest in the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage is the large fish-eating
(piscivorous) cone shell Chelyconus ermineus (Figure 7.10L), which comes in a variety of
colors, ranging from blue with black mottling to solid yellow or orange. This wide-ranging
conid is found throughout the Carolinian, Caribbean, and Brazilian Molluscan Provinces
and is one of the largest cone shells found on western Atlantic coral reefs. In these coralline
environments, Chelyconus ermineus feeds on small benthonic reef fishes such as blennies,
gobies, and wrasses, sneaking up on the sleeping fishes at night and harpooning them
with its dart-shaped radular tooth. After injecting them with a potent venom composed
of a combination of neurotoxins, hemotoxins, and proteolytic enzymes, the cone stretches
its proboscis to engulf its paralyzed fish victim in a hood-like sheath. Because the Ermine
Cone venom composition is specific to members of the phylum Chordata, it would also
prove fatal to any human unfortunate enough to be bitten by a large specimen. For this
reason, Chelyconus ermineus can be considered to be the only Florida Keys mollusk capable
of killing a human being. This deadly piscivorous cone shell occurs together with several
other harmless worm-eating cone shells, the most frequently encountered being the conids
B
A
C
E
H
J
G
I K
Figure 7.9 Pectinid bivalves and ectosymbionts of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A, B =

Caribachlamys sentis (Reeve, 1853), length 36 mm. C = Caribachlamys sentis (bottom valve with
Amathina pacei attachment spot), length 35 mm. D, E = Amathina pacei (Petuch, 1987), length 9.5 mm.
Originally incorrectly placed in the genus Cyclothyca; may be feeding suctorially on scallop tissues
or grazing on encrusting sponges. F, G = Caribachlamys imbricatus (Gmelin, 1791), length 42 mm
(incorrectly referred to as C. pellucens by Mikkelsen and Bieler, 2008). H, I = Caribachlamys mildredae
(Bayer, 1941), length 43 mm. J, K = Caribachlamys ornatus (Lamarck, 1819), length 31 mm.
A
B
E
H
F
G
I
J L
K M
Figure 7.10 Gastropods of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A = Morum oniscus (Linnaeus, 1758),
length 26 mm. B = Morum purpureum Röding, 1798, length 22 mm. C = Vexillum variatum (Reeve,
1845), length 19 mm. D = Vexillum pulchellum (Reeve, 1844), length 18 mm. E = Vexillum dermestinum
(Lamarck, 1811), length 15 mm. F = Scabricola nodulosa (Gmelin, 1791), length 34 mm. G = Scabricola
pallida (Usticke, 1959), length 32 mm. H = Nebularia barbadensis (Gmelin, 1791), length 33 mm. I =
Jaspidiconus mindanus (Hwass, 1792), length 32 mm. J = Stephanoconus regius (Gmelin, 1791), length 50
mm. K = Gladioconus mus (Hwass, 1792), length 29 mm. L = Chelyconus ermineus (Born, 1778), length
65 mm. M = Vexillum arestum (Rehder, 1943), length 10 mm.
Stephanoconus regius (Figure 7.10J), Kellyconus patae, and Gladioconus mus (Figure 7.10K) and
the conilithid Jaspidiconus mindanus (Figure 7.10I).
The vermivorous cone shells of the Florida Keys Reef Tract are in direct competi-
tion with over 17 species of sympatric worm-eating turroidean gastropods in the fami-
lies Turridae, Drilliidae, and Raphitomidae. Some of the more frequently encountered of
these turroidean vermivores include the zonulispirids Pilsbryspira albocincta (Figure 7.3M)
and Pilsbryspira jayana and the drilliids Fenimorea halidorema (Figure 7.3K), Neodrillia cydia
(Figure 7.7E), Neodrillia moseri (Figure 7.4D), and Neodrillia wolfei. The shear abundance
and species richness of reef-dwelling polychaete worms has allowed the Volterra–Gauss
Principle to come into play on the Florida Keys Reef Tract, permitting numerous direct
competitors to coexist and flourish without detrimental ecological interactions. These
small conid, conilithid, and turroidean vermivores are also in direct competition with the
large sympatric turbinellid gastropod Vasum muricatum (Figure 7.4K), which feeds on poly-
chaete annelids, sipunculids, and nemertean worms.
Virtually all of the bivalves of the coral reef platforms are sessile forms, living attached
directly to the coral surface or by strong byssal threads, or are boring forms, living inside
the coral heads in self-constructed chambers. Of the sessile species, those that are attached
directly to the substrate include members of the families Gryphaeidae, Spondylidae,
Plicatulidae, and Chamidae, and the byssally attached forms include members of the
families Pteriidae, Pectinidae, and Malleidae. The coral rock borers include members of
the families Mytilidae, Gastrochaenidae, and Trapezidae, and these coralliophagous forms
are some of the major producers of bioerosion on the reef platforms. Only members of the
family Limidae are free living, often swimming from one area to another by rapidly clap-
ping their valves together, producing a weak form of jet propulsion. These spectacular
pectinoidean bivalves, with their fringes of long, brightly colored mantle tentacles, often
produce nests within coral rubble cavities, where they temporarily attach themselves by
weak byssal threads. Of the over 200 species of macromollusks found in the Stephanoconus
regius Assemblage, only 33 are bivalves, all of which are specialized forms that are adapted
for living in and under coral slabs and coral rubble. For illustrations and discussions of the
taxonomy of these bivalves, see Mikkelsen and Bieler (2008).
Biodiversity of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage

The members of the coral reef-associated Stephanoconus regius Assemblage are listed here
by feeding type and ecological niche preferences. For illustrations of the reef-dwelling
gastropods that are not shown in this book, see the iconographies of Abbott (1974) and
Warmke and Abbott (1962). The following resident species list is a compilation of those
given in the iconographies of Abbott and Warmke and Abbott, in Petuch and Sargent
(2011c), and from personal observations over a 35-year period:
1. HERBIVORES
Gastropoda
Lottiidae
Patelloida pustulata (Helbling, 1779)
Fissurellidae
Diodora dysoni (Reeve, 1850)
Diodora jaumei Aguayo and Farfante, 1936
Diodora meta (von Ihering, 1927)
Diodora sayi (Dall, 1899)
Emarginula dentigera Heilprin, 1887

Emarginula phrixoides Dall, 1927
Emarginula pumila (A. Adams, 1851)
Fissurella (Clypidella) fascicularis Lamarck, 1822
Fissurella (Clypidella) punctata Fischer, 1857
Hemitoma octoradiata (Gmelin, 1791)
Hemitoma (Monfortia) emarginata (Blainville, 1825)
Lucapina aegis (Reeve, 1850) (Figure 7.3H)
Lucapina philippiana (Finlay, 1930)
Lucapinella limatula (Reeve, 1850)
Trochidae
Pseudostomatella erythrocoma (Dall, 1889)
Tegula (Agathistoma) fasciata (Born, 1778)
Tegula (Agathistoma) excavata (Lamarck, 1822)
Tegula (Agathistoma) hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 7.3F)
Tegula (Agathistoma) lividomaculata (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 7.3E)
Synaptocochlea nigrita Rehder, 1939
Synaptocochlea picta (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Liotiidae
Arene cruentata (Muhlfeld, 1829) (Figure 7.3A)
Arene vanhyningi Rehder, 1943 (Figure 7.3B)
Cyclostrema cancellatum Marryat, 1818
Cyclostrema tortuganum (Dall, 1927)
Turbinidae
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea crenulatus Gmelin, 1791
Phasianellidae
Eulithidium affinis (C.B. Adams)
Eulithidium bellum (M. Smith, 1937)
Eulithidium pterocladica (Robertson, 1958)
Phenacolepidae
Phenacolepas hamillei (Fischer, 1857)
Cerithiidae
Bayericerithium semiferrugineum (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 7.4J)
Vanikoridae
Vanikoro oxychone Mörch, 1877
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. GENERAL CARNIVORES/SCAVENGERS (multiple prey items, including hydroids
and sponges)
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma euglyptum (A. Adams, 1854)
Calliostoma javanicum (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.3G)
Calliostoma jujubinum (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.3D)
Calliostoma pulchrum (C.B. Adams, 1850) (Figure 7.3C)
Calliostoma roseolum Dall, 1880
Calliostoma scalenum Quinn, 1992
Calliostoma tampaense (Conrad, 1849) (Figure 7.6L) (also found in sea grass beds)
Calliostoma yucatecanum Dall, 1881
Cypraeidae
Erosaria acicularis (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.5I, J)
Luria cinerea (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.5K, L)
Macrocypraea zebra (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.5D)
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771) (Figure 7.5G, H)
Buccinidae
Anna florida Garcia, 2008
Bailya intricata (Dall, 1884) (Figure 7.4B)
Bailya parva (C.B. Adams, 1850) (Figure 7.4H)
Engina corinnae Crovo, 1971
Engina turbinella (Kiener, 1835) (Figure 7.4I)
Gemophos auritulus (Link, 1807) (Figure 7.4G)
Pisania pusio (Linnaeus, 1758)
Colubrariidae
Colubraria testacea (Mörch, 1852) (Figure 7.4L)
Columbellidae
Aesopus stearnsi (Tryon, 1883)
Columbella mercatoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Columbellopsis nycteus (Duclos, 1846)
Costoanachis sparsa (Reeve, 1859) (also found in sea grass beds)
Costoanachis translirata (Ravenel, 1861)
Nassarina monilifera (Sowerby II, 1844)
Nassarina sparsipunctata (Rehder, 1943)
Nitidella laevigata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nitidella nitida (Lamarck, 1822)
Suturoglypta hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Suturoglypta iontha (Ravenel, 1861)
Zafrona idalina (Duclos, 1840)
Zafrona pulchella (Blainville, 1829) (Figure 7.3L)
Harpidae
Morum oniscus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.10A)
Morum purpureum Röding, 1798 (Figure 7.10B)
Marginellidae
Hyalina pallida (Linnaeus, 1758)
Volvarina lactea (Kiener, 1841)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES (feeding on both bivalves and gastropods, including drillers)
Muricidae-Muricinae, Muricopsinae, Typhinae, Ergalitaxinae (the coralliopha-
gous subfamily Magilinae is listed separately)
Aspella anceps (Lamarck, 1822)
Aspella castor Radwin and D’Attilio, 1976
Caribiella alveata (Kiener, 1842)
Dermomurex pacei Petuch, 1988 (Figure 7.8A, B)
Dermomurex pauperculus (C.B. Adams, 1856) (Figure 7.8C, D)
Dermomurex (Gracilimurex) elizabethae McGinty, 1940 (Figure 7.8E, F)
Favartia minirosea (Abbott, 1954)
Muricopsis oxytatus (M. Smith, 1938) (Figure 7.8G, H)
Pterotyphis pinnatus (Broderip, 1833)
Risomurex caribbaeus (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)

Risomurex deformis (Reeve, 1846)
Risomurex muricoides (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Risomurex roseus (Reeve, 1846)
Trachypollia turricula (Maltzan, 1884) (Figure 7.8J)
Tripterotyphis triangularis (A. Adams, 1856) (Figure 7.8I)
Fasciolariidae
Dolicholatirus cayohuesonicus (Sowerby III, 1879) (Figure 7.6K)
Leucozonia lineata Usticke, 1969 (Figure 7.4F)
Leucozonia ocellata (Gmelin, 1791)
Polygona angulata (Röding, 1798) (Figure 7.3J)
Polygona carinifera (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 7.3I)
Polygona infundibula (Gmelin, 1791)
Polygona nemata (Woodring, 1928)
Costellariidae
Pusia puella (Reeve, 1845)
Thala foveata (Sowerby II, 1874)
Vexillum arestum (Rehder, 1943) (Figure 7.10M)
Vexillum dermestinum (Lamarck, 1811) (Figure 7.10E)
Vexillum epiphanea Rehder, 1943
Vexillum histrio (Reeve, 1844)
Vexillum moisei McGinty, 1955
Vexillum moniliferum (C.B. Adams, 1850) (often referred to as V. albocinctum, which
is a nomen dubium)
Vexillum pulchellum (Reeve, 1844) (Figure 7.10D)
Vexillum sykesi (Melvill, 1925)
Vexillum variatum (Reeve, 1845) (Figure 7.10C)
2c. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (including living corals and zoantherians)
Epitoniidae
Alexania floridana (Pilsbry, 1945)
Asperiscala apiculata (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala candeana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Asperiscala denticulata (Sowerby I, 1844)
Asperiscala multistriata (Say, 1826)
Asperiscala novangliae (Couthouy, 1838)
Cycloscala echinaticosta (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Dentiscala crenata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dentiscala hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Depressiscala nautlae (Mörch, 1874)
Epitonium albidum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Epitonium angulatum (Say, 1830)
Epitonium championi Clench and Turner, 1952
Epitonium krebsii (Mörch, 1874)
Epitonium humphreysi (Kiener, 1838)
Epitonium occidentale (Nyst, 1871)
Epitonium tollini Bartsch, 1938
Epitonium unifasciatum (Sowerby I, 1844)
Gyroscala lamellosa (Lamarck, 1822)
Nodiscala pumilio (Mörch, 1874)

Spiniscala echinaticosta (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Architectonicidae
Heliacus bisulcatus (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Heliacus cylindrus (Gmelin, 1791)
Ovulidae
Cyphoma alleneae Cate, 1973 (Figure 7.5F)
Muricidae-Magilinae
Babelomurex scalariformis (Lamarck, 1822) (Figure 7.4E)
Coralliophila aberrans (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Coralliophila caribbaea Abbott, 1958 (Figure 7.4A)
Coralliophila galea (Dillwyn, 1823) (Figure 7.4C)
Quoyula kalafuti Petuch, 1987 (Figure 7.8K, L)
2d. UROCHORDATE FEEDERS (including colonial tunicates)
Lamellariidae
Lamellaria leucosphaera Schwengel, 1942
Lamellaria perspicua (Linnaeus, 1758)
Triviidae
Cleotrivia candidula (Gaskoin, 1836)
Dolichupis leei Fehse and Grego, 2002
Dolichupis leucosphaera Schilder, 1931
Hespererato maugeriae (Gray, 1832) (Figure 7.5E)
Niveria antillarum (Schilder, 1922)
Niveria maltbiana (Schwengel and McGinty, 1942)
Niveria nix (Schilder, 1922) (Figure 8.3, see Chapter 8)
Niveria quadripunctata (Gray, 1827) (Figure 7.5C)
Pusula pediculus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.5A, B)
Pusula pullata (Sowerby II, 1870) (Figure 7.5M)
Pusula suffusa (Gray, 1832)
2e. ECHINODERM FEEDERS (including echinoids, ophiuroids, and asteroids)
Ranellidae
Charonia variegata (Lamarck, 1816) (Figure 7.6A, B)
Cymatium (Cymatriton) nicobaricum (Röding, 1798) (Figure 7.6D) (occasionally
feeds on small gastropods)
Cymatium (Gutturium) muricinum (Röding, 1798) (Figure 7.6C)
Cymatium (Monoplex) aquatile (Reeve, 1844) (Figure 7.7I, J)
Cymatium (Monoplex) parthenopeum (von Salis, 1793)
Cymatium (Monoplex) pileare (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.7G, H)
Cymatium (Septa) occidentale Clench and Turner, 1947 (Figure 7.7K, L)
Cymatium (Septa) vespaceum (Lamarck, 1822)
Cymatium (Tritoniscus) labiosum (Wood, 1828) (Figure 7.6E)
Cassidae (reef-dwelling species)
Cassis flammea (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.7A, B)
Cypraecassis testiculus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.7C, D)
2f. SUCTORIAL FEEDERS
Cancellariidae (problematical; elasmobranchs and invertebrates?)
Tritonoharpa lanceolata (Menke, 1828) (Figure 7.7F)
2g. PISCIVORES (feeding on blennies and gobies)

Conidae-Coninae
Chelyconus ermineus (Born, 1778) (Figure 7.10L)
2h. VERMIVORES (including polychaetes, sipunculids, and nemerteans)
Bursidae
Bursa (Colubrellina) corrugata (Perry, 1811) (Figure 7.6F, G)
Bursa (Colubrellina) cubaniana (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 7.6J)
Bursa (Lampasopsis) grayana Dunker, 1862 (Figure 7.6I)
Bursa (Lampasopsis) rhodostoma thomae (d’Orbigny, 1842) (Figure 7.6H)
Mitridae
Nebularia barbadensis (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.10H)
Scabricola nodulosa (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.10F)
Scabricola pallida (Usticke, 1959) (Figure 7.10G)
Turbinellidae
Vasum muricatum (Born, 1778) (Figure 7.4K)
Gladioconus mus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 7.10K)
Kellyconus patae (Abbott, 1971)
Stephanoconus regius (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.10J)
Conilithidae
Jaspidiconus mindanus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 7.10I)
Crassispiridae
Crassispira rhythmica Melvill, 1927
Strictispiridae
Strictispira solida (C.B. Adams, 1850) (= fuscesens “Reeve” of authors)
Zonulispiridae
Pilsbryspira albocincta (C.B. Adams, 1845) (Figure 7.3M)
Pilsbryspira jayana (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Pilsbryspira monilis (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Pilsbryspira nodata (C.B. Adams, 1850) (albomaculata is a synonym)
Zonulispira crocata (Reeve, 1845) (= sanibelensis Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Drilliidae
Cerodrillia perryae Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Fenimorea halidorema Schwengel, 1940 (Figure 7.3K)
Neodrillia cydia (Bartsch, 1943) (Figure 7.7E)
Neodrillia moseri (Dall, 1889) (Figure 7.4D)
Cochlespiridae
Pyrgospira ostrearum (Stearns, 1872)
Pyrgospira tampaensis (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Raphitomidae
Cryoturris fargoi McGinty, 1955
Ithycythara auberiana (d’Orbigny, 1847)
Ithycythara lanceolata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Ithycythara parkeri Abbott, 1958
Mangelia astricta Reeve, 1846
Pyrgocythara candidissima (C.B. Adams, 1845)
2i. PROBLEMATICAL (possibly feeding suctorially on pectinoideans or eating sponges)

Amathina pacei (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 7.9D, E)
Gastropoda
Vermetidae
Dendropoma corrodens (d’Orbigny, 1841) (= “annulatus”)
Serpulorbis decussatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Capulidae
Capulus (Krebsia) intortus (Lamarck, 1822)
Hipponicidae
Hipponix antiquatus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Calyptraeidae
Calyptraea centralis (Conrad, 1841)
Cheilea equestris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crucibulum auricula (Gmelin, 1791)
Crucibulum striatum Say, 1824
Bivalvia
Nuculidae
Nucula calcicola D. Moore, 1977 (only known reef-dwelling nuculid)
Mytilidae
Gregariella coralliophaga (Gmelin, 1791)
Lithophaga antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lithophaga aristata (Dillwyn, 1817)
Lithophaga bisulcata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lithophaga nigra (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Modiolus squamosus Beauperthuy, 1967
Pteriidae
Pinctada imbricata Röding, 1798
Trapezidae
Coralliophaga coralliophaga (Gmelin, 1791)
Malleidae
Malleus candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1853) (Figure 7.11H)
Gryphaeidae
Hyotissa mcgintyi (Harry, 1985) (Figure 7.11G)
Limidae
Ctenoides mitis (Lamarck, 1807)
Ctenoides scabra (Born, 1778)
Lima caribaea d’Orbigny, 1853 (Figure 7.11K)
Limaria pellucida (C.B. Adams, 1846) (Figure 7.11D)
Pectinidae
Caribachlamys imbricatus (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.9F, G) (Note: Mikkelsen and
Bieler, 2008, incorrectly identified this species as Caribachlamys pellucens.)
Caribachlamys mildredae (Bayer, 1941) (Figure 7.9H, I)
A
C
E
F
G
H
I
Figure 7.11 Bivalves of the Stephanoconus regius Assemblage. A = Chama macerophylla Gmelin,

1791, length 69 mm. B = Chama florida Lamarck, 1819, length 32 mm. C = Chama inezae (Bayer, 1943),
length 74 mm. D = Limaria pellucida (C.B. Adams, 1846), length 23 mm. E = Plicatula gibbosa Lamarck,
1801, length 29 mm. F = Spondylus tenuis Schriebers, 1793, length 62 mm (= S. ictericus). G = Hyotissa
mcgintyi (Harry, 1985), length 64 mm. H = Malleus candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1853), length 39 mm. I =
Lima caribaea d’Orbigny, 1853, length 42 mm.
Caribachlamys ornatus (Lamarck, 1819) (Figure 7.9J, K)

Caribachlamys sentis (Reeve, 1853) (Figure 7.9A–C)
Spondylidae
Spondylus americanus Hermann, 1781
Spondylus tenuis Schriebers, 1793 (Figure 7.11F) (ictericus Reeve, 1856, is a synonym)
Plicatulidae
Plicatula gibbosa Lamarck, 1801 (Figure 7.11E)
Chamidae
Chama congregata Conrad, 1833 (Figure 7.1)
Chama florida Lamarck, 1819 (Figure 7.11B)
Chama inezae (Bayer, 1843) (Figure 7.11C)
Chama macerophylla Gmelin, 1791 (Figure 7.11A, B)
Chama radians Lamarck, 1819
Chama sarda Reeve, 1847
Chama sinuosa Broderip, 1835
Gastrochaenidae
Gastrochaena ovata (Sowerby I, 1834)
Lamychaena hians (Gmelin, 1791)
Spengleria rostrata (Spengler, 1783)
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Stephanoconus regius
Assemblage shows that the carnivorous gastropods, including specialized types such as
molluscivores, echinoderm feeders, urochordate feeders, coral feeders, and fish eaters,
overwhelmingly dominate the coral reef platform ecosystem.
Molluscan ecology of the vermetid bioherms

The immense chain of worm shell bioherms (“reefs”) found along the Outer Ten
Thousand Islands of the South Florida Bight (discussed in Chapter 1 and previously in
this chapter) is unique in the western Atlantic region. Extending from Cape Romano
in the north to Cape Sable in the south, these reefs are composed entirely of a mono-
culture of the worm gastropod Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans, a sessile species that
produces massive intertwined pseudocolonies. Interestingly, these unusual large-scale
biogenic geomorphological features form complex structures that mimic actual coral
reefs. On some of the more well-developed and intricate worm shell reef systems, such
as those off Demijohn Key (Figure 7.12), the pseudocolonies of vermetids form promi-
nent wide reef platforms that are exposed at low tide. These platforms are often edged by
barrier-type reefs (linear bioherms) that produce wide, shallow lagoons and numerous
deep tide pools (Figure 7.13). These barrier reef and wide reef platforms are especially
well developed on the islands near the Chokoloskee and Sandfly Passes, particularly off
Jewell, Panther, Pavilion, Round, Tiger, Indian, Turtle, and Rabbit Keys. The vermetid
barrier bioherms typically grow along the windward ocean sides of the outermost keys
of the entire archipelago and are exposed to nearly continuous low-level wave action.
On some islands, such as Jewell Key, the beaches are composed almost entirely of disin-
tegrated vermetid pseudocolonies, the result of damage produced during strong storms
and heavy wave action.
Like their coral reef counterparts, these vermetid structures exhibit a deterministic
developmental pattern, growing outward into the shallow wave zone. This continuous
seaward growth provides a substrate for the colonization of mangroves, with the outer
keys having first developed as extensive worm shell reefs and later having been over-
grown by Red and Black Mangrove forests. On many of the outer keys of the Ten Thousand
Islands, such as Rabbit Key, the vermetid reefs have been overgrown by immense aggre-
gations of the oysters Crassostrea virginica and Ostreola equestris. These massive accumula-
tions of ostreid bivalves, growing on cores of dead worm shell bioherms, form extensive
banks that extend around onto the sheltered lee sides of the islands. These oyster banks
also form large biohermal structures that serve as substrates for mangrove colonization.
As described by Shier (1969), this pattern of ecological succession, from the pioneer ver-
metid reefs to the intermediate oyster banks to the climax mangrove forests, appears to be
the primary land-building mechanism along the seaward edge of the Reticulated Coastal
Swamps and the Outer Ten Thousand Islands.
The tidal pools on the Ten Thousand Islands vermetid reefs house an interesting,
but impoverished, molluscan fauna, containing several special localized ecomorphs of
typical and widespread southern Floridian species. Primary among these is a bright red
color form of the Tulip Shell, Fasciolaria tulipa (Figure 7.14C), which is the primary mol-
luscan predator of the abundant Batillaria minima snails and small Ostreola equestris oys-
ters. The suspension-feeding Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans worm shells (Figure 7.14A),
the main reef builders and namesake of the entire molluscan faunule (the Vermetus
nigricans Assemblage), are also one of the principal prey items of the molluscivorous
buccinid gastropod Gemophos tinctus pacei (Figure 7.14D, E). This small whelk, a sub-
species of the wide-ranging western Atlantic Gemophos tinctus, is endemic to the Ten
Thousand Islands and occurs abundantly on some of the worm reef platforms and asso-
ciated oyster ridges. Also occurring with Gemophos tinctus pacei on the vermetid reef
complexes is the turritellid gastropod Vermicularia fargoi owensi (Figure 7.14F, G; see
Systematic Appendix), a subspecies of the common western Florida Vermicularia fargoi.
This small turritellid worm shell is also endemic to the Ten Thousand Islands and lives
on open expanses of sand within the shallow back-reef lagoons of the vermetid barrier
bioherms.
Biogeographically, the molluscan assemblages of the Ten Thousand Islands area
belong to the Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince of the Carolinian Molluscan Province
and share more taxa in common with the fauna of that cooler-water biotic subdivision than
they do with the fauna of the tropical Floridian Molluscan Subprovince of the Carolinian
Molluscan Province (the Florida Keys area; see Petuch, 2013). A classic example of this
western Floridian Suwannean influence is demonstrated by the presence of the Crown
Conch, Melongena (Rexmela) corona corona (Figure 7.14I), which ranges only as far south as
the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable. Here, this characteristic Suwannean gastro-
pod, represented by a small, darkly colored local population, lives within the back-reef
lagoons of the vermetid reefs in association with the endemic turritellids and buccinids.
From Cape Sable southward into Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, Melongena (Rexmela)
corona corona is replaced by the Keys endemic Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor, and the two
species do not appear to cooccur at any known locality. Other typical Suwannean gastro-
pods that live in the sandy lagoons and tide pools along with the Crown Conch are the
voracious molluscivorous busyconids Fulguropsis pyruloides (Figure 7.14J) and Sinistrofulgur
sinistrum; the modulid Modulus floridanus (Figure 7.14K); the fasciolariid Cinctura hunteria;
the strombid Strombus alatus; the conid Gradiconus anabathrum (Figure 7.14H); the conilithid
Jaspidiconus stearnsi (Figure 7.14L); and the terebrids Strioterebrum dislocatum (Figure 7.14B)
and Strioterebrum vinosum (Figure 7.14M).
158
Figure 7.12 View of a vermetid gastropod bioherm (“reef”) exposed at low tide on Demijohn Key, Ten Thousand Islands, Collier County,
Florida. In the distance are two larger islands of the archipelago, Lumber Key and Rabbit Key, both of which contain large vermetid worm shell
reefs along their seaward sides. This type of environment supports the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage of the Gastropod Reef Macrohabitat.
(Photograph by E. J. Petuch.)
Chapter seven: Molluscan faunas of the coral reef tract macrohabitat
Figure 7.13 Close-up of a red color form of the Tulip Shell Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758) and valves of the oyster Ostreola equestris (Say, 1834)
in a tide pool on the vermetid reef off Demijohn Key, Ten Thousand Islands, Collier County, Florida. Large pools like this are best developed on
the main platform of the worm shell reefs, behind the topographically higher barrier “reef” that grows along the seaward side of the biohermal
159
complex. (Photograph by E. J. Petuch.)
C
B
A E
I
K
L
J
G M
Biodiversity of the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage

Both the vermetid reefs and the adjacent sandy lagoons house a species-poor macro-
mollusk fauna composed of only 71 taxa. Even with the inclusion of the two endemic
subspecies (Gemophos tinctus pacei and Vermicularia fargoi owensi), the Vermetus nigricans
Assemblage still resembles a highly impoverished version of the much richer coastal
lagoon faunas found along western Florida (the Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince of
the Carolinian Molluscan Province). The extreme oceanographic conditions of the Ten
Thousand Islands area, including seasonally fluctuating salinities and low water tempera-
tures during the winter months, have prevented the establishment of a richer molluscan
fauna. For the most part, the malacofauna is dominated by oysters, and their accumulated
shells form most of the hardbottom substrates. Along the seaward-most keys of the Ten
Thousand Islands (the Outer Ten Thousand Islands), large accumulations of vermetid reef
fragments, mixed with quartz sand, make up most of the beaches, and the massive worm
shell reefs of the intertidal zone offer the only extensive hard substrate areas. The seaward
beaches of the outer keys are often covered with large accumulations of driftwood and
weathered dead Black Mangrove trees, and these offer a substrate for a small deme com-
posed of the periwinkles Littoraria angulifera and Littoraria nebulosa (and color form tessel-
lata) (Figures 7.15 and 7.16) and the ellobiids Melampus bidentatus and Ellobium (Auriculoides)
dominicense (Figure 7.16H, I).
The following species list is a compilation of both the worm reef residents and the spe-
cies found on the adjacent sandy seafloors and oyster banks, and this is the first species
survey ever undertaken for the Ten Thousand Islands (during 2013 and 2014). The mem-
bers of the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage, and those of the surrounding sandy seafloors,
are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche preference: R = living on the worm
shell reef; S = living on sandy areas adjacent to the reef complexes.

Gastropoda
Fissurellidae
Diodora listeri (d”Orbigny, 1842) R
Lucapinella suffusa (Reeve, 1850) R
Figure 7.14 Gastropods of the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage. A = Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans
(Dall, 1884), aggregation length 210 mm. B = Strioterebrum dislocatum (Say, 1822), length 39 mm. C =
Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758), red color form, length 66 mm. D, E = Gemophos tinctus pacei Petuch
and Sargent, 2011, holotype, length 25.4 mm. F, G = Vermicularia fargoi owensi Petuch and Myers,
new subspecies; holotype, length 23 mm (see Systematic Appendix). H = Gradiconus anabathrum
(Crosse, 1865), length 43 mm. I = Melongena (Rexmela) corona corona (Gmelin, 1791), length 72 mm. J =
Fulguropsis pyruloides (Say, 1822), length 68 mm. K = Modulus floridanus (Conrad, 1869), height 12 mm.
This endemic western Florida species is often incorrectly referred to by many workers as Modulus
modulus (Linnaeus, 1758). L = Jaspidiconus stearnsi (Conrad, 1869), length 20 mm. M = Strioterebrum
vinosum (Dall, 1889), length 15 mm. With the exception of the wide-ranging Vermetus nigricans,
Strioterebrum dislocatum, and Fasciolaria tulipa, all of these species are endemic faunal components
of the Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince of the Carolinian Molluscan Province, and the Ten
Thousand Islands area represents the farthest southeastern limit of their biogeographical ranges.
The boundary between the Suwannean and Floridian Molluscan Subprovinces appears to be at
Cape Sable, Monroe County. Here, the typical quartz sand substrates and cooler winter water condi-
tions of the Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince give way to the carbonate sediments and warmer-
water conditions of the Floridian Molluscan Subprovince.
162
Figure 7.15 Close-up of an aggregation of the littorinid Littoraria nebulosa (Lamarck, 1822), and its dark color form tessellata Philippi, 1847,
crawling on a piece of driftwood along the seaward side of Rabbit Key, Ten Thousand Islands. Although relatively uncommon in southern
Florida, this large periwinkle is unusually abundant on the dense driftwood accumulations found along the outer keys of the Ten Thousand
Islands. The endemic Ten Thousand Islands Raccoon, Procyon lotor marinus, has been observed to feed on these littorinids. (Photograph by
Robert Owens.)
Littorinidae
Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck, 1822) (on mangroves and higher areas of the drift-
wood accumulations)
Littoraria nebulosa (Lamarck, 1822) (and color form tessellata Philippi, 1847; on
lower areas in the splash zone of the driftwood accumulations) (Figures 7.15
and 7.16B, C)
Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791) R
Cerithiidae
Cerithium lutosum Menke, 1828 R
Modulidae
Modulus floridanus (Conrad, 1869) (Figure 7.14K) (often incorrectly referred to as
Modulus modulus, which is actually a southern Caribbean species; found on
Halodule Shoal Grass) S
Strombidae
Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791 S
Ellobiidae
Ellobium (Auricoloides) dominicense (Ferussac, 1821) (Figure 7.16H, I)
Melampus bidentatus (Say, 1822) (Both species live on driftwood accumulations, plant
detritus, and Black Mangrove roots found within the interiors of the islands.)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling muricids and naticids)
Naticidae
Neverita delessertiana (Recluz, 1843) (Figure 7.16E–G) S
Muricidae-Muricinae
Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855) R
Phyllonotus pomum (Gmelin, 1791) R
Fasciolariidae
Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811) R
Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 7.14C) R
Busyconidae
Fulguropsis pyruloides (Say, 1822) (Figure 7.14J) S
Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Hollister, 1958) S
Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) corona corona (Gmelin, 1791) (Figure 7.14I) R
Buccinidae
Gemophos tinctus pacei Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 7.14D, E) R
Nassariidae
Phrontis vibex (Say, 1822) S
Columbellidae
Costoanachis semiplicata (Stearns, 1873) (Figure 7.16J, K) S (lives in algae near the
worm reefs)
Olividae
Americoliva sayana (Ravenel, 1834) S
Marginellidae
Prunum apicinum (Menke, 1828) S
A
D
G
H I K
Bullidae
Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850 S
2c. SPECIALIZED CARNIVORES (suctorial feeders on elasmobranchs?)
Cancellariidae
Cancellaria reticulata (Linnaeus, 1767) S
2d. VERMIVORES (polychaete worms)
Gradiconus anabathrum (Crosse, 1865) (Figure 7.14H) S
Jaspidiconus stearnsi (Conrad, 1869) (Figure 7.14L) S
Terebridae
Strioterebrum dislocatum (Say, 1822) (Figure 7.14B) S
Strioterebrum vinosum (Dall, 1889) (Figure 7.14M) S
2e. ECHINODERM FEEDERS (holothurians)
Ficus communis Röding, 1798 (Figure 7.16D) S
3. SUSPENSION/FILTER FEEDERS (including detritivores)
Gastropoda
Vermetidae
Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans (Dall, 1884) (Figure 7.14A) R
Turritellidae
Vermicularia fargoi owensi Petuch and Myers, new subspecies (Figure 7.14F, G)
(see Systematic Appendix) S (free-living on open muddy sand bottoms near
worm reefs and bryozoan colonies)
Vermicularia knorri (Deshayes, 1843) S (growing in sponges and bryozoan
colonies)
Calyptraeidae
Crepidula fornicata (Linnaeus, 1758) R
Crepidula maculosa Conrad, 1846 R
Ianacus plana (Say, 1822) R
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Anadara floridana 1869) S
Anadara transversa (Say, 1822) S
Noetiidae
Arcopsis adamsi (Dall, 1886) R
Noetia ponderosa (Say, 1822) S
Figure 7.16 Mollusks of the Vermetus nigricans Assemblage. A= Dinocardium vanhyningi Clench

and Smith, 1944, length 61 mm. Extremely common in the deeper channels between the Outer Ten
Thousand Islands; confined to the Gulf of Mexico. B, C= Littoraria nebulosa (Lamarck, 1822), yellow
color form, length 11 mm. D= Ficus communis Röding, 1798, length 75 mm. Prefers quartz sand sub-
strates and is common along western Florida; not found in the carbonate sediment substrate areas
of the Florida Keys. This species is frequently encountered around Jewell Key, where this specimen
was collected. E, F, G= Neverita delessertiana (Recluz, 1843), dorsal, ventral, and basal views, showing
the operculum within the aperture; width 43 mm. Confined to intertidal and shallow water quartz
sand areas throughout the Gulf of Mexico, from Texas to the Ten Thousand Islands; not found on
the carbonate substrates of the Florida Keys and coral coast. Compare with Neverita delessertiana
patriceae (Figure 6.12G, H, I; Chapter 6), the geographically isolated, high-spired subspecies from the
Palm Beach Provinciatone. H, I= Ellobium (Auriculoides) dominicense (Ferussac, 1821), length 13 mm. J,
K = Costoanachis semiplicata (Stearns, 1873), length 12 mm.
Mytilidae
Arcuatula papyria (Conrad, 1846) S (in algae)
Brachidontes exustus (Linnaeus, 1758) R
Modiolus americanus (Leach, 1815) R
Pinnidae
Atrina rigida (Lightfoot, 1786) S
Atrina serrata (Sowerby I, 1825) S
Ostreidae
Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 1828) R
Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791) R
Ostreola equestris (Say, 1834) (Figure 7.13) R
These three oysters are among the principal prey items of the endemic Ten
Thousand Islands Raccoon, Procyon lotor marinus.
Pectinidae
Argopecten irradians taylorae Petuch, 1987 S (Bright orange color forms are
common.)
Anomiidae
Anomia simplex d’Orbigny, 1853 R
Carditidae
Carditamera floridana Conrad, 1838 S
Lucinidae
Ctena orbiculata (Montagu, 1808) S
Phacoides pectinata (Gmelin, 1791) S
Stewartia floridana (Conrad, 1833) S
Cardiidae
Dallocardia muricata (Linnaeus, 1758) S
Dinocardium vanhyningi Clench and Smith, 1944 (Figure 7.16A) S
Laevicardium mortoni (Conrad, 1830) S
Laevicardium serratum (Linnaeus, 1758) S
Trachycardium egmontianum (Shuttleworth, 1856) S
Veneridae
Anomalocardia cuneimeris (Conrad, 1846) S
Chione elevata Say, 1822 S
Macrocallista nimbosa (Lightfoot, 1786) S
Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791) S
Tellinidae
Eurytellina lineata (Turton, 1819) S
Macoma tenta (Say, 1834) S
Psammobiidae
Heterodonax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758) S
Semelidae
Semele proficua (Pulteney, 1799) S
Semele purpurascens (Gmelin, 1791) S
Solecurtidae
Tagelus divisus (Spengler, 1794) S
Mactridae
Mactrotoma fragilis (Gmelin, 1791) S
Pholadidae
Cyrtopleura costata (Linnaeus, 1758) S
Periplomatidae
Periploma margaritaceum (Lamarck, 1801) S
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Vermetus nigricans
Assemblage (the actual reef-dwelling taxa are designated by R) shows that the suspen-
sion/filter-feeding species dominate the ecosystem. The ancillary taxa from the surround-
ing sand bottom areas (designated by S) follow a similar pattern, with the suspension/
filter-feeding species again dominating the ecosystem. The Ten Thousand Islands of
extreme southwestern Florida are now known to house a highly impoverished molluscan
fauna comprising only 71 species (as of this survey, for the area of the Chokoloskee and
Sandfly Passes, Chokoloskee Bay, and Demijohn, Jewell, and Rabbit Keys). The nutrient-
rich freshwater effluent emptying out of the Big Cypress Swamp and Everglades, through
the back bays of the Reticulated Coastal Swamps, has created the ideal oceanographic
conditions for the growth of extensive vermetid worm shell reefs. The spatial extent of
these gastropod bioherms is intimately tied to the high phytoplankton productivity pro-
duced by the fluvial and paludal input in the area between Capes Romano and Sable,
along the northern side of the South Florida Bight. The deep channels between the
Outer Ten Thousand Islands and the vermetid bioherms, such as those at the mouths of
Chokoloskee, Fakahatchee, and Sandfly Passes, house unusual soft-substrate communi-
ties dominated by dense growths of the ectoproct bryozoan Schizoporella. The endemic
turritellid Vermicularia fargoi owensi occurs here on open sand patches between the large
foliated clumps of bryozoans.
iew of a vermetid worm shell barrier reef off Demijohn Key, Ten Thousand Islands, Collier County,
V
Florida, showing the characteristic reef crest and lagoon geomorphology.
chapter eight
Molluscan faunas of the deep-reef

