tình trạng của ruộng bậc thang Ifugao

Understanding the Heritage of the Ifugao Rice Terraces
A. Understanding the Heritage of the

Ifugao Rice Terraces
To understand the Ifugao Rice Terraces site (IRT) is to understand
heritage conservation in its simplest form. It is a system of con-
servation bequeathed from one generation to the next, valued as a
source of livelihood for its present stewards.
For a typical Ifugao farmer who owns and tends a terrace parcel, it
is a family estate, cultivated to produce food and sustained by the
maintenance of water distribution channels that feed the terrace
paddies. Aesthetics, anthropological and ecological significance to
the rest of the world are secondary and remote, if indeed they are
concerns at all, to the managers of the landscape.
The terraces are composed of clusters of inherited properties built

and developed over the centuries to maximize the production of
the staple food of the Ifugao people, tinawon rice, literally, “once-
a-year” rice.
Through the dictates of the nature of the rice crop, amid an envi-
ronment that results in meagre yields at the cost of much labour,
the landscape has evolved as a system where belief and knowledge
are one and the same. Rituals were performed and terraces were
maintained for only one purpose: to increase the rice yield.
Yet the reason for the existence of the IRT is often missed by dis-
courses on its outstanding significance to the rest of humanity.
Most dwell on the famous beauty of the IRT while some focus on
the significant natural and cultural resources that it harbours. Now
challenged by inevitable changes and differing perspectives, dif-
ferent measures are considered to safeguard the site’s continuing
existence.
Contentious Points
Like many other sites that are conserved because of their importance
to food security, climate change and contribution to knowledge,
the IRT is facing the same development challenges that confront
protected agricultural sites, watersheds, biodiversity hosts, cultural
heritage sites and indigenous peoples’ enclaves. Global problems
such as poverty, out-migration, dispossession of property rights,
diminishing diversity and resource management conflicts are
major problems that the stakeholders of the IRT is struggling to
solve. In this sense, the IRT problem is also outstanding because it
is experiencing all the different conservation management issues in
one site. Whether international recognition of its outstanding value
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IMPACT: Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines
made a positive impact on the site is still debatable. Meanwhile,

the site itself is making an impact on conservation authorities,
academia, site managers and tourists through the knowledge that it
provides and the challenges it presents concerning its deteriorating
condition and responses by the site managers.
The most critical issue facing the IRT is its battle with conservation
and development. As one of the most marginalized provinces in
the country, it is in real need of development, especially in terms of
transportation and communications. Such infrastructure upgrades
target the improvement of health and education in the far-flung
Rice fields four months before harvest time villages. Not surprisingly, these are communities living in areas
(Photo: Noli Gabilo)
where cultural resources are intact. Progress, it is feared, is expected
to adversely affect the local culture.
The recognition of the IRT as both a World Heritage site and

a protected area occupied by an indigenous group of people is
another policy issue in need of attention. As a World Heritage site,
it is judged according to international conservation standards. Yet,
as an indigenous heritage, it is an ancestral domain lived in by the
Ifugaos who are accorded the right to manage their own resources
on their own terms by the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997
(Republic Act 8371). To date, the conflict is slowly being resolved
by land use planning processes.
However, the sustainable management of the site in the long

term requires the fundamental acceptance of the fact that IRT
management is all about safeguarding a conservation culture which
The same paddies right before harvest. has evolved through centuries of trial and error by a people who
(Photo: Noli Gabilo) have continuously responded to the ever-changing challenges over
time. As such, it has to be managed to meet the changing needs
of the twenty-first century. As a living culture imperiled by global
trends, its existence depends heavily on the survival of the living
repositories of indigenous knowledge. Therefore, safe-guarding
and sustaining these knowledge resources has become an urgent
priority.
Any conservation effort of the IRT has to understand these

conditions. Safeguarding the culture that built the IRT means
sustaining the well-being of the direct managers of the landscape.
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World Heritage Recognition

fte IRT was placed on the World Heritage List in 1995 in recognition
of its Outstanding Universal Value under criteria (iii), (iv) and (v)
According to the Operational Guidelines of the 1972 Convention

Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage, cultural landscapes “are illustrative of the evolution of
human society and settlement over time, under the inThuence of
physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural
environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces,
both external and internal. ftey should be selected on the basis both
of their outstanding universal value and of their representativity
in terms of a clearly deffned geo-cultural region and also for their
capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements of
such regions” (para. 36).
While oflcially referred to in the World Heritage List as the “Rice

Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras”, the ffve inscribed terrace
clusters are all found in four municipalities of Ifugao province.
Map 2. Location of Communities Hosting the Five Represen-

tative World Heritage Site Clusters in the IRT
Source: Rachel Guimbatan
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These are the Nagacadan terrace cluster of Kiangan, the Hungduan

terrace cluster, the central Mayoyao terrace cluster, the Bangaan
terrace cluster and the Batad terrace cluster. The last two are found
in the municipality of Banaue.
Box 1. World Heritage Inscription Criteria
Criterion (iii): The rice terraces are a dramatic testimony to a

community’s sustainable and primarily communal system of
rice production, based on harvesting water from the forest clad
mountain tops and creating stone terraces and ponds, a system
that has survived for two millennia.
Criterion (iv): The rice terraces are a memorial to the history

and labour of more than a thousand generations of small-scale
farmers who, working together as a community, have created
a landscape based on a delicate and sustainable use of natural
resources.
Criterion (v): The rice terraces are an outstanding example

of land-use resulting from a harmonious interaction between
people and their environment which has produced a steep
terraced landscape of great aesthetic beauty, now vulnerable to
social and economic changes.
In 2001, the World Heritage Committee placed the site on the World
Heritage in Danger list after an IUCN/ICOMOS mission took place
and at the request of the Philippine State Party “in recognition of
the human induced threats to the site and the need to concentrate
national and international energies on short-term and long-term
remedial and protective actions” (IUCN, 2002).
Cultural Assets
The Ifugaos, as custodians of the rice terraces, are also masters of their
land. Physically, technologically, culturally and supernaturally, they
have eked out an existence, merging day-to-day experience collected
for centuries with belief systems which aid them in coping with the
harshness of their environment. As such, they have become experts
in managing the limited natural resources granted by their mountain
forest abodes by combining their physical, mental and spiritual
energies. Their struggle for existence has created a unique landscape
and, at the same time, an attendant lifestyle that is distinctive. This
synergy of the hearts, minds and souls of a people is reflected in the
Rice terraces of the Batad Cluster indigenous knowledge systems and practices (IKSP) of the Ifugao
(Photo: Ifugao Cultural Heritage Office) Rice Terraces.
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Figure 3. Variations of Land Use and Indigenous Zoning

System in the IRT World Heritage Site
fte following comprise the primary areas of Ifugao IKSP:
Natural Resource Management

Ifugao is a watershed area, easily supplying one of the largest dams
in South-East Asia, the Magat dam. As a tropical rainforest area,
soil nutrients are well-dispersed, as evidenced by the thickness of
its forests.
ftese forests capture water and hold the soil in place. To maintain this
set-up, the locals follow a set of principles hinged on sustainability.
First and foremost is land zoning. Land is divided according to
altitude yet is also treated as part of a totality, the pu-gu (hill). From
the peaks to the mid-lower parts of mountains, the area is treated as a
watershed with human activity limited to hunting and the gathering
of honey, wild fruits, and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
Wood-cutting is especially prohibited here, with superstitions and
taboos warning of dangers wrought by the “unseen”, e.g. deities, fairies,
soul-drinkers, etc., should people disregard these customary laws.
From the lower areas of the mountains down to the terraces are
the muyong or private/clan woodlots. ftis is a forest zone where
people can gather ffrewood and lumber for their house-building
needs through selective harvesting. Replanting and aided growth
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are practiced to ensure the continuity and vigour of the muyong

forest. The muyong acts as a buffer between settlements and the
communal forests. It limits human activity in the upper reaches.
Immediately below it are the rice terraces maintained for food