talus macrohabitat (neritic regime)
Introduction
The seaward side of the Florida Keys Reef Tract drops off precipitously, at an acute angle,
into the deep waters of the Florida Strait. This plunging, angled slope begins at depths
of around 30 m and eventually reaches a terminus in a zone of large stepped ledges and
intervening caves at depths of around 100 m. Characteristically, the deep fore-reef area is
composed of slabs of coral and masses of coral rubble that have become fused together by
sclerosponges and interstitial hexactinellid sponges, producing a stable talus slope. The
component coral slabs are the remnants of the reef destruction that takes place during
hurricanes and violent storms, when large blocks of coral break off in the heavy surf and
tumble down the fore-reef slope. Here, they are cemented together and eventually accu-
mulate enough carbonate rubble to form the substrate for new coral growth. In this way,
the reef tract is continuously growing in a seaward direction, with a deterministic growth
pattern that eventually will create new reef systems, coral cays, and ultimately, land.
Along the uppermost section of the reef talus slope of the Florida Keys and northward
to the Palm Beach coast, the distinctive Pillar Coral, Dendrogyra cylindrus, often forms
extensive monoculture thickets. Patches of these characteristic deeper-water corals typi-
cally interfinger with areas covered by paper-thin, overlapping sheets of Lettuce Corals
(Agaricia spp.), producing a distinctive deep neritic hermatypic coralline assemblage.
Because of the extreme difficulty of collecting on these rough, highly angled slopes that
are too deep for scuba diving, little is known about the resident malacofauna. Almost all
of the specimens that have been collected from the reef talus slope are taken from deep-
water lobster traps that are utilized by commercial lobster fishermen (Figure 8.1). These
large wooden traps are baited with rotting meat and then sunk to depths of 100–200 m,
where they are left for several months. During their time of submergence, the traps
become encrusted with thick growths of fouling organisms such as hydroids, ectoprocts,
barnacles, and sessile bivalves such as anomiids, chamids, and pectinids. These artificial
miniecosystems create the perfect hiding places for lobsters and support a large array of
specialized molluscivorous and carnivorous gastropods. After weeks or months, the traps
are pulled to the surface, along with their trapped inhabitants, and scraped clean of all
the encrusting organisms. This intensive cleaning process often yields large numbers of
rarely seen deep-water mollusks that had taken up residence on the fouling community.
Although dependent on commercial fishermen, this collecting technique is still the only
efficient and economical way to sample the molluscan faunas of the deep-reef talus zone.
One of the most distinctive gastropods that occurs on the poorly studied deep-reef
talus area is the widespread Caribbean-southern Floridian ranellid Cymatium (Ranularia)
rehderi (Figure 8.2E, F), which is chosen here to be the namesake for the entire molluscan
faunule (the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage). This characteristic deep-reef species occurs
169
170
Figure 8.1 View of commercial lobster traps stored on Conch Key, Middle Florida Keys. These wooden traps are baited with rotting fish or meat and
then submerged in deep-water areas for weeks or months, attracting lobsters and many rare deep-water mollusks. Utilizing lobster traps for collect-
ing shells is the only economical way to sample the molluscan faunas of the Deep-Reef Talus Macrohabitat and the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage
and Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage. (Photograph by Eddie Matchett.)
Chapter eight: Molluscan faunas of the deep-reef talus macrohabitat (neritic regime) 171
C
A
E
F
K
J L
Figure 8.2 Mollusks of the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage. A = Marevalvata bairdi (Dall, 1889), width
5 mm. B = Laevichlamys multisquamatus (Dunker, 1864), length 32 mm. C = Marevalvata tricarinata
(Stearns, 1872), width 4 mm. D = Spathochlamys benedicti (Verrill and Bush, 1897), length 12 mm.
E, F = Cymatium (Ranularia) rehderi Verrill, 1950, length 57 mm. G, H = Phyllonotus oculatus (Reeve,
1845), length 83 mm. I = Chicoreus mergus E. Vokes, 1974, length 34 mm. J = Calliostoma fascinans
Schwengel and McGinty, 1942, height 10 mm. K = Torcula exoleta (Linnaeus, 1758), length 58 mm.
L = Torculoidella acropora (Dall, 1889), length 23 mm.
along with a host of interesting and seldom-seen gastropods, such as the calliostomids
Calliostoma fascinans (Figure 8.2J) and Calliostoma scalenum (Figure 8.3D); the beautifully
colored turbinid Turbo (Taenioturbo) cailletii (Figure 8.3C); the ranellids Cymatium (Septa)
krebsii (Figure 8.3A) and Cymatium (Monoplex) mundum; the harpid Cancellomorum den-
nisoni (Figure 8.3E, F); and the conid Atlanticonus granulatus (Figure 8.3J). This last-men-
tioned species of cone shell (the much-sought-after “Glory of the Atlantic”) is a cryptic
species, living buried deeply in coral rubble and hexactinellid sponges, and is considered
by collectors to be one of the most desirable shells in the Palm Beach and Florida Keys
areas. The Glory of the Atlantic lives sympatrically with other cryptic gastropods, such
as the liotiids Marevalvata bairdi (Figure 8.2A) and Marevalvata tricarinata (Figure 8.2C); the
muricid Favartia emipowlusi; the fasciolariid Dolicholatirus pauli; and the drilliid Fenimorea
pagodula; bivalves such as the pectinids Laevichlamys multisquamatus (Figure 8.2B) and
Spathochlamys benedicti (Figure 8.2D); and the limids Ctenoides samanensis and Ctenoides
planulata. The exposed surface of the coral rubble often forms the substrate for the attach-
ment of exceptionally large and extremely spiny deep-water forms of the spondylid
Spondylus americanus (Figure 8.3I) and delicately fronded varieties of the deep-water
chamid Chama lactuca. These sessile bivalves, along with the large anomiid Pododesmus
rudis, are some of the principal prey items of the large, widespread western Atlantic,
deep-water muricid gastropods Phyllonotus oculatus (Figure 8.2G, H) and Chicoreus mergus
(Figure 8.2I).
On more planar areas of the talus slope, large patches of carbonate sand and shell hash
often accumulate, forming isolated “islands” of soft substrate on an otherwise-solid car-
bonate rock substrate. These thick sand patches, which can cover large areas of the angled
seafloor, house a number of deep-reef softbottom gastropods, including the suspension-
feeding turritellids Torcula exoleta (Figure 8.2K) and Torculoidella acropora (Figure 8.2L) and
the algae-grazing strombid Aliger gallus (Figure 8.3G, H). Sand-dwelling zoantherians liv-
ing in these isolated softbottom areas, along with the adjacent Dendrogyra and Agaricia
coral colonies, serve as the principal prey items for a large number of cnidarian-feeding
gastropods such as the epitoniids Cirsotrema dalli, Dentiscala hotessieriana, and Epitonium
krebsii, the architectonicids Heliacus perrieri and Philippia krebsii, and the magilid muri-
cids Coralliophila aedonis and Coralliophila pacei (Figure 8.3B). The last-mentioned species,
Coralliophila pacei, with its characteristic two raised bands of scaly flutings, is endemic to
the coral coast of southeastern Florida, having only ever been collected on deep reefs off
the Palm Beach coast, Pompano Beach (the type locality), and Key Largo.
Biodiversity of the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage

The members of the deep-reef talus slope-associated Cymatium rehderi Assemblage are
listed here by feeding types and ecological niche preferences. Because this faunule is still
poorly known and poorly sampled, the species list that follows can be considered only
preliminary and does not accurately reflect the true diversity of the ecosystem. For illus-
trations of species not illustrated here, see Abbott (1974).

Gastropoda
Fissurellidae
Diodora arcuata Sowerby II, 1862
Diodora fragilis Farfante and Henriquez, 1947
Diodora wetmorei Farfante, 1945
F
A
D J
G
K
I
H
Figure 8.3 Mollusks of the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage. A = Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Mörch, 1877,
length 31 mm. B = Coralliophila pacei Petuch, 1987, length 31 mm. This specimen from the deep reefs
off Palm Beach is a full adult, showing the characteristic high, turreted spire and two prominent
scaly cords. The holotype is a juvenile specimen, only 8 mm in length. C = Turbo (Taenioturbo) cailletii
Fischer and Bernardi, 1856, width 24 mm. D = Calliostoma scalenum Quinn, 1992, height 12 mm. E, F
= Cancellomorum dennisoni (Reeve, 1842), length 36 mm. G, H = Aliger gallus (Linnaeus, 1758), length
123 mm. I = Spondylus americanus Hermann, 1781, length 156 mm; deep-water form. J = Atlanticonus
granulatus (Linnaeus, 1758), length 43 mm. K = Niveria nix (Schilder, 1922), length 12 mm.
Lucapina eolis Farfante, 1945

Zeidora bigelowi Perez-Farfante, 1947
Liotiidae
Marevalvata bairdi (Dall, 1889) (Figure 8.2A)
Marevalvata briareus (Dall, 1881)
Marevalvata tricarinata (Stearns, 1872) (Figure 8.2C)
Marevalvata trullata (Dall, 1889)
Turbinidae
Turbo (Taenioturbo) cailletii Fischer and Bernardi, 1856 (Figure 8.3C)
Strombidae
Aliger gallus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 8.3G, H)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. GENERAL CARNIVORES (including hydroids, sponges, and ectoprocts)
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma fascinans Schwengel and McGinty, 1942 (Figure 8.2J)
Calliostoma marionae Dall, 1906
Calliostoma scalenum Quinn, 1992 (Figure 8.3D)
Harpidae
Cancellomorum dennisoni (Reeve, 1942) (Figure 8.3E, F)
2b. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling predators)
Muricidae (subfamilies Muricinae, Muricopsinae, and Ergalitaxinae; the coralli-
ophagous subfamily Magilinae is listed here separately)
Chicoreus mergus E. Vokes, 1974 (Figure 8.2I)
Favartia emipowlusi (Abbott, 1954)
Phyllonotus oculatus (Reeve, 1845) (Figure 8.2G, H)
Trachypollia sclera Woodring, 1928)
Fasciolariidae
Dolicholatirus pauli (McGinty, 1955)
2c. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (including corals and zoantherians)
Architectonicidae
Heliacus perrieri (Rochebrune, 1881)
Philippia krebsii (Mörch, 1875)
Epitoniidae
Cirsotrema dalli Rehder, 1945
Cirsotrema pilsbryi (McGinty, 1940)
Dentiscala burryi Clench and Turner, 1950
Nodiscala aurifilia (Dall, 1889)
Opaliopsis concava (Dall, 1889) E
Muricidae-Magilinae
Coralliophila aedonis (Watson, 1886)
Coralliophila pacei Petuch, 1987 (Figure 8.3B)
2d. ECHINODERM FEEDERS
Ranellidae
Cymatium (Monoplex) mundum (Gould, 1849)
Cymatium (Ranularia) rehderi Verrill, 1950 (Figure 8.2E, F)
Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Mörch, 1877 (Figure 8.3A)
2e. VERMIVORES
Atlanticonus granulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 8.3J)
Jaspidiconus mindanus (Hwass, 1792)
Drilliidae
Cerodrillia schroederi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Fenimorea pagodula (Dall, 1889)
Raphitomidae
Brachycythara barbarae Lyons, 1972
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Torcula exoleta (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 8.2K)
Torculoidella acropora (Dall, 1889) (Figure 8.2L)
Siliquariidae
Siliquaria squamata Blainville, 1827
Bivalvia
Pectinidae
Laevichlamys multisquamatus (Dunker, 1864) (Figure 8.2B)
Spathochlamys benedicti (Verrill and Bush, 1897) (Figure 8.2D)
Spondylidae
Spondylus americanus Hermann, 1781 (Figure 8.3I)
Limidae
Ctenoides samanensis Stuardo, 1982 (miamiensis Mikkelsen and Bieler, 2003, is
a synonym)
Ctenoides planulata (Dall, 1886)
Anomiidae
Pododesmus rudis (Broderip, 1834)
Chamidae
Chama lactuca Dall, 1886
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Cymatium rehderi
Assemblage shows that specialized carnivorous gastropods dominate this ecosystem.
Molluscan ecology of the deep coral reef ledges

At the base of the fore-reef talus slope, at depths between 100 and 200 m, the accumula-
tions of dead coral slabs create a topography composed of stepped ledges and interven-
ing caves. A large fauna of gorgonian octocorals, composed primarily of antipatharians
(“Black Coral”), dominates the surface of these ledges, while the caves shelter a rich fauna
of hexactinellid and demospongian poriferans. The shallower upper sections of the ledge
and cave zone are often covered with dense growths of deep-water red algae, and these
rhodophyte beds, together with the antipatharian thickets and sponge bioherms, house
a rich and remarkable molluscan fauna that contains a large number of endemic species.
The reef ledge-associated malacofauna extends from the deep reefs off Palm Beach and
Broward Counties all the way along the Florida Keys Reef Tract to the area south of the
Dry Tortugas. Like the shallower suprajacent reef talus slope, the deep coral ledges are
A
C
B
G
H
I L M
extremely difficult to sample, and much of the data on the composition of the resident
molluscan fauna comes from specimens captured in deep-water lobster traps or dredged
by marine research vessels.
The undersides of the ledges provide the substrate for the attachment of an unusual,
newly discovered sessile arcid bivalve that appears to be endemic to the deep-water
areas off the Florida Keys. This small, stocky, pale-colored ark shell, Arca rachelcarsonae
(Figure 8.4A–C), was first found attached by byssal threads to a deep-water lobster trap
taken off Key Largo and is now known to be a resident of the deep-reef ledges (Arca rachel-
carsonae n.sp. is described in the Systematic Appendix at the end of this book). This char-
acteristic endemic species is chosen here to represent the entire deep-reef ledge-associated
molluscan faunule (the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage). Several other deep-water bivalves
occur with the new arcid and find shelter among the coral ledges, including the pteriid pearl
oyster Pinctada vitrea; the encrusting oyster Neopycnodonte cochlear; the mytilids Amygdalum
politum, Amygdalum sagittatum, and Crenella decussata; and the limid Ctenoides sanctipauli.
The deep-water red algae beds shelter a large fauna of herbivorous gastropods,
including over 19 species in four separate families (the Fissurellidae, Trochidae, Liotiidae,
and Modulidae). Of the algivores known from these rhodophyte thickets, 12 belong to
the Fissurellidae alone, making this the single largest keyhole limpet fauna known from
Florida. Some of the more important and conspicuous fissurellids found in these ledge
areas are the large Diodora (Glyphis) tanneri and the smaller Diodora fluviana and Nesta atlan-
tica. These unusual limpets occur together with two species of deep-water modulids: the
high-spired, bright pink and purple Modulus lindae (Figure 8.4K) and the flattened, star-
shaped Modulus kaicherae (Figure 8.4M). These two sympatric modulids are the deepest-
dwelling species of their family known from anywhere in the western Atlantic. The small
trochids Mirachelus guttarosea, Solariella lamellosa, and Solariella lacunella also occur on these
deep ledges, along with the liotiids Sansonia tuberculata and Arene variabilis.
The massively encrusting sponges that line the undersides of the ledges and the interi-
ors of the intervening caves support an interesting and unusual assemblage of spongivorous
gastropods. In the deepest areas of the ledges and caves (200-m depths), the pleurotomariid
slit shell Perotrochus amabilis can be found feeding on encrusting sponges, along with the
deep-water abalone Haliotis pourtalesi. Several obligate spongivores also occur with the slit
shell and abalone, including the rare cowrie shell Propustularia surinamensis (Figure 8.4H, I)
and the large calliostomatids Calliostoma (Kombologion) benedicti (Figure 8.4D), Calliostoma
Figure 8.4 Mollusks of the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage. A = Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers,
new species; holotype, length 16 mm, lateral view. B = Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new
species; holotype, length 16 mm, view of the ligamental shelf (see Systematic Appendix). C = Arca
rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new species. Paratype, length 21 mm, lateral view. D = Calliostoma
benedicti Dall, 1889, width 28 mm. E = Bursa (Colubrellina) ranelloides tenuisculpta (Dautzenberg and
Fischer, 1906), length 42 mm (B. finlayi is a synonym). F, G = Pusula juyingae Petuch and Sargent, 2011,
length 14 mm. This large endemic triviid has been incorrectly referred to as Pusula costispunctata by
several Florida workers. That taxon is actually an Eastern Pacific Panamic Molluscan Province spe-
cies. H, I = Propustularia surinamensis (Perry, 1811), length 26.8 mm. Four specimens of this rare cow-
rie were collected alive on the deep reefs off Palm Beach by Thomas and Paula Honker in the 1980s.
Another specimen is also known to have been collected from lobster traps placed on deep-water
reefs off northern Key Largo. These southeastern Floridian specimens mark the northernmost end
of the range of this rare and desirable western Atlantic cowrie. J = Pseudocyphoma gibbulum (Cate,
1978), length 13.5 mm. K = Modulus lindae Petuch, 1987, length 11 mm. L = Attiliosa philippiana (Dall,
1889), length 16 mm. M = Modulus kaicherae Petuch, 1987, view of spire, width 12 mm.
A
C
B
I
H
F
K
G
J
(Kombologion) hendersoni, and Calliostoma (Kombologion) sayanum. Several types of encrust-

ing botrylid colonial tunicates (Urochordata) are interspersed between the sponge patches,
and these provide both the food source and the substrate for the rare triviid cowries Niveria
nix (Figure 8.3K) and Pusula juyingae (Figure 8.4F, G). To date, this last-mentioned triviid
has only been collected along the deep reefs off Palm Beach and Broward Counties, but it
undoubtedly ranges southward to at least the northern Keys.
Of all the resident gastropod groups in the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage, the
Ovulidae exhibits the highest level of endemism, with virtually every species restricted
to the area extending from Palm Beach to the Dry Tortugas. Here, at least four species of
endemic egg shells live on the antipatharian octocorals, with the most frequently encoun-
tered being Pseudocyphoma gibbulum (Figure 8.4J), Pseudosimnia vanhyningi, Pseudosimnia
sphoni, and Adamantia solemi. These octocorals also provide the substrate for the cnidarian-
feeding pediculariid Pedicularia decussata, where the variably shaped shell adheres to the
stem or holdfast of the antipatharian colony. The pediculariid conforms to the shape of
the irregular substrate, so no two individuals will have the same exact shell form. Besides
the antipatharians, other cnidarians, such as large zoantherian colonies, also encrust the
deep-reef ledges, and these are the principal prey items of the cnidarian-feeding magiline
muricids Coralliophila richardi and Babelomurex dalli.
The encrusting bivalve fauna of the deep ledges, including species such as Arca
rachelcarsonae and Neopycnodonte cochlear, provide the main food resources for the drill-
ing molluscivores of the family Muricidae. A particularly rich assemblage of muricids is
associated with the deep coral ledges, including rarely seen species such as Pterochelus
ariomus, Trossulasalpinx macra, Pteropurpura bequaerti, Pterynotus guesti, Pterynotus pha-
neus, Attiliosa philippiana (Figure 8.4L), Vokesimurex morrisoni (Figure 8.5K), Favartia gold-
bergi (Figure 8.5A), Dermomurex (Trialatella) glicksteini (Figure 8.5E), and Pygmaepterys
richardbinghami (Figure 8.5D). The last three of these muricid species were originally
collected on the deep reefs off Palm Beach, but future research will undoubtedly show
that they occur throughout the Florida Keys in the right habitat type and depth range.
These deep-water murex shells also live along with the small echinoderm-feeding
ranellid Cymatium (Septa) pharcidum and the sipunculid and nemertean-feeding bursids
Bursa (Colubrellina) ranelloides tenuisculpta (Figure 8.4E) and Bufonaria bufo. The rare ple-
siotritonine cancellariid Tritonoharpa janowskyi (Figure 8.5C) also occurs in this habitat
and is probably a suctorial feeder on polychaete and sipunculid worms. Although origi-
nally described from the deep reefs off Palm Beach, this stocky, truncated Tritonoharpa
species has also been collected from deep lobster traps brought up from off northern
Key Largo.
Figure 8.5 Gastropods of the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage. A = Favartia goldbergi Petuch and
Sargent, 2011; holotype, length 10.5 mm. B = Gemophos filistriatus Vermeij, 2006, length 20.4 mm. C =
Tritonoharpa janowskyi Petuch and Sargent, 2011; holotype, length 15.8 mm. D = Pygmaepterys richard-
binghami (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 16 mm. E = Dermomurex (Trialatella) glicksteini Petuch, 1987;
holotype, length 16 mm. F, G = Dauciconus amphiurgus (Dall, 1889), length 26.5 mm. H = Kellyconus
binghamae (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 17.4 mm. I = Tuckericonus flamingo (Petuch, 1980); holotype,
length 19.3 mm. J = Dauciconus glicksteini (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 20.7 mm. K = Vokesimurex
morrisoni Petuch and Sargent, 2011, length 41 mm. This deep-water species has been incorrectly
referred to as Vokesimurex bellegladeensis (E. Vokes, 1963) by many workers in Florida. The true bel-
legladeensis is actually an early and middle Pleistocene fossil from the Bermont Formation of south-
ern Florida (see Figure 1.5B, C in Chapter 1). The 1.5-million-year-old fossil species differs from the
living morrisoni in having a much thicker and heavier shell, in having proportionally thicker and
wider varices, and in having coarser shell sculpture.
An unusually large biomass of interstitial polychaete worms must be present on the

sponge-covered ledges and caves of the deep fore reef, as attested by the exceptionally
large and diverse fauna of vermivorous gastropods in the toxoglossate families Conidae,
Drilliidae, and Raphitomidae. The brightly colored cone shells Dauciconus amphiurgus
(Figure 8.5F, G), Dauciconus glicksteini (Figure 8.5J), Gradiconus patglicksteinae, Kellyconus
binghamae (Figure 8.5H), and Tuckericonus flamingo (Figure 8.5I) occur in sand patches scat-
tered between the coral ledges and in areas of mixed sand and coral rubble. With the
exception of the wide-ranging Carolinian Province indicator species Dauciconus amphiur-
gus, the other three cones are restricted to the Palm Beach and Broward coasts and to the
deep-reef areas off the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas (see Tucker, 2013, for an overview of
these poorly known deep-water cones).
With 20 resident species in seven genera, the family Raphitomidae is the most
diverse group of vermivores found in the deep terrace area. Some of the most frequently
encountered species include Mangelia rugirima, Kurtziella limonitella, Brachycythara bicon-
ica, Cryoturris cerinella, Cryoturris quadrilineata, Daphnella lymnaeiformis, Daphnella stegeri,
and Eubela macgintyi (all 20 species are listed in the next section). The family Drilliidae
is also an important group of vermivores in the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage, contain-
ing such well-known deep-water species as Cerodrillia hendersoni, Leptadrillia splendida,
and Bellaspira pentagonalis. The turroidean toxoglossate fauna of the deep ledges envi-
ronment also contains at least nine species of the horaiclavid genus Inodrillia (listed in
the next section). This endemic radiation, described by Paul Bartsch of the Smithsonian
Institution in 1943, is one of the largest turroidean species swarms of a single genus ever
found anywhere in Florida.
Biodiversity of the Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage

The members of the deep coral reef ledge-associated Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage are
listed here by feeding type and ecological niche preferences. Because of the difficulty in
conducting biological sampling in this rough, rocky environment, the resident malacofauna
is still poorly known. The following list must be considered only preliminary, and future
research will doubtlessly bring to light many more new and undescribed species. For illus-
trations of many of the species not shown here, see the iconography of Abbott (1974).
1. HERBIVORES (including algal scrapers and red algae feeders)

Gastropoda
Fissurellidae (some of these taxa may also feed on sponges)
Diodora fluviana Dall, 1889
Diodora (Glyphis) tanneri Verrill, 1883
Nesta atlantica Farfante, 1947
Puncturella acuminata Watson, 1883
Puncturella agger Watson, 1883
Puncturella billsae Farfante, 1947
Puncturella erecta Dall, 1889
Puncturella granulata Seguenza, 1863
Rimula aequisculpta Dall, 1927
Rimula dorriae Farfante, 1947
Rimula frenulata Dall, 1889
Rimula pycnonema Pilsbry, 1943
Trochidae
Mirachelus guttarosea Dall, 1889
Solariella lacunella (Dall, 1881)
Solariella lamellosa Verrill and Smith, 1880
Liotiidae
Marevalvata variabilis (Dall, 1886)
Sansonia tuberculata (Watson, 1886)
Modulidae
Modulus kaicherae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 8.4M)
Modulus lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 8.4K)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. SPONGIVORES
Pleurotomariidae
Perotrochus amabilis (F. Bayer, 1963)
Haliotidae
Haliotis pourtalesi Dall, 1881
2b. GENERAL CARNIVORES/SCAVENGERS (including sponges and hydroids)
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma (Kombologion) benedicti Dall, 1889 (Figure 8.4D)
Calliostoma (Kombologion) hendersoni Dall, 1927
Calliostoma (Kombologion) psyche Dall, 1889
Calliostoma (Kombologion) sayanum Dall, 1889
Mathildidae (presumed spongivore/grazing carnivore; ecology still problematical)
Mathilda barbadensis Dall, 1889
Mathilda hendersoni Dall, 1927
Mathilda yucatecana Dall, 1927
Cypraeidae
Propustularia surinamensis (Perry, 1811) (Figure 8.4H, I)
Buccinidae
Antillophos candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1842) (in sand pockets on the deep reef)
Parviphos adelus (Schwengel, 1942)
2c. PROBLEMATICAL (suctorial feeders?)
Cancellariidae
Tritonoharpa janowskyi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 8.5C)
Ventrilia tenerum (Philippi, 1848)
2d. UROCHORDATE FEEDERS (colonial tunicates)
Triviidae
Niveria nix (Schilder, 1922) (Figure 8.3K)
Pusula juyingae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 8.4F, G) [This endemic south-
eastern Florida triviid has been incorrectly referred to as Pusula costispunctata
(Sowerby II, 1870) by several recent workers; that taxon is actually a Panamic
Molluscan Province species from the eastern Pacific.]
2e. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (antipatharians, zoantherians, scleractinians)
Ovulidae
Adamantia solemi Cate, 1973
Pseudocyphoma aureocincta (Dall, 1889)
Pseudocyphoma gibbulum (Cate, 1978) (Figure 8.4J)
Pseudosimnia sphoni Cate, 1973

Pseudosimnia vanhyningi (M. Smith, 1940)
Pediculariidae
Pedicularia decussata (Gould, 1855)
Muricidae-Magilidae (scleractinians and zoantherians)
Babelomurex dalli (Emerson and Puffer, 1963)
Coralliophila richardi (Fischer, 1882) (= C. lactuca)
2f. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling predators)
Muricidae-Muricinae, Muricopsinae, Ocenebrinae, Typhinae
Attiliosa philippiana (Dall, 1889) (Figure 8.4L)
Dermomurex (Trialatella) glicksteini Petuch, 1987 (Figure 8.5E)
Favartia goldbergi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 8.5A)
Pterochelus ariomus (Clench and Farfante, 1945)
Pteropurpura bequaerti (Clench and Farfante, 1945)
Pterynotus guesti Harasewych and Jensen, 1979.
Pterynotus phaneus (Dall, 1889)
Pygmaepterys richardbinghami (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 8.5D)
Siratus consuela (Verrill, 1950) (off the Dry Tortugas)
Trossulasalpinx macra (Verrill, 1887)
Typhinellus sowerbii (Broderip, 1833)
Vokesimurex morrisoni Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 8.5K)
Fasciolariidae
Buccinidae
Antillophos beaui (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Bailya weberi (Watters, 1983)
Gemophos filistriatus Vermeij, 2006 (Figure 8.5B)
Hesperisternia karinae (Usticke, 1959)
2g. ECHINODERM FEEDERS (asteroids, ophiuroids, holothurians)
Ranellidae
Cymatium (Septa) pharcidum Dall, 1889
2h. VERMIVORES (including polychaetes, sipunculids, and nemerteans)
Bursidae
Bufonaria bufo (Bruguiere, 1792)
Bursa (Colubrellina) ranelloides tenuisculpta (Dautzenberg and Fischer, 1906)
(Figure 8.4E)
Mitridae
Subcancilla straminea (A. Adams, 1853)
Dauciconus amphiurgus (Dall, 1889) (Figure 8.5F, G)
Dauciconus glicksteini (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 8.5J)
Gradiconus patglicksteinae (Petuch, 1987)
Kellyconus binghamae (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 8.5H)
Tuckericonus flamingo (Petuch, 1980) (Figure 8.5I)
Drilliidae
Bellaspira pentagonalis (Dall, 1889)
Cerodrillia hendersoni Bartsch, 1943
Cerodrillia williami Bartsch, 1943

Drillia acrybia (Dall, 1889)
Drillia pharcida (Dall, 1889)
Leptodrillia splendida (Bartsch, 1934)
Horaiclavidae
Inodrillia acova Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia avira Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia dido Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia gibba Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia hesperia Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia hilda Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia ino Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia miamia Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia vetula Bartsch, 1943
Zonulispiridae
Compsodrillia disticha Bartsch, 1934
Compsodrillia eucosmia (Dall, 1889)
Compsodrillia haliostrephis (Dall, 1889)
Clathurellidae
Lioglyphostoma adematum Woodring, 1928
Nannodiella vespuciana (d’Orbigny, 1847)
Raphitomidae
Brachycythara biconica (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Cryoturris cerinella (Dall, 1889)
Cryoturris filifera (Dall, 1881)
Cryoturris quadrilineata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Daphnella corbicula Dall, 1889
Daphnella elata Dall, 1889
Daphnella retifera Dall, 1889
Daphnella stegeri McGinty, 1955
Eubela mcgintyi Schwengel, 1943
Kurtziella accincta (Montagu, 1808)
Kurtziella atrostyla (Tryon, 1884)
Kurtziella limonitella (Dall, 1883)
Kurtziella perryae Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Kurtziella serga (Dall, 1881)
Pyrgocythara balteata (Reeve, 1846)
Pyrgocythara densestriata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Rimosodaphnella morra (Dall, 1881)
Rubellatoma diomedea Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Rubellatoma rubella (Kurtz and Stimpson, 1851)
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 8.4A–C) (see
Systematic Appendix)
Mytilidae
Amygdalum politum (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Amygdalum sagittatum (Rehder, 1935)
Crenella decussata (Montagu, 1808)
Pteriidae
Pteria vitrea (Reeve, 1857)
Gryphaeidae
Neopycnodonte cochlear (Poli, 1795)
Limidae
Ctenoides sanctipauli Stuardo, 1982
A review of the ecological niche preferences of the members of the Arca rachelcarsonae
Assemblage shows that the specialized carnivorous gastropods dominate the ecosystem
by more than a three-to-one ratio. The biomass of the cnidarian, polychaete, sipunculid,
urochordate, and poriferan prey items appear to surpass that of any other known marine
ecosystem in the Florida Keys.
chapter nine
Molluscan faunas of deep

softbottom and pelagic
macrohabitats (oceanic regime)
Introduction
The Oceanic Regime of the Florida Keys, Dry Tortugas, and coasts of Broward and Palm
Beach Counties encompasses all the peripheral areas that are under more than 200 m of
seawater. Some of these adjacent areas, which extend seaward from the edge of the shallow
continental shelf, plunge to depths of over 400 m, making them the deepest ecosystems
classified within the Coastal Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS) system.
The Florida Keys Oceanic Regime actually takes into account three separate macrohabitats
that reside within different bathymetric ranges. The first of these, the Deep Coralline Algal
Beds, occurs in depths of over 200 m along southwestern Florida and the areas north of
the Dry Tortugas, at the mouth of the South Florida Bight. In contrast, the second macro-
habitat, the Deep Softbottom Terraces, extends from the Palm Beaches all the way to the
Marquesas Keys and occurs in much deeper areas, with depths ranging from 200 to 480 m.
The third macrohabitat, the Open Oceanic Pleuston, represents all the molluscan com-
munities that float on the offshore sea surface, well above the abyssal seafloor of the deep
Florida Straits. The molluscan faunas of each of these disparate deep-water environments
are still poorly studied and may contain many new, undescribed species.
Molluscan ecology of the deep coralline algal beds

The coralline algal beds of the Florida Keys and southwestern Florida form a narrow band
that extends from the Pulley Ridge, 160 km west of the Dry Tortugas, northward along the
edge of the Florida continental shelf to at least the same latitude as Sarasota. The north-
south-oriented Pulley Ridge itself is over 100 km in length and ranges, bathymetrically,
from 60 to over 200 m deep. The lower sections of the ridge, from around 80 to 100 m
deep, house the deepest hermatypic coral reefs in the continental United States, composed
almost entirely of blue and purple corals of the genera Agaricia and Leptoceris. These deep
reefs are nourished by the extremely warm and nutrient-rich waters of the Tortugas Gyre,
a large eddy current that is permanently established over the western edge of the South
Florida Bight. The crystal clear waters of the Tortugas Gyre allow light to penetrate to its
maximum depth before becoming attenuated, creating the perfect conditions for deep-
water red algal growth.
Below 100 m, the Agaricia and Leptoceris purple coral reefs of the Pulley Ridge grade
directly into extensive beds of large, rounded rhodoliths (red algal nodules), produced
by the deep-water coralline rhodophyte alga Porolithon. At many localities, these rounded
growth forms interfinger with dense aggregations of small branching growth forms,
185
accreting together to create a dense porous mass that is often over 10 m thick (Petuch
and Sargent, 2011c: 90–93). North of the Pulley Ridge and along the edge of the western
Florida continental shelf, in particular, these intertwined rhodolith beds are especially
well developed, forming a seafloor substrate that is unique in the southeastern United
States. Because of their remoteness from the Floridian Peninsula and because of the exces-
sive depths, the ecosystems of the rhodolith beds near the Dry Tortugas are rarely sampled
and are essentially unexplored. As in the case of the deep reefs off the Florida Keys, lobster
traps are regularly employed within this area by commercial fishermen, and these are
often the only way to easily sample the resident molluscan fauna.
The small amount of data that has been gleaned from lobster trap collections and
dredging expeditions on research vessels has shown that the deep coralline algae beds
shelter a highly unusual molluscan fauna containing many still-undescribed species. One
of the most distinctive of the rhodolith-associated gastropods, the muricid Chicoreus rachel-
carsonae (Figure 9.1A, B), is endemic to this unusual macrohabitat and has been selected
here to represent the entire molluscan faunule (the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage).
This delicate and beautiful muricid, which differs from the closely related shallow-water
Chicoreus dilectus by having only five spines on its body whorl instead of six and by hav-
ing a pink or salmon-colored shell, occurs together with another endemic rhodolith muri-
cid, Phyllonotus whymani (Figure 9.1D, E). Both of these iconic carnivorous gastropods feed
by drilling the shells of several larger bivalves, including the sessile-attached chamids
Chama lactuca Dall, 1886 and Chama sinuosa Broderip, 1835; the brightly colored spiny scal-
lop Lindapecten lindae (Figure 9.2G, H); the cardiid Americardia lightbourni (Figure 9.3B);
and the venerids Lirophora paphia (Linnaeus, 1758) and Lirophora varicosa (Sowerby II, 1853)
(Figure 9.2K; often incorrectly referred to as Lirophora latilirata, which is actually a Pliocene
fossil species). A host of smaller and more delicate deep-water muricids also live among the
finely branched rhodolith matrix, and these include Favartia lindae (Figure 9.1F), Murexiella
kalafuti (Figure 9.1G), Murexiella levicula (Figure 9.1I), Vokesimurex lindajoyceae (Figure 9.1J),
and Murexiella taylorae (Figure 9.2J). Smaller, shallowly infaunal bivalves such as the telli-
nids Strigilla pisiformis and Cymatoica hendersoni and the cardiid Microcardium peramabile
(Dall, 1881) serve as the principal prey items of these drilling predators.
The dense rhodolith aggregations also serve as the attachment areas for large antipath-
arian gorgonian colonies and sponges, increasing the number of demes and microhabitats
available to the resident malacofauna. These gorgonians serve as both the food resource
and the substrate of the rarely seen ovulid gastropods Cyphoma lindae (Figure 9.1C) and
Cyphoma robustior, both deep-water species found from the Dry Tortugas northward to
off Apalachicola. Several deep-water spongivorous gastropods also live on the rhodolith
demosponges, including the calliostomatid Calliostoma sapidum and the sponge-dwelling
abalone Haliotis pourtalesi (Figure 9.1M). Several rarely seen and poorly known herbivorous
gastropods also live on the coralline algal seafloors, feeding directly on the red algal nod-
ules. Some of the more prominent of these include the liotiids Cyclostrema huesonicum and
Cyclostrema tortuganum and the large cerithiids Cerithium chara and Cerithium lymani. These
unusual deep-water herbivores occur along with several prominent suspension-feeding
gastropods, including the heavily sculptured turritellid Torculoidella lindae (Figure 9.1H)
and the siliquariids Siliquaria modesta and Siliquaria squamata.
A large and highly endemic fauna of mollusk-feeding fasciolariid gastropods also
occurs along with the muricids on the rhodolith seafloor, including the endemic Tortugas
Leucozonia jacarusoi (Figure 9.1K) and Cinctura tortuganum (Figure 9.1L) and more wide-
spread species such as Fasciolaria bullisi (Figure 9.3A), Heilprinia lindae (Figure 9.2E;
restricted to the Dry Tortugas and western Florida), and Fusinus stegeri. Of the endemic
Chapter nine: Molluscan faunas of deep softbottom and pelagic macrohabitats 187
Tortugas species, Leucozonia jacarusoi is one of the most interesting, as it has only ever
been collected in deep-water lobster traps, where it was found feeding on encrusting bar-
nacles and small sessile bivalves. Although often incorrectly synonymized with the com-
mon shallow-water Leucozonia nassa, this deep-water Tortugas endemic differs in that it
has a smaller, more elongated shell with a much longer siphonal canal, in having a stron-
ger corded shell sculpture, and in always being either pure white or pale yellow in color.
The large carnivorous fasciolariid gastropods occur along with several potential com-
petitors, such as the thin-shelled deep-water busyconid Lindafulgur lyonsi (Figure 9.3G);
the small buccinids Hesperisternia harasewychi (Figure 9.3C, D) and Hesperisternia sulzyckii
(Figure 9.3E, F; see Systematic Appendix); the small scaphelline volute Caricellopsis match-
etti (Figure 9.3H, I); and the olivid Americoliva sunderlandi (Figure 9.3J, K). One of the more
ecologically problematic species found in the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage is the
large, high-spired cancellariid Cancellaria richardpetiti (Figure 9.3L). This rare species may
feed suctorially on sleeping elasmobranchs such as stingrays, piercing the fish’s gills with
a needle-like tooth and then pumping the blood out of its prey through a long, extendible
proboscis. Closely related cancellariid species from California have been observed to feed
in this manner, and the deep-water southwestern Florida species may also be a similar
suctorial feeder.
The Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage also houses a large and complex fauna of ver-
mivorous gastropods, comprising six families and nine genera. The most prominent of
these worm-eating species are the conids Dauciconus amphiurgus, Dauciconus aureonimbosus
(Figure 9.2A; endemic to the Dry Tortugas and the Pulley Ridge area), Gradiconus philippii
(Figure 9.2B; see Tucker, 2013: 117–121), and Lindaconus aureofasciatus (Figure 9.2D), and the
conilithid Kohniconus delessertii (Figure 9.2F), which often occur in large numbers on and
within the rhodolith substrate. The cone shells live together with other large and conspicu-
ous vermivores, such as the terebrids Myurellina lindae (Figure 9.2C; endemic to the Dry
Tortugas and southwestern Florida) and Myurellina floridana; the drilliids Fenimorea sun-
derlandi (Figure 9.2I), Fenimorea fucata (Figure 9.3M), Neodrillia brunnescens, and Neodrillia
woodringi; and the turrid Polystira sunderlandi (Figure 9.2L). The species richness of ver-
mivores attests to the presumed large biomass and diversity of the resident polychaete,
sipunculid, and nemertean worm fauna, most of which live interstitially between the algal
rhodoliths.
Biodiversity of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage

The members of the deep-water red coralline algae-associated Chicoreus rachelcarsonae
Assemblage are listed here by feeding type and ecological niche preferences. This list must
be considered only preliminary, as future research and collecting will undoubtedly bring
to light many more species that are new and undescribed. For illustrations of taxa not
shown here, see the iconography of Abbott (1974; for gastropods) and Mikkelsen and Bieler
(2008; for bivalves). Several of these gastropods and bivalves also occur in the deeper soft-
bottom habitats of the Hawk Channel (the Polinices lacteus Assemblage) and in sand patches
interspersed between deep talus slope reef corals (the Cymatium rehderi Assemblage).
1. HERBIVORES (including red algal grazers)

Gastropoda
Liotiidae
Cyclostrema huesonicum Dall, 1927
Cyclostrema tortuganum (Dall, 1927)
E
A
B
C F
I
J
K L
M H
Cerithiidae
Cerithium chara Pilsbry, 1949
Cerithium lymani Pilsbry, 1949
Strombidae
Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791 (spineless, heavily grooved, deep-water dwarf form)
Xenophoridae
Xenophora microdiscus Petuch, 1994 (Figure 9.2M) (This small, very flattened spe-
cies was described originally as a late Pleistocene fossil from southern Florida
but is now known to be living on coralline algae beds off western Florida and
the Dry Tortugas.)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
Cypraeidae
Erosaria acicularis (Gmelin, 1791) (heavily enameled deep-water dwarf form)
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771) (giant deep-water form;
often over 140 mm in length)
Personidae (feeding preferences problematical; possibly polychaete worms)
Distorsio clathrata (Lamarck, 1816)
Distorsio mcgintyi Emerson and Puffer, 1953
Buccinidae
Hesperisternia harasewychi (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.3C, D)
Hesperisternia sulzyckii Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.4D, E; see
Systematic Appendix)
Volutidae
Caricellopsis matchetti Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 9.3H, I)
Scaphella junonia elizabethae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (large Tortugas form resem-
bling the subspecies butleri from the Campeche Banks of Mexico)
Olividae
Americoliva sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.3J, K)
Figure 9.1 Gastropods of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage. A, B = Chicoreus rachelcarsonae

Petuch, 1987, length 40 mm. This classic deep-water coralline algal bed species has been incorrectly
synonymized with the common shallow-water Chicoreus dilectus, but differs in having five varical
spines instead of six, in having a proportionally broader and wider body whorl and varices, in hav-
ing a proportionally larger protoconch, and in having a pink, orange, or salmon-pink shell color. C
= Cyphoma lindae Petuch, 1987; holotype, length 17 mm. Shell is always pale tan or brown; mantle of
living animal colored with very numerous tiny black spots. D, E = Phyllonotus whymani Petuch and
Sargent, 2011; holotype, length 43.4 mm. This deep-water species differs from the closely related
shallow-water Phyllonotus pomum in that it has a smaller, stockier shell with a proportionally lower
spire; in having thinner, slightly recurved varices; in having stronger and more prominent spiral
cords; in having a smaller and less-developed parietal shield; in lacking any scales, spines, or flut-
ings on the varices and siphonal canal; and in having shell colors of only pink, salmon, or orange.
F = Favartia lindae Petuch, 1987; holotype, length 18 mm. G = Murexiella kalafuti Petuch, 1987; holo-
type, length 15.4 mm. H = Torculoidella lindae (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 22.5 mm. I = Murexiella
levicula (Dall, 1889), length 18 mm. J = Vokesimurex lindajoyceae (Petuch, 1987), length 32.4 mm. K =
Leucozonia jacarusoi Petuch, 1987; holotype, length 24 mm. Shell color varies from pure white to pale
yellow. L = Cinctura tortugana (Hollister, 1957), length 70.8 mm. M = Haliotis pourtalesi Dall, 1881,
length 17 mm.
A B D
G
F
J H
I K
M
Marginellidae
Eratoidea hematita (Kiener, 1843)
Prunum hartleyana (Schwengel, 1941)
2b. PROBLEMATICAL (suctorial feeder on stingrays and elasmobranchs?)
Cancellariidae
Cancellaria richardpetiti Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.3L)
2c. SPONGIVORES
Haliotidae
Haliotis pourtalesi Dall, 1881 (Figure 9.1M)
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma sapidum Dall, 1881
2d. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (including gorgonians and antipatharians)
Ovulidae
Cyphoma lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1C)
Cyphoma robustior Bayer, 1941
2e. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling predators)
Muricidae (Muricinae, Muricopsinae)
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1A, B)
Favartia lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1F)
Hexaplex fulvescens (Sowerby I, 1834)
Murexiella kalafuti Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1G)
Murexiella levicula (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.1I)
Murexiella taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.2J)
Phyllonotus whymani Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 9.1D, E)
Siratus consuela (Verrill, 1950)
Vokesimurex lindajoyceae (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.1J)
Vokesimurex morrisoni Petuch and Sargent, 2011
Fasciolariidae
Cinctura tortugana (Hollister, 1957) (Figure 9.1L)
Figure 9.2 Mollusks of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage. A = Dauciconus aureonimbosus

(Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 25.5 mm. B = Gradiconus philippii (Kiener, 1847), length 25.4 mm.
Note pink interior. C = Myurellina lindae (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 63 mm. D = Lindaconus
aureofasciatus (Rehder and Abbott, 1951); holotype, length 66.6 mm. Although generally considered
to be a deep-water variant of the common shallow-water Lindaconus atlanticus, this deep-water shell
appears to be a distinct and separate species. E = Heilprinia lindae Petuch, 1987; holotype, length
141 mm. Although sometimes synonymized with the common shallower-water Heilprinia timessus,
this deep-water western Florida shell differs in that it is much more elongated, with a far more
protracted spire; in having a thin, distinct, deeply incised channel along the sutures of the spire
whorls; and in having a pure white or pinkish-white shell color. F = Kohniconus delessertii (Recluz,
1843), length 52 mm. G, H = Lindapecten lindae Petuch, 1995; holotype, length 16 mm. I = Fenimorea
sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 39.7 mm. J = Murexiella taylorae Petuch, 1987; holotype,
length 15.6 mm. K = Lirophora varicosa (Sowerby II, 1853), width 24 mm. This heavily ribbed off-
shore species is often incorrectly referred to as Chione latilirata Conrad, which is actually an early
Pliocene fossil species from Virginia and North Carolina. L = Polystira sunderlandi Petuch, 1987;
holotype, length 27.7 mm. M = Xenophora microdiscus Petuch, 1994, width 15 mm. Originally named
as a Pleistocene fossil, this small, flattened species is still living in deep water off western Florida
and the Dry Tortugas. Although similar to the much larger, shallow-water Xenophora conchyliophora,
this relictual species has a smooth shell base and lacks the pebbly surface seen on the shell base of
its better-known congener.
E
C
J K M
Figure 9.3 Mollusks of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage. A = Fasciolaria bullisi Lyons, 1972;
holotype, length 134.2 mm. B = Americardia lightbourni Lee and Huber, 2012, length 11 mm. C, D =
Hesperisternia harasewychi (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 24.8 mm. E, F = Hesperisternia sulzyckii
Petuch and Myers, new species; holotype, length 26.3 mm (see Systematic Appendix for the descrip-
tion). G = Lindafulgur lyonsi (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length 128 mm. H, I = Caricellopsis matchetti
(Petuch and Sargent, 2011); holotype, length 35.9 mm. Note the strong, coarse reticulate shell sculp-
ture and rounded, domelike calcarella. J, K = Americoliva sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987); holotype, length
22 mm. L = Cancellaria richardpetiti Petuch, 1987, length 47 mm. M = Fenimorea fucata (Reeve, 1845),
length 22 mm.
Fasciolaria bullisi Lyons, 1972 (Figure 9.3A)

Fusinus stegeri Lyons, 1978
Heilprinia lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.2E)
Heilprinia timessus (Dall, 1889)
Leucozonia jacarusoi Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1K)
Busyconidae
Fulguropsis plagosum (Conrad, 1863)
Lindafulgur lyonsi (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.3G)
2f. VERMIVORES (including polychaetes, sipunculids, and nemerteans)
Dauciconus amphiurgus (Dall, 1889)
Dauciconus aureonimbosus (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.2A)
Gradiconus philippii (Kiener, 1845) (Figure 9.2B)
Lindaconus aureofasciatus (Rehder and Abbott, 1951) (Figure 9.2D)
Kohniconus delessertii (Recluz, 1843) (Figure 9.2F)
Terebridae
Myurella taurina (Lightfoot, 1786)
Myurellina floridana (Dall, 1889)
Myurellina lindae (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.2C)
Strioterebrum arcas (Abbott, 1954)
Turridae
Polystira sunderlandi Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.2L)
Drilliidae
Fenimorea fucata (Reeve, 1845) (Figure 9.3M)
Fenimorea kathyae Tippett, 1995 (north of the Dry Tortugas)
Fenimorea petiti Tippett, 1995 (north of the Dry Tortugas)
Fenimorea sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987) (Figure 9.2I)
Neodrillia brunnescens (Rehder, 1943)
Neodrillia woodringi (Bartsch, 1934)
2g. ECHINODERM FEEDERS (including echinoids [eccentric], asteroids, ophiuroids,
and holothuroids)
Ranellidae
Cymatium (Linatella) cingulatum (Lamarck, 1822)
Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Mörch, 1877
Cassidae-Oocorythinae
Eudolium thompsoni McGinty, 1955
Ficidae
Ficus carolae Clench, 1945
Gastropoda
Siliquariidae
Siliquaria modesta Dall, 1889
Turritellidae
Torculoidella lindae Petuch, 1987 (Figure 9.1H)
Bivalvia
B
A
E
J
I
G H
K M
L
Arcidae
Anadara baughmani (Hertlein, 1951)
Glycymeridae
Glycymeris americana (DeFrance, 1826)
Tucetona subtilis Nicol, 1956
Mytilidae
Dacrydium hendersoni Salas and Gofas, 1997
Pectinidae
Aequipecten lineolaris (Lamarck, 1819)
Euvola chazaliei (Dautzenberg, 1900)
Euvola raveneli (Dall, 1898)
Lindapecten lindae Petuch, 1995 (Figure 9.2G, H)
Spathochlamys benedicti (Verrill and Bush, 1897)
Crassitellidae
Crassinella dupliniana (Dall, 1903)
Lucinidae
Anodontia schrammi (Crosse, 1876)
Cavilinga blanda (Dall, 1901)
Ctena pectinella (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Lucinoma filosa (Stimpson, 1851)
Myrtea sagrinata (Dall, 1886)
Myrteopsis lens (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Pleurolucina leucocyma (Dall, 1886)
Chamidae
Cardiidae
Americardia lightbourni Lee and Huber, 2012 (Figure 9.3B)
Microcardium peramabile (Dall, 1881)
Veneridae
Chione cancellata (Linnaeus, 1767) (deep-water analogue of the shallow-water
C. elevata)
Lirophora clenchi (Pulley, 1952)
Lirophora paphia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Figure 9.4 Mollusks of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage. A = Euvola marshallae Petuch and Myers,
new species; holotype, width 46 mm. Incorrectly referred to, by most workers, as Euvola papyracea
(Gabb, 1873). That species is actually an early Miocene fossil species from the Baitoa Formation of the
Dominican Republic, and this common deep-water scallop needed a new name (see the Systematic
Appendix). B = Cryptopecten phrygium (Dall, 1886), length 32 mm. C = Polystira albida (Perry, 1811),
length 70 mm. D = Architectonica peracuta (Dall, 1889), width 12 mm. E = Siratus beauii Fischer and
Bernardi, 1857, form branchi Clench, 1953, length 72 mm. F = Bartschia significans Rehder, 1943, length
31 mm. G, H = Rehderia georgiana (Clench, 1946), length 80 mm. This volute ranges from North
Carolina to the Miami Terrace off Key Largo. I = Vexillum hendersoni (Dall, 1927), length 13 mm. J =
Nodicostellaria laterculatum (Sowerby II, 1874), length 11 mm. K = Prunum frumari Petuch and Sargent,
2011; holotype, length 12 mm. L = Metulella columbellata Dall, 1889, length 11 mm. M = Murexiella
hidalgoi (Crosse, 1869), length 25 mm.
Lirophora varicosa (Sowerby II, 1853) (Figure 9.2K) (often incorrectly identified as

Lirophora latilirata, which is actually a Pliocene fossil species from Virginia)
Tellinidae
Angulus parameris (Boss, 1964)
Cymatoica hendersoni Rehder, 1939
Merisca cristallina (Spengler, 1798)
Semelidae
Pharidae
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Chicoreus rachelcarsonae

Assemblage shows that the number of carnivores approximately equals the number of
suspension/filter feeders in the ecosystem.
Molluscan ecology of the deep softbottom terraces

The deep, narrow, shelf-like terraces that edge the seaward sides of the Florida Keys actu-
ally are a composite of three main geomorphological features: the Miami Terrace, the
Pourtales Terrace, and the Tortugas Valleys. The northernmost of these, the Miami Terrace,
extends from approximately the Dade-Broward County line southward to central Key
Largo. This deep linear feature is composed of eroded mid-Miocene limestone that has
undergone several erosional episodes during the late Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene.
The upper section of the Miami Terrace (200- to 375-m depths) is heavily eroded, with
a karstic surface covered with sinkholes (Mullins and Neumann, 1979). In contrast, the
lower section (600- to 700-m depths) is composed of an eastward-dipping slope and is
covered with thick layers of pelagic sediments. The central Pourtales Terrace, the largest
of the deep features with a length of 213 km, extends from southern Key Largo westward
to the Marquesas Keys and ranges in depth from 200 to 450 m. Like the Miami Terrace
to the north, the Pourtales Terrace is heavily eroded, with a karstic surface and extensive
systems of deep sinkholes (Reed et al., 2005). The southernmost feature, the complex of the
Tortugas Valleys, extends southward of the Dry Tortugas islands at depths of 200–300 m.
These deep, parallel depressed features represent a series of drowned river channels and
valleys that formed from drainage off the emergent Florida Peninsula during Pleistocene
extreme sea-level drops.
Because of the great depths and the expense and technical difficulty of collecting
specimens, the malacofauna of the three deep terraces is still poorly known. Exploratory
work involving dredging from research vessels and direct sampling from submersible
vehicles (Reed et al., 2005), however, has shown that the invertebrate faunas of these areas
are extremely rich, with many undescribed species. At depths of 250–300 m, the terrace
seafloors are covered with dense growths of large sponges, small stalked crinoids, and
stylasterine hydrocorals, and these form the basis of an ecologically diverse and species-
rich ecosystem. Although poorly sampled and still virtually unknown, the molluscan
fauna of these Florida Keys deep-water terrace ecosystems has been found to contain a
large number of endemic species. Primary among these Keys-restricted taxa are gastro-
pods such as the volute Rehderia schmitti (Figure 9.5C, D; namesake of the entire deep-water
malacofauna, the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage); the pisaniiform buccinid Bartschia frumari
(Figure 9.4F); the marginellids Prunum redfieldi and Prunum frumari (Figure 9.4K); the cys-
tiscids Canalispira kerni and Cysticus microgonia; the olivellid Niteoliva moorei; and the oliv-
ids Americoliva recourti new species (Figure 9.6A–C) and Americoliva matchetti new species
(Figure 9.6D–F) (for the descriptions of the new olives, see the Systematic Appendix). The
malacofauna of the deep terraces, even though only partially known, has been found to be
one of the richest in the Florida Keys area, with over 165 species of gastropods and over 75
bivalves. An excellent overview and iconography of the deep-water cone shells (Conidae
and Conilithidae) of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas was given by Tucker (2013).
Thick accumulations of carbonate mud and pelagic sediments characteristically blan-
ket the planar sections of the deep terraces, and these create the perfect environment for
a rich bivalve fauna. On some of the wider terraces near the Marquesas Keys and Dry
Tortugas, large aggregations of scallops (Pectinidae and Propeamussiidae) often carpet
the seafloor. Shoals of these mobile swimmers are continuously moving from place to
place, generally in response to seasonal changes in plankton food resources caused by
ephemeral upwelling systems. Four species of large pectinids dominate the muddy sea-
floor: Aequipecten glyptus, Euvola chazaliei, Euvola laurenti, and Euvola marshallae new species
(Figure 9.4A; see Systematic Appendix). The two last-mentioned scallops range throughout
the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea and are particularly abundant north of the Dry
Tortugas, along western Florida, and off the Yucatan Peninsula in depths of around 200–
250 m. The Euvola and Aequipecten pectinids occur with a large fauna of small glass scal-
lops of the family Propeamussiidae comprising six species in five different genera (listed
in the section on the biodiversity of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage).
The deep terrace muddy seafloors also house an unusually large fauna of primitive pal-
aeotaxodont and cryptodont bivalves, comprising four families (Nuculidae, Solemyidae,
Nuculanidae, and Yoldiidae), seven genera, and at least 12 species. Some of the more
abundant and conspicuous of these include the nuculids Nucula crenulata and Nucula del-
phinodonta; the nuculanids Propeleda carpenteri, Ledella sublaevis, and Nuculana acuta; and
the yoldiid Yoldia liorhina. These primitive relictual forms occur with an extremely rich
fauna of classic deep-water bivalves, including the arcid Bathyarca glomerula; the limopsids
Limopsis cristata, Limopsis minuta, and Limopsis sulcata; the limids Divarilima albicoma, Limea
bronniana, and Limatula setifera; the astartids Astarte nana, Astarte smithii, and Astarte subae-
quilatera; the pandorids Pandora inflata and Pandora bushiana; the verticordiids Spinosipella
acuticostata and Euciroa elegantissima; and the cuspidariids Cuspidaria rostrata, Cardiomya per-
rostrata, Myonera gigantea, and Plectodon granulatus. The deep-water scallops and these shal-
lowly infauna bathyal bivalves serve as the primary food source for a large complement
of molluscivorous predatory gastropods, including drillers such as the naticids Neverita
nubila, Lunatia fringilla, Natica perlineata, and Sinum minor (Figure 9.7L), and the muricids
Siratus beauii (Figure 9.4E), Siratus articulatus (Figure 9.7J), Murexiella hidalgoi (Figure 9.4M),
Vokesimurex cabritii (Figure 9.7E), and Poirieria nuttingi; and general molluscivores such as
the fasciolariids Harasewychia benthalis, Harasewychia aepynotus, and Fusinus halistreptus; the
C
A
B
D
I
G
K
H
J L
buccinids Liomesus stimpsoni, Ptychosalpinx globulus, and Bartschia significans (Figure 9.4F);

the acteonids Acteon finlayi, Acteon danaida, Ovulacteon meekii, and Bullina exquisita; and the
large cylichnids Scaphander punctostriatus and Scaphander (Sabatia) bathymophila.
A large fauna of carnivorous volutoidean gastropods, comprising the families
Marginellidae, Volutidae, Volutomitridae, Mitridae, Costellariidae, Cancellariidae,
Olivellidae, and Olividae, is also present on the muddy terraces and competes with the
naticids, muricids, and buccinids for molluscan prey. Of these, the scaphelline volutes are
the most conspicuous and most frequently encountered, often occurring in such abun-
dance that their dead shells make up a pavement across the seafloor. Although often incor-
rectly placed in the genus Scaphella by many workers, the seven species of volutes found
on the Keys terraces actually belong to three distinct genera: Aurinia (large inflated shells
with twisted, curled calcarellas that have sharply pointed tips); Rehderia (medium-size,
slender species with large, rounded, dome-like calcarellas); and Clenchina (small shells,
often with stepped and beaded spire whorls, and with small, rounded, protracting cal-
carellas). The genus Scaphella, as typified by Scaphella junonia and its subspecies (elizabethae,
johnstoneae, and butleri), have proportionally small, rounded calcarellas and heavily ribbed
early whorls. These larger, heavier, and more colorful volutes live in much shallower water
than do Clenchina, Rehderia, and Aurinia, often occurring as shallow as 3 m deep (as in
the case of Scaphella junonia elizabethae; see Chapter 6). Of the seven deep-water volutes,
only Rehderia schmitti (Figure 9.5C, D; the namesake of the molluscan assemblage) and
Clenchina dohrni (Figure 9.5G, H) are endemic to the Florida Keys area, most commonly
collected off the Dry Tortugas (the type locality for schmitti) and Key West. The largest
of the deep terrace scaphelline volutes, Aurinia dubia (Figure 9.5A, B), ranges throughout
the Gulf of Mexico, and its presence off the Florida Keys marks its far southeastern-most
occurrence. Two other species of the genus Clenchina, C. marionae (Figure 9.5E, F) and C.
florida (9.5I, J), both have relatively wide ranges, extending from southeastern Florida to
the northern Gulf of Mexico and also to northern Cuba. The beautifully banded Clenchina
gouldiana (Figure 9.5K, L) has the widest range of all the deep-water volutes, extending
from North Carolina to the northern Gulf of Mexico. The heavily ribbed Rehderia georgiana
(Figure 9.4G, H; normally found off the Carolinas and Georgia) ranges only to off the
Upper Keys, and this area marks the southernmost extension of its distribution.
The smaller volutoideans of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage, although often not as
numerous as the scaphelline volutes, comprise a species-rich complex of 16 genera. The
largest of these volutoidean families is the Marginellidae, which is represented by such
distinctive species as Prunum redfieldi and Prunum frumari (Figure 9.4K), both of which are
endemic to the Keys, and the bizarre, twisted Prunum torticula. Another large family, the
Olivellidae, contains species that often occur together in large aggregations on the muddy
seafloors and includes such characteristic taxa as Jaspidella miris, Macgintiella watermani,
Niteoliva moorei (endemic to the Florida keys), and Callianax thompsoni. These abundant
Figure 9.5 Volutes of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage. A, B = Aurinia dubia (Broderip, 1827),
length 135 mm. The closely related but much larger Aurinia kieneri (Clench, 1946) is confined to
the Gulf of Mexico, from western Florida to Texas (see Petuch, 2013: 67). C, D = Rehderia schmitti
(Bartsch, 1931), length 82 mm. Note the large, rounded, knoblike protoconch and calcarella on the
genus Rehderia. This character separates Rehderia from the genus Aurinia, which has a twisted,
curled calcarella. Endemic to the Florida Keys. E, F = Clenchina marionae (Pilsbry and Olsson,
1953), length 33 mm. G, H = Clenchina dohrni (Sowerby III, 1903), length 52 mm. Endemic to the
Florida Keys. I, J = Clenchina florida (Clench and Aguayo, 1940), length 57 mm. K, L = Clenchina
gouldiana (Dall, 1887), length 54 mm.
A
B
G
E H
F
small olivellids occur sympatrically with two newly discovered olivids, Americoliva recourti
new species (Figure 9.6A–C) and Americoliva matchetti new species (Figure 9.6D–F) (see the
Systematic Appendix for the descriptions of these new species), with which they prob-
ably compete for small crustacean and molluscan prey and carrion. Of the two new deep-
water olive shells, Americoliva recourti has the widest distribution, ranging from southern
Palm Beach County southward to at least the Middle Keys. The smaller and stumpier
Americoliva matchetti, which somewhat resembles a tiny version of the Bahamian and West
Indian Americoliva reticularis (see Petuch, 2013: 21), has a more limited distribution, only
ranging from Broward County to Key Largo. The olives and olivellids occur together with
other classic deep-water volutoideans, such as the volutomitrids Microvoluta blakeana and
Microvoluta laevior, and costellariids such as Vexillum hendersoni (Figure 9.4I), Vexillum sty-
ria, and Nodicostellaria laterculata (Figure 9.4J).
The muddy sediments of the Keys deep terraces are rich in organic detritus that has
trickled downslope from the living reefs high above. This potential food resource has
been utilized by a large fauna of gastropod detritivores and bacteria feeders such as
the solariellids Solariella lacunella, Solariella pourtalesi, and Suavotrochus lubrica; the mar-
garitids Gaza superba and Microgaza rotella; the architectonicids Architectonica sunderlandi
and Architectonica peracuta (Figure 9.4D); and the deep-water xenophorids Trochotugurium
longleyi and Tugurium caribaeum. Larger pieces of organic detritus and carrion are the
principal food resource for a suite of small deep-water scavengers, including the nas-
sariid mud snails Uzita hotessieri and Uzita scissurata and the columbellids Metulella
columbellata (Figure 9.4L) and Nassarina bushiae. On the Pourtales and Miami Terraces,
sponge beds that are adjacent to the mud seafloors and that line the walls of deep sink-
holes (Reed et al., 2005) form the substrate and food resource for an interesting fauna
of spongivorous gastropods. Some of these include the pleurotomariids Entemnotrochus
adansonianus, Perotrochus amabilis, and Bayerotrochus midas and the large calliostoma-
tids Calliostoma (Kombologion) psyche, Calliostoma (Kombologion) bairdii, and Calliostoma
(Kombologion) oregon.
The soft substrates of the deep terraces also harbor a large fauna of polychaete and
sipunculid worms, as evidenced by the extremely large resident fauna of vermivorous
gastropods that prey on them. On the Tortugas Valleys and Pourtales Terrace alone, over
48 vermivorous gastropods are known to occur, and these include species belonging to
10 separate families: the Conidae, Conilithidae, Terebridae, Cochlespiridae, Turridae,
Figure 9.6 Olivid and Conilithid Gastropods from the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage. A, B =
Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species; holotype, length 23.5 mm (see Systematic
Appendix for the complete description). C = Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species.
Paratype, length 22 mm. D, E = Americoliva matchetti Petuch and Myers, new species; holotype,
length 18.5 mm (see Systematic Appendix for the complete description). F = Americoliva matchetti
Petuch and Myers, new species. Paratype, length 15 mm. G, H = Kohniconus new species (?), length
16.5 mm. This unusual deep-water cone, from 420-m depth along the edge of the Pourtales Terrace,
resembles a juvenile of the shallower-water K. delessertii. Although similar in general appearance,
this possible new species differs in having a more pronounced pyriform shape, in having stronger
coronations on the shoulder carina, in having stronger and more prominent spiral cords around the
anterior end, and in being pure white in color, with 12 rows of faint, very tiny tan dots on the body
whorl. Although only known from this single specimen, a sampling of more and better material
may eventually demonstrate that this shiny white, very-deep-water cone represents an unnamed
endemic Kohniconus species (collected by deep-water “Royal Red Shrimp” fishermen off Vaca Key,
Central Florida Keys).
C E
G H
I
L
Figure 9.7 Gastropods of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage. A = Conasprelloides stimpsoni (Dall,

1902), length 51 mm. B = Cochlespira elegans (Dall, 1881), length 35 mm. C = Gemmula periscelida (Dall,
1889), length 43 mm. D = Conasprelloides villepinii (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857), length 35 mm. E =
Vokesimurex cabritii (Bernardi, 1859), length 62 mm. F = Strioterebrum rushii (Dall, 1889), length 15 mm.
G = Polystira florencae Bartsch, 1934, length 22 mm. H = Strioterebrum lutescens (Dall, 1889), length 14
mm. I = Strioterebrum limatulum (Dall, 1889), length 14 mm. J = Siratus articulatus (Reeve, 1845), length
60 mm. K = Ficus carolae Clench, 1845, length 66 mm. L = Sinum minor (Dall, 1889), length 9 mm.
Clathurellidae, Drilliidae, Pseudomelatomidae, Crassispiridae, and Raphitomidae. Some

of the largest worm-eating species are found in the families Conidae and Conilithidae, and
these include such prominent taxa as Conasprelloides stimpsoni (Figure 9.7A), Conasprelloides
villepini (Figure 9.7D), and Conasprelloides cancellatus (all Conidae) and Kohniconus new spe-
cies (?) (Figure 9.6G, H), Dalliconus rainesae, and Dalliconus mcgintyi (all Conilithidae) (see
Tucker, 2013). These cone shells live together with several poorly known and rarely seen
deep-water terebrids, including Strioterebrum rushii (Figure 9.7F), Strioterebrum lutescens
(Figure 9.7H), Strioterebrum limatulum (Figure 9.7I), and Fusoterebra benthalis. An exception-
ally large fauna of turroidean gastropods also occurs with the cone shells and terebrids and
typically includes species such as the turrids Polystira albida (Figure 9.4C), Polystira florencae
(Figure 9.7G), and Gemmula periscelida (Figure 9.7C); the cochlespirids Cochlespira elegans
(Figure 9.7B), Cochlespira radiata, Leucosyrinx tenoceras, and Leucosyrinx subgrundifera; the
clathurellids Bathytoma viabrunnea, Glyphostoma gabbi, and Glyphostoma pilsbryi; the zonu-
lispirids Compsodrillia halistrephis and Compsodrillia eucosmia; the crassipirid Hindsiclava
alesidota; and the mangeliids Mangelia exsculpta, Stellatoma antonia, Gymnobela blakeana, and
Stellatoma monocingulata.
A large echinoderm fauna is also present on the muddy seafloors of the deep ter-
races, including echinoids, holothroids, ophiuroids, crinoids (both stalked and free-living
comatulids), and asteroids. These serve as the main prey items of an interesting fauna
of tonnoidean gastropods, including the cassids Sconsia striata and Echinophoria coronadoi
(both feeding on echinoids); the oocorythines Eudolium crosseanum, Oocorys bartschi, and
Benthodolium abyssorum; and the ficid Ficus carolae (Figure 9.7K). This distinctive echino-
derm-feeding faunule occurs together with a number of deep-water cnidarian-feeding
gastropods, some of which include the large and heavily fluted epitoniid Stenorhytis per-
nobilis and the smaller epitoniids Opaliopsis nitida and Opaliopsis opalina. All of these are
probably feeding suctorially on large sand-dwelling zoantherian sea anemones.
Biodiversity of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage

The members of the deep terrace-dwelling Rehderia schmitti Assemblage are listed
here by feeding type and ecological niche preferences. As in the previous section of
this chapter, this list must be considered only preliminary because future deep-water
dredging will undoubtedly uncover many more new and unusual taxa. For illustrations
of the species not shown here, see the iconographies of Abbott (1974; for gastropods)
and Mikkelsen and Bieler (2008; for bivalves). Because this ecosystem exists at depths
below the photic zone, no plants or algae are present, and herbivorous gastropods can-
not live here. This niche is filled by detritivores, which feed on plant and animal mat-
ter that tumbles down the deep reef talus slope and accumulates on the muddy planar
surface of the terraces.
1. HERBIVORES/DETRITIVORES (including particulate organic feeders and bac-

terial film grazers)
Gastropoda
Fissurellidae
Emarginula sicula Gray, 1825
Emarginula tuberculosa Libassi, 1859
Solariellidae
Solariella aegleis Watson, 1879

Solariella lissocoma (Dall, 1881)
Solariella periscopia (Dall, 1927)
Solariella pourtalesi Clench and Aguayo, 1939
Suavotrochus lubricus (Dall, 1881)
Margaritidae
Gaza superba (Dall, 1881)
Microgaza inornata Dall, 1881
Microgaza rotella Dall, 1881
Architectonicidae
Architectonica peracuta (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.4D)
Architectonica sunderlandi Petuch, 1987
Solatisonax borealis (Verrill and Smith, 1880) (may feed on cnidarians)
Xenophoridae
Trochotugurium longleyi (Bartsch, 1931)
Tugurium caribaeum (Petit, 1856)
2. CARNIVORES
Gastropoda
2a. SPONGIVORES
Pleurotomariidae
Bayerotrochus midas (Bayer, 1965)
Entemnotrochus adansonianus (Crosse and Fischer, 1861)
Perotrochus amabilis (Bayer, 1963)
Haliotidae
Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma (Kombologion) bairdii Verrill and Smith, 1880
Calliostoma (Kombologion) oregon Clench and Turner, 1960
Personidae (feeding preferences problematical)
Distorsio perdistorta Fulton, 1938
Buccinidae
Antillophos virginiae (Schwengel, 1942)
Agassitula agassizi (Clench and Aguayo, 1941)
Bartschia significans Rehder, 1943 (Figure 9.4F) (B. Frumari Garcia is a synonym)
Belomitra pourtalesi (Dall, 1881) (often collected below 500-m depth)
Colus rushii (Dall, 1889)
Eosipho canetae (Clench and Aguayo, 1941)
Liomesus stimpsoni Dall, 1889
Manaria burkeae Garcia, 2008
Ptychosalpinx globulus (Dall, 1889)
Retimohnia carolinensis (Verrill, 1884)
Columbellidae
Cosmioconcha rikae Monsecour and Monsecour, 2006 D
Metulella columbellata (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.4L)
Nassarina bushiae (Dall, 1889)
Nassariidae
Uzita hotessieri (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Uzita scissurata (Dall, 1889)
Olivellidae
Callianax thompsoni (Olsson, 1956)
Jaspidella miris Olsson, 1956
Macgintiella rotunda (Dall, 1889)
Macgintiella watermani (McGinty, 1940)
Niteoliva moorei (Abbott, 1951)
Olivella mcgintyi Olsson, 1956
Olivina bullula (Reeve, 1850)
Olividae
Americoliva matchetti Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.6D–F) (see Systematic
Appendix)
Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.6A–C) (see Systematic
Appendix)
Volutidae-Scaphellinae
Aurinia dubia (Broderip, 1827) (Figure 9.5A, B)
Clenchina dohrni (Sowerby III, 1903) (Figure 9.5G, H)
Clenchina florida (Clench and Aguayo, 1940) (Figure 9.5I, J)
Clenchina gouldiana (Dall, 1887) (Figure 9.5K, L)
Clenchina marionae (Pilsbry and Olsson, 1953) (Figure 9.5E, F)
Rehderia georgiana (Clench, 1946) (Figure 9.4G, H; Cape Hatteras to Key Largo)
Rehderia schmitti (Bartsch, 1931) (Figure 9.5C, D)
Volutomitridae
Microvoluta blakeana (Dall, 1889)
Microvoluta laevior (Dall, 1889)
Marginellidae
Dentimargo yucatecanus (Dall, 1881)
Eratoidea watsoni (Dall, 1881)
Prunum cassis (Dall, 1889)
Prunum frumari Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 9.4K)
Prunum redfieldi (Tryon, 1882)
Prunum torticulum (Dall, 1881)
Prunum virginianum (Conrad, 1868)
Volvarina styria Dall, 1889
Volvarina subtriplicata (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Cystiscidae (Persiculinae and Cystiscinae)
Canalispira kerni Garcia, 2007
Cysticus microgonia (Dall, 1927)
Acteonidae
Acteon cumingii A. Adams, 1854
Acteon danaida Dall, 1881
Acteon delicatus Dall, 1889
Acteon finlayi McGinty, 1955
Acteon incisus Dall, 1881
Acteon melampoides Dall, 1881
Acteon perforatus Dall, 1881

Acteon pusillus (Forbes, 1844)
Ovulacteon meekii Dall, 1889
Bullinidae
Bullina exquisita McGinty, 1955
Cylichnidae
Scaphander punctostriatus Mighels, 1841
Scaphander watsoni Dall, 1881
Scaphander (Sabatia) bathymophila Dall, 1881
Acteocinidae
Acteocina bullata (Kiener, 1834)
Bullidae
Bulla eburnea Dall, 1881
2c. MOLLUSCIVORES (including drilling predators)
Naticidae
Lunatia fringilla (Dall, 1881)
Lunatia perla (Dall, 1881)
Natica castrensis Dall, 1889
Natica perlineata Dall, 1889
Neverita nubila (Dall, 1925)
Sigatica carolinensis (Dall, 1889)
Sinum minor (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.7L)
Muricidae (Muricinae, Ergalitaxinae, Muricopsinae, Ocenebrinae)
Murexiella hidalgoi (Crosse, 1869) (Figure 9.4M)
Orania grayi (Dall, 1889)
Paziella pazi (Crosse, 1869)
Pazinotus stimpsoni (Dall, 1889)
Poirieria nuttingi (Dall, 1896)
Pterynotus bushae E. Vokes, 1970
Pterynotus tristichus (Dall, 1889)
Siratus articulatus (Reeve, 1845) (Figure 9.7J)
Siratus beauii (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857) (Figure 9.4E)
Trossulasalpinx macra (Verrill, 1887) (the genus was described from fossil taxa)
Vokesimurex cabritii (Bernardi, 1859) (Figure 9.7E)
Vokesimurex tryoni (Hidalgo, 1880)
Fasciolariidae (Subfamily Fusininae)
Fusinus excavatus (Sowerby II, 1880) (= eucosmius Dall)
Fusinus halistreptus (Dall, 1889)
Fusinus schrammi (Crosse, 1865)
Harasewychia aepynota (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia alcimus (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia amianta (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia amphiurgus (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia benthalis (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia rushii (Dall, 1889)
Costellariidae
Nodicostellaria laterculata (Sowerby II, 1874) (Figure 9.4J)
Vexillum hendersoni (Dall, 1927) (Figure 9.4I)
Vexillum styliolum (Dall, 1927)

Vexillum styria Dall, 1889
Vexillum wandoense (Holmes, 1860)
2d. SUCTORIAL FEEDERS (problematical; on benthic elasmobranchs?)
Cancellariidae
Axelella agassizii (Dall, 1889)
2e. ECHINODERM FEEDERS (including echinoids [eccentric], holothurians, ophiu-
roids, and asteroids)
Cassidae-Cassinae
Echinophoria coronadoi (Crosse, 1867)
Sconsia striata (Lamarck, 1816) (incorrectly called S. grayi Adams, 1855, by
some workers)
Cassidae-Oocorythinae
Benthodolium abyssorum (Verrill and Smith, 1884)
Eudolium crosseanum (Monterosato, 1869)
Oocorys bartschi Rehder, 1943
Oocorys sulcata Fischer, 1883
Ficidae
Ficus carolae Clench, 1945) (Figure 9.7K)
2f. CNIDARIAN FEEDERS (including suctorial forms)
Ovulidae-Simniinae (feeding on antipatharian and spiropatharian octocorals)
Calcarovula piragua (Dall, 1889)
Epitoniidae
Amaea mitchelli (Dall, 1896) D
Amaea retifera (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala babylonium (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala frielei (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala fractum (Dall, 1927)
Asperiscala polacia (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala pourtalesi (Verrill and Bush, 1880)
Asperiscala rushii (Dall, 1889)
Boreoscala blainei Clench and Turner, 1953
Cylindriscala andrewsi (Verrill, 1882)
Cylindriscala watsoni (deBoury, 1911)
Depressiscala nitidella (Dall, 1889)
Foratiscala formossisima (Jeffreys, 1884)
Nodiscala eolis Clench and Turner, 1950
Opalia abbotti Clench and Turner, 1952
Opaliopsis atlantis Clench and Turner, 1952
Opaliopsis cania (Dall, 1927)
Opaliopsis nitida (Verrill and Smith, 1885)
Opaliopsis opalina (Dall, 1927)
Stenorhytis pernobilis (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Muricidae-Magilinae
Babelomurex fax (Bayer, 1971) (possibly feeding on zoantherians)
2g. VERMIVORES (including feeders on polychaetes, sipunculids, and nemerteans)