production, specifically, rice, vegetables, snails, fish and other edible
aqua life. The terraces portion is governed by a set of complicated
rules and routines calendared according to the peculiarities of the
native rice variety and the seasonal behaviour of wildlife. Annual
agricultural activities led by agricultural priests are accompanied by
rituals invoking bountiful yield. Pest infestation has been managed
by these synchronized schedules.
On the lower parts, removed from the forests and the rice terraces
are clustered hamlets fenced in by buffer dolya or greenbelt areas.
The latter are planted with fruit trees such as citrus, guava, coffee
and the omnipresent areca tree. Like the muyong, the dolya acts as
buffer zone, limiting the build-up of houses and encroachment on
the rice terraces. The indigenous zoning systems for settlements and
terraces vary among the different ethnogroups represented by the
five WHS clusters.
Land-locked tenure and primogeniture customary laws govern private

land ownership and transfer. The majority of land is bequeathed to
the firstborn regardless of sex. The rest is distributed in a decreasing
measure according to order of birth. As the owner of most of the clan’s
muyong woodlots and rice fields, the firstborn has the responsibility of
ensuring that these are transferred whole and intact to a successor.
Soil Conservation Technology

Ifugao is a mountainous rainforest area. Rains wash away the topsoil
and cause erosion, especially during the increasingly unpredictable
typhoon season. The Ifugaos have come up with practical ways to
minimize the wastage of soil minerals caused by incessant rains. The
first technique is the construction of stair-like paddies which follow
the contours of the mountain. Mountain soil is trapped in the maze-
like structure, allowing only heavier stone particles to end up in the
rivers. By making terrace ponds, the collected water creates a seal that
prevents the formation of cracks in the sub-structure which would
otherwise lead to landslides. Aside from conserving the humus-rich
soil from the mountaintops, this system also minimizes siltation
as the paddies act as mud- and sand-traps. Secondly, the ancient
Rice terraces cluster in Dakkitan, Hungduan practice of planting camotes (sweet potatoes) in steep, unirrigated
(Photo: SITMo) areas minimizes soil erosion and degradation, with the grass planted
in between helping to stop eroded portions from collapsing.
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Figure 4. Agricultural Calendar. The timing of the rituals and

agricultural activities defined by the tinawon or “once-a year”
behaviour of the crop.
JAN FE B
M
C
AR
DE
APR
NOV
Agricultural Cycle
Ifugaos practicing ancient traditions follow an annual cycle of
farming and related rituals. The Ifugao traditional rice cycle consists
of five major stages.
The first stage is weeding, which starts in early September. This is the
time when rice stalks in the terraces are beginning to rot and decay.
The farmers uproot the stalks, pile them up and shape them into
pingkol (dome-like mounds) measuring about two feet in diameter
and two feet in height. On these mounds, a variety of vegetables like
pechay (Napa cabbage), cabbage, spring onions, garlic and other
legumes are grown.
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The second stage is land preparation, which starts in October.

Eroded portions of the rice terraces are fixed and rebuilt, with the
farmers applying skills in rock walling and building wood supports.
In addition, irrigation systems are also stabilized. Pingkol mounds
which have now been harvested of vegetables are levelled and
spread onto the floor of the rice paddies as compost.
The soil is ploughed and softened for the third stage, planting,
which commences from December at the earliest to February.
Afterwards, the plants need protection from pests, including rodents,

sparrows, domesticated fowl, worms and also from nutritional
deficiencies. A variety of measures for protection and cure are
deployed, categorized into physical and spiritual. The first includes
setting up traps and scarecrows and hunting the destructive pests.
The latter involves elaborate rituals such as the tag-tag/dog-al
(driving away) wherein ritual participants exorcise pests and bad
luck from house to house, across rice fields and in neighbouring
villages. Tikom (closing) is another ritual performed by the
mumbaki which serves to “close” the beaks of chicken and other
fowl and the mouths of rodents so that these animals may not feed
on the rice crop. Apart from pest protection, the growing rice will
also need weeding.
Finally, the fifth stage occurs in May-June, when the rice is

harvested, thoroughly dried and transported to nearby granaries
for storage. Prime seeds are selected for the next agricultural year.
For two months, the rice fields are left fallow until September, the
beginning of the next cycle of activities.
Box 2. Pingkol: A Best Practice in Agriculture Among the

Tuwali Ifugaos
One of the often overlooked aspects of the IRT is the pingkol

which literally means “rounded”. These are mounds of decaying
plant material, primarily rice stalks, rice field water weed (Najas
graminea), floating fern (Azolla pinnata), water hyacinths,
duckweed and other leafy succulent plants, that are made by
farmers during the rice cycle’s fallow season (about two months
after harvest) and planted with an assortment of vegetables.
Pingkol mounds used for growing vegeta-
bles during the fallow season: an essential The pingkol practice is “as old as the rice terraces themselves”,
part of the traditional agricultural cycle according to Helen Nicodam, a sprightly local woman in her
(Photo: Armand N. Camhol)
80s. It is a way in which the Ifugao traditional farmers make
good use of the fallow season. It has two benefits for farmers:
as an additional source of vegetables and as organic fertilizer,
as it is ploughed back into the terraces after the vegetables are
harvested. Culhi (1999) provides an in-depth analysis of the
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pingkol with an accompanying recommendation for farmers

and policymakers for its preservation because of its effect in
correcting zinc deficiency caused by the soil being underwater
for as long as a year.
The pingkol practice is endangered at present. Once prevalent in

most of the Tuwali municipalities, it is now found only in the few
remotest barangays where modern agricultural practices have
not yet taken root. It is under threat by: (i) changes in farming
practices and (ii) the introduction of exotic species to the Ifugao
ecosystem. Contemporary farming practices like the two-
cropping system have dealt a death-blow in the more modern
areas of Ifugao because there is no fallow period any more.
Moreover, the introduction of non-indigenous plant and animal
species to the Ifugao ecosystem, such as lowland high-yielding
varieties (HYVs) of rice, have led to the entry of pesticides and
inorganic fertilizers. Both have impacted upon the plant and
animal life in the rice terraces, exterminating species of native
fish (e.g. mudfish) and other plant and animal life-support
components for the pingkol, including the rice field waterweed
and the floating fern.
So far, the most destructive pest wreaking havoc on the pingkol,

the IRT, and the Ifugao ecosystem as a whole is the golden apple
snail (Pomacea canaliculata). The kuhol (or “golden” in the
Ifugao vernacular), is perhaps the perfect pest. It devours almost
everything in its path, including smaller snail species, fish and
frog eggs, many insect species and plant life in the terraces
including rice stalks and the components for the pingkol. It is
also prolific, producing eggs at a rapid rate, rendering pesticides
ineffective and useless.
This pest was unleashed into Ifugao’s farming areas by enterprising

Cabbage grown organically on pinkol in groups, with the knowledge and even active participation of the
Maggok, Hungduan, Ifugao. government (Cagauan and Joshi, 2002), supposedly to improve
(Photo: Armand N. Camhol) locals’ protein dietary intake. However, this did not consider the fact
that the Ifugaos already had native species of snail and fish, apart
from livestock and poultry, which they added to their diet.
The Hongan di Page (Agricultural Cycle Rituals)

The farming activities in the annual agricultural cycle are
accompanied by the hongan di page to appease gods and other
unseen beings so that the rice fields will yield plenty. According
to indigenous knowledge holder and former mumbaki Gumangan
Dulnuan of Ungol, the rituals are performed to enable the rice crops
to grow healthy and robust until harvest.
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Upon invitation of the kombale (male household head, literally

“owner of the house”), the mumbaki proceeds to the granary of the
former during the daytime and performs the rituals intended for
that specific exercise. One mumbaki can suffice but in the bigger
rituals like the kulpi and the hongot, he may be accompanied by
others. In between sips of home-grown baya (rice wine), the
native priest/performs. Invited guests may partake in the drinking
provided an aura of solemnity is observed.
Various animals are sacrificed in the rituals, depending on the

specific rite. It may range from an impa (young chick) in the kultud
ritual, to three or four mature chickens, to a pig or two for the
Men of all ages participate in a tagtag ritual longer ceremonies. The rituals all serve to appease several gods and
to drive away pests from the rice fields. spirits which are as follows: (i) Nabugbugan di Paged Kabunyan
(Photo: Sarah Encabo) (the Rice-Giver God from the Skyworld), (ii) Nabugbugan di Paged
Dalom (the Rice-Giver God from the Underworld), (iii) the umamo
(jealous deities) and (iv) bibiyo (roughly “fairies”).
According to myth, the Nabugbugan di Paged Kabunyan and Dalom