Turbinellidae-Columbariinae
Peristarium aurora (Bayer, 1971)
Peristarium electra (Bayer, 1971)
Peristarium merope (Bayer, 1971)
Mitridae
Mitra (Cancilla) antillensis Dall, 1889
Conidae
Conasprelloides cancellatus (Hwass, 1792)
Conasprelloides stimpsoni (Dall, 1902) (Figure 9.7A) (C. levistimpsoni Tucker is a
synonym)
Conasprelloides villepini (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857) (Figure 9.7D)
Conilithidae
Dalliconus mcgintyi (Pilsbry, 1955)
Dalliconus rainesae (McGinty, 1953)
Kohniconus new species? (Figure 9.6G, H)
Terebridae
Fusoterebra benthalis (Dall, 1899)
Strioterebrum limatulum (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.7I)
Strioterebrum lutescens (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.7H)
Strioterebrum rushii (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.7F)
Cochlespiridae
Cochlespira elegans (Dall, 1881) (Figure 9.7B)
Cochlespira radiata (Dall, 1889)
Leucosyrinx subgrundifera (Dall, 1888)
Leucosyrinx tenoceras Dall, 1889
Leucosyrinx verrillii (Dall, 1881)
Turridae
Gemmula periscelida (Dall, 1889) (Figure 9.7C)
Polystira albida (Perry, 1811) (Figure 9.4C)
Polystira florencae Bartsch, 1934 (Figure 9.7G)
Polystira tellea (Dall, 1889)
Clathurellidae
Bathytoma viabrunnea (Dall, 1889)
Drilliola loprestiana (Calcara, 1841) (= Microdrillia comatotropis)
Glyphostoma dentifera Gabb, 1872
Glyphostoma gabbi Dall, 1889
Glyphostoma gratula (Dall, 1881)
Glyphostoma pilsbryi (Schwengel, 1940)
Lioglyphostoma oenoa Bartsch, 1934
Miraclathurella herminea Bartsch, 1934
Mitrolumna biplicata Dall, 1889
Mitrolumna haycocki (Dall and Bartsch, 1911)
Tennaturris inepta (E.A. Smith, 1882)
Drilliidae
Crassispiridae
Hindsiclava alesidota (Dall, 1889)
Zonulispiridae
Compsodrillia acestra (Dall, 1889)
Raphitomidae
Anticlinura toreumata (Dall, 1889)
Daphnella eugrammata (Dall, 1902)
Daphnella margaretae Lyons, 1972
Daphnella morra (Dall, 1881)
Gymnobela agassizii (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Gymnobela blakeana (Dall, 1889)
Mangelia bartletti (Dall, 1889)
Mangelia exsculpta (Watson, 1881)
Mangelia pelagia (Dall, 1881)
Mangelia pourtalesi (Dall, 1881)
Mangelia scipio Dall, 1889
Mangelia subsida (Dall, 1881)
Stellatoma antonia (Dall, 1881)
Stellatoma monocingulata (Dall, 1889)
Gastropoda
Capulidae
Capulus ungaricus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Hipponicidae
Malluvium benthophilum (Dall, 1889) (lives attached to the spines of cidaroid echinoids)
Bivalvia
Nuculidae
Eunucula aegeensis (Forbes, 1844)
Nucula crenulata A. Adams, 1856
Nucula delphinodonta Mighels and C.B. Adams, 1842
Nuculanidae (feeding on surface films by using specialized palps)
Ledella sublaevis Verrill and Bush, 1898
Nuculana acuta (Conrad, 1832)
Nuculana jamaicensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Nuculana semen (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Nuculana verrilliana (Dall, 1886)
Nuculana vitrea (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Arcidae
Bathyarca glomerula (Dall, 1881)
Bathyarca sagrinata (Dall, 1886)
Limopsidae
Limopsis aurita (Brocchi, 1814)
Limopsis cristata Jeffreys, 1876
Limopsis minuta (Philippi, 1836)
Limopsis sulcata Verrill and Bush, 1898
Limidae
Divarilima albicoma (Dall, 1886)
Limea bronniana Dall, 1886
Limatula confusa (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Limatula setifera Dall, 1886
Limatula subovata (Jeffreys, 1876)
Pectinidae
Aequipecten glyptus (Verrill, 1882)
Cryptopecten phrygium (Dall, 1886) (Figure 9.4B)
Euvola laurenti (Gmelin, 1791)
Euvola marshallae Petuch and Myers, new species (Figure 9.4A) [incorrectly
referred to as Euvola papyracea (Gabb, 1873), which is actually an early Miocene
fossil from the Baitoa Formation of the Dominican Republic]
Propeamussiidae
Cyclopecten thalassinus (Dall, 1886)
Hyalopecten strigillatus (Dall, 1889)
Parvamussium pourtalesianum (Dall, 1886)
Parvamussium sayanum (Dall, 1886)
Propeamussium cancellatum (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Similipecten nanus (Verrill and Bush, 1897)
Astartidae
Astarte nana E.A. Smith, 1881
Astarte smithii Dall, 1866
Astarte subaequilatera Sowerby II, 1854
Pandoridae
Pandora bushiana Dall, 1886
Pandora glacialis Leach, 1819
Pandora inflata Boss and Merrill, 1965
Periplomatidae
Periploma tenerum (P. Fischer, 1882)
Verticordiidae
Euciroa elegantissima (Dall, 1881)
Haliris fischeriana (Dall, 1881)
Spinosipella acuticostata (Philippi, 1844)
Trigonulina ornata d’Orbigny, 1853
Poromyidae
Poromya albida Dall, 1886
Poromya granulata (Nyst and Westendorp, 1839)
Poromya rostrata Rehder, 1943
Cuspidariidae
Cardiomya alternata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Cardiomya costellata (Deshayes, 1833)
Cardiomya gemma Verrill and Bush, 1898
Cardiomya ornatissima (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Cardiomya perrostrata (Dall, 1881)
Cardiomya striata (Jeffreys, 1876)

Cuspidaria obesa (Loven, 1846)
Cuspidaria rostrata (Spengler, 1793)
Myonera gigantea (Verrill, 1884)
Myonera lamellifera (Dall, 1881)
Myonera paucistriata Dall, 1886
Plectodon granulatus (Dall, 1881)
Lucinidae
Pleurolucina sombrerensis (Dall, 1886)
Thyasiridae (possibly having symbiotic chemotrophic bacteria)
Thyasira grandis (Verrill and Smith, 1885)
Thyasira trisinuata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lasaeidae
Erycina periscopiana Dall, 1899
Sportellidae
Basterotia elliptica (Recluz, 1850)
4.
CHEMOSYNTHETIC FEEDERS (containing symbiotic chemoautotrophic
bacteria)
Bivalvia
Solemyidae
Solemya occidentalis Deshayes, 1857
A review of the niche preferences of the members of the Rehderia schmitti Assemblage
shows that the carnivorous gastropods completely dominate the ecosystem by over a two-
to-one ratio.
Mollusks of the open oceanic pleuston

The southern tip of the Floridian Peninsula extends into some of the most dynamic ocean-
ographic conditions found anywhere in the tropical western Atlantic. This unique open
oceanic world is the result of the confluence of three separate currents: the Gulf Loop
Current, flowing southward along the southwestern coast of Florida and then across the
Dry Tortugas (and producing the localized Tortugas Gyre); the Florida Current, flowing
eastward over the Florida Keys and through the Florida Strait between Cuba and the
Florida Keys; and the Caribbean Current, flowing northward out of the Caribbean Basin
and entering the Florida Strait near Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas. These three currents merge
north of Cay Sal to produce the Gulf Stream, which flows northward out of the Florida
Strait and roughly parallels the coastline of the southeastern United States. Off Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina, the Gulf Stream makes a sharply angled turn to the northeast
and flows outward into the open Atlantic Ocean.
During its flow through the northern section of the Florida Strait, between the Floridian
Peninsula and the Bahamas Banks, the Gulf Stream comes closest to land along a stretch
of coast extending from northern Key Largo to Jupiter, Palm Beach County. Because of the
proximity of this swiftly flowing current to the coastline, the shorelines of the northern
Keys and Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties are frequently inundated with immense
masses of open oceanic pleuston. These organisms, which float directly on the sea surface
or hang from the surface tension, exist as vast flotillas out in the open Gulf Stream waters
but are blown up onto the beaches during storms or by strong easterly winds (Figure 9.9).
Typically, the pleuston is dominated by floating siphonophore hydrozoans such as Physalia
physalis (Portuguese Man-of-War), Velella velella (By-the-Wind Sailor), and Porpita porpita
(Blue Button). These bright blue and purple pleustonic colonial hydrozoans, which hang
from the surface by either gas-filled floats (like Physalia) or by thin lightweight disks that
cling to the surface tension (like Velella and Porpita), often form immense densely packed
flotillas that are referred to by local marine biologists as the “Great Blue Fleet.” These
hydrozoan aggregations serve as a food resource for a small fauna of pleustonic shelled
macrogastropods, all in the family Janthinidae (the “Violet Snails”). The bright purple and
pink janthinids receive their shell color from the pigments of their blue siphonophore prey
and float, upside-down, from bubble rafts made of stiff mucus.
The five species of janthinids that occur off the Florida Keys area occur along with a
small but distinctive fauna of other pleustonic and planktonic mollusks, including the air-
filled, surface-dwelling sea slug Glaucus atlanticus (the “Blue Glaucus”), the Paper Argonaut
cephalopods Argonauta argo and Argonauta hians, and the Glassy Nautilus, Carinaria lamarcki
(actually not a nautilus but a swimming heteropod gastropod). Like the janthinids, the
Blue Glaucus feeds on the siphonophores, biting off pieces of the stinging tentacles and
swallowing them with impunity. The largest and most frequently encountered species of
Violet Snail, Janthina janthina (Figure 9.8A, B), has a distinctly two-toned shell, with a dark
purple base and pale blue-white spire (the namesake of the Janthina janthina Assemblage).
When the living animal is suspended upside-down from its bubble raft, the shell is per-
fectly camouflaged: the pale blue spire blends in with the silvery sea surface and protects
the snail from predatory fish by making the shell difficult to see from below; the deep
purple shell base blends in with the deep blue sea surface as seen from above, making it
difficult for predatory birds to locate the floating snail. Three other smaller species of jan-
thinids also occur along with Janthina janthina: the pale pinkish-purple Janthina (Violetta)
pallida (Figure 9.8C, D; which feeds primarily on Velella); the dark purple Janthina (Jodina)
exigua (Figure 9.8E, F; which feeds primarily on Porpita); and the pale blue-purple Janthina
(Violetta) globosa (Figure 9.8G; which feeds primarily on Velella). Living along with the
purple janthinids is the brown-colored janthinid Recluzia rollandiana (Figure 9.8H), which
feeds on the brown floating sea anemone Minyas. This small species is never as abundant
as its purple and blue relatives and is only rarely seen or collected. Along the Palm Beach
coast, the yearly appearance of the Great Blue Fleet on beaches during the windy winter
time is greatly anticipated by local shell collectors and marine biologists.
Biodiversity of the Janthina janthina Assemblage

Some of the more important pleustonic shelled gastropods of the Florida Keys and adja-
cent coasts include the following:
CARNIVORES (siphonophore hydrozoan and pelagic zoantherian feeders)

Gastropoda (pleuston)
Janthinidae
Janthina janthina (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 9.8A, B)
Janthina (Jodina) exigua Lamarck, 1816 (Figure 9.8E, F)
Janthina (Violetta) globosa Swainson, 1822 (Figure 9.8G)
Janthina (Violetta) pallida (Thompson, 1840) (Figure 9.8C, D)
Recluzia rollandiana Petit, 1853 (feeds on the floating zoantherian sea anemone
Minyas) (Figure 9.8H)
B D
F H
Figure 9.8 Gastropods of the Janthina janthina Assemblage. A, B = Janthina janthina (Linnaeus, 1758),
width 29 mm. C, D = Janthina (Violetta) pallida (Thompson, 1840), width 18 mm. E, F = Janthina (Jodina)
exigua Lamarck, 1816, width 14.4 mm. G = Janthina (Violetta) globosa Swainson, 1822, width 14 mm.
H = Recluzia rollandiana Petit, 1853, length 18 mm.
214
Figure 9.9 Close-up of both juvenile and mature Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia physalis) washed up onto the beach at Singer Island, Palm Beach
County. These colonial hydrozoans serve as the principal food resource for the pleustonic gastropod Janthina janthina and support the Janthina jan-
thina Assemblage of the Open Oceanic Pleustonic Macrohabitat. (Photograph by Jennie Petuch.)
chapter ten
Tree snails of the Florida Keys
Introduction
Although not included within the aquatic regimes and macrohabitats, and technically
outside the scope of this book, the tropical hardwood hammocks of the Florida Keys
archipelago offer a unique biotope that houses an interesting and highly endemic fauna
of tree snails. No book on the malacofaunas of the Florida Keys would be complete with-
out, at least, a short overview of these spectacular endemic gastropods. The same biotic
principles of geographical isolation that have produced the endemic marine malacofauna
have also worked in the insular terrestrial environment, allowing for the evolution of
extremely rich tree snail faunas on many of the widely separated island groups. On
most of the larger keys, from Elliott Key south to Key West, dense tropical hardwood
forests had become established after the last major Pleistocene sea-level rise (during the
Sangamonian Stage; see Petuch and Roberts, 2007; Petuch and Sargent, 2011c). These
floras were derived primarily from Caribbean and West Indian taxa, with the incipient
forests having been brought to the newly formed islands by seeds in bird droppings or
from seeds and propagules that washed ashore during hurricanes. The primary source
for these tropical hardwood tree forests was the continental-type island of Cuba, only 120
km to the south. The newly formed late Pleistocene Keys archipelago thus became the
gateway into North America for tropical migrants, both plant and animal, from the West
Indies and Caribbean Basin.
Typically, the Florida Keys hardwood hammocks are made up of between 15 and
20 different types of trees, with almost all of them classic Caribbean Basin species. Of
the more commonly encountered types, only two are endemic to the Florida Keys: the
Soldierwood Tree (Colubrina elliptica), which is restricted to the hammocks of the Upper
Keys, and the Rough Strongback Tree (Bourreria radula), which is restricted to the ham-
mocks of the Lower Keys. Some of the more abundant types of hardwoods found in the
Florida Keys include the following:
Canopy Species
Gumbo Limbo (Bursera simaruba)
Pigeon Plum (Coccoloba diversifola)
Paradise Tree (Simarouba glauca)
Wild Mastic (Sideroxylon foetidissimum)
Willow Bustic (Sideroxylon salicifolium)
Jamaican Dogwood (Piscidia piscipula)
Understory Species
White Stopper (Eugenia axillaris)
Spanish Stopper (Eugenia foetida)
Red Stopper (Eugenia rhombea)
Poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum)
215
Florida Boxwood (Schaefferia frutescens)

Lignum Vitae (Guajacum sanctum)
West Indian Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni)
Bahama Strongbark (Bourreria succulenta)
Wild Tamarind (Lysiloma latilisiquum)
Ironwood (Krugiodendron ferreum)
Bahama Wild Coffee (Psychotria ligustrifolia)
Key Thatch Palmetto (Leucothrinax morrisii)
Because the Florida Keys are made up mostly of coral limestone (Key Largo Formation
fossil reefs of the Upper and Middle Keys) or oölitic limestone (Miami Formation oölite
banks of the Lower Keys), the islands are covered by only a thin veneer of soil. Because of
this lack of deep soils, the tropical hardwoods of the Florida Keys are stunted and dwarfed,
essentially having undergone a natural “bonsai” process because of the restriction of root
growth. The dwarf hardwood forests of the Florida Keys (Figure 10.1) are now known to
house one of the most beautiful and distinctive tree snail faunas found anywhere in the
tropical Americas. This unique terrestrial malacofauna is composed of multiple species in
the genera Liguus and Orthalicus (both Orthalicidae) and Drymaeus (Bulimulidae), with the
two orthalicid genera comprising taxa found only in the Florida Keys and the Everglades
region. Here, these arboreal gastropods feed on thick growths of lichens and algae that
cover the bark of trees such as Spanish Stopper, Poisonwood, Pigeon Plum, Wild Tamarind,
Ironwood, and Jamaican Dogwood. All three of these arboreal genera have closely related
congeners in Cuba, and several represent subspecific offshoots of well-known Cuban for-
est species. As postulated by Pilsbry (1946: 46–49), the Florida Keys tree snails arrived from
Cuba during the late Pleistocene by rafting on large tree and vegetation mats that would
have washed down rain-swollen rivers during hurricanes. Strong northward-blowing
storm winds would have rapidly pushed the tree rafts across the narrow Florida Straits
and deposited them, intact, on the shorelines of the newly formed Florida Keys.
Of the tree snail groups found in the Keys, the orthalicid genus Liguus is the most mor-
phologically diverse, being represented by a large swarm of color forms and subspecies.
All of these are closely related to the Cuban Banded Tree Snail, Liguus fasciatus (Müller,
1774), and are considered to be endemic Floridian subspecies. As outlined in the classi-
fication scheme of Pilsbry (1946: 37–102), eight subspecies of Liguus fasciatus fasciatus are
recognized in the Florida Keys and the Everglades region:
Liguus fasciatus graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 9 named forms)

Liguus fasciatus solidus (Say, 1825) (with 4 named forms)
Liguus fasciatus matecumbensis Pilsbry, 1912 (with 1 named form)
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 11 named forms)
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis Pilsbry, 1912 (with 4 named forms)
Liguus fasciatus testudineus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 16 named forms)
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 3 named forms)
Liguus fasciatus septentrionalis Pilsbry, 1912
Of these eight subspecies, only Liguus fasciatus septentrionalis is not present in the Florida
Keys. This northernmost Liguus subspecies is, instead, restricted to the mainland Atlantic
Coastal Ridge hammocks of Palm Beach and Broward Counties.
The named forms of and subspecies of Liguus represent isolated populations that
exhibit distinctive and consistent differences in shell morphology. These differences take
Chapter ten: Tree snails of the Florida Keys 217
into account shell shape and size, types of color patterns on the shells, and colors of the
protoconchs. As discovered by the first malacological explorers and tree snail collectors in
the Florida Keys, each key and island group had its own endemic swarm of color forms,
the result of genetic isolation on isolated land masses. The intervening saltwater channels
between the islands acted as barriers to gene flow, and many of these distinctive subspe-
cies and forms (several illustrated further in this chapter) undoubtedly represent examples
of incipient speciation. As the Keys became developed (and in many cases, overdeveloped)
during the years since the 1960s, many of the host hammocks were destroyed by housing
construction, and several of the forms and subspecies became locally extinct (extirpated).
Fortunately, several local tree snail collectors, particularly the late Archie Jones of Miami,
have managed to rescue several populations of endangered Keys Liguus forms and move
them to isolated hammocks within Everglades National Park. Here, the gene pools that
evolved in the Florida Keys can flourish in new habitats on the Florida mainland, pre-
serving for posterity the record of evolution that was once active on the islands to the
south. Because of these rescue attempts, however, many of the forms and subspecies now
live together in strange and different combinations, and new hybrids and variants are
now forming in many of the transplant hammocks. According to the ICZN (International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature), all of these named color forms have no real
taxonomic status, and they are only to be considered informal nicknames for distinctive
populations.
As pointed out by Pilsbry (1946: 46–49), several introductions of Liguus stock from Cuba
took place during the late Pleistocene. Based on both shell morphology and biogeographical
distribution, the oldest immigrant subspecies appears to be Liguus fasciatus septentrionalis
of the mainland of southeastern Florida. A more recent wave of migration, probably from
north-central Cuba (based on morphological relationships to forms in Matanzas and Santa
Clara Provinces) is the complex of forms seen in Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus and Liguus
fasciatus elliottensis. Based on shell morphology and biogeographical range in the Florida
Keys, Liguus fasciatus graphicus and Liguus fasciatus solidus (especially the form pictus) appear
to be the most recent immigrants from Cuba, showing close morphological relationships
with Liguus fasciatus subspecies in Mariel, Cabanas, Puerto Esperanza, and other areas in
west-central Cuba. The endemic subspecies testudineus, matecumbensis, and lossmanicus most
probably represent local evolutionary events that resulted from the alternating isolation
and conjoining of gene pools during sea-level fluctuations in the latest Pleistocene.
During Pleistocene sea-level lows, many of the keys were united into single large land
masses that were covered by hardwood hammocks, allowing for free gene flow within the
resident Liguus populations. During Pleistocene sea-level highs, these large islands were
dissected into smaller land masses, and the original single ancestral tree snail popula-
tion was broken into several smaller isolated gene pools. This alternating pattern of the
formation of single large land masses and subsequent groups of smaller islands led to the
evolution of the striking color forms seen on many of the present-day Keys island chains.
A classic example of this type of incipient subspecies formation in the Florida Keys is
seen in the Liguus fasciatus graphicus group of the Middle Keys, where the morphologically
closely related, yet distinct, forms innominatus, lignumvitae, osmenti, vonpaulseni, delicatus,
dryas, and simpsoni all occur on different islands in an area extending from Big Pine Key to
Lower Matecumbe Key.
Of the 55 named Liguus subspecies and color forms, only 27 presently occur on the
Florida Keys island chain. Three of the eight named subspecies (graphicus, solidus, and
matecumbensis and all their forms) are the only taxa that originally were restricted to
the Florida Keys. These now occur on some of the mainland hammocks because of the
transplanting of populations for rescue purposes. The other four subspecies found in the
Keys (castaneozonatus, elliottensis, testudineus, and lossmanicus) all naturally occur on the
Florida mainland in an area centered on the Everglades National Park and the Atlantic
Coastal Ridge of Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties. Of these, testudineus has the
largest number of mainland forms (16), with only 2 (marmoratus and ornatus) found in the
Upper and Middle Keys. Similarly, the subspecies castaneozonatus has 11 named forms, but
only 3 (typically castaneozonatus, roseatus, and lineolatus) are found in the Upper Keys (L.
fasciatus castaneozonatus form roseatus shown on Figure 10.2). Only the Florida Keys Liguus
populations are discussed and illustrated in this book.
Liguus tree snails of the Upper Florida Keys

Based on the inferred patterns of migration from Cuba, shell morphology, and present-
day biogeographical distribution, the seven Florida Keys Liguus subspecies break into
two distinct groups. The first of these, the tree snails of the Upper Keys, comprise
four subspecies and six named forms. For the most part, these Liguus are confined
to an area extending from Elliott and Totten Key south to Key Largo. In the ham-
mocks of northern Key Largo, especially in the Card Sound Road area, Liguus fascia-
tus castaneozonatus (Figure 10.3A) and its forms roseatus (Figure 10.3B) and lineolatus
(Figure 10.3C) are the most frequently encountered types. These are often abundant on
roadside exposures of the dwarf hardwood hammocks and can readily be seen from
a moving vehicle. Unlike the Middle and Lower Keys subspecies, the northern Key
Largo Liguus specimens are relatively small for the species, usually averaging about
half to two-thirds the length of their congeners farther south. Considering the abun-
dance of individual tree snails in northern Key Largo, this dwarfing may be caused
by the heavy competition for lichen food resources on the bark of the resident tropical
hardwood trees. Besides smaller sizes, the northern Liguus forms are also much duller
than their highly polished relatives in the Middle and Lower Keys, having a distinct
matte finish to their shells.
The Upper Keys Liguus populations also include several endemic forms of the subspe-
cies lossmanicus, testudineus, and elliottensis. The first-mentioned subspecies, in its typical
form (Figure 10.3G), was originally thought to be confined to Lossman’s Key near Cape
Sable but has now been found in areas near Miami and in the southern Everglades ham-
mocks. The lossmanicus color forms luteus and aurantius (Figure 10.3H) have been collected
on Key Largo and Vaca Key, demonstrating that the subspecies is also present in the Upper
and Middle Keys. The similar-appearing Liguus fasciatus elliottensis, with its characteris-
tic green stripes (Figure 10.3D), is found throughout the northernmost Keys, particularly
Elliott Key, Totten Key, and northernmost Key Largo. Intensely colored black-banded
forms of the subspecies castaneozonatus (shown here in Figure 10.3A) are also known from
the northernmost hammocks on Key Largo, where they occur together with the bright
Figure 10.1 View of a dwarf hardwood hammock on No Name Key, Lower Florida Keys. Throughout
the Florida Keys, forests like this one typically contain groves of tropical trees such as Spanish
Stopper (Eugenia foetida), Red Stopper (Eugenia rhombea), White Stopper (Eugenia axillaris), Ironwood
(Krugiodendron ferreum), Florida Boxwood (Schaefferia frutescens), and Pigeon Plum (Coccoloba diver-
sifolia). These dense tropical forests, isolated on widely separated islands, provide the habitats for a
large fauna of endemic tree snails. This hammock also shelters a small herd of Key Deer (Odocoileus
virginianus clavium), an endemic Florida Keys subspecies of the White-Tailed Deer that lives only on
26 islands near Big Pine Key and No Name Key. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
Figure 10.2 Close-up of a living Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (form roseatus Pilsbry,
1912), crawling on a tree branch in a dwarf hardwood hammock on the northern end of Key Largo,
Upper Florida Keys. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
B
C
F
D E
G H
Figure 10.3 Liguus Tree Snails of the Upper Florida Keys. A = Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry,
1912, typical form, length 43 mm, northern Key Largo. B = Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry,
1912 (form roseatus Pilsbry, 1912), length 40 mm, northern Key Largo. C = Liguus fasciatus castane-
ozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (form lineolatus Simpson, 1920), length 45 mm, northern Key Largo. D = Liguus
fasciatus elliottensis Pilsbry, 1912, typical form, length 40 mm, Elliott Key. E = Liguus fasciatus testu-
dineus Pilsbry, 1912 (form marmoratus Pilsbry, 1912), length 51 mm, southern Key Largo. F = Liguus
fasciatus testudineus Pilsbry, 1912 (form ornatus Simpson, 1920), length 39 mm, northern Key Largo.
G = Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus Pilsbry, 1912, typical form, length 46 mm, Lossman’s Key. H = Liguus
fasciatus lossmanicus Pilsbry, 1912 (form aurantius Clench, 1929), length 38 mm, northern Key Largo.
red-orange color form of Liguus fasciatus testudineus. This particularly beautiful shell, the
form ornatus (Figure 10.3F), is found only on Totten Key and northern Key Largo and is
one of the most striking endemic color variants found in the Upper Keys. The typical dark-
colored variety of the subspecies testudineus, the form marmoratus (Figure 10.3E), is found
in large hammocks from southern Key Largo to Vaca Key but is also a commonly encoun-
tered species in many of the isolated hammocks (“tree islands”) of the southern areas of
Everglades National Park.
The nine Liguus fasciatus subspecies and forms known from the dwarf hardwood ham-
mocks of the Upper Florida Keys (Elliott Key south to Key Largo and Lossman’s Key near
Cape Sable) are listed below:
Family Orthalicidae
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (typical dark banded form; Figure 10.3A)
form roseatus Pilsbry, 1912 (Figure 10.3B)
form lineolatus Simpson, 1920 (Figure 10.3C)
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis Pilsbry, 1912 (typical form; Figure 10.3D)
Liguus fasciatus testudineus Pilsbry, 1912 (typical form not found in the Keys; only
mainland Florida and the Everglades National Park)
form marmoratus Pilsbry, 1912 (Figure 10.3E)
form ornatus Simpson, 1920 (Figure 10.3F)
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus Pilsbry, 1912 (Figure 10.3G)
form luteus Simpson, 1920
form aurantius Clench, 1929 (Figure 10.3H)
Liguus tree snails of the Middle and Lower Florida Keys

With the exception of elliottensis form vacaensis and testudineus form marmoratus, only
three fasciatus subspecies and their color forms make up the entire Liguus fauna of the
Middle and Lower Florida Keys. These subspecies—fasciatus graphicus, fasciatus solidus,
and fasciatus matecumbensis—have developed 14 different forms between them, and these
are (or were originally) confined to single islands in the central and lower archipelagos.
Here, in the dense and often cactus-filled hammocks of the southern island chains, Liguus
snails grow to much larger sizes than they do in the hammocks of the northern Keys
(Figure 10.4). Because of the recent runaway housing development and cutting down of
the large hardwood hammocks on most of the islands, however, many of the most beau-
tiful forms are now extinct in their original habitats. One of the areas to experience the
devastating impact of this unchecked housing development is the Simpson Hammock
on Lower Matecumbe Key, originally the habitat of one of the richest and most spectacu-
lar Liguus faunas in the Keys. Here, six different endemic forms once occurred together,
including the dohertyi, delicatus, and simpsoni forms of the subspecies graphicus; the pseu-
dopictus (Figure 10.5F) and splendidus forms of the subspecies solidus; and the subcrenatus
form of the subspecies matecumbensis. The Lower Matecumbe hammocks also experienced
an even more devastating force in 1935, when a huge storm surge from an exceptionally
strong hurricane destroyed much of the original tropical hardwood-associated fauna and
flora. This natural catastrophe led to the extinction of the Simpson Hammock endemic
Liguus fasciatus graphicus form dohertyi. The six remaining endemic Lower Matecumbe
forms were able to survive until the 1980s, when the destruction of the hammocks by
housing construction began in earnest.
Figure 10.4 Close-up of a living Liguus fasciatus graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (form innominatus Pilsbry,
1930), crawling on a tree trunk in a dwarf hardwood hammock on No Name Key, Lower Florida
Keys. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)
A C
H
Of the three main subspecies found in the Middle and Lower Florida Keys, Liguus
fasciatus graphicus (Figure 10.5A) is the most prominent, having evolved nine different
forms. Members of this complex of highly colorful and morphologically similar shells,
all obviously having evolved from a common ancestor in the recent past, are restricted
to widely separated islands. Classic graphicus, itself, is found only on Little Pine and
Big Pine Keys (locally extirpated), while the other forms are endemic to individual
islands in an arc extending from Lower Matecumbe Key to Middle Torch Key. Some
of the more prominent and strikingly beautiful graphicus insular variants include the
form innominatus (endemic to No Name Key; Figure 10.5B), the form lignumvitae (endemic
to Lignumvitae Key and the southernmost tip of Lower Matecumbe Key (extirpated?)
(Figure 10.5C); the form osmenti (endemic to Howe Key; Figure 10.5D); and the form dryas
(endemic to Little Pine Key).
The subspecies fasciatus solidus appears to have been the hardest hit by the ecologi-
cal and habitat damage caused by housing development. Of the four named forms of
solidus, two are now thought to be extinct (form solidulus and the nominate form solidus,
both originally from Stock Island and Key West). The classic form pictus (Figure 10.5E) is
extirpated from its home hammocks on Big Pine Key but survives in a few isolated ham-
mocks in Everglades National Park. Likewise, the two Lower Matecumbe Key endemic
forms of the subspecies solidus, pseudopictus (Figure 10.5F) and splendidus, are now highly
endangered and are extremely rare in their original habitat at Simpson Hammock. Only
Liguus fasciatus matecumbensis (Figure 10.5G) appears to be maintaining stable colonies
in the hammocks on Upper Matecumbe Key. A distinctive pale color variety of fasciatus
elliottensis, the form vacaensis (Figure 10.5H), is found primarily on Vaca Key, where it is
frequently encountered in the Crane Point Hammock at Marathon. Very large variants of
the form vacaensis have also recently been collected on No Name Key near Big Pine Key,
and this collecting site would constitute the farthest south record for the members of the
elliottensis complex.
The four subspecies and 14 named forms known from the dwarf hardwood ham-
mocks of the Middle and Lower Florida Keys (Upper Matecumbe Key south to Key West)
are as follows:
Family Orthalicidae
Liguus fasciatus graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (typical form; Figure 10.5A)
form innominatus Pilsbry, 1930 (endemic to No Name Key; Figure 10.5B)
form lignumvitae Pilsbry, 1912 (endemic to Lignumvitae Key; Figure 10.5C)
form osmenti Clench, 1942 (endemic to Howe Key; Figure 10.5D)
form dryas Pilsbry, 1932 (endemic to Little Pine Key)
Figure 10.5 Liguus Tree Snails of the Middle and Lower Florida Keys. A = Liguus fasciatus graphi-
cus Pilsbry, 1912, typical form, length 52 mm, northern Big Pine Key. B = Liguus fasciatus graphicus
Pilsbry, 1912 (form innominatus Pilsbry, 1930), length 63 mm, No Name Key. C = Liguus fasciatus
graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (form lignumvitae Pilsbry, 1912), length 61 mm, Lignum Vitae Key. D = Liguus
fasciatus graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (form osmenti Clench, 1942), length 53 mm, Howe Key. This blue-gray
variety lacks the bright yellow tones seen in the other graphicus forms. E = Liguus fasciatus solidus
(Say, 1825) form pictus (Reeve, 1842), length 56 mm, northern Big Pine Key. F = Liguus fasciatus solidus
(Say, 1825) (form pseudopictus Simpson, 1920), length 60 mm, Lower Matecumbe Key. G = Liguus
fasciatus matecumbensis Pilsbry, 1912, typical form, length 52 mm, southern Upper Matecumbe Key.
H = Liguus fasciatus elliottensis Pilsbry, 1912 (form vacaensis Simpson, 1920), length 44 mm, Crane
Point Hammock, Vaca Key.
form vonpaulseni Young, 1960 (endemic to Middle Torch Key)

form crassus Simpson, 1920 (endemic to Howe Key)
form delicatus Simpson, 1920 (endemic to Lignumvitae and Lower Matecumbe Keys)
form simpsoni Pilsbry, 1921 (endemic to Lower Matecumbe Key)
Liguus fasciatus solidus (Say, 1825) (originally endemic to Key West; possibly extinct)
form solidulus Pilsbry, 1912 (originally endemic to Stock Island; possibly extinct)
form pictus (Reeve, 1842) (endemic to northern Big Pine Key; Figure 10.5E)
form pseudopictus Simpson, 1920 (endemic to Lower Matecumbe Key; Figure 10.5F)
form splendidus Frampton, 1932
Liguus fasciatus matecumbensis Pilsbry, 1912 (endemic to Upper Matecumbe Key;
Figure 10.5G)
form subcrenatus Pilsbry, 1912 (endemic to Lower Matecumbe Key)
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis form vacaensis Simpson, 1920 (found from southern Key
Largo south to Vaca Key and No Name Key; Figure 10.5H).
The Liguus forms restricted to the hardwood hammocks of mainland Everglades

National Park and adjacent highland areas along the Atlantic Coastal Ridge are listed next.
Besides occasional errant specimens that have been transplanted by tree snail collectors,
none of these forms occurs naturally in the Florida Keys archipelago. These are listed here
simply to demonstrate the overall biodiversity of the Liguus snails in southern Florida.
Liguus fasciatus septentrionalis Pilsbry, 1912 (Palm Beach to southern Broward Counties)
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (eight endemic mainland forms)
form walkeri Clench, 1933 (Pinecrest area, Everglades)
form miamiensis Simpson, 1920 (Brickell Hammock, Miami, and southern Dade County)
form elegans Simpson, 1920 (Atoll Hammock, Everglades)
form deckerti Clench, 1935 (southern Everglades)
form humesi Jones, 1979 (southern Everglades)
form framptoni Jones, 1979 (southern Everglades)
form alternatus Simpson, 1920 (Timm’s Hammock and Redlands area, Dade County)
form livingstoni Simpson, 1920 (Brickell Hammock, Miami)
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis (three endemic mainland forms)

form cingulatus Simpson, 1920 (Brickell Hammock, Miami)
form eburneus Simpson, 1920 (southern Everglades)
form capensis Simpson, 1920 (Cape Sable, Everglades National Park)
Liguus fasciatus testudineus Pilsbry, 1912 (12 living and 2 extinct endemic mainland forms)
form castaneus Simpson, 1920 (southern Everglades)
form versicolor Simpson, 1920 (southern Everglades)
form nancyae Close, 1994 (Long Pine Key, Everglades National Park)
form clenchi Frampton, 1932 (northwestern Everglades)
form evergladesensis Jones, 1979 (southern Everglades)
form fuscoflamellus Frampton, 1932 (Timm’s Hammock and Redlands, Dade County)
form barbouri Clench, 1929 (southern Everglades)
form floridanus Clench, 1929 (Pinecrest area, Everglades)
form gloriasylvaticus Doe, 1937 (Pinecrest area, Everglades)
form nebulosus Doe, 1937 (western Everglades, Collier County)
form solisocassis deBoe, 1933 (western Everglades, Collier County)
form lucidovarius Doe, 1937 (Pinecrest area, Everglades)

extinct form farnumi Clench, 1929 (Hammock #7, Pinecrest area, Everglades; destroyed
by forest fires and hunter’s off-road traffic)
extinct form violafumosus Doe, 1937 (Hammock #28 and #30, Pinecrest area,
Everglades; destroyed by several forest fires)
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus (one mainland endemic form)
form mosieri Simpson, 1920 (Brickell Hammock, Miami)
Several man-made stable hybrids were created by Archie Jones in the 1970s as delib-
erate crosses between two or more color forms (discussed by Power, 2010). These distinc-
tive artificial color forms, margaretae Jones, 1979, kennethi Jones, 1979, beardi Jones, 1979, and
wintei Jones, 1979, were subsequently released into several hammocks in southern Dade
County. An excellent overview of all the Liguus fasciatus subspecies and forms, with color
photographs of every taxon, is given on the Liguus of South Florida and the Florida Keys
website by Emilio Jorge Power (last update 2010).
Endemic orthalicid and bulimulid tree

snails of the Florida Keys
Besides the large and characteristic fauna of Liguus subspecies and forms, the dwarf hard-
wood hammocks of the Florida Keys also house a small fauna of other types of tree snails
(Figure 10.6). These include two species and one subspecies of the related genus Orthalicus,
another orthalicid group that originated in the tropical forests of Cuba and rafted to the
Florida Keys during Pleistocene hurricanes. The most widespread of the three named taxa
is Orthalicus floridensis (Pilsbry, 1899) (Figure 10.7E, F), which ranges throughout the Florida
Keys and onto the southern edge of the Florida mainland, from southern Dade County to
the southern areas of Everglades National Park in Collier County. The other related spe-
cies, Orthalicus reses reses (Figure 10.7A, B), was originally endemic to Stock Island and Key
West but was transplanted to other selected hammocks around the Florida Keys during
the 1980s. Threatened with extinction because of habitat loss, workers from the University
of Florida moved individuals from the public golf course on Stock Island, the only place
where the species was known to have survived, to adjacent keys. From these transplanted
colonies, tree snail collectors have now spread reses colonies all along the island chain,
from southern Key Largo, Big Pine Key, No Name Key, to Monkey Jungle (near Timm’s
Hammock) in Miami, Dade County. A smaller, heavier, and more colorful subspecies of
Orthalicus reses was described from the hardwood hammocks of the Middle Florida Keys,
particularly Vaca Key and Lower Matecumbe Key. This distinctive subspecies, Orthalicus
reses nesodryas (Figure 10.7C, D), is now less commonly-encountered than the once almost-
extinct reses reses.
The third group of tree snails found in the Florida Keys is the genus Drymaeus, com-
prising two species and two forms. Resembling tiny Liguus snails (Figure 10.8), these small
arboreal gastropods actually belong to the family Bulimulidae, and their morphological
similarities to the orthalicid genera are the result of convergent evolution. In the Florida
Keys, the most abundant bulimulid species is the brightly patterned Drymaeus multilinea-
tus (Figure 10.7G), a widespread species that is also found throughout the Caribbean Basin
and Yucatan, Mexico. This fragile species also ranges northward on the Florida mainland
to Broward and Palm Beach Counties. A wide-banded subspecies, Drymaeus multilinea-
tus latizonatus, was also named from Lower Matecumbe Key, Long Key, and Lignumvitae
228
Figure 10.6 Close-up of a living Orthalicus reses reses (Say, 1830) crawling on a tree branch in a dwarf hardwood hammock on No Name Key, Lower
Florida Keys. (Photograph by Robert Myers.)