are the two gods which gave rice to the Ifugaos. The Rice-Giver God
from the Skyworld gave the variety which is known today as the
ipugo, or the rice of the kadangyan (affluent). The Rice-Giver God
from the Underworld provided the hairy variety called buukan, the
main staple of the nawotwot (poor). The umamo are gods which,
because of their jealous nature, cast bad spells and generally try to
harm the rice and farmers from the pre-planting activities until
harvest and storage. This also holds true for the bibiyo, unseen
beings which, due to their sensitive nature, tend to get whimsical.
For each of these spiritual beings, except in the kahiw ritual which
only requires the ceremonial pig jaw skin, a chicken is offered. One
goes to the Rice-Giver God of the Skyworld, another to the Rice-Giver
God of the Underworld, one to the jealous deities and another to the
fairies. However, the jealous deities and the fairies may be included
together and offered only just one chicken. The offering to the latter
may only be eaten by the mumbaki while the meat offered to the Rice-
Giver gods goes to the owner of the granary and those working in his
rice field, except in a few cases when the community may partake in
the feast.
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The following are the rituals performed in the annual agricultural

cycle:
Lukya (“To clear/open”)

This is the first of the fourteen rice rituals done in September when
farmers start weeding and clearing their rice fields prior to land
preparation. It is performed as a ritual of supplication or prayer to
the Rice-Giver Gods and the jealous deities as a pre-emptive action
against bitil (starvation). The lukya is performed to give word to
unseen spirits that farming activities will begin shortly. Two to three
full-grown chickens are sacrificed in this rite.
Hagnong
Performed during October, this ritual placates the gods who might
get disturbed or displeased with the land preparation activities. Two
to four chickens are offered to the Rice-Giver Gods and the jealous
deities.
In-apuy (“Firing up”)

This ritual serves to “fire up” or magically increase the rice in the
granaries from the previous agricultural year. This is the time when rice
harvested two agricultural years ago has been used up, hence the new
harvest from the previous agricultural year is taken out for pounding.
Four chickens are killed in this ritual. It is at this particular stage of the
Hongan di Page that animal offerings to the jealous deities are crucial
until the kulpi in March.
Hopnak/Panal (“Seed-bedding”)
In November, this is done to announce to the gods the start of seed-
bedding activities. Three to four chickens are sacrificed.
Lokan di Binong-o an Datag

The fifth ritual serves to appease spirits as the binong-o (stored seeds),
previously selected in the preceding harvest, are laid in the seedbeds.
The ritual is performed to ensure that the seedlings will sprout and grow
and that rats and birds will leave them be. One chicken is sacrificed to
the gods and served to the mangipatang (seed-bedder).
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Bolnat
This rite is performed before transplanting to magically increase the
seedlings in the seedbeds. It is hoped that the quantity of the seedlings
will match the needs of the supplicant, and if possible, an excess will be
given to those whose seedlings fall short of their needs. Two to three
chickens are offered.
Kulpi
The kulpi is one of the most important rice rituals, performed
usually in March when all of the rice fields are planted. It is designed
to protect the newly-planted rice from a host of rice diseases, like
yagyagona (literally “to shake”). Two to three chickens are sacrificed.
Its relevance is highlighted by the fact that it starts the five-month
abstinence for the mumbaki which ends in August. The following
are the most common diseases which the priest hopes to prevent
with the sacrifices and prayers to the gods and spirits:
• Danal: The young rice plants turn red and then die
• Kulung: Leaves of the young plants harbour worms which lay
eggs, killing the plant
• Udhok: Suckers are eaten by worms and the plants die
• Dolpop: Stunting of plants
• Lanu: Zinc deficiency
Tikom ( “The closing”)

Done after the kulpi around April-May, it is equally important as
the mumbaki calls on the gods to “close” the tikomon da (mouths
and beaks of rice predators like rats, chicken and sparrows) so that
instead of attacking the maturing rice plants, these animals will feed
on runo shoots. Two to three chickens are offered.
Kultud
This ninth ritual in the Ifugao agricultural calendar is done in May,
when the rice grains are maturing, to hasten ripening. A young
chick is sacrificed.
Hongot
This is a rice prestige ritual, carried out during the harvest season
from June to July. It lasts up to five hours. While harvesting is on-
going and the sonorous lubbit or dipdipu (drum of deerskin and
wood) is continuously beaten, ritual performers gather under a
granary to pray to the gods and deities. A pig and eight fully-grown
chickens or two pigs are butchered.
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Tuldag
In August, after everybody is done harvesting, this ritual is performed
so that the jealous deities and fairies may “return” the rice they have
“stolen” during harvest time. For those who performed the hongot ritual,
a pig is butchered. Otherwise, two to three chickens are sacrificed.
Ubaya
In this ritual, woven leaves of a ritual plant called dongla and a
giant fern are deployed around the boundaries of a village. Done
in August, the purpose is to ask blessings from the gods for fuller
harvests in the camote swidden patches and the rice fields and for
good health of livestock and poultry.
Danglot
Here, a chicken or duck is sacrificed. One of the shortest rituals
lasting for about an hour, this serves to bless the household after the
tuldag or ubaya rituals.
Kahiw
This ritual, done in August, ends the agricultural year. Here, no animals
are killed. Instead, the mumbaki uses the tangtang or ceremonial pig jaw
skin. For the mun-batawil (transporters of newly-harvested rice from
the rice fields to the private granaries using the batawil or wooden stick
carrier), the mamong-o (selector/s of the best grains for planting the
next agricultural year), and the mumpanu (gatherers of misplaced rice
bundles and stalks in the chaos of the harvesting activities), it is the end
of abstinence from bathing which started during the harvest season
in June. For the mumpangat (ritual master) or the native priest, this
ends five long months of abstinence which started from the kulpi ritual
in March forbidding the consumption of rice field aquatic products
(snails and mudfish), certain kinds of vegetables, meat served during a
Bangaan rice terraces, one of the clusters dead person’s wake, meat offered in the hagoho and the pahang human
inscribed in the World Heritage List blessing rituals, sex and bathing. It is believed that one who breaks the
(Photo: Rhodora Gonzales) rules of abstinence experiences unpleasant diseases and misfortune,
even death in the extreme cases.
The Value of the IRT to the Ifugaos

Up to the American occupation in the 1920s, Ifugaos put a premium
on their rice fields as it was the sine qua non of wealth. The more
rice fields one had, the richer one was, which equated to power. As
proof, the most powerful person in an Ifugao village who dictated
the flow of the yearly agricultural cycle was the one with the widest
rice fields, the ton-ak/tumon-ak.
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The entry of Western culture and its emphasis on formal education

and a monetized economy upstaged the rice fields. With a good
education, one could now support his family without needing to “get
dirty” working in the rice fields. Money, not rice fields, was now the
measure of wealth. Furthermore, money opened easy access to other
goods.
Perhaps, the ‘‘discovery’’ of the IRT by outsiders saved it from total

abandonment. As foreign eyes beheld and probed its beauty and
grandeur, locals realized they had a treasure worth conserving. Yet,
Ifugaos value it differently.
For the native custodians, the farmers, the terraces are their main
source of living. Year in and year out, they struggle to make the
rugged mountain lands productive to feed their families. They do
not share the tourists’ aesthetic appreciations for the IRT. For them,
as long as they work daily in their rice fields to maximize its output,
they are content enough. For as long as the stone walls are sturdy
and free of weeds, the irrigation systems work properly and pests
are under control, they are content.
In the municipalities where the rice terrace clusters are inscribed as

World Heritage Sites, there is a dichotomy of perceptions regarding
the rice terraces. In Banaue, the first area to be developed as a tourism
site, the farmers are aware that their rice fields draw in tourists, but
they have yet to benefit from it. They have feelings of enmity against
tourism establishments that are reaping the economic benefits from
tourism. Indeed, they may get part-time employment servicing
tourists as guides and selling their woodcarvings and weaving
products, but they are aware these are minuscule in comparison
to what the tourism-related establishments earn daily. In the other
three municipalities which are yet to increase tourism services,
farmers are more optimistic as their sites are being developed in a
more responsible manner, aimed at a more equitable distribution of
economic and social benefits from the tourism industry.
For Ifugaos who work and live outside the province or abroad, the
rice terraces constitute their identity and a badge of pride.
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Tourism in Ifugao: A Situational Analysis
B. Tourism in Ifugao: A Situational