A C
D
B
H
G
I
F
Figure 10.7 Orthalicus and Drymaeus Tree Snails of the Florida Keys. A, B = Orthalicus reses reses (Say,
1830), length 58 mm, No Name Key (from a transplanted colony; originally endemic to Stock Island
and Key West). C, D = Orthalicus reses nesodryas Pilsbry, 1946, length 52 mm, Crane Point, Vaca Key.
E, F = Orthalicus floridensis (Pilsbry, 1899), length 50 mm, Crane Point, Vaca Key. G = Drymaeus multi-
lineatus (Say, 1825), length 22 mm, No Name Key. H = Drymaeus hemphilli (B.H. Wright, 1889), typical
form, length 17 mm, northern Key Largo. I = Drymaeus hemphilli (B.H. Wright, 1889) (form clarissimus
Pilsbry, 1946), length 17 mm, Card Sound Road, northern Key Largo. J = Drymaeus hemphilli (B.H.
Wright, 1889), single-banded color form, length 18 mm.
Figure 10.8 Close-up of a living Drymaeus multilineatus (Say, 1825) crawling on a tree branch
in a dwarf hardwood hammock on No Name Key, Lower Florida Keys. (Photograph by Robert
Myers.)
Key. Further research, particularly DNA studies, may show that the Florida populations
of Drymaeus multilineatus are distinct from the Caribbean ones and that the taxon may
actually represent a complex of closely related taxa. A second bulimulid species, Drymaeus
hemphilli (Figure 10.7H, J), also occurs in the Florida Keys, being found in small colonies
along the northern side of Key Largo and on the eastern side of Upper Matecumbe Key. This
colorful banded species is endemic to southern Florida, from Sebring, Highlands County,
south to the Middle Florida Keys, and is closely related to Drymaeus dominicus from the
Greater Antilles Arc. Drymaeus hemphilli is another example of an endemic Floridian spe-
cies that evolved from a Pleistocene Cuban ancestor. The unbanded color form clarissimus
Pilsbry, 1946 (Figure 10.7I) has also been collected in hammocks along Card Sound Road
on northern Key Largo.
Listings of the non-Liguus orthalicid and bulimulid tree snails known from the dwarf
hardwood hammocks of the Florida Keys (Key Largo to Key West) follow:
Family Orthalicidae
Orthalicus floridensis (Pilsbry, 1899) (Key Largo to Key West) (Figure 10.7E, F)
Orthalicus reses reses (Say, 1825) (originally endemic to Stock Island) (Figure 10.7A, B)
Orthalicus reses nesodryas Pilsbry, 1946 (Middle Keys) (Figure 10.7C, D)
Family Bulimulidae
Drymaeus hemphilli (B.H. Wright, 1889) (Key Largo to the Matecumbe Keys)
(Figure 10.7H, J)
form clarissimus Pilsbry, 1946 (northern Key Largo) (Figure 10.7I)
Drymaeus multilineatus (Say, 1825) (Key Largo to Key West) (Figure 10.7G)
form latizonatus Pilsbry, 1936 (Lower Matecumbe Key to Long Key)
lose-up of a young Key Deer buck (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) on the edge of a dwarf hardwood
C
hammock on No Name Key, Lower Florida Keys. A small herd of this Keys endemic subspecies of
the White-Tailed Deer occurs in the same hammock that shelters the rare endemic No Name Tree
Snail, Liguus fasciatus graphicus form innominatus.
Bibliography
Abbott, R.T. 1974. American Seashells (second edition). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 663 pp.
Abbott, R.T. 1976. Cittarium pica (Trochidae) in Florida. The Nautilus 90(1): 2–4.
Bartsch, P.D. 1943. A review of some West Atlantic turritid mollusks. Memorias de la Sociedad Cubana
de Historia Natural 17(2): 81–122, plates 7–15.
Bieler, R. and R.E. Petit. 2011. Catalogue of the Recent and fossil “worm-snail” taxa of the fami-
lies Vermetidae, Siliquariidae, and Turritellidae (Mollusca: Caenogastropoda). Zootaxa 2948:
1–103.
Brewster-Wingard, G.L. and S.E. Ishman. 1999. Historical trends in salinity and substrate in Central
Florida Bay: a paleoecological reconstruction using modern analogue data. Estuaries 22(2B):
369–383.
Brewster-Wingard, G.L., J.R. Stone, and C.W. Holmes. 2001. Molluscan faunal distribution in Florida
Bay, past and present: an integration of down-core and modern data. Bulletins of American
Paleontology, Special Volume 361:199–231.
Carson, R. 1955. The Edge of the Sea. Houghton Mifflin, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 276 pp.
Chiappone, M. and K.M. Sullivan. 1994. Ecological structure and dynamics of nearshore hard-bot-
tom communities in the Florida Keys. Bulletin of Marine Science 54(3): 747–756.
Chiappone, M. and K.M. Sullivan. 1996. Functional Ecology and Ecosystem Trophodynamics. Site
Characterization for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Environs, Volume 8. The Nature
Conservancy and Florida and Caribbean Marine Conservation Science Center, University of
Miami. 112 pp.
Coomans, H.E. 1969. Biological aspects of mangrove molluscs in the West Indies. Malacologia 9(1):
79–84.
Dame, R.F. 2011. Ecology of Marine Bivalves: An Ecosystem Approach (second edition). CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida. 283 pp.
Davis, J.H. 1940. The ecology and the geological role of mangroves in Florida. Papers from the Tortugas
Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 32: 307–412.
Dawes, C.J. 1987. The dynamic sea grasses of the Gulf of Mexico and Florida coasts. Florida Marine
Research Publications 42: 25–38.
Dunstan, P. 1985. Community structure of reef-building corals in the Florida Keys: Carysfort Reef,
Key Largo and Long Key Reef, Dry Tortugas. Atoll Research Bulletin 288: 1–27.
Frankovich, T.A. and J.C. Zieman. 1994. Total epiphyte and epiphytic carbonate production on
Thalassia testudinum across Florida Bay. Bulletin of Marine Science 54(3): 679–695.
Ginsburg, R.N. 1953. Intertidal erosion on the Florida Keys. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and
Caribbean 3(1): 55–69.
Goldberg, W.M. 1973. The ecology of the coral-octocoral communities off the southeast Florida coast:
geomorphology, species composition, and zonation. Bulletin of Marine Science 23(3): 465–487.
Hoffmeister, J.E. and H.G. Multer. 1968. Geology and origin of the Florida Keys. Geological Society of
America Bulletin 79: 1487–1502.
Jaap, W.C. 1984. The Ecology of the South Florida Coral Reefs: A Community Profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Office of Biological Services, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-82/08. 138 pp.
233
234 Bibliography
Lee, H.G. and M. Huber. 2012. Americardia lightbourni new species and A. columbella new species
compared to A. media (Linnaeus, 1758), A. speciosa (A. Adams and Reeve, 1850), and the extinct
A. columba. The Nautilus 126(1): 15–24.
Levy, J.M., M. Chiappone, and K.M. Sullivan. 1996. Invertebrate Infauna and Epifauna of the Florida Keys
and Florida Bay. Site Characterization for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Environs,
Volume 5. Nature Conservancy and Florida and Caribbean Marine Conservation Science
Center, University of Miami. 166 pp.
Lipe, R. 1991. Marginellas. The Shell Store, St. Petersburg, Florida. Privately printed. 40 pp.
Lyons, W.G. and J.F. Quinn, Jr. 1995. Phylum Mollusca (Checklist). Appendix J. Marine and
Terrestrial Species and Algae. In Draft Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement, Strategy
for Stewardship: Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Volume 3 (Appendices). National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C., pp. J-10 to J-25.
Madden, C.J. and K.L. Goodwin. 2007. Ecological Classification of Florida Bay using the Coastal Marine
Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS). Sponsored by the Curtis and Edith Munson
Foundation, NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. 46 pp.
Mikkelsen, P. and R. Bieler. 2008. Seashells of Southern Florida: Bivalves. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, New Jersey. 503 pp.
Mullins, H.T. and A.C. Neumann. 1979. Geology of the Miami Terrace and its paleo-oceanographic
implications. Marine Geology 30(3–4): 205–232.
Petuch, E.J. 1974. A new Terebra from the coral reef areas off North Carolina. The Veliger 17(2): 205–208.
Petuch, E.J. 1987. New Caribbean Molluscan Faunas. Coastal Education and Research Foundation,
Charlottesville, Virginia. 154 pp.
Petuch, E.J. 1988. Neogene History of Tropical American Mollusks: Biogeography and Evolutionary Patterns of
Tropical Western Atlantic Mollusca. Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Charlottesville,
Virginia. 217 pp.
Petuch, E.J. 1994. Atlas of Florida Fossil Shells. Graves Museum of Archaeology and Natural History,
Dania, Florida, and Chicago Spectrum Press. 394 pp.
Petuch, E.J. 2004. Cenozoic Seas: The View from Eastern North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
308 pp.
Petuch, E.J. 2008. The Geology of the Florida Keys and Everglades: An Illustrated Guide to Florida’s Hidden
Beauty. Thomson Press, Mason, Ohio. 84 pp.
Petuch, E.J. 2013. Biogeography and Biodiversity of Western Atlantic Mollusks. CRC Press, Florida. 234 pp.
Petuch, E.J. and M. Drolshagen. 2011. Compendium of Florida Fossil Shells. Volume 1. Middle Miocene
to Late Pleistocene Marine Gastropods; Families Strombidae, Cypraeidae, Ovulidae, Eocypraeidae,
Triviidae, Conidae, and Conilthidae. MdM, Wellington, Florida. 412 pp.
Petuch, E.J. and C.E. Roberts. 2007. The Geology of the Everglades and Adjacent Areas. CRC Press,
Florida. 212 pp.
Petuch, E.J. and D.M. Sargent. 1986. Atlas of the Living Olive Shells of the World. Coastal Education and
Research Foundation, Charlottesville, Virginia. 253 pp.
Petuch, E.J., and D.M. Sargent. 2011a. A new member of the Gradiconus species complex (Gastropoda:
Conidae) from the Florida Keys. Visaya (October, 2011): 98–104.
Petuch, E.J. and D.M. Sargent. 2011b. New species of Conidae and Conilithidae (Gastropoda) from
the Tropical Americas and Philippines, with notes on some poorly-known Floridian species.
Visaya (September, 2011): 117–138.
Petuch, E.J. and D.M. Sargent. 2011c. Rare and Unusual Shells of Southern Florida. Conch Republic
Books, Mount Dora, Florida. 189 pp.
Pilsbry, H.A. 1946. Land Mollusca of North America. Volume 2, Part 1. Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. 1–520 pp.
Porter, J. (Editor). 2001. The Everglades, Florida Bay, and Coral Reefs of the Florida Keys: An Ecosystem
Sourcebook. CRC Press, Florida. 1024 pp.
Power, E.J. 2010. Liguus of South Florida and the Florida Keys. http://www.liguushomepage.com/
fligtax.html
Reed, J.K, S.A. Pomponi, D. Weaver, C.K. Paull, and A.E. Wright. 2005. Deep water sinkholes and bio-
herms of South Florida and the Pourtales Terrace habitat and fauna. Bulletin of Marine Science
77(2): 267–296.
Bibliography 235
Reynolds, L.K., P. Berg, and J.C. Zieman. 2007. Lucinid clam influence on the biogeochemistry of the
seagrass Thalassia testudinum sediments. Estuaries and Coasts 30(3): 482–490.
Roessler, M., A. Cantillo, and J. Garcia-Gomez. 2002. Biodiversity Study of Southern Biscayne Bay and
Card Sound (1968–1973). U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration and Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of
Miami. Joint Publication 2002-01, pp. 1–36, Appendices I and II.
Rudnick, D.T., P.B. Ortner, J.A. Browder, and S.M. Davis. 2005. A conceptual ecological model of
Florida Bay. Wetlands 25(4): 870–883.
Shier, D.E. 1969. Vermetid reefs and coastal development of the Ten Thousand Islands, southwest
Florida. Geological Society of America Bulletin 80: 485–508.
Shinn, E.A., B.H. Lidz, R.B. Haley, J.H. Hudson, and J.L. Kindiger. 1989. Reefs of Florida and the
Dry Tortugas. Field Trip Guidebook T-176, 28th International Geological Congress, American
Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. 53 pp.
Trappe, C.A. and G.L. Brewster-Wingard. 2013. Molluscan Fauna from Core 25B, Whipray Basin, Central
Florida Bay, Everglades National Park. USGS Open-File Report 2001-143. Department of the
Interior, Washington, D.C. 24 pp.
Tucker, J.K., 2013. The Cone Shells of Florida: An Illustrated Key and Review of the Recent Species. MdM,
Wellington, Florida. 155 pp.
Tunnell, J.W., J. Andrews, N.C. Barrera, and F. Moretzsohn. 2010. Encyclopedia of Texas Seashells. Texas
A&M University Press, College Park. 512 pp.
Turney, W.J. and B.F. Perkins. 1972. Molluscan Distribution in Florida Bay. Sedimenta III. Comparative
Sedimentology Laboratory, Division of Marine Geology and Geophysics, Rosenstiel School of
Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami. 37 pp.
Voss, G.L. 1988. Coral Reefs of Florida. Pineapple Press, Sarasota, Florida. 96 pp.
Voss, G.L. and N.A. Voss. 1955. An ecological survey of Soldier Key, Biscayne Bay, Florida. Bulletin of
Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean 5(3): 203–229.
Warmke, G.L. and R.T. Abbott. 1962. Caribbean Sea Shells. Livingston, Narberth, Pennsylvania. 348 pp.
White, W.A. 1970. The Geomorphology of the Florida Peninsula. Florida Geological Survey, Bulletin 51.
Tallahassee, Florida. 185 pp.
Wingard, G.L. and J.W. Hudley. 2011. Application of a weighted-averaging method for determining
paleosalinity: a tool for restoration of South Florida’s estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts (2012) 35:
262–280.
Zischke, J.A. 1973. An Ecological Guide to the Shallow-Water Marine Communities of Pigeon Key, Florida.
St. Olaf College Press, Northfield, Minnesota. 220 pp.
Systematic appendix: additions
to the molluscan biodiversity
of the Florida Keys
While compiling the taxonomic data for the ecosystem analyses shown throughout this
book, we found that several prominent Florida Keys mollusks were still undescribed.
Because this volume was designed as an attempt to take into account the total macromol-
lusk biodiversity of the area, we felt that these overlooked taxa needed to be formally
described in a systematic appendix. In total, seven new species and three new subspecies
are described here. The holotypes of nine of the new taxa are deposited in the Division
of Mollusks, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C., and bear USNM numbers. One of the new subspecies is deposited in the Los Angeles
County Museum of Natural History and bears an LACM number. The new descriptions of
the species and subspecies are given next.
Gastropoda
Turritellidae
Vermicularia fargoi owensi Petuch and Myers, new subspecies (USNM1231410)
Modulidae
Modulus calusa foxhalli Petuch and Myers, new subspecies (LACM3279; Los Angeles
County Museum of Natural History)
Naticidae
Neverita delessertiana patriceae Petuch and Myers, new subspecies (USNM1231404)
Muricidae
Murexiella caitlinae Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231409)
Buccinidae
Hesperisternia sulzyckii Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231411)
Nassariidae
Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231412)
Olividae
Americoliva matchetti Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231405)
Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231407)
237
238 Systematic appendix: additions to the molluscan biodiversity of the Florida Keys
Bivalvia
Arcidae
Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231406)
Pectinidae
Euvola marshallae Petuch and Myers, new species (USNM1231408)
Descriptions of new taxa

Gastropoda
Prosobranchia
Cerithiodea
Turritellidae
Genus Vermicularia Lamarck, 1799
Vermicularia fargoi owensi new subspecies

(Figure 7.14F, G)
Description: Shell small for species, tightly coiled, more turritelloid than nominate
subspecies; shell color white to pale tan or straw colored, with small, evenly
spaced pale tan dots on cords of later whorls; early whorls of turritelloid section
white; early whorls proportionally more slender than those of nominate subspe-
cies; turritelloid section of body whorl comprising almost entire shell length,
with only last one or two whorls becoming uncoiled; spire whorls (turritel-
loid section) ornamented with two faint, thin cords and numerous fine spiral
threads and with single large, prominent spiral cord present along peripheral
edge near suture, producing distinct pagodiform appearance when viewed in
profile; last two whorls ornamented with three large, prominent spiral cords,
with anterior-most two cords larger than posterior subsutural cord; aperture
slightly rectangular; protoconch white, rounded, and dome-like, composed of
two whorls.
Holotype: Length 23 mm, width 10 mm, USNM1231410.
Type Locality: In muddy sand at low tide, near the vermetid worm shell reef along
the northern side of Demijohn Key, Ten Thousand Islands, Collier County,
Florida.
Etymology: Named for Robert Owens, Boca Raton, Florida, who assisted the senior
author in surveying the mollusks of the Ten Thousand Islands.
Discussion: Of the three known subspecies of Vermicularia fargoi Olsson, 1951, this
new endemic Ten Thousand Islands turritellid is closest to the nominate subspe-
cies from western Florida but differs in being a much smaller shell with a propor-
tionally more slender spire. Typically, Vermicularia fargoi fargoi has a uniform dark
brown body whorl, with the turritelloid early whorls being tan or brown (Abbott,
1974: 96). In Vermicularia fargoi owensi, the body whorl is white or pale whitish-
tan, and the early whorls are uniformly white or pale straw colored. The spire
whorls of the new Ten Thousand Islands subspecies are also different in appear-
ance, being distinctly pagodiform, with a single large spiral cord along the suture
that projects beyond the slope of the spire whorls. The new subspecies also does
not uncoil as much as the nominate subspecies, instead retaining the turritelloid
appearance for most of the shell length.
Systematic appendix: additions to the molluscan biodiversity of the Florida Keys 239
As far as is presently known, Vermicularia fargoi owensi is restricted to the

sand-bottomed lagoons behind the vermetid reefs of the outermost Ten Thousand
Islands. A third, apparently unnamed, subspecies of Vermicularia fargoi occurs in
the coastal lagoons of Texas. This unusual western Gulf of Mexico subspecies dif-
fers from the eastern Gulf of Mexico V. fargoi fargoi and V. fargoi owensi by having
proportionally much more slender and more protracted turritelloid spire whorls
(for an illustration of this unnamed Texas subspecies, see Tunnell et al., 2010:
135; for an overview of the systematics of the worm shell families Vermetidae,
Turritellidae, and Siliquariidae, see Bieler and Petit, 2011).
Modulidae
Genus Modulus Gray, 1840
Modulus calusa foxhalli new subspecies
(Figure 6.13 H)
Description: Shell of average size for genus and nominate subspecies, trochoi-
dal, with high elevated spire and sloping spire whorls; spire often protracted
and scalariform, with detached whorls, producing pagoda-like appearance;
periphery of mid-body body and spire whorls with single large, prominent,
smooth spiral cord; peripheral cord often ornamented with closely-packed,
low, rounded beads (as on holotype); sloping subsutural area of body whorl
ornamented with 4 to 5 large, smooth spiral cords; base of shell ornamented
with 6 large, prominent spiral cords; umbilicus large, open, completely perfo-
rate; columella with single large, bladelike tooth at anterior end; shell colored
pale tannish-white or cream-tan, with spiral cords of body whorl and spire
being marked with small, evenly-spaced dark brown spots; columellar tooth
and columellar area pale purple; aperture white, nearly circular, with 6-8
large cords within interior.
Holotype: width 12 mm, height 11 mm, LACM 3279 (Department of Malacology, Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles, California); Paratype:
width 12 mm, height 12 mm, from the same locality as the holotype, in the
research collection of the senior author.
Type Locality: Collected in 0.5 m depth near a large Turtle Grass bed off Pine
Point, Singer Island, Lake Worth Lagoon, northern Palm Beach County,
Florida.
Etymology: Named for Emyr Foxhall of Cardiff, Wales (Caerdydd, Cymru), who
assisted the senior author in collecting mollusks in the Florida Keys.
Discussion: The new taxon is named as an isolated, northern subspecies of
the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, and Biscayne Bay Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988
(Figure 4.5, Chapter 4). Modulus calusa foxhalli differs from the nominate sub-
species in being a much more highly-sculptured and ornamented shell, with
strong spiral cords on the subsutural area, and in having a much higher,
more protracted spire, producing highly-sloped spire whorls. The nominate
subspecies, M. calusa calusa, typically has low, flattened whorls, with a dis-
tinctly discoidal shape, and has a smooth, or only slightly corded, subsu-
tural area. Many specimens of M. calusa foxhalli from Lake Worth Lagoon and
Peanut Island (West Palm Beach) areas have highly protracted, detached spire
whorls, creating a distinctly pagoda-shaped shell. The new subspecies ranges
from the Lake Worth Lagoon System of Palm Beach County northward to the
Indian River Lagoon System of Indian River and St. Lucie Counties, and is
restricted to quiet coastal lagoons and inlets.
Naticoidea
Naticidae
Polinicinae
Genus Neverita Risso, 1826
Neverita delessertiana patriceae new subspecies

(Figure 6.12G–I)
Description: Shell of average size for genus, heavy, thickened, distinctly coni-
cal in shape, with high, elevated spire; spire whorls sloping, subpyramidal,
faintly shouldered below subsutural area; base of shell characteristically flat-
tened; shell color two toned, with spire and posterior two-thirds of body
whorl pale tan and gray, and with base of shell being white with scattered
pale brown growth lines; darker brown band present along spire suture, espe-
cially on early whorls; umbilicus widely open, with umbilical callus covering
less than one-half the umbilical opening; umbilical callus tannish-brown,
adherent to body whorl only along extreme posterior end; umbilical opening
distinctly crescent shaped; interior of aperture dark brown with small whit-
ish area at anterior end.
Holotype: Height 52 mm, width 51 mm, USNM1231404; two paratypes, heights
51 mm (in the collection of Patrice Marker, Wellington, FL) and 56 mm (in the
research collection of the senior author), both from the same locality as the
holotype.
Type Locality: In muddy sand at low tide, on exposed flat north of Manalapan Island,
Lake Worth Lagoon, Palm Beach County, Florida.
Etymology: Named for Patrice Marker of Wellington, Florida, life partner of
the junior author and well-known underwater photographer and marine
naturalist.
Discussion: This new taxon is proposed as a southeastern Floridian subspecies
of the large False Shark Eye, Neverita delessertiana (Recluz, 1843) (Figure 7.16E–
G), which ranges along the northern Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Louisiana,
Mississippi, Alabama, and western Florida. Neverita delessertiana patriceae dif-
fers from the low-spired, globose nominate subspecies in being a distinctly
much more conical shell with a much higher, elevated spire and much more
flattened shell base. The umbilical opening of the new subspecies also dif-
fers from that of the nominate subspecies in being proportionally wider and
larger and in having a smaller umbilical callus. The umbilical callus of N.
delessertiana delessertiana covers approximately one-half the umbilical open-
ing and is attached to the body whorl for half its width, producing a dis-
tinct trigonal shape. The umbilical callus of N. delessertiana patriceae, on the
other hand, is attached to the body whorl for only a small part of its length,
and the umbilical opening curls around to form a distinct crescent shape.
The new subspecies has the smallest umbilical callus and the widest, deep-
est, and most open umbilical area of any known western Atlantic Neverita
species or subspecies. Specimens of Neverita delessertiana reported from the
Palm Beach coast and southeastern Florida are now known to belong to this
new subspecies. For color illustrations of a typical Texas specimen of Neverita

delessertiana delessertiana, see Tunnel et al., 2007: 177.
Muricoidea
Muricidae
Muricopsinae
Genus Murexiella Clench and Farfante, 1945
Murexiella caitlinae new species

(Figure 5.2I, J)
Description: Shell of average size for genus, with inflated body whorl, pro-
portionally long siphonal canal, and high stepped spire; shoulder sharply
angled, with flattened subsutural areas, producing scalariform spire whorls;
body whorl with five raised varices; areas between varices sculptured
with four large, thick, and prominent spiral cords; fifth smaller cord pres-
ent around juncture of body whorl and siphonal canal; varices sculptured
with four large recurved spines and one small spine at base of varix; spire
whorls with very thin, small cord present along sutural area; siphonal canal
with three large flattened spines on each varix; intervarical ribs and varical
spines ornamented with large fluted scales, giving shell distinct squamous
appearance; anterior tip of siphonal canal recurved dorsally; aperture oval;
parietal shield erect, disconnected from columella; shell color pale cream-
white with three pale orange bands, one on flattened subsutural area, one
on posterior-most rib, and one on third rib from shoulder; interior of aper-
ture white.
Holotype: Length 30 mm, width 19 mm, USNM1231409.
Type Locality: In a Yellow Mussel bed near Turtle Grass, 1.5-m depth, off the eastern
side of Missouri Key, Middle Florida Keys, Monroe County, Florida.
Etymology: Named for Caitlin Hanley, Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic
University, who collected the holotype off Missouri Key.
Discussion: This large and distinctive muricid has been recognized as occurring
in the Florida Keys for many decades now (i.e., Abbott, 1974: 175) but has always
been incorrectly referred to as Murexiella mcgintyi (M. Smith, 1938). That taxon,
although similar to M. caitlinae, is actually a 2-million-year-old early Pleistocene
(Gelasian Age) fossil named from the Caloosahatchee Formation of southern
Florida (see Petuch, 1994: 138, Plate 48, Figures A, B; Petuch and Roberts, 2007:
119–137). The fossil species, although congeneric and ancestral, differs from the
living M. caitlinae by having a much more globose and inflated body whorl with
a distinctly rounded shoulder, by having five major cords on the body whorl and
not four as in the living Keys species, and by having more varices per whorl
(generally six or seven). The real M. mcgintyi became extinct by the Aftonian
Stage of the Pleistocene and was replaced by its descendant species, M. graceae
(McGinty, 1940), during the deposition of the Bermont Formation (mid-Pleisto-
cene; see Petuch and Roberts, 2007: 150–172). Murexiella graceae, with its character-
istic angled shoulder, is morphologically much more similar to M. caitlinae and
appears to be the direct ancestor of the living species. The new species appears
to be endemic to the Florida Keys, where it occurs on beds of the Yellow Mussel
Brachidontes modiolus.
Buccinoidea
Buccinidae
Genus Hesperisternia Gardner, 1944
Hesperisternia sulzyckii new species

(Figure 9.3E, F)
Description: Shell of average size for genus, elongated, slender, with high stepped
spire; siphonal canal proportionally short and stubby, open; body whorl and
spire whorls with eight large, sharp-edged axial varices per whorl; shoulder
sharply angled, with sloping subsutural area; body whorl ornamented with four
large, prominent spiral cords around midsection; three smaller secondary cords
between each pair of large cords; intersection of four large spiral cords with
varices producing large, elongated knobs and rounded beads; knobs especially
prominent and sharp along shoulder cord; sloping subsutural area with six small
spiral cords and threads; siphonal canal ornamented with four large spiral cords
and numerous small spiral threads; subsutural area depressed between varices,
creating series of deep subsutural pits; shell color bright canary yellow with scat-
tered small light brown patches and dots; aperture oval, proportionally large,
with 12 large cords on interior and inside of lip; interior of aperture pure white;
columella smooth, white in color; protoconch proportionally large, rounded,
dome-like, composed of two whorls.
Holotype: Length 26.3 mm, width 12 mm, USNM1231411.
Type Locality: Collected in a lobster trap, from 50-m depth in red algae beds, 10 km
north of Garden Key, Dry Tortugas, Florida Keys, Monroe County, Florida.
Etymology: Named for John Sulzycki, senior editor for life sciences at CRC Press,
who guided the senior author through the complex publication process of five
different books.
Discussion: This new offshore buccinid was illustrated in one of the senior
author’s previous books on the molluscan faunas of the Florida Keys (Petuch
and Sargent, 2011: 101, Figure 4.8B) but was misidentified as Hesperisternia
grandanus Abbott, 1986. That congeneric taxon is actually a very different-
appearing species that is endemic to northwestern Florida and the Florida
Panhandle (illustrated in Petuch, 2013: 60, Figure 4.11F). The true Hesperisternia
grandana differs from the Dry Tortugas endemic H. sulzyckii in being a much
more inflated shell with a rounded shoulder and body whorl, in lacking
strong varices and knobbed shell sculpture on the body whorl, and in being
ornamented only with spiral threads and small cords. Although both shells
have high, protracted spires, H. sulzyckii stands out as a different species by
having a much more slender, less-inflated shell and in having large sharp-
edged varices.
The new Dry Tortugas species is also similar to the common Hesperisternia
multangula (Philippi, 1848), which lives in shallow-water Turtle Grass beds all
along western Florida and throughout Florida Bay (Figure 4.14I, Chapter 4). The
deep-water Hesperisternia sulzyckii differs from its shallow-water congener in that
it has a much more slender and elongated shell and in having large rounded beads
on the body whorl varices. In this last character, the new species is also similar
to H. harasewychi from the deeper-water coralline algal beds off the Dry Tortugas
and western Florida (Figure 9.3C, D, Chapter 9), but differs in that it has a more
slender, elongated, and less-inflated shell and in having proportionally smaller

and less-developed knobs and beads on the body whorl varices. As is currently,
known, five species of Hesperisternia occur along western Florida and the Florida
Keys: Hesperisternia grandana, found in shallow-water sea grass beds along the
northeastern Gulf of Mexico; Hesperisternia multangula, found in shallow-water
Turtle Grass beds along western Florida and Florida Bay; Hesperisternia sulzyckii,
found on deep-water red algae beds north of the Dry Tortugas; Hesperisternia
harasewychi, from the even deeper-water coralline algae beds off western Florida
and the Dry Tortugas; and Hesperisternia karinae, from the coral reef complexes of
the Florida Keys and Caribbean region.
Nassariidae
Genus Uzita H. and A. Adams, 1853
Uzita swearingeni new species
(Figure 5.3J–L)
Description: Shell of average size for genus, thin, inflated, globose, with distinctly
stepped, scalariform spire; siphonal canal very short, stubby, broadly open;
shoulder sharply angled, with flattened, tabulate subsutural area; body whorl
and spire whorls with 14–16 thin, sharp, riblike varices; body whorl orna-
mented with 16–18 very thin, evenly spaced spiral cords; columella slightly
recurved, with single large bladelike tooth; aperture wide and flaring, oval
in shape; inner edge of lip and interior of aperture with 16 thin cords; pro-
toconch proportionally very large, rounded, dome-like, composed of one and
one-half whorls; shell color uniform canary yellow or yellow-green with lip,
columella, and interior of aperture pure white; protoconch and early whorls
pale orange-tan.
Holotype: Length 7 mm, width 5 mm, USNM1231412. Paratype, length 8.5 mm, same
locality as the holotype, in the research collection of the senior author.
Type Locality: Found in a sand pocket on a sponge bioherm, 1.5-m depth off
the northern end of Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys, Monroe County,
Florida.
Etymology: Named for Clifford Swearingen, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, who assisted
the senior author in the field while conducting research in the Florida Keys.
Discussion: This new species of Florida Keys nassariid is most similar to the wide-
spread western Atlantic Uzita alba (Say, 1826) (Figure 6.4I, J, Chapter 6), but dif-
fers in that it has a smaller shell with a much more angled shoulder; in having
distinctly flattened subsutural areas and a stepped, scalariform spire; in having
thinner and more numerous axial ribs (14–16 in swearingeni and 12–13 in alba);
and in having fewer and finer spiral cords. The shell colors also differ greatly
between the new species, with U. alba a cream-white with three pale brown
bands and three large brown patches on the edge of the lip and with U. swearin-
geni a uniform yellow or yellow-green with a white lip. The new species is also
similar to the sympatric Uzita websteri Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.3G, H,
Chapter 5), which differs from Uzita swearingeni in that it has a larger, more glo-
bose shell with a more rounded shoulder; in having fewer axial ribs (10–12 in web-
steri); and in that it is a much more colorful shell, typically a dark yellow-tan with
an orange-brown band around the sutural area and also around the base of the
siphonal canal. Both U. websteri and U. swearingeni appear to be endemic to the
Florida Keys, with both species living in association with shallow-water sponge
bioherms on exposed limestone seafloors.
Volutoidea
Olividae
Olivinae
Genus Americoliva Petuch, 2013
Americoliva matchetti new species
(Figure 9.6D–F)
Description: Shell small for genus, heavy and thickened, broad and stocky, wide
across shoulder, with high subpyramidal spire; shoulder distinctly angled, widest
around posterior one-third of body whorl; shoulder area thickened, swollen, pro-
ducing wide callous-like band that protrudes slightly from body whorl outline;
sutural callous of spire whorls extremely well developed, forming characteristic
ramp that extends beyond plane of suture; aperture proportionally wide, flar-
ing; columella with 10–12 large, thin, evenly spaced plicae; fasciole proportion-
ally small, restricted to extreme anterior end of shell; protoconch large, rounded,
dome-like, composed of two whorls; shell color uniform cream-white, overlaid
with scattered very faint, pale pinkish-tan zigzag flammules; edge of suture
marked with numerous evenly spaced pale pinkish-tan hairlines; interior of aper-
ture and protoconch white.
Holotype: Length 18.5 mm, width 8 mm, USNM1231405. Paratype, length 15 mm,
from the same locality and depth as the holotype, in the research collection of the
senior author.
Type Locality: Dredged from a mud-and-shell rubble bottom, 250-m depth off
Miami, Dade County, Florida, along the northern end of the Miami Terrace.
Etymology: Named for Eddie Matchett of Okeechobee, Florida, field assistant to the
senior author.
Discussion: This small deep-water olive shell is unlike any other Americoliva spe-
cies known from Florida. With its stocky, inflated body and high, conical spire,
Americoliva matchetti most closely resembles the widespread Caribbean Province
A. reticularis (Lamarck, 1810), which is an abundant species in shallow intertidal
sand flats in the Bahamas and Cuba. The deep terrace-dwelling A. matchetti dif-
fers from its wide-ranging Caribbean congener in that it is a much smaller and
stockier species, with a proportionally much more truncated, less-elongated
body whorl, and in having a sharply angled, swollen shoulder. Americoliva reticu-
laris also lacks the protruding callous on the spire whorls and does not have the
distinctly turreted spire shape that is seen in the new species. These scalariform
spire characteristics of A. matchetti appear to be unique and have not been seen in
any other western Atlantic Americoliva species.
Americoliva recourti new species
(Figure 9.67A–C)
Description: Shell small for genus, cylindrical, without distinct shoulder, and
with slightly rounded sides; spire proportionally low, subpyramidal, with
spire whorls only slightly calloused; aperture narrow; columella with 10–12
large thickened plications; protoconch proportionally large, rounded, dome-
like, composed of two whorls; shell color pale cream-white overlaid with two
bands of very faint, diffuse, pale pinkish-tan zigzag flammules; interior of

aperture white.
Holotype: Length 23.5 mm, width 10 mm, USNM1231407. Paratypes: length 22 mm,
from the same locality and depth as the holotype, in the research collection of
the senior author; lengths 22 mm, 19 mm, and 16 mm, in the collection of Pierre
Recourt, Egmond aan Zee, the Netherlands.
Type Locality: Dredged from a mud-and-shell rubble bottom, 250-m depth off Key
Largo, Upper Florida Keys, Monroe County, Florida, along the southern end of
the Miami Terrace.
Etymology: Named for Pierre Recourt of the Netherlands, one of the top workers in
the Olividae and the premier authority on the Americoliva species of North and
South America.
Discussion: In Florida, this small, cylindrically shaped olive is most similar to
Americoliva sunderlandi (Petuch, 1986) (Figure 9.3J, K, Chapter 9), which occurs in
deep water (200-m depth) off western Florida and the Dry Tortugas. Although
obviously closely related, Americoliva recourti differs from its deep-water western
Florida congener in that it has a smaller, stumpier, broader, and less-elongated
and narrow shell and in having a flatter, less-protracted spire. The colors of the
two species also differ greatly, with A. recourti white or cream-white with scat-
tered pale pinkish-tan zigzag flammules and with A. sunderlandi a dark golden-
tan overlaid with two, almost-solid, bands of dark brown flammules. The spire
callous of A. recourti is pure white or pale cream-white, while that of A. sunderlandi
is a dark brownish-tan. The new species, along with the previously described
A. matchetti, is confined to the area of the Miami Terrace, and A. sunderlandi is
confined to the far edge of the continental shelf off western Florida and to the
Tortugas Valleys. Taking into account the shallow-water A. sayana and A. bollingi,
Florida is now known to house five different species of olivids.
Bivalvia
Pteriomorphia
Arcoida
Arcidae
Arcinae
Genus Arca Linnaeus, 1758
Arca rachelcarsonae new species

(Figure 8.4A–C)
Description: Shell small for genus, thin, inflated, with truncated trapezoidal outline;
posterior end of valves longer than anterior end; hinge line narrow, almost entire
length of shell, edged with numerous fine taxodont teeth; beaks highly elevated
above hinge line, sharply pointed, recurved inward; ligamental area exception-
ally broad and wide, smooth and shiny, ornamented with numerous fine lon-
gitudinal lines; posterior end of valves bifurcated, with indented area between
ligamental process and sloping transverse fold; byssal notch thin and narrow,
covering approximately one-third of ventral area; valves sculptured with very
numerous fine, equal-size concentric and radial riblets, producing cancellate,
beaded texture; riblets on bifurcated posterior end covered with large scales; shell
color uniform pale yellow-white, with scattered tiny brown dots on some of the
riblet beads; periostracum thick, dark brown, shaggy.
Holotype: Length 16 mm, width 12 mm, USNM1231406. Paratype, length 21 mm,

from the same locality and depth as the holotype, in the research collection of the
senior author.
Type Locality: Found attached, by byssal threads, to a commercial lobster trap
brought up from 180-m depth off Key Largo, Florida Keys Reef Tract, Upper
Florida Keys, Monroe County, Florida.
Etymology: Named for Rachel Carson, renowned author, marine biologist, founder
of the modern environmental protection movement in the United States, and
lover of the Florida Keys.
Discussion: This unusual new deep-water arcid bivalve is only the third species of
its genus to be described from the western Atlantic. The other two members of
the genus Arca (sensu stricto), Arca zebra (Swainson, 1833) (Figure 5.8L, Chapter 5)
and Arca imbricata Bruguiere, 1789 (Figure 5.8H, Chapter 5), both live in very shal-
low water and are abundant on reefs and rocky platforms from North Carolina
south to Brazil. Of these two congeners, A. rachelcarsonae is most similar to A.
imbricata, especially in having a cancellate beaded shell sculpture, but differs
in that it has a much smaller and less-elongated shell; in having a bifurcated,
notched posterior end; in that it is broader and much more inflated; in having a
much wider ligamental shelf; and in having a much smaller and narrower byssal
notch. Presently, A. rachelcarsonae has been recorded only from the deep-reef talus
slopes off the Florida Keys Reef Tract, and it appears that this unusual arcid is
endemic to the Florida Keys.
Pectinoida
Pectinoidea
Pectinidae
Pectininae
Genus Euvola Dall, 1897
Euvola marshallae new species

(Figure 9.4A)
Description: Shell of average size for genus, thin and fragile, nearly circular
in outline; valves very flattened, bulging slightly in middle, with bottom
valve slightly more convex than upper valve; outer surface of valves shiny
and polished, ornamented with very low, only slightly raised radial ribs and
extremely numerous fine, almost microscopic radial hairlines, producing a
silky texture under magnification; interior of valves ornamented with 45–50
large, prominent radial ribs, most of which are arranged in pairs; auricles
of upper valve proportionally small, symmetrical, completely adherent,
rounded along edges; hinge line of upper valve almost straight, dipping only
slightly in middle near umbos; auricles of lower valve slightly asymmetri-
cal, with posterior auricle rounded and indented at base, producing slightly
detached appearance; anterior auricle smaller, completely adherent, rounded
on edge; hinge line of lower valve curved, distinctly concave; upper valve
colored mauve and dark pinkish-tan, with variable numbers of lighter tan-
pink wide radiating lines, producing sun-ray appearance; younger areas of
valve overlaid with extremely numerous very small dark tan and yellow-tan
dots, producing a net-like pattern; netted pattern darker and better developed
on radiating lines; bottom valve pure white with dark golden-yellow band
around periphery and on auricles; prodissiconch area of bottom valve colored
pale tan-pink.
Holotype: Height 46 mm, width 46 mm, USNM1231408. Paratypes, heights 47 mm
and 52 mm, from the same locality and depth as holotype, in the research collec-
tion of the senior author.
Type Locality: Dredged by commercial deep-water shrimpers (“Royal Red Shrimp”)
from 200-m depth, 20 km south of Garden Key, Dry Tortugas, Florida Keys.
Etymology: Named for Carole Marshall of West Palm Beach, Florida, the preeminent
authority on the mollusks of the Lake Worth Lagoon and an avid collector of the
Pectinidae.
Discussion: This common deep water scallop, which ranges throughout the Gulf
of Mexico and south to northern South America, has, for over 100 years, been
referred to as “Euvola papyracea Gabb, 1873” by most American malacologists (ie.
Abbott, 1974). That species, it turns out, is actually a 20 million year old fossil
from the early Miocene Baitoa Formation of the Dominican Republic and differs
from the living E. marshallae is being a larger, more elongated, and less rounded
species with proportionally larger auricles.
iew, from the surface, of the extensive sponge bioherms off Middle Torch Key, Lower Florida Keys,
V
showing a large specimen of the Vase Sponge Ircinia campana. (Photograph by Ron Bopp)
List of macromollusks: Florida Keys
and adjacent areas
Every known macromollusk that has been reported from the marine and estuarine areas
of the South Florida Bight, Florida Keys, Florida Bay, the Dry Tortugas, Biscayne Bay,
Palm Beach, and the Ten Thousand Islands is arranged systematically and listed below.
This biodiversity list is a compilation of personal observations from 40 years of collect-
ing in these areas and data taken from Abbott (1974), Lyons and Quinn (1995), Mikkelsen
and Bieler (2008), Petuch and Sargent (2011c), Petuch (2013), and Tucker (2013). All bathy-
metric ranges are taken into consideration, including the supratidal, intertidal, shallow
subtidal, inner neritic, outer neritic, and bathyal zones. Only the 86 families of macro-
gastropods and 54 families of macrobivalves that were discussed in the Introduction
are listed here. Those taxa that were listed, discussed, or illustrated in this book, but
are from outside the immediate area of the Florida Keys, are given the following letter
designations:
P = restricted to the deep reefs and coastal lagoons of the Palm Beach Provinciatone
T = found in the Ten Thousand Islands and Suwannean Subprovince
D = found in deeper-water areas north of the Dry Tortugas and southwestern Florida
E = species that are endemic to the Florida Keys
Class Gastropoda
Subclass Eogastropoda
Order Patellogastropoda
Suborder Nacellina
Superfamily Acmaeoidea
Family Lottiidae
Collisella leucopleura (Gmelin, 1791)
Lottia antillarum (Sowerby I, 1831)
Patelloida pulcherrima (Petit, 1856)
Patelloida pustulata (Helbling, 1779)
Subclass Orthogastropoda
Order Vetigastropoda
Superfamily Pleurotomarioidea
Family Pleurotomariidae
Bayerotrochus midas (Bayer, 1965)
Entemnotrochus adansonianus (Crosse and Fischer, 1861)
Perotrochus amabilis (Bayer, 1963)
249
250 List of macromollusks: Florida Keys and adjacent areas
Family Haliotidae
Superfamily Fissurelloidea
Family Fissurellidae
Diodora arcuata (Dall, 1889)
Diodora cayenensis (Lamarck, 1822)
Diodora dysoni (Reeve, 1850)
Diodora fluviana Dall, 1889
Diodora fragilis Farfante and Henriquez, 1947
Diodora jaumei Aguayo and Rehder, 1936
Diodora listeri (D’Orbigny, 1842)
Diodora meta (von Ihering, 1927)
Diodora minuta (Lamarck, 1822)
Diodora sayi (Dall, 1899)
Diodora viridula (Lamarck, 1822)
Diodora wetmorei Farfante, 1945
Diodora (Glyphis) tanneri Verrill, 1883
Emarginula dentigera Heilprin, 1886
Emarginula phrixoides Dall, 1927
Emarginula pumila (A. Adams, 1851)
Emarginula sicula Gray, 1825
Emarginula tuberculosa Libassi, 1859
Fissurella rosea (Gmelin, 1791)
Fissurella (Clypidella) fascicularis Lamarck, 1822
Fissurella (Clypidella) punctata Fischer, 1857
Hemitoma octoradiata (Gmelin, 1791)
Hemitoma (Montfortia) emarginata (Blainville, 1825)
Lucapina aegis (Reeve, 1850)
Lucapina eolis Farfante, 1945
Lucapina philippiana (Finlay, 1930)
Lucapina sowerbii (Sowerby, 1835)
Lucapina suffusa (Reeve, 1850)
Lucapinella limatula (Reeve, 1850)
Nesta atlantica Farfante, 1947
Puncturella acuminata Watson, 1883
Puncturella agger Watson, 1883
Puncturella billsae Farfante, 1947
Puncturella erecta Dall, 1889
Puncturella granulata Sequenza, 1863
Rimula aequisculpta Dall, 1927
Rimula dorriae Farfante, 1949
Rimula frenulata Dall, 1889
Rimula pycnonema Pilsbry, 1943
Zeidora bigelowi Perez-Farfante, 1947
Superfamily Turbinoidea
Family Turbinidae
Subfamily Turbininae
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea (Gmelin, 1791)
Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea crenulatus (Gmelin, 1791)
List of macromollusks: Florida Keys and adjacent areas 251
Turbo (Taenioturbo) canaliculatus Hermann, 1781