Analysis
The rice terraces constitute the core of the tourism industry in the
province of Ifugao. For this reason, the extinction of the rice ter-
races will essentially spell the demise of tourism in the province.
The local tourism industry in Ifugao is analyzed here using Kot-

ler’s concept of product life cycles. This concept mainly states that a
product follows a certain pattern of life cycle. Typically, the pattern
commences with an introduction phase, followed by the growth
period, maturity stage and then a period of decline. However, there
are other instances wherein a product demonstrates a different pat-
tern. The IRT as a tourist destination or tourism product has passed
through different successive stages following a certain cycle over
time (Kotler and Keller, 2006).
The beginnings of tourism in the province can be traced back to the

colonial era in the mid-1700s continuing to the early part of the post-
colonial period (late 1940s to the 1960s). The turning point of tour-
ism in Ifugao took place in 1973 with the issuance of Presidential
Decree No. 260. The decree declared the IRT as one of the national
cultural treasures of the country. Issued by then President Ferdinand
E. Marcos, the decree aimed to preserve, restore and develop the
sites for the furtherance of Filipino cultural and national identity, as
well as for the promotion of tourism. The decree demonstrated an
expressed intent of the Philippine government to promote tourism
in the province of Ifugao.
The mid-1970s marked the start of the period of growth of the lo-
cal tourism industry. Tourist arrivals in Banaue sparked the estab-
lishment of small-scale tourism enterprises and the construction of
tourism-related infrastructure. Tourist inns and restaurants started
to be built along the upgraded national road leading to the town
centre. The Philippines Tourism Authority built the Banaue Hotel
and Youth Hostel with a capacity of about 500 people to provide the
main accommodation base for visitors.
In 1978, the first grand municipal cultural festival called the Banaue
Imbayah was held. This festival was organized to draw more tour-
ists to Banaue and to revive cultural awareness among the locals.
The 1980s marked the peak of the construction boom of tourism-
related establishments in Ifugao. The volume of domestic and for-
eign travellers to Ifugao swelled.
The 1990s saw the maturity of the local tourism industry as there
was a slowdown in the construction of tourism-related establish-
ments and tourism support infrastructure. Interestingly, however,
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Ifugao exhibited a rise and fall pattern in terms of new tourists es-
tablishments and tourist arrivals in the 1990s up to 2006.
Tourist Arrivals
Figure 5. Annual Tourist Arrival Growth Rate in Ifugao
80%
Source: DOT-CAR and the Ifugao Provincial Tourism Profile (2006)
Like any other tourist destination, Ifugao province is not isolated

from international and domestic states of affairs. Figure 5 indicates
a variable pattern or fluctuation of tourist arrivals in Ifugao from
1990 to 2006. Very low or even negative growth rates are evident
during the years 1992, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002 and 2005. These low
periods can be attributed to the impact of the Persian Gulf War, the
Asian financial crisis, the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks and the
meningococcemia outbreak in nearby Baguio City.
On the other hand, the years 1994, 1997 and 2004 illustrate the peaks
in the growth rate of tourist arrivals in the province. These rebounds
can be attributed to the joint responses of both private and public
sectors to cope with the crises. Over the past 16 years, the highest
growth rate in the visitor arrivals of Ifugao was achieved in 2004.
This may be the result of the intensified efforts of the Department
of Tourism in collaboration with the local government units in
promoting the best of the regions in the Philippines. In 2003, the
national government’s tourism programme ‘‘WOW Philippines’’
featuring various tourist attractions in the country was launched.
The programme provided the opportunity for Ifugao province to
30
aggressively showcase and promote its outstanding natural and

cultural assets at the national and international levels.
Being the first site to be visited by tourists and the first to develop
tourism-oriented facilities and services, Banaue emerged as the tourism
centre of Ifugao. However, tourism development, not only in Banaue
but in the entire province, has generally been more of a reactive than
a proactive process. There has been a lack of proper and appropriate
planning for the advancement of sustainable tourism in the locality.
Initiatives to develop the province’s tourism industry were primarily
private sector-led as a natural response to the influx of tourists. At
present, Banaue still has the most number of tourist arrivals in Ifugao.
Figure 6. Tourist Arrival Contribution by Municipality (2006)
Mayoyao
Lagawe 1%
1%
Kiangan 6%
Hungduan 7%
Banaue
85%
Source: Ifugao Provincial Tourism Profile (2006)
Compared with other regions in the Philippines, the Cordillera