Turbo (Taenioturbo) cailletii Fischer and Bernardi, 1856
Subfamily Astraeinae
Astralium phoebia Röding, 1798
Lithopoma americana (Gmelin, 1791) E
Family Liotiidae
Arene cruentata (Megerle von Mühlfeld, 1829)
Arene vanhyningi Rehder, 1943 E
Cyclostrema cancellata Marryat, 1818
Cyclostrema huesonicum Dall, 1927 E
Cyclostrema tortuganum (Dall, 1927) E
Marevalvata bairdi (Dall, 1889)
Marevalvata briareus (Dall, 1881)
Marevalvata tricarinata (Stearns, 1872)
Marevalvata trullata (Dall, 1889)
Marevalvata variabilis (Dall, 1886)
Sansonia tuberculata (Watson, 1883)
Family Phasianellidae
Eulithidium affinis (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Eulithidium bella (M. Smith, 1937)
Eulithidium pterocladica (Robertson, 1958) D
Eulithidium thalassicola (Robertson, 1958)
Superfamily Trochoidea
Family Trochidae
Subfamily Tegulinae
Tegula (Agathistoma) excavata (Lamarck, 1822)
Tegula (Agathistoma) fasciata (Born, 1778)
Tegula (Agathistoma) hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Tegula (Agathistoma) lividomaculata (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Subfamily Stomatellinae
Pseudostomatella erythrocoma (Dall, 1899)
Synaptocochlea nigrita Rehder, 1939 E
Synaptocochlea picta (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Family Margaritidae
Gaza superba (Dall, 1881)
Microgaza inornata Dall, 1881
Microgaza rotella Dall, 1881
Family Solariellidae
Solariella aegleis Watson, 1879
Solariella lissocoma (Dall, 1881)
Solariella periscopia (Dall, 1927)
Solariella pourtalesi Clench and Aguayo, 1939
Suavotrochus lubricus (Dall, 1881)
Family Calliostomatidae
Calliostoma adelae Schwengel, 1951 E
Calliostoma euglyptum (A. Adams, 1846)

Calliostoma fascinans Schwengel and McGinty, 1942
Calliostoma frumari Garcia, 2007 E
Calliostoma javanicum (Gmelin, 1791)
Calliostoma jujubinum (Gmelin, 1791)
Calliostoma marionae Dall, 1906
Calliostoma pulchrum (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Calliostoma roseolum Dall, 1880
Calliostoma sapidum Dall, 1881
Calliostoma scalenum Quinn, 1992
Calliostoma tampaense (Conrad, 1846)
Calliostoma yucatecanum Dall, 1881
Calliostoma (Kombologion) bairdii Verrill and Smith, 1880
Calliostoma (Kombologion) benedicti Dall, 1889
Calliostoma (Kombologion) hendersoni Dall, 1927
Calliostoma (Kombologion) oregon Clench and Turner, 1960
Calliostoma (Kombologion) sayanum Dall, 1889
Order Neritopsina
Superfamily Neritoidea
Family Neritidae
Nerita (Ritena) versicolor Gmelin, 1791
Nerita (Linnerita) peloronta Linnaeus, 1758
Nerita (Theliostyla) fulgurans Gmelin, 1791
Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae Petuch, 1988 E
Nerita (Theliostyla) tessellata Gmelin, 1791
Neritina (Vitta) clenchi Russel, 1940
Neritina (Vitta) usnea (Röding, 1798)
Neritina (Vitta) virginea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Puperita pupa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Smaragdia viridemaris Maury, 1917
Family Phenacolepadidae
Phenacolepas hamillei (Fischer, 1857)
Superorder Caenogastropoda
Order Sorbeoconcha
Superfamily Cerithioidea
Family Cerithiidae
Bayericerithium litteratum (Born, 1778)
Bayericerithium semiferrugineum (Lamarck, 1822)
Bittiolum varium (Pfeiffer, 1840)
Cerithium atratum (Born, 1778)
Cerithium chara Pilsbry, 1949 D
Cerithium eburneum Bruguiere, 1792
Cerithium lindae Petuch, 1987 P
Cerithium lutosum Menke, 1828
Cerithium lymani Pilsbry, 1949 D
Cerithium muscarum Say, 1822
Family Batillariidae
Batillaria minima (Gmelin, 1791)
Family Potamididae
Cerithideopsis costatus (da Costa, 1778)
Cerithideopsis scalariformis (Say, 1825)
Family Planaxidae
Angiola lineata (da Costa, 1778)
Planaxis (Supplanaxis) nucleus (Bruguiere, 1789)
Family Modulidae
Modulus calusa Petuch, 1988 E
Modulus calusa foxhalli Petuch and Myers, new subspecies P
Modulus floridanus Conrad, 1869 T
Modulus kaicherae Petuch, 1987
Modulus lindae Petuch, 1987
Modulus pacei Petuch, 1987 P
Family Turritellidae
Torcula exoleta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Torculoidella acropora (Dall, 1889)
Torculoidella lindae Petuch, 1987 D
Vermicularia fargoi owensi Petuch and Myers, new subspecies T
Vermicularia knorri (Deshayes, 1843)
Vermicularia spirata (Philippi, 1836)
Family Siliquariidae
Siliquaria modesta Dall, 1881
Suborder Hypsogastropoda
Infraorder Littorinimorpha
Superfamily Littorinoidea
Family Littorinidae
Amerilittorina angustior (Mörch, 1876)
Amerilittorina jamaicensis (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Amerilittorina placida (Reid, 2009)
Amerilittorina ziczac (Gmelin, 1791)
Cenchritis muricatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Echinolittorina antonii (Philippi, 1846)
Echinolittorina dilatata (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Echinolittorina tuberculata (Menke, 1828)
Fossarilittorina meleagris (Potiez and Michaud, 1838)
Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck, 1822)
Littoraria nebulosa (Lamarck, 1822) (and color form tessellata Philippi, 1847)
Melarhaphe mespillum (Megerle von Mühlfeld)
Tectininus nodulosus (Pfeiffer, 1839)
Superfamily Rissooidea
Family Truncatellidae
Superfamily Stromboidea
Family Strombidae
Alliger gallus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758)

Lobatus raninus (Gmelin, 1791)
Macrostrombus costatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791
Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758
Superfamily Vanikoroidea
Family Vanikoridae
Vanikoro oxychone Mörch, 1877
Family Hipponicidae
Hipponix antiquatus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Malluvium benthophilum (Dall, 1889)
Superfamily Calyptraeoidea
Family Calyptraeidae
Bostrycapulus aculeatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Calyptraea centralis (Conrad, 1841)
Cheilea equestris (Linnaeus, 178)
Crepidula convexa Say, 1822
Crepidula fornicata (Linnaeus, 1758) P, T
Crepidula maculosa Conrad, 1846 T
Crepidula ustulatulina (Collin, 2002)
Crucibulum auricula (Gmelin, 1791)
Crucibulum striatum Say, 1824
Ianacus atrasolea (Collin, 2002)
Ianacus plana (Say, 1822) T, P
Superfamily Capuloidea
Family Capulidae
Capulus ungaricus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Capulus (Krebsia) intortus (Lamarck, 1822)
Superfamily Xenophoroidea
Family Xenophoridae
Trochotugurium longleyi (Bartsch, 1931)
Tugurium caribbaeum (Petit, 1856)
Xenophora conchyliophora (Born, 1780)
Xenophora microdiscus Petuch, 1994 (named as a late Pleistocene fossil but still extant) D
Superfamily Vermetoidea
Family Vermetidae
Dendropoma corrodens (d’Orbigny, 1841) (= annulatus Daudin)
Serpulorbis decussatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans (Dall, 1884) T
Superfamily Cypraeoidea
Family Cypraeidae
Erosaria acicularis (Gmelin, 1791)
Luria cinerea (Gmelin, 1791)
Macrocypraea zebra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus (Linnaeus, 1771)

Propustularia surinamensis (Perry, 1811)
Family Ovulidae
Subfamily Simniinae
Adamantia solemi Cate, 1973 E
Calcarovula piragua (Dall, 1889)
Cymbovula acicularis (Lamarck, 1810)
Cyphoma alleneae Cate, 1973 E (may also be found in Cuba)
Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cyphoma lindae Petuch, 1987 D
Cyphoma mcgintyi Pilsbry, 1939
Cyphoma rhomba Cate, 1978 E
Cyphoma robustior Bayer, 1941 D
Cyphoma sedlaki Cate, 1976 E
Cyphoma signatum Pilsbry and McGinty, 1939
Pseudocyphoma gibbulum (Cate, 1978) E
Pseudocyphoma intermedium (Sowerby II, 1828)
Pseudosimnia sphoni Cate, 1973 E
Pseudosimnia vanhyningi (M. Smith, 1940)
Simnialena uniplicata (Sowerby II, 1849)
Family Pediculariidae
Pedicularia decussata (Gould, 1855)
Superfamily Velutinoidea
Family Lamellariidae
Lamellaria leucosphaera Schwengel, 1942
Lamellaria perspicua (Linnaeus, 1758)
Family Triviidae
Cleotrivia candidula (Gaskoin, 1836)
Dolichupis leei Fehse and Grego, 2002
Dolichupis leucosphaera Schilder, 1931
Hespererato maugeriae (Gray, 1832)
Niveria antillarum (Schilder, 1922)
Niveria maltbiana (Schwengel and McGinty, 1942)
Niveria nix (Schilder, 1922) (Figure 8.3K)
Niveria quadripunctata (Gray, 1827)
Pusula juyingae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 P (incorrectly referred to as P. costispunctata)
Pusula pediculus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pusula pullata (Sowerby II, 1870)
Pusula suffusa (Gray, 1832)
Superfamily Naticoidea
Family Naticidae
Haliotinella patinaria (Guppy, 1876)
Lunatia fringilla (Dall, 1881)
Lunatia perla (Dall, 1881)
Natica castrensis Dall, 1889
Natica livida Pfeiffer, 1840
Natica marochiensis (Gmelin, 1791)
Natica perlineata Dall, 1889
Naticarius canrena (Linnaeus, 1758)

Naticarius tedbayeri (Rehder, 1986)
Neverita delessertiana (Recluz, 1843) T (not found in the Florida Keys)
Neverita delessertiana patriceae Petuch and Myers, new subspecies P
Neverita nubila (Dall, 1925)
Polinices hepaticus (Röding, 1798)
Polinices lacteus (Guilding, 1834)
Polinices uberinus (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Sigatica carolinensis (Dall, 1889)
Sigatica semisulcata (Gray, 1839)
Sinum maculosum (Say, 1831)
Sinum minor (Dall, 1889)
Sinum perspectivum (Say, 1831)
Stigmaulax sulcatus (Born, 1778)
Tectonatica pusilla (Say, 1822)
Superfamily Tonnoidea
Family Tonnidae
Tonna galea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tonna pennata (Mörch, 1852)
Family Ficidae
Ficus carolae Clench, 1945
Ficus communis Röding, 1798 T (not found in the Florida Keys)
Family Cassidae
Subfamily Cassinae
Casmaria atlantica Clench, 1944
Cassis flammea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cassis madagascariensis Lamarck, 1822
Cassis spinella Clench, 1944
Cassis tuberosa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cypraecassis testiculus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Echinophoria coronadoi (Crosse, 1867)
Sconsia striata (Lamarck, 1816) (incorrectly called S. grayi Adams, 1855 by some workers)
Semicassis cicatricosum (Gmelin, 1791)
Semicassis granulatum (Born, 1778)
Subfamily Oocorythinae
Benthodolium abyssorum (Verrill and Smith, 1884)
Eudolium crosseanum (Monterosato, 1869)
Eudolium thompsoni McGinty, 1955 E (often incorrectly synonymized with crosseanum)
Oocorys bartschi Rehder, 1943
Oocorys sulcata Fischer, 1883
Family Bursidae
Bufonaria bufo (Bruguiere, 1792)
Bursa cubaniana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Bursa (Colubrellina) corrugata (Perry, 1811)
Bursa (Colubrellina) ranelloides tenuisculpta Dautzenberg and Fischer, 1906
Bursa (Lampasopsis) grayana Dunker, 1862
Bursa (Lampasopsis) rhodostoma thomae (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Family Ranellidae
Charonia variegata (Lamarck, 1816)
Cymatium femorale (Linnaeus, 1758)

Cymatium (Gutturnium) muricinum (Röding, 1798)
Cymatium (Gutturnium) nicobaricum (Röding, 1798)
Cymatium (Linatella) cingulatum (Lamarck, 1822)
Cymatium (Monoplex) aquatile (Reeve, 1844)
Cymatium (Monoplex) mundum (Gould, 1849)
Cymatium (Monoplex) pileare (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cymatium (Ranularia) cynocephalum (Lamarck, 1816) (= caribbaeum) Clench and Turner
Cymatium (Ranularia) rehderi Verrill, 1950
Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Mörch, 1877
Cymatium (Septa) vespaceum (Lamarck, 1822)
Cymatium (Tritoniscus) labiosum (Wood, 1828)
Family Personiidae
Distorsio clathrata (Lamarck, 1816)
Distorsio mcgintyi Emerson and Puffer, 1953
Distorsio perdistorta Fulton, 1938
Superfamily Janthinoidea
Family Janthinidae
Janthina janthina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Janthina (Jodina) exigua Lamarck, 1816
Janthina (Violetta) globosa Swainson, 1822
Janthina (Violetta) pallida (Thompson, 1840)
Recluzia rollandiana Petit, 1853
Family Epitoniidae
Alexania floridana (Pilsbry, 1945)
Amaea mitchelli (Dall, 1896)
Amaea retifera (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala apiculata (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala babylonium (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala candeanum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Asperiscala denticulata (Sowerby I, 1844)
Asperiscala frielei (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala fractum (Dall, 1927)
Asperiscala multistriata (Say, 1826)
Asperiscala novangliae (Couthouy, 1838)
Asperiscala polacia (Dall, 1889)
Asperiscala pourtalesi (Verrill and Bush, 1880)
Asperiscala rushii (Dall, 1889)
Boreoscala blainei Clench and Turner, 1953
Cirsotrema dalli Rehder, 1945
Cirsotrema pilsbryi (McGinty, 1940)
Cycloscala echinaticosta (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Cylindriscala andrewsi (Verrill, 1882)
Cylindriscala watsoni (deBoury, 1911)
Dentiscala burryi Clench and Turner, 1950
Dentiscala crenata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Depressiscala nautlae (Mörch, 1874)

Depressiscala nitidella (Dall, 1889)
Epitonium albidum (Say, 1830)
Epitonium angulatum (Say, 1830)
Epitonium championi Clench and Turner, 1952
Epitonium humphreysi (Kiener, 1838)
Epitonium krebsii (Mörch, 1874)
Epitonium occidentale (Nyst, 1871)
Epitonium tollini Bartsch, 1938
Epitonium unifasciatum (Sowerby I, 1844)
Gyroscala lamellosa (Lamarck, 1822)
Nodiscala aurifilia (Dall, 1889)
Nodiscala eolis Clench and Turner, 1950
Nodiscala pumilio (Mörch, 1874)
Opalia abbotti Clench and Turner, 1952
Opaliopsis atlantis Clench and Turner, 1952
Opaliopsis cania (Dall, 1927)
Opaliopsis nitida (Verrill and Smith, 1885)
Opaliopsis opalina (Dall, 1927)
Stenorhytis pernobilis (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Superfamily Eulimoidea
Family Eulimidae (only species with large shells are listed here)
Niso aeglees Bush, 1885
Niso hendersoni Bartsch, 1953
Infraorder Neogastropoda
Superfamily Muricoidea
Family Muricidae
Subfamily Muricinae
Aspella anceps (Lamarck, 1822)
Aspella castor Radwin and D’Attilio, 1976
Attiliosa philippiana (Dall, 1889)
Calotrophon ostrearum (Conrad, 1846)
Chicoreus dilectus (A. Adams, 1855)
Chicoreus mergus E. Vokes, 1974
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Petuch, 1987 D
Dermomurex pacei Petuch, 1988
Dermomurex pauperculus (C.B. Adams, 1856)
Dermomurex (Gracilimurex) elizabethae McGinty, 1940
Dermomurex (Trialatella) glicksteini Petuch, 1987 P
Hexaplex fulvescens (Sowerby I, 1834)
Paziella pazi (Crosse, 1869)
Phyllonotus oculatus (Reeve, 1845)
Phyllonotus pomum (Gmelin, 1791)
Phyllonotus whymani Petuch and Sargent, 2011 D
Poirieria nuttingi (Dall, 1896)
Pterochelus ariomus (Clench and Farfante, 1945)
Pteropurpura bequaerti (Clench and Farfante, 1945)

Pterynotus bushae E. Vokes, 1970
Pterynotus guesti Harasewych and Jensen, 1979 E
Pterynotus phaneus (Dall, 1889)
Pterynotus tristichus (Dall, 1889)
Siratus articulatus (Reeve, 1845)
Siratus beaui (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Siratus consuela (Verrill, 1950)
Vokesimurex cabritti (Bernardi, 1859)
Vokesimurex lindajoyceae (Petuch, 1987) D
Vokesimurex morrisoni Petuch and Sargent, 2011
Vokesimurex rubidus (F. C. Baker, 1897)
Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis (Sowerby III, 1900) E (may be a distinct species)
Vokesimurex tryoni (Hidalgo, 1880)
Subfamily Muricopsinae
Caribiella alveata (Kiener, 1842)
Favartia cellulosa (Conrad, 1846)
Favartia emipowlusi (Abbott, 1954)
Favartia goldbergi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 P
Favartia lindae Petuch, 1987 D
Favartia minirosea (Abbott, 1954)
Favartia pacei Petuch, 1988 E
Murexiella caitlinae Petuch and Myers, new species E
Murexiella glypta (M. Smith, 1938)
Murexiella hidalgoi (Crosse, 1869)
Murexiella kalafuti Petuch, 1987 E
Murexiella levicula (Dall, 1889)
Murexiella taylorae Petuch, 1987 D
Muricopsis oxytatus (M. Smith, 1938)
Pygmaepterys richardbinghami (Petuch, 1987) P
Risomurex caribbaeus (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Risomurex deformis (Reeve, 1846)
Risomurex muricoides (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Risomurex roseus (Reeve, 1846)
Subfamily Ergalitaxinae
Orania grayi (Dall, 1889)
Trachypollia nodulosa (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Trachypollia sclera Woodring, 1928
Trachypollia turricula (Maltzan, 1884)
Subfamily Ocenebrinae
Eupleura sulcidentata Dall, 1890
Trossulasalpinx macra (Verrill, 1887)
Subfamily Rapaninae
Mancinella deltoidea (Lamarck, 1822)
Plicopurpura patula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Stramonita buchecki Petuch, 2013 P
Stramonita floridana (Conrad, 1837)
Stramonita rustica (Lamarck, 1822)
Subfamily Typhinae
Pterotyphis pinnatus (Broderip, 1833)
Tripterotyphis triangularis (A. Adams, 1856)
Typhinellus sowerbii (Broderip, 1833)
Subfamily Magilinae (sometimes placed in the separate family Coralliophilidae)
Babelomurex dalli (Emerson and Puffer, 1963)
Babelomurex fax (Bayer, 1971)
Babelomurex scalariformis (Lamarck, 1822)
Coralliophila abberans (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Coralliophila aedonis (Watson, 1886)
Coralliophila caribbaea Abbott, 1958
Coralliophila galea (Dillwyn, 1823)
Coralliophila pacei Petuch, 1987 P
Coralliophila richardi (Fischer, 1882) (= lactuca)
Quoyula kalafuti Petuch, 1987 E
Superfamily Buccinoidea
Family Buccinidae
Subfamily Buccininae
Agassitula agassizi (Clench and Aguayo, 1941)
Antillophos beaui (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Antillophos candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Antillophos virginiae (Schwengel, 1942)
Bartschia significans Rehder, 1943 (= frumari)
Belomitra pourtalesi (Dall, 1881)
Colus rushii (Dall, 1889)
Eosipho canetae (Clench and Aguayo, 1944)
Liomesus stimpsoni Dall, 1889
Manaria burkeae Garcia, 2008
Parviphos adelus (Schwengel, 1942)
Ptychosalpinx globulus (Dall, 1889)
Retimohnia carolinensis (Verrill, 1884)
Subfamily Pisaniinae
Anna florida Garcia, 2008
Bailya intricata (Dall, 1884)
Bailya parva (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Bailya weberi (Watters, 1983)
Engina corinnae Crovo, 1971
Engina turbinella (Kiener, 1835)
Gemophos auritulus (Link, 1807)
Gemophos tinctus Conrad, 1846)
Gemophos tinctus pacei Petuch and Sargent, 2011 T
Hesperisternia harasewychi (Petuch, 1987) D
Hesperisternia karinae (Usticke, 2008)
Hesperisternia multangulus (Philippi, 1848)
Hesperisternia sulzyckii Petuch and Myers, new species D
Pisania pusio (Linnaeus, 1758)
Family Colubrariidae
Colubraria testacea (Mörch, 1852)
Family Melongenidae
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor (Say, 1827)
Melongena (Rexmela) corona (Gmelin, 1791) T
Melongena (Rexmela) corona winnerae Petuch, 2004 P
Family Busyconidae
Subfamily Busyconinae
Lindafulgur lyonsi (Petuch, 1987) D
Sinistrofulgur sinistrum (Hollister, 1958)
Subfamily Busycotypinae
Fulguropsis plagosum (Conrad, 1863) D
Fulguropsis pyruloides (Say, 1822) T, P
Fulguropsis spiratum keysensis Petuch, 2013 E
Family Fasciolariidae
Subfamily Fasciolariinae
Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811)
Cinctura tortugana (Hollister, 1957) D
Fasciolaria bullisi Lyons, 1972 D
Fasciolaria tulipa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Triplofusus papillosus (Sowerby I, 1825)
Subfamily Peristerniinae
Dolicholatirus cayohuesonicus (Sowerby II, 1878)
Leucozonia jacarusoi Petuch, 1987 D
Leucozonia lineata Usticke, 1969
Leucozonia nassa (Gmelin, 1791)
Leucozonia ocellata (Gmelin, 1791)
Polygona angulata (Röding, 1798)
Polygona carinifera (Lamarck, 1822)
Polygona infundibula (Gmelin, 1791)
Polygona nemata (Woodring, 1928) (= P. cymatius Schwengel)
Subfamily Fusininae
Fusinus excavatus (Sowerby II, 1880) (F. eucosmius is a synonym)
Fusinus halistreptus (Dall, 1889)
Fusinus schrammi (Crosse, 1865)
Fusinus stegeri Lyons, 1978 D
Harasewychia aepynota (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia alcimus (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia amianta (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia amphiurgus (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia benthalis (Dall, 1889)
Harasewychia rushii (Dall, 1889)
Heilprinia lindae Petuch, 1987 D
Heilprinia timessus (Dall, 1889)
Family Nassariidae
Phrontis polygonatus (Lamarck, 1822)
Uzita alba (Say, 1826)
Uzita antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1842)

Uzita consensa (Ravenel, 1861)
Uzita hotessieri (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Uzita paucicostata (Marrat, 1877)
Uzita scissurata (Dall, 1889)
Uzita swearingeni Petuch and Myers, new species E
Uzita websteri Petuch and Sargent, 2011 E
Family Columbellidae
Aesopus stearnsi (Tryon, 1883)
Astyris lunata (Say, 1826)
Astyris multilineata (Dall, 1889)
Columbella mercatoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Columbella rusticoides Heilprin, 1886
Columbellopsis nycteus (Duclos, 1846)
Cosmioconcha rikae Monsecour and Monsecour, 2006
Costoanachis avara (Say, 1822)
Costoanachis floridana Rehder, 1939
Costoanachis semiplicata Stearns, 1873
Costoanachis sertulariarum (d’Orbigny, 1839)
Costoanachis sparsa (Reeve, 1859)
Costoanachis translirata (Ravenel, 1861)
Metulella columbellata Dall, 1889
Mitrella argus d’Orbigny, 1842
Mitrella ocellata (Gmelin, 1791)
Nassarina bushiae (Dall, 1889)
Nassarina monilifera (Sowerby II, 1844)
Nassarina sparsipunctata (Rehder, 1943)
Nitidella laevigata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nitidella nitida (Lamarck, 1822)
Suturoglypta hotessieriana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Suturoglypta iontha (Ravenel, 1861)
Zafrona idalina (Duclos, 1840)
Zafrona pulchella (Blainville, 1829)
Zafrona taylorae Petuch, 1987 E
Superfamily Volutoidea
Family Volutidae
Subfamily Lyriinae
Enaeta cylleniformis (Sowerby I, 1844) (This small volute, which is common in the Bahamas,
has been reported from northern Biscayne Bay by several collectors and workers; its
presence throughout the Florida Keys reef tracts has yet to be established.)
Subfamily Scaphellinae
Aurinia dubia (Broderip, 1827) D
Caricellopsis matchetti (Petuch and Sargent, 2011) E
Clenchina dohrni (Sowerby III, 1903) E
Clenchina florida (Clench and Aguayo, 1940) E
Clenchina gouldiana (Dall, 1887)
Clenchina marionae (Pilsbry and Olsson, 1953) D
Rehderia georgiana (Clench, 1946)
Rehderia schmitti (Bartsch, 1931) E
Scaphella junonia (Lamarck, 1804) P (North Carolina to Palm Beach; Gulf of Mexico)
Scaphella junonia elizabethae Petuch and Sargent, 2011 E (shallow-water Florida Keys)
Family Olividae
Subfamily Olivinae
Americoliva bollingi (Clench, 1943) (Florida Keys and eastern Florida)
Americoliva matchetti Petuch and Myers, new species E
Americoliva recourti Petuch and Myers, new species E
Americoliva sayana (Ravenel, 1834) T, P
Americoliva sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987) D
Family Olivellidae
Callianax thompsoni (Olsson, 1956)
Jaspidella blanesi (Ford, 1898)
Jaspidella jaspidea (Gmelin, 1791)
Jaspidella miris Olsson, 1956
Macgintiella rotunda (Dall, 1889)
Macgintiella watermani (McGinty, 1940)
Niteoliva moorei (Abbott, 1951)
Olivella elongata Marrat, 1871 P (common in Lake Worth and off Palm Beach)
Olivella floralia (Duclos, 1853)
Olivella lactea Marrat, 1871 (= adelae Olsson, 1956)
Olivella mcgintyi Olsson, 1956
Olivella nivea (Gmelin, 1791)
Olivella (Dactylidia) dealbata (Reeve, 1850)
Olivella (Dactylidia) mutica (Say, 1822)
Olivella (Dactylidia) pusilla (Marrat, 1871)
Olivina bullula (Reeve, 1850)
Family Turbinellidae
Subfamily Vasinae
Vasum muricatum (Born, 1778)
Subfamily Columbariinae
Peristarium aurora (Bayer, 1971)
Peristarium electra (Bayer, 1971)
Peristarium merope (Bayer, 1971)
Family Harpidae
Subfamily Moruminae
Cancellomorum dennisoni (Reeve, 1842)
Morum oniscus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Morum purpureum Röding, 1798
Family Mitridae
Dibaphimitra florida (Gould, 1856) E
Mitra (Cancilla) antillensis Dall, 1889
Nebularia barbadensis (Gmelin, 1791)
Scabricola nodulosa (Gmelin, 1791)
Scabricola pallida (Usticke, 1959)
Family Costellariidae
Nodicostellaria laterculata (Sowerby II, 1874)
Pusia puella (Reeve, 1845)
Thala foveata (Sowerby I, 1874)

Vexillum arestum (Rehder, 1943)
Vexillum dermestinum (Lamarck, 1811)
Vexillum epiphanea Rehder, 1943
Vexillum exiguum (C.B. Adams, 1845) (= hanleyi)
Vexillum hendersoni (Dall, 1927)
Vexillum histrio (Reeve, 1844)
Vexillum moisei McGinty, 1955
Vexillum moniliferum (C.B. Adams, 1850) (= “albocinctum”)
Vexillum pulchellum (Reeve, 1844)
Vexillum styliolum (Dall, 1927)
Vexillum styria Dall, 1889
Vexillum sykesi (Melvill, 1925)
Vexillum variatum (Reeve, 1845)
Vexillum wandoense (Holmes, 1860)
Family Volutomitridae
Microvoluta blakeana (Dall, 1889)
Microvoluta laevior (Dall, 1889)
Family Marginellidae (see Lipe, 1991, for illustrations of the Florida marginellids)
Dentimargo aureocincta Stearns, 1872
Dentimargo eburneola Conrad, 1834
Dentimargo idiochila Schwengel, 1943 E
Dentimargo reducta (Bavay, 1922)
Eratoidea hematita (Kiener, 1834) D
Eratoidea watsoni (Dall, 1881)
Hyalina avenacea (Deshayes, 1844)
Prunum apicinum (Menke, 1828) T, P
Prunum apicinum virgineum (Jousseaume, 1875) E
Prunum bellum (Conrad, 1868)
Prunum carneum (Storer, 1837)
Prunum cassis (Dall, 1889)
Prunum evelynae (Bayer, 1943) P
Prunum frumari Petuch and Sargent, 2011 E
Prunum guttatum (Dillwyn, 1817)
Prunum guttatum nobilianum (Bayer, 1943) P
Prunum hartleyana (Schwengel, 1941) D
Prunum redfieldi (Tryon, 1882) E
Prunum torticulum (Dall, 1881)
Prunum succinea (Conrad, 1846) (= veliei Pilsbry)
Prunum virginianum (Conrad, 1868)
Volvarina albolineata (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Volvarina avena (Kiener, 1834)
Volvarina garycooverti Espinosa and Ortea, 1998 E
Volvarina lactea (Kiener, 1841)
Volvarina pallida (Linnaeus, 1758)
Volvarina styria Dall, 1889
Volvarina subtriplicata (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Family Cystiscidae
Subfamily Cystiscinae
Cysticus microgonia (Dall, 1927)
Subfamily Persiculinae
Canalispira kerni Garcia, 2007
Gibberula catenata (Montagu, 1803)
Gibberula lavalleeana (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Persicula pulcherrima (Gaskoin, 1849)
Subfamily Granulininae
Pugnus serrei (Bavay, 1911)
Superfamily Cancellarioidea
Family Cancellariidae
Subfamily Cancellariinae
Axelella agassizii (Dall, 1889)
Cancellaria adelae Pilsbry, 1940 E
Cancellaria reticulata (Linnaeus, 1758) T, P
Cancellaria richardpetiti Petuch, 1987 D
Ventrilia tenerum (Philippi, 1848)
Subfamily Plesiotritoninae
Tritonoharpa janowskyi Petuch and Sargent, 2011 P
Tritonoharpa lanceolata (Menke, 1828)
Superfamily Conoidea
Family Conidae
Subfamily Coninae
Chelyconus ermineus (Born, 1778)
Subfamily Puncticulinae
Atlanticonus granulatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Attenuiconus attenuatus (Reeve, 1844)
Conasprelloides cancellatus (Hwass, 1792)
Conasprelloides stimpsoni (Dall, 1902) (= levistimpsoni Tucker)
Conasprelloides villepini (Fischer and Bernardi, 1857)
Dauciconus amphiurgus (Dall, 1889)
Dauciconus aureonimbosus (Petuch, 1987) D
Dauciconus daucus (Hwass, 1792)
Dauciconus glicksteini (Petuch, 1987) P
Gladioconus mus (Hwass, 1792)
Gradiconus anabathrum (Crosse, 1865) T
Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami (Petuch, 1995) E
Gradiconus burryae (Clench, 1942) E
Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011 E
Gradiconus patglicksteinae (Petuch, 1987) P
Gradiconus philippii (Kiener, 1845)
Kellyconus binghamae (Petuch, 1987) E
Lindaconus atlanticus (Clench, 1942)
Lindaconus aureofasciatus (Rehder and Abbott, 1951) D
Stephanoconus regius (Gmelin, 1791)

Tuckericonus flamingo (Petuch, 1980) P
Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus (Clench, 1942)
Family Conilithidae
Subfamily Conilithinae
Dalliconus mcgintyi (Pilsbry, 1955)
Dalliconus rainseae (McGinty, 1953)
Jaspidiconus fluviamaris Petuch and Sargent, 2011 E
Jaspidiconus mindanus (Hwass, 1792)
Jaspidiconus pealii (Green, 1830)
Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Petuch, 2004
Jaspidiconus stearnsi (Conrad, 1869) T
Jaspidiconus vanhyningi (Rehder, 1944) E
Kohniconus delessertii (Recluz, 1843)
Family Terebridae
Fusoterebra benthalis (Dall, 1899)
Hastula cinerea (Born, 1778)
Hastula hastata (Gmelin, 1791)
Hastula maryleeae Burch, 1965
Hastula salleana (Deshayes, 1859)
Myurella taurina (Lightfoot, 1786)
Myurellina lindae (Petuch, 1987) D
Strioterebrum arcas (Abbott, 1954) D
Strioterebrum concavum (Say, 1827)
Strioterebrum dislocatum (Say, 1822) T
Strioterebrum dislocatum onslowensis (Petuch, 1974)
Strioterebrum glossema (Schwengel, 1940)
Strioterebrum limatulum (Dall, 1889)
Strioterebrum lutescens (Dall, 1889)
Strioterebrum protextum (Conrad, 1845)
Strioterebrum rushii (Dall, 1889)
Strioterebrum vinosum (Dall, 1889)
Superfamily Turroidea
Family Turridae
Gemmula periscelida (Dall, 1889)
Polystira albida (Perry, 1811)
Polystira florencae Bartsch, 1934
Polystira sunderlandi Petuch, 1987 D
Polystira tellea (Dall, 1889)
Family Crassispiridae
Crassispira mesoleuca Rehder, 1943
Crassispira rhythmica Melvill, 1927
Hindsiclava alesidota (Dall, 1889)
Family Strictispiridae
Strictispira redferni Tippett, 2006
Strictispira solida (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Family Cochlespiridae
Cochlespira elegans (Dall, 1881)
Cochlespira radiata (Dall, 1889)

Leucosyrinx subgrundiferum (Dall, 1880)
Leucosyrinx tenoceras Dall, 1889
Leucosyrinx verrillii (Dall, 1881)
Pyrgospira ostrearum (Stearns, 1872)
Pyrgospira tampaensis (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Family Clathurellidae
Bathytoma viabrunnea (Dall, 1889)
Drilliola loprestiana (Calcara, 1841) (Microdrillia comatotropis Dall is a synonym)
Glyphostoma dentifera Gabb, 1872
Glyphostoma gabbi Dall, 1889
Glyphostoma gratula (Dall, 1881)
Glyphostoma pilsbryi (Schwengel, 1940)
Lioglyphostoma adematum Woodring, 1928
Lioglyphostoma oenoa Bartsch, 1934
Miraclathurella herminea Bartsch, 1934
Mitrolumna biplicata Dall, 1889
Mitrolumna haycocki (Dall and Bartsch, 1911)
Nannodiella melanitica (Bush, 1885)
Nannodiella oxia (Bush, 1885)
Nannodiella pauca Fargo, 1953
Nannodiella vespuciana (d’Orbigny, 1847)
Tenaturris inepta (E.A. Smith, 1882)
Family Zonulispiridae
Compsodrillia acestra (Dall, 1889)
Pilsbryspira albocincta (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Pilsbryspira jayana (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Pilsbryspira leucocyma (Dall, 1883)
Pilsbryspira monilis (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939)
Pilsbryspira nodata (C.B. Adams, 1850) (albomaculata is a synonym)
Zonulispira crocata (Reeve, 1845) (Crassispira sanibelensis is a synonym)
Family Drilliidae
Bellaspira pentagonalis (Dall, 1889)
Cerodrillia clappi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939 E
Cerodrillia hendersoni Bartsch, 1943
Cerodrillia perryae Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Cerodrillia schroederi Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Cerodrillia thea (Dall, 1884)
Cerodrillia williami Bartsch, 1943
Fenimorea fucata (Reeve, 1845)
Fenimorea halidorema Schwengel, 1940
Fenimorea kathyae Tippett, 1995 (north of the Dry Tortugas)
Fenimorea pagodula (Dall, 1889)
Fenimorea petiti Tippett, 1995 (north of the Dry Tortugas)
Fenimorea sunderlandi (Petuch, 1987) D

Leptodrillia splendida (Bartsch, 1934)
Neodrillia blacki Petuch, 2004
Neodrillia brunnescens (Rehder, 1943)
Neodrillia cydia Bartsch, 1943
Neodrillia moseri (Dall, 1889)
Neodrillia woodringi (Bartsch, 1943)
Family Horaiclavidae
Inodrillia acova Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia avira Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia dido Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia gibba Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia hesperia Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia hilda Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia ino Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia miamia Bartsch, 1943
Inodrillia vetula Bartsch, 1943
Family Raphitomidae
Anticlinura toreumata (Dall, 1889)
Brachycythara barbarae Lyons, 1972
Brachycythara biconica (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Cryoturris cerinella (Dall, 1889)
Cryoturris fargoi McGinty, 1955
Cryoturris filifera (Dall, 1881)
Cryoturris quadrilineata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Daphnella corbicula Dall, 1889
Daphnella elata Dall, 1889
Daphnella eugrammata (Dall, 1902)
Daphnella margaretae Lyons, 1972
Daphnella retifera Dall, 1889
Daphnella stegeri McGinty, 1955
Glyphoturris quadrata (Reeve, 1845)
Gymnobella agassizii (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Gymnobela blakeana (Dall, 1889)
Ithycthara auberiana (d’Orbigny, 1847)
Ithycythara lanceolata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Ithycythara parkeri Abbott, 1958
Kurtziella accincta (Montagu, 1808)
Kurtziella atrostyla (Tryon, 1884)
Kurtziella limonitella (Dall, 1883)
Kurtziella perryae Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Kurtziella serga (Dall, 1881)
Mangelia astricta Reeve, 1846
Mangelia bartletti (Dall, 1889)
Mangelia exsculpta (Watson, 1881)
Mangelia pelagia (Dall, 1881)
Mangelia pourtalesi (Dall, 1881)

Mangelia scipio (Dall, 1889)
Mangelia subsida (Dall, 1881)
Pyrgocythara balteata (Reeve, 1846)
Pyrgocythara candidissima (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Pyrgocythara densistriata (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Pyrgocythara hemphilli Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Pyrgocythara plicosa (C.B. Adams, 1850)
Rimosodaphnella morra (Dall, 1881)
Rubellatoma diomedea Bartsch and Rehder, 1939
Rubellatoma rubella (Kurtz and Stimpson, 1851)
Stellatoma antonia (Dall, 1881)
Stellatoma monocingulata (Dall, 1889)
Stellatoma stellata (Stearns, 1872)
Order Heterobranchia
Superfamily Architectonicoidea
Family Architectonicidae
Architectonica nobilis Röding, 1798
Architectonica peracuta (Dall, 1889)
Architectonica sunderlandi Petuch, 1987
Heliacus bisulcatus (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Heliacus cylindrus (Gmelin, 1791)
Heliacus perrieri (Rochebrune, 1881)
Philippia krebsi (Mörch, 1875)
Solatisonax borealis (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Family Mathildidae
Mathilda barbadensis Dall, 189
Mathilda hendersoni Dall, 1927
Mathilda yucatecana Dall, 1927
Superfamily Pyramidelloidea
Family Amathinidae
Amathina pacei (Petuch, 1987) E
Subclass Opisthobranchia
Order Cephalaspidea (groups with large shells only)
Superfamily Acteonoidea
Family Acteonidae
Acteon candens Rehder, 1939
Acteon cumingii A. Adams, 1854
Acteon danaida Dall, 1881
Acteon delicatus Dall, 1881
Acteon finlayi McGinty, 1955
Acteon incisus Dall, 1881
Acteon melampoides Dall, 1881
Acteon perforatus Dall, 1881
Acteon pusillus (Forbes, 1844)
Japonacteon punctostriata (C.B. Adams, 1840)
Ovulacteon meeki Dall, 1889
Family Bullinidae
Bullina exquisita McGinty, 1955 P
Family Aplustridae
Hydatina vesicaria (Lightfoot, 1786)
Micromelo undatus (Bruguiere, 1792)
Superfamily Philinoidea
Family Cylichnidae
Cylichnella bidentata (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Scaphander punctostriatus Mighels, 1841
Scaphander watsoni Dall, 1881
Scaphander (Sabatia) bathymophila Dall, 1881
Superfamily Haminoeoidea
Family Haminoeidae
Atys macandrewi E.A. Smith, 1872
Atys riiseanus Mörch, 1875
Atys sandersoni Dall, 1881
Haminoea antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Haminoea elegans (Gray, 1825)
Haminoea taylorae Petuch, 1987 E
Family Acteocinidae
Acteocina bullata (Kiener, 1834)
Acteocina candei (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Acteocina inconspicua Olsson and McGinty, 1958
Acteocina recta (d’Orbigny, 1841)
Utriculastra canaliculata (Say, 1822)
Superfamily Bulloidea
Family Bullidae
Bulla eburnea Dall, 1881
Bulla frankovichi Petuch and Sargent, 2011
Bulla occidentalis A. Adams, 1850
Bulla solida Gmelin, 1791
Subclass Pulmonata
Order Basommatophora
Superfamily Siphonarioidea
Family Siphonariidae
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) alternata Say, 1826
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) pectinata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Williamia krebsi (Mörch, 1877)
Order Eupulmonata
Suborder Actophila
Superfamily Ellobioidea
Family Ellobiidae
Apodopsis novimundi Pilsbry and McGinty, 1949
Blauneria heteroclita (Montagu, 1808)
Detracia bulloides (Montagu, 1808)
Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer, 1856)
Ellobium (Auriculoides) dominicense (Ferrusac, 1821)
Laemodonta cubensis (Pfeiffer, 1854)

Marinula succinea (Pfeiffer, 1854)
Melampus bidentatus (Say, 1822)
Melampus coffeus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Melampus monilis (Bruguiere, 1792)
Melampus morrisoni Martins, 1996
Microtralia occidentalis (Pfeiffer, 1854)
Ovatella myosotis (Draparnaud, 1801)
Pedipes mirabilis (Megerle von Mühlfeld, 1816)
Pedipes ovalis (C.B. Adams, 1849)
Tralia ovula (Bruguiere, 1792)
Order Stylommatophora
Suborder Sigmurethra
Superfamily Urocoptoidea
Family Cerionidae (salt-tolerant terrestrial species found in the supratidal zone)
Cerion incanum (Binney, 1851)
Cerion incanum fasciatum (Binney, 1859)
Cerion incanum saccharimeta Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1899
Cerion incanum vaccinum Pilsbry, 1902
Superfamily Orthalicoidea
Family Orthalicidae (arboreal gastropods with color forms and subspecies endemic to
the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 2 named color forms in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis Pilsbry, 1912 (with 1 named color form in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus graphicus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 8 named color forms in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 2 named color forms in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus matecumbensis Pilsbry, 1912 (with 1 named color form in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus solidus (Say, 1825) (with 4 named color forms in the Keys)
Liguus fasciatus testudineus Pilsbry, 1912 (with 2 named color forms in the Keys)
Orthalicus floridensis (Pilsbry, 1899)
Orthalicus reses (Say, 1825)
Orthalicus reses nesodryas Pilsbry, 1946
Family Bulimulidae (arboreal gastropods)
Drymaeus hemphilli (B. H. Wright, 1889)
Drymaeus multilineatus (Say, 1825)
Drymaeus multilineatus latizonatus Pilsbry, 1936
Class Bivalvia
Subclass Protobranchia
Order Nuculoida
Superfamily Nuculoidea
Family Nuculidae
Eunucula aegeensis (Forbes, 1844)
Nucula calcicola D. Moore, 1977
Nucula crenulata A. Adams, 1856
Nucula delphinodonta Mighels and C.B. Adams, 1842
Nucula proxima Say, 1822
Order Solemyoida
Superfamily Solemyoidea
Family Solemyidae
Solemya occidentalis Deshayes, 1857
Solemya velum Say, 1822
Order Nuculanoida
Superfamily Nuculanoidea
Family Nuculanidae
Ledella sublaevis Verrill and Bush, 1898
Nuculana acuta (Conrad, 1832)
Nuculana concentrica (Say, 1824)
Nuculana jamaicensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Nuculana semen (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Nuculana verrilliana (Dall, 1886)
Nuculana vitrea (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Propeleda carpenteri (Dall, 1881)
Family Yoldiidae
Yoldia liorhina Dall, 1881
Subclass Pteriomorpha
Order Arcoida
Superfamily Arcoidea
Family Arcidae
Anadara baughmani (Hertlein, 1951)
Anadara floridana (Conrad, 1869)
Anadara transversa (Say, 1822)
Arca imbricata Bruguiere, 1792
Arca rachelcarsonae Petuch and Myers, new species E
Arca zebra (Swainson, 1833)
Barbatia cancellaria (Lamarck, 1811)
Bathyarca glomerula (Dall, 1881)
Bentharca sagrinata (Dall, 1886)
Caloosarca notabilis (Röding, 1798)
Cucullearca candida (Helbling, 1779)
Fugleria tenera (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Scapharca brasiliana (Lamarck, 1819)
Scapharca chemnitzii (Philippi, 1851)
Family Noetiidae
Arcopsis adamsi (Dall, 1886)
Noetia ponderosa (Say, 1822)
Family Glycymeridae
Glycymeris americana (DeFrance, 1826)
Glycymeris decussata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Glycymeris spectralis Nicol, 1952
Glycymeris undata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tucetona pectinata (Gmelin, 1791)
Tucetona subtilis Nicol, 1956
Superfamily Limopsoidea
Family Limopsidae
Limopsis aurita (Brocchi, 1814)
Limopsis cristata Jeffreys, 1876

Limopsis minuta (Philippi, 1836)
Limopsis sulcata Verrill and Bush, 1898
Order Mytiloida
Superfamily Mytiloidea
Family Mytilidae
Amygdalum politum (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Amygdalum sagittatum (Rehder, 1935)
Arcuatula papyria (Conrad, 1846)
Brachidontes domingensis (Lamarck, 1819)
Brachidontes exustus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Brachidontes modiolus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crenella decussata (Montagu, 1808)
Dacrydium hendersoni Salas and Gofas, 1997
Geukensia granosissima (Sowerby III, 1914)
Gregariella coralliophaga (Gmelin, 1791)
Ischadium recurvum (Rafinesque, 1820)
Lioberus castaneus (Say, 1822)
Lithophaga antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lithophaga aristata (Dillwyn, 1817)
Lithophaga bisulcata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lithophaga nigra (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Modiolus americanus (Leach, 1815)
Modiolus squamosus Beauperthuy, 1967
Musculus lateralis (Say, 1822)
Order Pterioida
Superfamily Pterioidea
Family Pteriidae
Pinctada imbricata Röding, 1798
Pinctada longisquamosa (Dunker, 1852)
Pteria vitrea (Reeve, 1857)
Family Isognomonidae
Isognomon alatus (Gmelin, 1791)
Isognomon bicolor (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Isognomon radiatus (Anton, 1838)
Family Malleidae
Malleus candeanus (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Superfamily Ostreoidea
Family Ostreidae
Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding, 1828)
Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791)
Dendrostrea frons (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ostreola equestris (Say, 1834)
Teskeyostrea weberi (Olsson, 1951)
Family Gryphaeidae
Hyotissa mcgintyi (Harry, 1985)
Neopycnodonte cochlear (Poli, 1795)
Superfamily Pinnoidea
Family Pinnidae
Atrina rigida (Lightfoot, 1786)
Atrina seminuda (Lamarck, 1786)
Atrina serrata (Sowerby I, 1825)
Pinna carnea Gmelin, 1791
Order Limoida
Superfamily Limoidea
Family Limidae
Ctenoides mitis (Lamarck, 1807)
Ctenoides planulata (Dall, 1886)
Ctenoides samanensis Stuardo, 1982 (miamiensis is a synonym)
Ctenoides sanctipauli Stuardo, 1982
Ctenoides scabra (Born, 1778)
Divarilima albicoma (Dall, 1886)
Lima caribaea d’Orbigny, 1853
Limaria pellucida (C.B. Adams, 1846)
Limatula confusa (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Limatula setifera Dall, 1886
Limatula subovata (Jeffreys, 1876)
Limea bronniana Dall, 1886
Order Pectinoida
Superfamily Pectinoidea
Family Pectinidae
Aequipecten glyptus (Verrill, 1882)
Aequipecten lineolaris (Lamarck, 1819)
Antillipecten antillarum (Recluz, 1853)
Argopecten gibbus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argopecten irradians taylorae Petuch, 1987 (Florida Keys; western Florida to Mississippi)
Argopecten nucleus (Born, 1778)
Caribachlamys imbricatus (Gmelin, 1791) (incorrectly referred to as pellucens)
Caribachlamys mildredae (Bayer, 1941)
Caribachlamys ornatus (Lamarck, 1819)
Caribachlamys sentis (Reeve, 1853)
Cryptopecten phrygium (Dall, 1886)
Euvola laurenti (Gmelin, 1791)
Euvola marshallae Petuch and Myers, new species (incorrectly referred to as papyracea)
Euvola raveneli (Dall, 1898)
Euvola ziczac (Linnaeus, 1758)
Laevichlamys multisquamata (Dunker, 1864)
Lindapecten exasperatus (Sowerby II, 1842) (acanthodes is a synonym)
Lindapecten lindae Petuch, 1995
Lindapecten muscosus (Wood, 1828)
Nodipecten fragosus (Conrad, 1849)
Spathochlamys benedicti (Verrill and Bush, 1897)
Family Propeamussiidae
Cyclopecten thalassinus (Dall, 1886)
Hyalopecten strigillatus (Dall, 1889)
Parvamussium pourtalesianum (Dall, 1886)
Parvamussium sayanum (Dall, 1886)

Propeamussium cancellatum (E.A. Smith, 1885)
Similipecten nanus (Verrill and Bush, 1897)
Family Spondylidae
Spondylus americanus Hermann, 1781
Spondylus tenuis Schriebers, 1793 (ictericus is a synonym)
Superfamily Plicatuloidea
Family Plicatulidae
Plicatula gibbosa Lamarck, 1801
Superfamily Anomioidea
Family Anomiidae
Anomia simplex d’Orbigny, 1853
Pododesmus rudis (Broderip, 1834)
Subclass Heterodonta
Order Carditoida
Superfamily Crassitelloidea
Family Crassitellidae
Crassinella dupliniana (Dall, 1903)
Crassinella lunulata (Conrad, 1834)
Crassinella martinicensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Eucrassatella speciosa (A. Adams, 1852)
Family Astartidae
Astarte nana E.A. Smith, 1881
Astarte smithii Dall, 1866
Astarte subaequilatera Sowerby II, 1854
Family Carditidae
Carditamera floridana Conrad, 1838
Glans dominguensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Pleuromeris tridentata (Say, 1826)
Pteromeris perplana (Conrad, 1841)
Order Anomalodesmata
Superfamily Pandoroidea
Family Pandoridae
Pandora bushiana Dall, 1886
Pandora glacialis Leach, 1819
Pandora inflata Boss and Merrill, 1965
Family Lyonsiidae
Entodesma beana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Lyonsia floridana Conrad, 1849
Family Periplomatidae
Periploma margaritaceum (Lamarck, 1801)
Periploma tenerum (Fischer, 1882)
Family Thraciidae
Asthenothaerus hemphilli Dall, 1886
Bushia elegans (Dall, 1886)
Thracia morrisoni Petit, 1964
Thracia phaseolina Lamarck, 1911
Thracia stimpsoni Dall, 1886
Order Septibranchia
Superfamily Poromyoidea
Family Poromyidae
Poromya albida Dall, 1886
Poromya granulata (Nyst and Westendorp, 1839)
Poromya rostrata Rehder, 1943
Family Verticordia
Euciroa elegantissima (Dall, 1881)
Haliris fischeriana (Dall, 1881)
Spinosipella acuticostata (Philippi, 1844)
Trigonulina ornata d’Orbigny, 1853
Family Cuspidariidae
Cardiomya alternata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Cardiomya gemma Verrill and Bush, 1898
Cardiomya perrostrata (Dall, 1881)
Cardiomya ornatissima (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Cardiomya striata (Jeffreys, 1876)
Cuspidaria obesa (Loven, 1846)
Cuspidaria rostrata (Spengler, 1793)
Myonera gigantea (Verrill, 1884)
Myonera lamellifera (Dall, 1881)
Myonera paucistriata Dall, 1886
Plectodon granulatus (Dall, 1881)
Order Veneroida
Superfamily Lucinoidea
Family Lucinidae
Anodontia alba Link, 1807
Anodontia schrammi (Crosse, 1876)
Callucina keenae Chavan, 1971
Cavilinga blanda (Dall, 1901)
Codakia orbicularis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ctena orbiculata (Montagu, 1808)
Ctena pectinella (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Divalinga quadricostata (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Lucina pensylvanica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lucinisca muricata (Spengler, 1798)
Lucinisca nassula (Conrad, 1846)
Myrtea sagrinata (Dall, 1886)
Myrteopsis lens (Verrill and Smith, 1880)
Parvilucina costata (d’Orbigny, 1845)
Parvilucina crenella (Dall, 1901)
Phacoides pectinata (Gmelin, 1791)
Pleurolucina sombrerensis (Dall, 1886)
Radiolucina amianta (Dall, 1901)
Stewartia floridana (Conrad, 1833)
Family Ungulinidae
Diplodonta notata Dall and Simpson, 1901
Diplodonta nucleiformis (Wagner, 1840)

Diplodonta punctata (Say, 1822)
Phlyctiderma semiaspera (Philippi, 1836)
Phlyctiderma soror (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Family Thyasiridae
Thyasira grandis (Verrill and Smith, 1885)
Thyasira trisinuata (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Superfamily Chamoidea
Family Chamidae
Arcinella cornuta Conrad, 1866
Chama congregata Conrad, 1833
Chama florida Lamarck, 1819
Chama inezae (Bayer, 1943)
Chama macerophylla Gmelin, 1791
Chama radians Lamarck, 1819
Chama sarda Reeve, 1847
Superfamily Galeommatoidea
Family Lasaeidae
Erycina periscopiana Dall, 1899
Kellia suborbicularis (Montagu, 1803)
Lasaea adansoni (Gmelin, 1791)
Mysella planulata (Stimpson, 1851)
Orobitella floridana (Dall, 1899)
Superfamily Hiatelloidea
Family Hiatellidae
Hiatella arctica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hiatella azaria (Dall, 1881)
Superfamily Gastrochaenoidea
Family Gastrochaenidae
Gastrochaena ovata (Sowerby I, 1834)
Lamychaena hians (Gmelin, 1791)
Spengleria rostrata (Spengler, 1783)
Superfamily Arcticoidea
Family Trapezidae
Coralliophaga coralliophaga (Gmelin, 1791)
Superfamily Cyamioidea
Family Sportellidae
Basterotia elliptica (Recluz, 1850)
Basterotia quadrata (Hinds, 1843)
Ensitellops protexta (Conrad, 1841)
Superfamily Sphaerioidea
Family Corbiculidae
Polymesoda maritima (d’Orbigny, 1842) (P. floridana is a synonym)
Superfamily Cardioidea
Family Cardiidae
Americardia guppyi Theile, 1910
Americardia lightbourni Lee and Huber, 2012

Americardia media (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dallocardia muricata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dinocardium vanhyningi Clench and Smith, 1944 T
Laevicardium mortoni (Conrad, 1830)
Laevicardium pictum (Ravenel, 1861)
Laevicardium serratum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Microcardium peramabile (Dall, 1881)
Microcardium tinctum (Dall, 1881)
Papyridea lata (Born, 1778)
Papyridea semisulcata (Gray, 1825)
Papyridea soleniformis (Bruguiere, 1789)
Trachycardium egmontianum (Shuttleworth, 1856)
Trigonocardia antillarum (d’Orbigny, 1842)
Superfamily Veneroidea
Family Veneridae
Anomalocardia cuneimeris (Conrad, 1846)
Callista eucymata (Dall, 1890)
Callista maculata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chione cancellata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chione elevata Say, 1822
Chione mazyckii Dall, 1902
Chionopsis intapurpurea (Conrad, 1849)
Choristodon robustum (Sowerby I, 1834)
Circomphalis strigillinus (Dall, 1902)
Cooperella atlantica Rehder, 1943
Dosinia discus (Reeve, 1850)
Dosinia elegans (Conrad, 1846)
Gemma gemma (Totten, 1834)
Globivenus rigida (Dillwyn, 1817)
Globivenus rugatina (Heilprin, 1886)
Lirophora clenchi (Pulley, 1952)
Lirophora paphia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lirophora varicosa (Sowerby II, 1853) (= latilirata of authors)
Macrocallista nimbosa (Lightfoot, 1786)
Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin, 1791)
Mercenaria hartae Petuch, 2013 P
Mercenaria mercenaria notata (Say, 1822) P
Parastarte triquetra (Conrad, 1846)
Periglypta listeri (Gray, 1838)
Petricola lapicida (Gmelin, 1791)
Petricolaria pholadiformis (Lamarck, 1818)
Pitar albidus (Gmelin, 1791)
Pitar circinatus (Born, 1778)
Pitar dione (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pitar fulminatus (Menke, 1828)
Pitar simpsoni (Dall, 1895)

Puberella pubera (Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1827)
Timoclea grus (Holmes, 1858)
Timoclea pygmaea (Lamarck, 1818)
Tivela abaconis Dall, 1902
Tivela floridana Rehder, 1939 P
Tivela mactroides (Born, 1778)
Transennella conradiana (Dall, 1884)
Transennella cubaniana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Transennella culebrana (Dall and Simpson, 1901)
Transennella stimpsoni Dall, 1902
Superfamily Tellinoidea
Family Tellinidae
Acorylus gouldi (Hanley, 1846)
Angulus merus (Say, 1834)
Angulus paramerus (Boss, 1964)
Angulus tampaensis (Conrad, 1866)
Angulus texanus (Dall, 1900)
Angulus versicolor (DeKay, 1843)
Arcopagia fausta (Pulteney, 1799)
Cymatoica hendersoni Rehder, 1939
Eurytellina angulosa (Gmelin, 1791)
Eurytellina alternata (Say, 1822)
Eurytellina lineata (Turton, 1819)
Eurytellina nitens (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Eurytellina punicea (Born, 1778)
Laciolina laevigata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Laciolina magna (Spengler, 1798)
Leporimetus intastriata (Say, 1826)
Macoma brevifrons (Say, 1834)
Macoma cerina (C.B. Adams, 1845)
Macoma extenuata Dall, 1900
Macoma limula Dall, 1895
Macoma tenta (Say, 1834)
Merisca aequistriata (Say, 1824)
Merisca cristallina (Spengler, 1798)
Merisca martinicensis (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Scissula candeana (d’Orbigny, 1853)
Scissula iris (Say, 1822)
Scissula similis (Sowerby I, 1806)

Strigilla mirabilis (Philippi, 1841)
Tellidora cristata (Recluz, 1842)
Tellina radiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tellinella listeri (Röding, 1798)
Family Donacidae
Donax variabilis Say, 1822
Iphigenia brasiliana (Lamarck, 1818)
Family Psammobiidae
Asaphis deflorata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gari circe (Mörch, 1876)
Heterodonax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Sanguinolaria sanguinolenta (Gmelin, 1791)
Family Semelidae
Abra aequalis (Say, 1822)
Cumingia coarctata Sowerby I, 1833
Ervilia concentrica (Holmes, 1858)
Ervilia nitens (Montagu, 1808)
Ervilia subcancellata E.A. Smith, 1885
Semele bellastriata (Conrad, 1837)
Semele donovani McGinty, 1955 P
Semele proficua (Pulteney, 1799)
Semele purpurascens (Gmelin, 1791)
Semelina nuculoides (Conrad, 1841)
Family Solecurtidae
Solecurtus cumingianus (Dunker, 1861)
Tagelus divisus (Spengler, 1794)
Tagelus plebeius (Lightfoot, 1786)
Superfamily Solenoidea
Family Pharidae
Superfamily Mactroidea
Family Mactridae
Anatina anatina (Spengler, 1802)
Mactrotoma fragilis (Gmelin, 1791)
Mulinia lateralis (Say, 1822)
Raeta plicatella (Lamarck, 1818)
Spisula raveneli (Conrad, 1832)
Superfamily Dreissenoidea
Family Dreissenidae
Mytilopsis leucophaeata (Conrad, 1831)
Mytilopsis sallei (Recluz, 1849)
Superfamily Myoidea
Family Myidae
Sphenia fragilis (H. and A. Adams, 1854)
Family Corbulidae
Caryocorbula chittyana (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Caryocorbula contracta (Say, 1822)
Caryocorbula cymella (Dall, 1881)
Caryocorbula dietziana (C.B. Adams, 1852)
Juliacorbula aequivalvis (Philippi, 1836)
Variacorbula limatula (Conrad, 1846)
Variacorbula philippii (E.A. Smith, 1845)
Superfamily Pholadoidea
Family Pholadidiae
Barnea truncata (Say, 1822)
Cyrtopleura costata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Martesia cuneiformis (Say, 1822)
Martesia striata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pholas campechiensis Gmelin, 1791
iew of a small Red Mangrove and Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) island in Chokoloskee Bay, Collier
V
County, Florida. This island formation, composed of a combination of oyster bioherms and man-
grove forests, is typical of the Inner Ten Thousand Islands of the Reticulated Coastal Swamps.
Ecologic, oceanographic,
and geographic terms
The following is a list of ecological, geographical, geomorphological, and oceanographic
terms that appear throughout the book. Only those that refer directly to the Florida Keys
and adjacent areas are included.
A Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage

Cerithium lutosum Assemblage
Aggregated Patch Reef Macrohabitat Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage
Alligator Reef Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage
Anastasia Formation Chokoloskee Bay, Ten Thousand Islands
Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage Chokoloskee Pass, Ten Thousand Islands
Atlantic Coastal Ridge Coastal Marine Ecological Classification Standard
(CMECS)
B Coffee Mill Hammock Member
Collier County
Back Bays Comer Key, Ten Thousand Islands
Bahia Honda Key Conch Key
Barnes Sound Coralline Algal Beds
Batillaria minima Assemblage Crane Point Hammock
Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage
Bermont Formation Cymatium rehderi Assemblage
Big Cypress Swamp Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage
Big Pine Key
Big Pine-Little Torch Channel D
Biscayne Bay
Black Mangrove Forests Dade County
Black Water Sound Deep Coralline Algal Beds
Boca Grande Key Deep Coral Reef Formation
Broward County Deep Reef Talus Macrohabitat
Bulla occidentalis Assemblage Deep Softbottom Macrohabitat
Deep Softbottom Terraces
Demes
C Demijohn Key, Ten Thousand Islands
Distal Atolls
Caloosahatchee Formation Dry Tortugas
Cape Romano Dwarf Mangrove Meadows
Cape Sable
Card Sound
Caribbean Current E
Caribbean Molluscan Province Elliott Key
Carolinian Molluscan Province Estuarine Regime
Carysfort Reef Everglades National Park
Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage Everglades Pseudoatoll
283
284 Ecologic, oceanographic, and geographic terms
F Lignumvitae Key
Linear Coral Reef Formation
Fakahatchee Pass, Ten Thousand Islands Little Lake Worth
Florida Bay Little Pine Key
Florida Current Little Torch Key
Florida Keys Looe Key
Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary Lossman’s Key
Florida Platform Low Florida Keys
Florida Reef Tract Lower Florida Keys
Florida Straits Lower Matecumbe Key
Floridian Molluscan Subprovince Lumber Key, Ten Thousand Islands
Formations
Fort Thompson Formation
French Reef M
MacArthur State Park
G Macrohabitat
Main Vegetative Mass Biotope
Gastropod Reef Macrohabitat Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) Beds
Georgian Molluscan Subprovince Mangrove Terrapin
Gorgonian Forest Biotope Marathon
Gulf Loop Current Marquesas Keys
Gulf of Mexico Matecumbe Key Raccoon (Procyon lotor inesperatus)
Gulf Stream Melampus coffeus Assemblage
Miami Archipelago
H Miami Formation
Miami Oölite Banks
Harry Harris Park Miami Terrace
Hawk Channel Middle Florida Keys
High Coral Keys Middle Torch Key
Holey Land Member Missouri Key
Howe Key Modulus calusa Assemblage
Molasses Reef
I Monroe County
Monroe Reef Tract
Indian Key, Ten Thousand Islands Munyon Island, Lake Worth Lagoon
Individual Grass Blade Biotope
Individual Patch Reef Macrohabitat
Inner Ten Thousand Islands N
Intertidal Open Carbonate Mud Flats Nearshore Marine Regime
Nerita versicolor Assemblage
J Neritic Regime
Non-Coral Reef Formation
Janthina janthina Assemblage No Name Key
Jewell Key, Ten Thousand Islands
O
K
Oceanic Regime
Key Biscayne Ohio Key
Key Largo Okeechobean Sea
Key Largo Formation Oölite Keys
Key Largo Reef System Open Oceanic Pleuston
Key West Outer Ten Thousand Islands
Key West National Wildlife Refuge Oval Seagrass (Halophila ovalis) Beds
Oxfoot Bank
L
Lagoon Formation P
Lake Worth Lagoon Palm Beach
Land Formation Palm Beach County
Ecologic, oceanographic, and geographic terms 285
Palm Beach Provinciatone Stephanoconus regius Assemblage

Panther Key, Ten Thousand Islands Stock Island
Pavilion Key, Ten Thousand Islands Sublittoral Open Carbonate Sand Seafloors
Pelagic Macrohabitat Sugar Loaf Key
Pickles Reef Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince
Pine Point, Singer Island
Plantation Key T
Pleuston
Pneumatophores Ten Thousand Islands
Polinices lacteus Assemblage Ten Thousand Islands Raccoon (Procyon lotor
Pompano Beach marinus)
Pourtales Terrace Terrestrial Interface
Pulley Ridge Texan Molluscan Subprovince
Three Sisters Rocks
R Tiger Key, Ten Thousand Islands
Torch Key Raccoon (Procyon lotor incautus)
Rabbit Key, Ten Thousand Islands Tortugas Gyre
Rabbit Key Basin Tortugas Valleys
Rachel Carson Key Totten Key
Red Mangrove Forests Tripod Bank
Regimes Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum) Beds
Rehderia schmitti Assemblage Turtle Key, Ten Thousand Islands
Reticulated Coastal Swamps
Rhizome Root Mat Biotope U
Rhodoliths
Rock-Boring Sea Urchin Micro-Cave Biotope Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat
Round Key, Ten Thousand Islands Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat
Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat
S Upper Florida Keys
Upper Matecumbe Key
Saltwort (Salicornia spp)
Sandfly Pass, Ten Thousand Islands V
Sand Key
Sangamonian Interglacial Stage Vaca Key
Schooner Bank Vaca Key Raccoon (Procyon lotor auspicatus)
Scout Key Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat
Sea Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum) Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat
Seminole Lagoon System Vermetus nigricans Assemblage
Shallow Coral Reef Formation Virginia Key
Shoal Grass (Halodule wrightii) Beds Volterra–Gauss Principle
Simpson Hammock
Singer Island, Lake Worth Lagoon W
Soldier Key
Sombrero Reef Wisconsinan Glacial Stage
South Florida Bight Windley Key
Sponge Bioherm Biotope Worm Shell Reefs
Sponge Bioherms
Sprigger Bank Y
Spur and Groove Platform Reef Macrohabitat
Star Grass (Halophila engelmannii) Beds Yellow Mussel (Brachidontes modiolus) Beds
orsal view of Dauciconus glicksteini (Petuch, 1987), one of the rarest cone shells from the deep coral
D
reefs off southeastern Florida and the Florida Keys. This specimen was collected off Boynton Beach,
Palm Beach County, Florida. (Photography by Jennie Petuch)
Illustrated specimens
The species and subspecies illustrated in Chapters 2 through 10 are listed here by figure
number. Species that are listed, but not illustrated, in the individual biodiversity sections
are not included.
A Attenuiconus attenuatus Figure 6.9B

Attiliosa philippiana Figure 8.4L
Aliger gallus Figure 8.3G, H
Aurinia dubia Figure 9.5A, B
Amathina pacei Figure 7.9C–E
Americardia lightbourni Figure 9.3B B
Americoliva bollingi Figure 6.8A–F
Americoliva edwardsae Figure 1.5I Babelomurex scalariformis Figure 7.4E
Americoliva matchetti Figure 9.6D–F Bailya intricata Figure 7.4B
Americoliva recourti Figure 9.6A–C Bailya parva Figure 7.4H
Americoliva sunderlandi Figure 9.3J, K Barbatia cancellaria Figure 3.10E
Amerilittorina angustior Figure 3.6G, H Barnea truncata Figure 4.5K
Amerilittorina jamaicensis Figure 3.6I, J Bartschia significans Figure 9.4F
Amerilittorina placida Figure 3.6L Batillaria minima Figure 6.2C, D
Amerilittorina ziczac Figure 3.6K Bayericerithium litteratum Figure 5.8C, D
Angiola lineata Figure 3.7B Bayericerithium semiferrugineum Figure 7.4J
Angulus sybariticus Figure 6.13F Bostrycapulus aculeatus Figure 5.8I
Anodontia alba Figure 4.16C Brachidontes exustus Figure 2.7D
Anomalocardia cuneimeris Figure 6.3G Brachidontes modiolus Figure 5.2L
Anomia simplex Figure 2.7E Bulla frankovichi Figure 5.4D, E, L
Antillipecten antillarum Figure 4.12I, J Bulla occidentalis Figure 4.2J, K
Arca imbricata Figure 5.8H Bursa cubaniana Figure 7.6J
Arca rachelcarsonae Figure 8.4A–C Bursa (Colubrellina) corrugata Figure 7.6F, G
Arca zebra Figure 5.8L Bursa (Colubrellina) tenuisculpta Figure 8.4E
Architectonica peracuta Figure 9.4D Bursa (Lampasopsis) grayana Figure 7.6I
Arcopagia fausta Figure 4.13A
C
Arcopsis adamsi Figure 3.10F
Arcuatula papyria Figure 4.5A Calliostoma adelae Figure 4.8D
Arene cruentata Figure 7.3A Calliostoma fascinans Figure 8.2J
Arene vanhyningi Figure 7.3B Calliostoma javanicum Figure 7.3G
Argopecten gibbus Figure 6.7J Calliostoma jujubinum Figure 7.3D
Argopecten irradians taylorae Figure 4.12A–D Calliostoma (Kombologion) benedicti Figure 8.4D
Argopecten nucleus Figure 4.12E, F Calliostoma pulchrum Figure 7.3C
Asaphis deflorata Figure 6.2K Calliostoma scalenum Figure 8.3D
Astralium phoebia Figure 4.8B Calliostoma tampaense Figure 7.6L
Atlanticonus granulatus Figure 8.2J Callista maculata Figure 6.7H
Atrina rigida Figure 4.16J Caloosarca notabilis Figure 6.3I
287
288 Illustrated specimens
Calotrophon ostrearum Figure 4.14K Columbella rusticoides Figure 4.11A

Cancellaria adelae Figure 6.8I Conasprelloides stimpsoni Figure 9.7A
Cancellaria richardpetiti Figure 9.3I Conasprelloides villepini Figure 9.7D
Cancellomorum dennisoni Figure 8.3E, F Coralliophila caribbaea Figure 7.4A
Carditamera floridana Figure 4.5H Coralliophila galea Figure 7.4C
Caribachlamys imbricatus Figure 7.9F, G Coralliophila pacei Figure 8.3B
Caribachlamys mildredae Figure 7.9H, I Costoanachis avara Figure 4.11F
Caribachlamys ornatus Figure 7.9J, K Costoanachis floridana Figure 4.11D
Caribachlamys sentis Figure 7.9A, B Costoanachis semiplicata Figure 7.16J, K
Cariboconus griffini Figure 1.5K Costoanachis sertulariarum Figure 4.11C
Caricellopsis matchetti Figure 9.3H, I Costoanachis sparsa Figure 4.11E
Cassis flammea Figure 7.7A, B Crassispira mesoleuca Figure 5.2B
Cassis madagascariensis Figure 6.6I, J Crassostrea rhizophorae Figure 2.7C
Cassis spinella Figure 6.6G, H Crassostrea virginica Figure 2.8F
Cassis tuberosa Figure 6.6K, L Crepidula convexa Figure 2.8C
Casmaria atlantica Figure 6.4E Crepidula ustulatulina Figure 4.7J–L
Cenchritis muricatus Figure 3.3A, B Cryptopecten phrygium Figure 9.4B
Cerion incanum Figure 2.10D, E Ctena orbiculata Figure 4.13F
Cerion incanum fasciatum Figure 2.10H, I Cucullearca candida Figure 3.8J
Cerion incanum saccharimeta Figure 2.10F, G Cyclinella tenuis Figure 6.13D
Cerion incanum vaccinum Figure 2.10J, K Cymatium femorale Figure 4.8G, H
Cerithideopsis costatus Figure 2.1A Cymatium (Gutturnium) muricinum Figure 7.6C
Cerithideopsis scalariformis Figure 2.10B, C Cymatium (Gutturnium) nicobaricum Figure 7.6D
Cerithium atratum Figure 4.7I Cymatium (Monoplex) aquatile Figure 7.7I, J
Cerithium eburneum Figure 4.7H Cymatium (Monoplex) pileare Figure 7.7G, H
Cerithium lindae Figure 6.12A, B Cymatium (Ranularia) cynocephalum Figure 4.8I, J
Cerithium lutosum Figure 3.8F, G Cymatium (Ranularia) rehderi Figure 8.2E, F
Cerithium muscarum Figure 4.7G Cymatium (Septa) krebsii Figures 1.7B; 8.3A
Cerodrillia clappi Figure 5.2D Cymatium (Septa) occidentale Figure 7.7K, L
Chama congregata Figure 7.1 Cymatium (Tritoniscus) labiosum Figure 7.6E
Chama florida Figure 7.11B Cyphoma alleneae Figure 7.5F
Chama inezae Figure 7.11C Cyphoma gibbosum Figure 5.6A–C
Chama macerophylla Figure 7.11A Cyphoma lindae Figure 9.1C
Charonia variegata Figure 7.6A, B Cyphoma mcgintyi Figure 5.6D–F
Chelyconus ermineus Figure 7.10L Cyphoma rhomba Figure 5.6G, H
Chicoreus dilectus Figure 4.14D–F Cyphoma sedlaki Figure 5.6J
Chicoreus mergus Figure 8.2I Cyphoma signatum Figure 5.6I
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Figure 9.1A, B Cyphoma tomeui Figure 1.4D
Chione elevata Figure 6.2A Cyphoma voleki Figure 1.4L
Chione mazyckii Figure 4.13G Cypraecassis testiculus Figure 7.7C, D
Cinctura capelettii Figure 1.5F Cyrtopleura costata Figure 6.2H
Cinctura hunteria Figure 4.2C, D
Cinctura tortugana Figure 9.1L
Clenchina dohrni Figure 9.5G, H D
Clenchina florida Figure 9.5I, J
Clenchina gouldiana Figure 9.5K, L Dallocardia muricata Figure 4.16D
Clenchina marionae Figure 9.5E, F Dauciconus amphiurgus Figure 8.5G, H
Cochlespira elegans Figure 9.7B Dauciconus aureonimbosus Figure 9.2A
Codakia orbicularis Figure 4.16A Dauciconus daucus Figure 6.9A
Collisella leucopleura Figure 3.10B Dauciconus glicksteini Figure 8.5J
Colubraria testacea Figure 7.4L Dendostrea frons Figure 5.6L
Columbella mercatoria Figure 5.3A Dermomurex pacei Figure 7.8A, B
Illustrated specimens 289
Dermomurex (Gracilimurex) elizabethae G

Figure 7.8E, F
Gemmula periscelida Figure 9.7C
Dermomurex pauperculus Figure 7.8C, D
Gemophos auritulus Figure 7.4G
Dermomurex (Trialatella) glicksteini Figure 8.5E
Gemophos filistriatus Figure 8.5B
Dibaphimitra florida Figure 6.10G
Gemophos tinctus Figure 5.8A, B
Dinocardium vanhyningi Figure 7.16A
Gemophos tinctus pacei Figure 7.14D, E
Diodora cayenensis Figure 3.8A
Geukensia granosissima Figure 2.3A
Diodora listeri Figure 3.8B
Gladioconus mus Figure 7.10K
Diodora minuta Figure 3.8C
Gradiconus anabathrum Figure 7.14H
Divalinga quadrisulcata Figure 6.3L
Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami
Divaricella dentata Figure 6.13E
Figure 6.10A–D
Dolicholatirus cayohuesonicus Figure 7.6K
Gradiconus burryae
Dosinia discus Figure 4.16G
Figures 1.7F; 4.9A–F; 4.10A, B
Dosinia elegans Figure 4.16H
Gradiconus capelettii Figure 1.5F
Drymaeus hemphilli Figure 10.7H, J
Gradiconus holeylandicus Figure 1.5G
Drymaeus hemphilli form clarissimus
Gradiconus mazzolii Figures 4.10C, D; 5.4F–K
Figure 10.7I
Gradiconus philippii Figure 9.2B
Drymaeus multilineatus Figures 10.7G; 10.8
Gyroscala lamellosa Figure 6.10J
E H
Echinolittorina antoni Figure 3.3F Haliotis pourtalesi Figure 9.1M

Echinolittorina antoni form major Figure 3.3G Haminoea antillarum Figure 4.2H, I
Echinolittorina dilatata Figure 3.3H Haminoea taylorae Figure 4.2F, G
Echinolittorina dilatata form thiarella Figure 3.3I Hastula cinerea Figure 6.8E
Echinolittorina tuberculata Figure 3.3E Hastula hastata Figure 6.7D
Ellobium (Auriculoides) dominicense Hastula salleana Figure 6.7M
Figure 7.16H, I Heilprinia lindae Figure 9.2E
Engina turbinella Figure 7.4I Hespererato maugeriae Figure 7.5E
Erosaria acicularis Figure 7.5I, J Hesperisternia harasewychi Figure 9.3C, D
Eupleura sulcidentata Figure 3.10J Hesperisternia multangula Figure 4.14I
Eurytellina lineata Figure 6.7K Hesperisternia sulzyckii Figure 9.3E, F
Eustrombus gigas Figures 1.7I; 6.10H, I Heterodonax bimaculatus Figure 4.5D
Euvola marshallae Figure 9.4A Hipponix antiquatus Figure 5.8F
Hyalina avenacea Figure 6.8K
Hydatina vesicaria Figures 4.2L; 4.15
F Hyotissa mcgintyi Figure 7.11G
Fasciolaria bullisi Figure 9.3A
Fasciolaria tulipa Figures 4.14G; 7.14C J
Favartia cellulosa Figure 5.2H Janthina janthina Figure 9.8A, B
Favartia goldbergi Figure 8.5A Janthina (Jodina) exigua Figure 9.8E, F
Favartia lindae Figure 9.1F Janthina (Violetta) globosa Figure 9.8G
Favartia pacei Figure 5.2G Janthina (Violetta) pallida Figure 9.8C, D
Fenimorea fucata Figure 9.3M Jaspidella jaspidea Figure 6.7A
Fenimorea halidorema Figure 7.3K Jaspidiconus fluviamaris Figure 6.9G, H
Fenimorea sunderlandi Figure 9.2I Jaspidiconus mindanus Figure 7.10I
Ficus carolae Figure 9.7K Jaspidiconus pealii Figure 4.9G–L
Ficus communis Figure 7.16D Jaspidiconus pfluegeri Figures 1.7G; 6.9K–M
Fossarilittorina meleagris Figure 3.7A Jaspidiconus stearnsi Figure 7.14L
Fulguropsis pyruloides Figure 7.14J Jaspidiconus vanhyningi Figure 6.9I, J
Fulguropsis spiratum keysensis Figure 5.4C Jenneria loxahatchiensis Figure 1.4C
K Littoraria nebulosa Figures 7.15; 7.16B, C

Lobatus raninus Figure 4.8K
Kellyconus binghamae Figure 8.5H
Lucapina aegis Figure 7.3H
Kohniconus delessertii Figure 9.2F
Lucapina sowerbii Figure 3.8D
Kohniconus species Figure 9.6G, H
Lucapina suffusa Figure 3.8E
Lucina pensylvanica Figure 4.16B
L Luria cinerea Figure 7.5K, L
Laciolina magna Figure 6.7I Luria voleki Figure 1.4A
Laevicardium mortoni Figure 4.16F
Laevicardium serratum Figure 4.16E M
Laevichlamys multisquamata Figure 8.2B Macoma cerina Figure 4.5E
Leucozonia jacarusoi Figure 9.1K Macrocallista nimbosa Figure 4.5G
Leucozonia lineata Figure 7.4F Macrocypraea joanneae Figure 1.4I
Leucozonia nassa Figure 5.8E Macrocypraea zebra Figures 2.8A, B; 7.5D
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus Figure 10.3E Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) cervus
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus form lineolatus Figures 1.7C, D; 7.5G, H
Figure 10.3C Macrocypraea (Lorenzicypraea) spengleri
Liguus fasciatus castaneozonatus form roseatus Figure 1.4G, H
Figures 10.2; 10.3B Macrostrombus costatus Figure 6.5A, B
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis Figure 10.3D Mactrotoma fragilis Figure 4.5I
Liguus fasciatus elliottensis form vacaensis Malea petiti Figure 1.4J
Figure 10.5H Malleus candeanus Figure 7.11H
Liguus fasciatus graphicus Figure 10.5A Marevalvata bairdi Figure 8.2A
Liguus fasciatus graphicus form innominatus Marevalvata tricarinata Figure 8.2C
Figures 10.4; 10.5B Melampus bidentatus Figure 2.3E, F
Liguus fasciatus graphicus form lignumvitae Melampus coffeus Figure 2.3G, H
Figure 10.5C Melampus monilis Figure 2.3J, K
Liguus fasciatus graphicus form osmenti Melampus morrisoni Figure 2.3
Figure 10.5D Melarhaphe mespillum Figure 3.7E
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus Figure 10.3G Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor Figures 3.10I, J; 4.2E
Liguus fasciatus lossmanicus form aurantius Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor form estephomenos
Figure 10.3H Figure 3.10A
Liguus fasciatus matecumbensis Figure 10.5G Melongena (Rexmela) corona Figure 7.14I
Liguus fasciatus solidus form pictus Figure 10.5E Melongena (Rexmela) corona winnerae
Liguus fasciatus solidus form pseudopictus Figure 6.12J
Figure 10.5F Mercenaria campechiensis Figure 6.2E
Liguus fasciatus testudineus form marmoratus Mercenaria hartae Figure 6.13A
Figure 10.3E Metulella columbellata Figure 9.4L
Liguus fasciatus testudineus form ornatus Microcithara caloosahatcheensis Figure 1.5L
Figure 10.3F Micromelo undatus Figures 4.2A, B; 4.3
Lima caribaea Figure 7.11I Mitrella argus Figure 3.8H
Limaria pellucida Figure 7.11D Mitrella ocellata Figure 3.8I
Lindaconus atlanticus Figures 1.7K; 6.9E, F Modiolus americanus Figure 5.8J
Lindaconus aureofasciatus Figure 9.2D Modulus calusa Figures 4.7A–F; 6.13H
Lindaconus swearingeni Figure 1.5H Modulus calusa foxhalli Figure 6.13H
Lindafulgur lyonsi Figure 9.3G Modulus floridanus Figure 7.14K
Lindapecten exasperatus Figure 4.12G, H Modulus kaicherae Figure 8.4M
Lindapecten lindae Figure 9.2G, H Modulus lindae Figure 8.4K
Lindapecten muscosus Figure 5.4A, B Modulus pacei Figure 6.12E, F
Lindoliva spengleri Figure 1.5A Morum oniscus Figure 7.10A
Lirophora varicosa Figure 9.2K Morum purpureum Figure 7.10B
Lithopoma americana Figure 4.8A Mulinia lateralis Figure 4.5B
Littoraria angulifera Figure 2.7A, B Murexiella caitlinae Figure 5.2L, J
Illustrated specimens 291
Murexiella glypta Figure 5.2K Phyllonotus oculatus Figure 8.2G, H

Murexiella hidalgoi Figure 9.4M Phyllonotus pomum Figure 4.14A–C
Murexiella kalafuti Figure 9.1G Phyllonotus whymani Figure 9.1D, E
Murexiella levicula Figure 9.1I Pilsbryspira albocincta Figure 7.3M
Murexiella taylorae Figure 9.2J Pilsbryspira leucocyma Figure 5.2F
Muricopsis oxytatus Figure 7.8G, H Pinna carnea Figure 4.16I
Mytilopsis leucophaeta Figure 2.10L Pinctada longisquamosa Figure 4.13B, C
Myurella taurina Figure 6.8F Pisania pusio Figure 5.8K
Myurellina lindae Figure 9.2C Pitar fulminatus Figure 4.13H
Plicatula gibbosa Figure 7.11E
N Plicopurpura patula Figure 3.7K, L
Polinices lacteus Figure 6.4G
Naticarius canrena Figure 6.4F Polinices uberinus Figure 6.4H
Nebularia barbadensis Figures 1.7A; 7.10H Polygona angulata Figure 7.3J
Neodrillia blacki Figure 5.2A Polygona carinifera Figure 7.3I
Neodrillia cydia Figure 5.2E Polymesoda maritima Figure 2.13
Neodrillia moseri Figure 7.4D Polystira albida Figure 9.4C
Nerita (Linnerita) peloronta Figure 3.6E, F Polystira florencae Figure 9.7G
Nerita (Ritena) versicolor Figure 3.6A, B Polystira sunderlandi Figure 9.2L
Nerita (Theliostyla) fulgurans Figure 2.8G, H Propustularia surinamensis Figure 8.4H, I
Nerita (Theliostyla) lindae Figure 2.8I, J Prunum apicinum Figure 6.13K, L
Nerita (Theliostyla) tesselata Figure 3.6C, D Prunum apicinum virgineum Figure 3.10G, H
Neritina (Vitta) clenchi Figure 6.2I Prunum carneum Figure 4.11G, H
Neritina (Vitta) usnea Figure 6.2J Prunum evelynae Figure 6.13I, J
Neritina (Vitta) virginea Figure 6.2G Prunum frumari Figure 9.4K
Neverita delessertiana Figure 7.16E–G Prunum guttatum Figure 4.11I–L
Neverita delessertiana patriceae Figure 6.12G–I Prunum guttatum nobilianum Figure 6.13M
Niveria nix Figure 8.3K Pseudocyphoma gibbulum Figure 8.4J
Niveria quadripunctata Figure 7.5C Pseudocyphoma intermedium Figure 5.6K
Nodicostellaria laterculatum Figure 9.4J Pseudozonaria portelli Figure 1.4B
Nodipecten fragosus Figure 6.7L Pusula bermontiana Figure 1.4F
Noetia ponderosa Figure 6.3J Pusula juyingae Figure 8.4F, G
Pusula lindajoyceae Figure 1.4E
O Pusula pediculus Figure 7.5A, B
Pusula pullata Figure 7.5M
Olivella elongata Figure 6.13C
Pygmaepterys richardbinghami Figure 8.5D
Olivella floralia Figure 6.7C
Pyrazisinus palmbeachensis Figure 1.5D
Olivella (Dactylidia) dealbata Figure 6.7B
Pyrazisinus ultimus Figure 1.7J
Olivella (Dactylidia) mutica Figure 6.7E
Pyrgocythara hemphilli Figure 5.2E
Olivella (Dactylidia) pusilla Figure 6.3F
Orthalicus floridensis Figure 10.7E, F
Q
Orthalicus reses Figures 10.6; 10.7A, B
Orthalicus reses nesodryas Figure 10.7C, D Quoyula kalafuti Figure 7.8K, L
P R
Parvilucina costata Figure 6.13G Raeta plicatella Figure 6.3H

Patelloida pulcherrima Figure 4.8F Recluzia rollandiana Figure 9.8H
Patelloida pustulata Figure 3.8K Rehderia georgiana Figure 9.4G, H
Periglypta listeri Figure 4.13I Rehderia schmitti Figure 9.5C, D
Petricolaria pholadiformis Figure 4.5J
Phacoides pectinata Figure 4.5C S
Phrontis polygonatus Figure 6.3A, B Scabricola nodulosa Figure 7.10F
Phrontis vibex Figure 6.3C, D Scabricola pallida Figure 7.10G
Scapharca brasiliana Figure 6.3K Trachypollia nodulosa Figure 3.10C, D

Scaphella capelettii Figure 1.5J Trachypollia turricula Figure 7.8J
Scaphella junonia elizabethae Figure 6.8G, H Triplofusus papillosus Figure 4.14H
Scissula similis Figure 4.13C Tripterotyphis triangularis Figure 7.8I
Semele donovani Figure 6.13B Tritonoharpa lanceolata Figure 7.7F
Semele proficua Figure 4.5F Tritonoharpa janowskyi Figure 8.5C
Semele purpurascens Figure 6.7M Tucetona pectinata Figure 4.13D
Semicassis cicatricosa Figure 6.4C, D Tuckericonus flamingo Figure 8.5I
Semicassis granulata Figure 6.4A, B Tuckericonus flavescens caribbaeus Figure 6.9C, D
Sinistrofulgur sinistrum Figure 6.3E Turbo (Marmarostoma) castanea Figure 4.8C
Sinum maculosum Figure 6.8J Turbo (Taenioturbo) cailletii Figure 8.3C
Sinum minor Figure 9.6L Turbo (Taenioturbo) canaliculatus Figure 4.8L
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) alternata Figure 3.7F, G
Siphonaria (Patellopsis) pectinata Figure 3.7C, D U
Siratus articulatus Figure 9.7J
Siratus beaui Figure 9.4E Uzita alba Figure 6.4I, J
Solenosteira cancellarius Figure 1.7H Uzita consensa Figure 5.3I
Spathochlamys benedicti Figure 8.2D Uzita paucicostata Figure 6.4K, L
Spiroglyphus decussatus Figure 5.8G Uzita swearingeni Figure 5.3J–L
Spondylus americanus Figure 8.3I Uzita websteri Figure 5.3G, H
Spondylus tenuis Figure 7.11F
Stephanoconus regius Figure 7.10J V
Stigmaulax sulcatus Figure 6.4M
Stramonita buchecki Figure 6.12C, D, K, L Vasum muricatum Figures 1.7E; 7.4K
Stramonita floridana Figure 3.7I, J Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans Figure 7.14A
Stramonita rustica Figure 3.7H Vermicularia fargoi owensi Figure 7.14F, G
Strictospira redferni Figure 5.2C Vermicularia knorri Figure 5.3F
Strioterebrum dislocatum Figure 7.14B Vexillum arestum Figure 7.10M
Strioterebrum dislocatum onslowensis Figure 6.7G Vexillum dermestinum Figure 7.10E
Strioterebrum limatulum Figure 9.7I Vexillum exiguum Figure 5.3B
Strioterebrum lutescens Figure 9.7H Vexillum hendersoni Figure 9.4I
Strioterebrum protextum Figure 6.7F Vexillum moniliferum Figure 5.3C
Strioterebrum rushii Figure 9.7F Vexillum pulchellum Figure 7.10D
Strioterebrum vinosum Figure 7.14M Vexillum variatum Figure 7.10C
Strombus alatus Figure 6.6E, F Vokesimurex bellegladeensis Figure 1.5B, C
Strombus erici Figure 1.4K Vokesimurex cabrittii Figure 9.7E
Strombus pugilis Figure 6.6C, D Vokesimurex lindajoyceae Figure 9.1J
Vokesimurex morrisoni Figure 8.5K
T Vokesimurex rubidus Figure 6.10E, F
Vokesimurex rubidus form marcoensis
Tagelus divisus Figure 6.2L Figure 5.3D, E
Tagelus plebeius Figure 6.2F Vokesinotus perrugatus Figure 1.7L
Tectininus nodulosus Figure 3.3C, D
Tegula (Agathistoma) fasciata Figure 4.8E
X
Tegula (Agathistoma) hotessieriana Figure 7.3F
Tegula (Agathistoma) lividomaculata Figure 7.3E Xenophora microdiscus Figure 9.2M
Tellinella listeri Figure 4.13E
Tonna pennata Figure 6.8L
Z
Torcula exoleta Figure 8.2K
Torculoidella acropora Figure 8.2L Zafrona pulchella Figure 7.3L
Torculoidella lindae Figure 9.1H Zafrona taylorae Figure 4.11B
Index
A molluscan ecology, 23, 27
worm shell reefs and, 157
Abalone, 177, 186 Black Water Sound, 13, 31
Agaricia spp., 185 Blue Button, 212
Aggregated Patch Reef Macrohabitat, 17, 19 Blue corals, 185
Air-breathing snails, 27 “Blue Glaucus,” 212
Alligator Reef, 19 Boca Grande Key, 9, 43
Amathina pacei, 20, 145 Bonsai mangroves, 40
Americoliva matchetti, 201, 244 Brachidontes modiolus, 18, 21, 94, 95
Americoliva recourti, 201, 244–245 Brackish water pools, 35, 37
Anastasia Formation, 9, 17, 127 Brown algae beds, 122
Antipatharian thickets, 170, 175, 177, 186 Bubble shells, 61, 66, 68, 69
Arca rachelcarsonae, 177, 245–246 Bulimulid tree snails, 227, 231
Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage, 177, 180–184 Bulla occidentalis Assemblage, 61, 66, 68, 69
Ark shells, 55, 58, 177 By-the-Wind Sailor, 212
Atlantic Coastal Ridge, 5, 9, 219, 226–227
Aurinia spp., 199
C
B Cake Sponge, 87
Cake Urchins, 113
Babelomurex scalariformis, 20 Caloosahatchee Formation, 95
Back Bays, 13 Calusa Button Shell, 75
Bahia Honda Key, 31, 43 Campeche Venus, 103
Barnes Sound, 31 Cancellaria richardpetiti, 187
Bathymetric interfingering, 21 Candle Sponge, 87
Batillaria minima, 20 Cape Cod, 81
Batillaria minima Assemblage, 103, 107, 108 Cape Hatteras, 81, 211
Bayericerithium litteratum Assemblage, 21, 99, 102 Cape Romano, 156, 167
Beach grasses, 37 Cape Sable, 156, 167
Bellaspira pentagonalis, 180 Carbonate sand seafloors, 122, 123, 125
Bermont Formation, 7 Card Sound, 3
Big Cypress Swamp, 11, 167 Caribbean Current, 211
Big Pine Key, 9, 40, 43, 225 Caribbean Fighting Conch, 113
Big Pine-Little Torch Channel, 21 Caribbean Molluscan Province
Biscayne Bay, 1, 31, 81, 127 biogeography, xiv
Bivalves index species, 125
macrohabitats, 20–21 Carolinian Molluscan Province
macromollusk groups, xvii biogeography, xiv
micromollusk groups, xvii–xviii faunal elements, xiv–xvi
salt-tolerant, 37 micromollusk groups, xvii–xviii
Black Coral, 175 Palm Beach Provinciatone, 125, 131,
Black Mangrove forests 132, 133
ecosystem, 23 Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince, 157
Melampus coffeus Assemblage, 27, 29 Carrier Shell, 122
293
294 Index
Carson, Rachel, xiii, 23, 43 D

Carysfort Reef, 19
Cassidae, 19 Dade-Broward County, 196
Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage, 45 Dead coral reefs, 122, 123, 125, 138, 152
Cerion spp., 37, 40 Deep Coralline Algal Beds
Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage, 37, 40 Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage,
Cerithium lutosum Assemblage, 55, 58, 59 187–196
Cerodrillia clappi Assemblage, 21, 89, 93, 94 cone shells, 187
Cerodrillia hendersoni, 180 molluscan ecology, 185–187
Checker-Board Venus, 109 muricids, 186
Chelyconus ermineus, 20, 145, 148 ovulids, 186, 191
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae, 186, 187–196 vermivores, 187
Chicoreus rachelcarsonae Assemblage, 187–196 Deep Coral Reef Formation, 17, 19
Chokoloskee Bay, 13 Deep Coral Reef Ledges
Chokoloskee Pass, 156, 167 Arca rachelcarsonae Assemblage, 180–184
Ciguatera poisoning, 113 calliostomatids, 177, 179
Clams cnidarians, 179
open intertidal mudflats, 103, 107 cone shells, 180
open sand seafloors, 109, 119 fissurellids, 175, 177
Clenchina spp., 199 modulids, 177
Coastal lagoons molluscan ecology, 175, 177, 179–180
cerithiids, 129 muricids, 179
muricids, 129 ovulids, 179, 181, 182
neritids, 129 triviids, 179, 181
Palm Beach, 125–133 vermivores, 180, 182–183
Coastal Marine Ecological Classification Standard Deep Reef Talus Macrohabitat, 17, 21
(CMECS) system, 15, 135, 185 biogeography, 19, 169, 172
Coffee Bean Shells, 27 cone shells, 172
Colonial tunicates, 138, 152, 179, 181 Cymatium rehderi Assemblage, 172, 174–175
Coon Oyster, 97 Deep Softbottom Macrohabitat, 17, 20, 21, 172
Coralline Algal Beds, 185–196 Deep Softbottom Terraces, 201, 203–204
Coralliophila pacei, 172 architectonids, 201, 204
Coral Reef Tract Macrohabitat, 7, 19; See also Florida columbellids, 201, 204
Reef Tract cone shells, 203, 208
ancestral, 5 echinoderms, 203
biotope, 135–136 endemic species, 197
bivalves, 145, 148, 154, 156 marginellids, 199, 205
bursids, 138, 153 molluscan ecology, 196–203
cone shells, 145, 148 nuculanids197, 209
echinoderms, 138 nuculids, 197, 209
endemic species, 138 olivellids, 199, 201, 205
fissurellids, 138, 148–149 Rehderia schmitti Assemblage, 203–211
gastropods, 138, 145, 148, 149–154 terebrids, 203, 208
molluscan assemblages, 21 vermivores, 201, 203, 208–209
muricids, 138, 145, 152 volutes, 199
ovulids, 145 volutomitrids, 201, 205
triviids, 138, 152 yoldiids, 197
Coral rubble seafloor, 122, 123, 125, 169, 172 Demes, grass blade, 69, 75
cnidarians, 122, 123 Demijohn Key, 156, 167
epitoniids, 122, 123 Distal Atolls, 11, 13, 18
Coral Shells, 138, 152 Dove shells, 55, 59, 75
Corky Sea Fingers, 95 Drymaeus tree snails, 227, 231
Cowrie shells, 177 Dry Tortugas, 1
Crane Point Hammock, 225 coralline algae, 20
Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage, 31, 35 deep coral reef, 175, 177, 179
Crown Conch, 157 deep softbottom terraces, 197
Cuban Banded Tree Snail, 216 geomorphology, 13
Cymatium rehderi Assemblage, 169, 172, 174–175 open carbonate sand seafloors, 109
Cyphoma rhomba Assemblage, 97 rhodolith beds, 185–187
Index 295
Dwarf crown conch, 53, 55 tree oysters, 27

Dwarf Mangrove Meadows, 40 unvegetated softbottom areas, 103
Yellow Mussel beds, 18, 21, 94–95
Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary, 1
E
Florida Peninsula, 11
Eastern Bay Scallop, 81 Florida Platform, 5
Egg Cowries, 95, 97 Florida Reef Tract, 7, 11, 13; See also Coral Reef Tract
Egg shells, 179 Macrohabitat
Elliott Key, 215 coral rubble seafloors, 122, 123, 125
Ermine Cone venom, 145 deep coral reef, 169, 172, 175, 179
Estuarine Regime, 17, 20 ecological types, 19
Euvola marshallae, 246–247 molluscan ecology, 135, 138, 145, 148–156
Everglades National Park, 11 Volterra-Gauss Principle, 148
formation of, 5 Florida Strait, 169
fossil mollusks, 3, 5 Floridian Molluscan Subprovince
Liguus tree snails, 216–227 biogeography, xiv
orthalicid tree snails, 227, 231 endemic species, xvi–xvii, 125
vermetid reefs, 167 Fort Thompson Formation, 9, 127
Everglades Pseudoatoll, 5 Fossil coral reefs, 43
French Reef, 19
F Frog Shells, 138
Fakahatchee Pass, 167 G

Fighting conches, 113
Flamingo Tongues, 97 Garden Key, 43
Floating molluscan fauna, 185, 211–212 Gastropod Reef Macrohabitat, 17, 19, 21
Florida Bay, 1 biogeography, 156, 157
ecosystem, 3 Vermetus nigricans Assemblage, 161–167
fossil mollusks, 3 Gastropods
geomorphology, 11, 13, 15 macrohabitats, 20–21
molluscan assemblages, 20–21 macromollusk groups, xvii
open carbonate sand seafloors, 109 Gemophos tinctus pacei, 157, 161
scallop industry, 81 Georgian Molluscan Subprovince, xiv, 125
sea grasses, 13, 18 Glassy Nautilus, 212
supratidal area, 35, 37 Glory of the Atlantic, 172
Florida Current, 211 Gorgonian Forest Biotope, 18
Florida Fighting Conch, 113 deep coral reef ledges, 175
Florida Keys, 1 deep-water rhodolith beds, 186
ancestral faunas, 5, 7, 9 interspersed ecosystems, 21, 95, 97
biogeography, xiii–xiv molluscan ecology, 95, 97
bulimulid tree snails, 227, 231 Gorgonian Oyster, 97
coralline algal beds, 185–196 Gradiconus spp., 3
deep-reef talus slope, 169, 172 Gradiconus anabathrum tranthami, 123
deep softbottom terraces, 196–203 “Great Blue Fleet,” 212
dwarf crown conch, 53, 55 Green Buttonwood forests, 37
ecosystem, 3 Green Sponge, 87
endemic cone shells, 123 Gulf Loop Current, 211
endemic coral reef species, 138 Gulf of Mexico, 13
faunal overlap, 21 Gulf Stream, 125, 211–212
geomorphology, 11, 13, 15
hardwood hammocks, 215–216 H
intertidal area, 49, 53
Liguus tree snails, 216–227 Hardwood hammocks, 215–216
molluscan fauna, xiv–xviii, 20–21 Harry Harris Park, 95
orthalicid tree snails, 227, 231 Hawk Channel, 11, 18
raccoons, 27 deep softbottom habitat, 187
rocky subtidal pools, 53, 55, 58, 59 echinoderms, 18–19
supratidal area, 35, 37 Sublittoral Open Carbonate Sand Seafloors, 109,
tide pools, 17, 18 113–122
296 Index
Heart Urchins, 113 Limidae, 148, 154

Helmet Shells, 138 Limpets, 53, 55
Hesperisternia sulzyckii, 242–243 Linear Coral Reef Macrohabitat, 17, 19
High Coral Keys, 11, 13 Little Lake Worth, 133
Howe Key, 225 Little Pine Key, 225
Hypersaline pools, 35, 37 Little Torch Channel, 21
Littoral rocky outcrops, 49, 53
I Living coral reefs, 19, 122, 145; See also Coral
Reef Tract Macrohabitat
Indian Key, 156 Loggerhead Sponge, 87, 89
Individual Grass Blade Biotope, 69 Looe Key, 19
Individual Patch Reef Macrohabitat, 17, 19 Lossman’s Key, 219
Inner Ten Thousand Islands, 13 Low Coral Keys, 11, 13
Interfingering pattern, 21 Lower Florida Keys
Intertidal Open Carbonate Mudflats, 103, 107, 108 hardwood trees, 215–216
Liguus tree snails, 222–227
J limestone platforms, 40, 87
open carbonate sand seafloors, 109
Janthina janthina Assemblage, 212 sponge reefs, 87, 89, 93, 94
Jewell Key, 156, 167 Lower Matecumbe Key, 222, 225, 227
Jones, Archie, 217, 227
M
K
MacArthur State Park, 133
Key Biscayne, 37, 109 Main Vegetative Mass Biotope, 69
Keyhole limpet, 55, 138, 148–149, 177 Manatee Grass beds, 18, 61, 69
Key Largo Mangrove forests
Cerion spp., 37 coastal, 127, 129
deep softbottom terraces, 196 worm shell reefs and, 157
Liguus tree snails, 219, 222 Mangrove Oyster, 29, 31
mussel beds, 95 Mangrove Periwinkle, 31
Key Largo Formation, 43 Mangrove Terrapin, 27, 29, 40
Key Largo Reef System, 7, 9, 11 Marquesas Keys, 11, 109, 197
Key West, 9, 40, 43, 215, 227 Measled Cowrie, 31
Key West National Wildlife Refuge, 27, 29 Melampus coffeus Assemblage, 27, 29
Melongena (Rexmela) bicolor, 18, 53, 55,
L 127, 157
Melongena (Rexmela) corona corona, 157
Lagoon Formation, 17, 18 Mercenaria spp., 129
Lake Worth Lagoon, 18, 31, 66, 125, 127 Miami Archipelago, 5
Land Formation, 17, 18 Miami Formation, 7, 9, 11, 18, 43
Land snails, salt-tolerant, 37 Miami Oölite Banks, 7
Late Pleistocene fossils, 127 Miami Terrace, 196, 201
Late Pleistocene Keys archipelago, 215 Microcaves, sea urchins, 87, 99, 102
Left-Handed Whelk, 103 Middle Florida Keys, 21
Leptadrillia splendida, 180 bulimulid tree snails, 231
Leptoceris spp., 185 coral reef tracts, 7
Lettuce Corals, 169 Liguus tree snails, 222–227
Leucozonia jacarusoi, 186–187 limestone platforms, 87
Lignumvitae Key, 225, 227, 231 orthalicid tree snails, 227
Liguus fasciatus graphicus, 225–226 Middle Torch Key, 225
Liguus tree snails Milk Conch, 113
Lower Florida Keys, 222–227 Mississippi River Delta, 81
Middle Florida Keys, 222–227 Missouri Key, 21, 95
subspecies, 216–219, 225–227 Modulus calusa Assemblage
Upper Florida Keys, 219–220 interspersed ecosystems, 21
Limestone platforms Turtle Grass beds, 69, 81, 83, 84–86
Florida Keys, 17–18, 87 Modulus calusa foxhalli, 239–240
Lower Florida Keys, 40 Molasses Reef, 19
Index 297
Monroe Reef Tract Peanut Island, 133

biogeography, 5 Pearl oyster, 75, 177
corals, 5, 7 Pectinid scallops
endemic species, 7 deep softbottom terraces, 197
prehistoric molluscan fauna, 5, 7, 9 open sand seafloors, 109, 117
Moon snail, 127 sponge bioherms, 89
Mudflats, 103, 107, 108 Turtle Grass beds, 75, 81
Mud snails, 201, 205 Pelagic Macrohabitat, 17, 20
Munyon Island, 133 Periwinkles, 49, 161
Murexiella spp., 95 Phyllonotus whymani, 186
Murexiella caitlinae, 241 Pickles Reef, 19
Pillar Coral, 169
Plantation Key, 95
N Pleistocene Seminole Lagoon, 127
Nearshore Marine regime, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Pleuston, 211–212
Nerita versicolor Assemblage, 49, 53 Pneumatophores, 23, 27, 40
Neritic Regime, 17, 19, 21 Polinices lacteus Assemblage, 113–122
Neverita spp., 127 Pompano Beach, 172
Neverita delessertiana patriceae, 240–241 Portuguese Man-of-War, 212
No Name Key, 37, 225 Pourtales Terrace, 196, 201
Noncoral Reef Formation, 17, 19 Power, Emilio Jorge, 227
North Palm Beach, 133 Prickly winkles, 45
Prunum spp., 199
Prunum apicinium virgineum, 55
O Pulley Ridge, 185–186
Purple corals, 185
Oceanic Regime, 15, 17, 20, 21, 185
Octocoral colonies, 95, 97, 179; See also Gorgonian
Forest Biotope Q
Ohio Key, 55 Queen Conch, 122
Okeechobean Sea, 5, 7, 9
Olive shells, 201
Oölite Keys, 11, 13, 18, 40 R
Open Oceanic Pleustonic Macrohabitat, 21, 185, Rabbit Key, 156, 157, 167
211–212 Rabbit Key Basin, 81
Orthalicidae, 222, 225–227 Raccoons, predation, 27, 29, 40
Orthalicid tree snails, 227, 231 Recent Florida Keys, 5, 9
Outer Ten Thousand Islands, 13 Recent Great Barrier Reef, 5
oyster banks, 157 Rachel Carson Key, 55
vermetid reefs, 156, 157 Red algae, deep water, 20, 175, 177, 185–186
Oval Seagrass, 129 Red Mangrove forests
Oysters Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage, 31, 35
coastal mangrove forests, 127, 129, 133 ecosystem, 29
deep coral reefs, 177 molluscan ecology, 29, 31, 35
gorgonian forests, 97 neritids, 27
vermetid reefs, 157, 161 worm shell reefs and, 157
Rehderia spp., 199
P Rehderia schmitti Assemblage, 203–211
Reticulated Coastal Swamps
Palm Beach, 1 ecosystems, 11, 13
bathymetric ecotones, 21 oyster banks, 157
coastal lagoons, 125–133 vermetid reefs, 157, 167
deep coral reefs, 175 Rhizome Root Mat Biotope, 69
rocky shore macrohabitat, 45, 49 Rhodolith nodules, 18, 205
Palm Beach Provinciatone, 125, 131, 132, 133 Rhodophyte beds, 20, 175, 177, 185–186
Palmer’s Eunicea, 95 Rock-boring Sea Urchin Microcave Biotope, 87, 99,
Panther Key, 156 102
Paper Argonaut, 212 Rough Strongback Tree, 215
Pavilion Key, 156 Round Key, 156
298 Index
S Sublittoral Open Carbonate Sand Seafloors, 109,

113–122
Salt-tolerant land snails, 37 Sublittoral rocky outcrops, 53, 55, 58, 59
Saltwater turtle, 27, 29 Sugar Loaf Key, 37
Saltworts, 35, 37 Supratidal rocky outcrops, 43, 45
Sandfly Pass, 156, 167 Suwannean Molluscan Subprovince, xiv, 157
Sand Key, 19
Sangamonian Interglacial Stage, 7, 9, 11, 127, 215
Scallops T
coral reef, 145 Taylor’s Bay Scallop, 81
deep softbottom terraces, 197 Ten Thousand Islands, 1
deep-water, 197 geomorphology, 11, 13, 15
Turtle Grass beds, 75, 81 molluscan assemblages, 20–21
Scaphella spp., 199 supratidal area, 35, 37
Scout Key, 9, 31, 43 vermetid reefs, 161–167
Sea cucumbers, 113 Ten Thousand Islands Raccoon, 27
Sea grasses Terrestrial Interface, 37, 40
bathymetric differences, 18, 61, 69 Texan Molluscan Subprovince, 129
coastal lagoons, 129 Three Sisters Rock, 95
Florida Bay, 13, 18 Tide pools, 17, 18
Tortugas Gyre, 122 Tiger Key, 156
Sea Plumes, 95 Torch Key Raccoon, 27
Sea Purslane, 23, 37 Tortugas Gyre, 122, 185
Sea Rod, 95 Tortugas Valleys, 196
Sea slug, 212 Totten Key, 219, 222
Sea urchins, 18, 87, 99, 102, 113 Tree Oysters, 27
Sea Whips, 95 Tritonharpa janowskyi, 179
Seminole Lagoon System, 127 Tulip Shell, 157
Shallow Coral Reef Formation, 17, 19 Turtle Grass beds, 13, 18
Shoal Grass biotopes, 69
bathymetry, 18, 61 bivalves, 81, 85–86
Bulla occidentalis Assemblage, 61, 66, 68, 69 gastropods, 69, 75, 81, 83–85
molluscan ecology, 61, 66 Turtle Key, 156
Simpson Hammock, 222
Soldier Key, 43
U
Soldierwood Tree, 215
Sombrero Reef, 19 Unvegetated Carbonate Sand Seafloors, 109, 113–122
South Florida Bight, 1, 13 Unvegetated Hardbottom Macrohabitat
Intertidal Open Carbonate Mudflats, 103, biotopes, 87
107, 108 ecosystems, 17, 18, 87
raccoons, 27 gorgonian forests, 95, 97
vermitid reefs, 156 molluscan assemblages, 21
Species radiation, cone shells, 3 sea urchin caves, 99, 102
Sponge Bioherm Biotope (“sponge reefs”) sponge bioherms, 87, 89, 93, 94
bivalves, 89, 94 Yellow Mussel beds, 94–95
deep coral reefs, 175, 177, 179 Unvegetated Rocky Shore Macrohabitat
gastropods, 89, 93, 94 columbellids, 55, 59
molluscan ecology, 18, 87, 89, 93, 94 ecosystems, 17, 18
Sponges littoral rocky outcrops, 49, 53
deep coral reefs, 177, 179 littorinids, 45, 49
deep softbottom terraces, 197 marginellids, 55, 59
deep-water rhodolith beds, 186 molluscan assemblages, 20
Sprawling Sponge, 87 muricids, 49
Spur and Groove Platform Reef Macrohabitat, 17, 19 neritids, 49, 53
Star corals, 5 sublittoral rocky outcrops, 53, 55, 58, 59
Star Grass beds, 122 supratidal rocky outcrops, 43, 45
Stephanoconus regius Assemblage, 138, 148–156 Unvegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat
Stock Island, 227 coastal lagoons, 125–133
Sublittoral exposed hardbottoms, 99, 102 ecosystems, 17, 18, 19
Index 299
intertidal mudflats, 103, 107, 108 Red Mangrove forests, 29, 31, 35
mixed coral rubble seafloors, 122, 123, 125 transitional wetlands, 35, 37, 40
molluscan assemblages, 21 Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat
neritids, 107 ecosystems, 17, 18
sand seafloors, 109, 113–122 molluscan assemblages, 21
tellinidae, 109, 121 Shoal Grass beds, 61, 66, 68, 69
Upper Florida Keys Turtle Grass beds, 69, 75, 81, 83–86
coral reef tracts, 7 Venus Clams, 109, 119
hardwood trees, 215–216 Vermetid reefs, 161–167
Liguus tree snails, 219–220 Vermetus (Thylaeodus) nigricans, 156
limestone platforms, 87 Vermetus nigricans Assemblage, 161–167
open carbonate sand seafloors, 109 Vermicularia fargoi owensi, 157, 161, 238–239
Upper Matecumbe Key, 231 “Violet Snails,” 212
Uzita swearingeni, 243–244 Virginia Key, 11
Vokesimurex rubidus, 123
V Volterra-Gauss principle, 49, 148
Vaca Key W
Cerion spp., 37
Liguus tree snails, 219, 222, 225 Worm shell bioherms, 19, 156, 157, 161–167
mussel beds, 95
orthalicid tree snails, 227 X
Vaca Key Raccoon, 27
Vase Sponge, 87 Xenophorids, 201, 204
Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat
Black Mangrove forests, 23, 27, 29 Y
ecosystems, 17, 23
molluscan assemblages, 20 Yellow Mussel Beds, 18, 21, 94–95
iew of a Florida Keys sunset, looking across the mangrove forests on No Name Key, Lower Florida
V
Keys. (Photograph by Rob Myers)

Vaughn 2009

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vaughn 2009

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vaughn 2009

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Molluscan Communities

of the Florida Keys

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4919-4 (eBook - PDF)

Chapter 2 Molluscan faunas of the vegetated sediment shore macrohabitat

Chapter 3 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated rocky shore macrohabitat

Chapter 4 Molluscan faunas of the vegetated softbottom macrohabitat

Biodiversity of the Bulla occidentalis Assemblage...................................................................... 66

Chapter 5 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated hardbottom macrohabitat

Chapter 6 Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated softbottom macrohabitat

Chapter 8 Molluscan faunas of the deep-reef talus macrohabitat

Chapter 9 Molluscan faunas of deep softbottom and pelagic macrohabitats

Chapter 10 Tree snails of the Florida Keys...........................................................................215

FAUNAL ELEMENTS FROM THE CAROLINIAN MOLLUSCAN PROVINCE

Cinctura hunteria (Perry, 1811) (Figure 4.4C, D; Chapter 4)

FAUNAL ELEMENTS FROM THE CARIBBEAN MOLLUSCAN PROVINCE (wide-

Gladioconus mus (Hwass, 1792) (Figure 7.10K; Chapter 7)

SPECIES ENDEMIC TO THE FLORIDIAN MOLLUSCAN SUBPROVINCE (taxa

Gradiconus mazzolii Petuch and Sargent, 2011 (Figure 5.4F–K; Chapter 5)

Currently, Petuch is a professor of geology in the Department of Geosciences at Florida

Robert F. Myers was born in 1953 and spent much of

Marine ecosystems of the Florida

Molluscan ecological research in the

Molluscan faunas of the ancestral Florida Keys

Americas. This uniquely Floridian prehistoric molluscan fauna is represented by beauti-

Geomorphology of the Florida Keys, Florida

Marine ecological units of the Florida Keys and adjacent areas

formation consequently contains sets of ecological macrohabitat biotopes that, individu-

The Vegetated Sediment Shore Macrohabitat encompasses forests of the Red

Molluscan assemblages of the Florida Keys,

Vegetated Softbottom Macrohabitat

Molluscan faunas of the vegetated

Molluscan ecology of the Black Mangrove forests

Biodiversity of the Melampus coffeus Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (also plant detritus)

Molluscan ecology of the Red Mangrove forests

estuarine molluscan assemblage, the Mangrove Periwinkle, Littoraria angulifera (Figure 2.6

Biodiversity of the Crassostrea rhizophorae Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (including algivores)

2. CARNIVORES (including scavengers and obligate omnivores)

Molluscan ecology of the supratidal

Biodiversity of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (including algivores and leaf litter feeders)

Figure 2.10 Mollusks of the Cerithideopsis costatus Assemblage and Terrestrial Interface. A =

Molluscan faunas of the unvegetated

Molluscan ecology of the supratidal rocky outcrops

Biodiversity of the Cenchritis muricatus Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (including algivores)

Figure 3.4 Close-up of living specimens of the littorinid gastropod Echinolittorina tuberculata

Molluscan ecology of the littoral rocky outcrops

Biodiversity of the Nerita versicolor Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (including algivores)

Molluscan ecology of the sublittoral rocky outcrops

Biodiversity of the Cerithium lutosum Assemblage

1. HERBIVORES (including algivores)

Molluscan faunas of the vegetated

Molluscan ecology of the Shoal Grass beds