Administrative Region (CAR) usually ranks third or fourth among
the 15 regions in promoting tourism. Of the six provinces and one
city in CAR, Ifugao province has ranked a far second to Baguio
City over the past decade. In 2006, CAR registered 992,577 tourist
arrivals, compared with Ifugao province which recorded 90,874 or
11 percent of the total arrivals to the region.
In 2006, tourist arrivals in Ifugao comprised domestic travellers

(63.88 percent), foreign tourists (32.09 percent), and Filipinos
working overseas called balikbayans (4 percent). One of the
indicators of the positive impact of tourism is the generation of
jobs. According to the Department of Tourism, jobs generated by
the industry can be measured through the categorization of tourists
as either foreign or domestic. It is estimated that one job is created
for every three foreign tourists or for every nine domestic tourists.
Figure 7 shows the categorized tourist arrivals in Ifugao.
31
Figure 7. Ifugao Tourist Arrivals by Category (2006)
Overseas Filipinos
4%
Foreign Tourists 32%
64%
Domestic Tourists
Figure 8. Top Ten Foreign Tourist Arrivals (2006)
Israel
Netherlands
Germany
U.S.A.
France
U.K.
Korea Japan
Australia
Canada
32
The top ten markets of Ifugao by nationality is shown in Figure

8. The province has yet to establish a comprehensive marketing
strategy to increase its market share. Developing and marketing
Ifugao as a tourism product would require tailoring of the tourism
development plan to the needs of target markets, while at the same
giving emphasis to the protection and preservation of the fragile
cultural landscape which is the very resource that attracts tourists.
To balance development with site conservation would be a chal-
lenging task to undertake.
Over the past five years, a general pattern in the tourism seasonal
variations can be observed. The peak season for tourism arrivals
is during March and April, the summer months in the country.
During this period, the rice terraces are at their most picturesque
since the rice fields are at their greenest. These months are also
suitable for family excursions to the site since it is vacation time
for students.
Occupancy Rates
Both the annual tourist arrival growth rate and the annual average
occupancy rate illustrate a similar pattern. The impact of the September
11 incident caused the slump in 2002. This was followed by the growth
of tourist arrivals and occupancy rates in 2003, peaking in 2004 as
a result of intensified tourism promotion by the public and private
sectors. However, the disease outbreak in nearby Baguio City in 2005
caused a dramatic fall in occupancy rates in Ifugao.
Figure 9. Comparative Annual Tourist Arrivals and Annual

Average Occupancy Rates
Annual Tourist Arrival Growth Rate
Annual Average Occupancy Rate
Source: Ifugao Provincial Tourism Profile (2006) 33

Tourist Length of Stay

The average length of stay of tourists in Ifugao is 2.5 days (Ifugao
Tourism Profile, 2007). Data on the length of tourist’s stay in Ifugao
prior to 2007 is not available. However, the Ifugao Provincial
Tourism Office is now in the process of developing a system of
gathering tourism statistics and establishing a data bank.
Tourism Resources
Cultural Landscape
As the main attraction in Ifugao Province, the Banaue rice terraces
are being promoted by the Department of Tourism as one of the
seven banner tourism sites in the Philippines.
As noted earlier, the rice terraces are not only confined within
Banaue, but are spread over nine of the eleven municipalities in the
province. Five rice terrace clusters are located in four municipalities
of Ifugao. These terrace clusters include the Bangaan and Batad
terrace clusters in Banaue, the Nagacadan cluster in Kiangan, the
Hungduan cluster and the central Mayoyao cluster.
A part of the Banaue rice terrace cluster not Aside from the rice terraces, Ifugao province abounds with a wide
yet encroached upon by developers
(Photo: SITMo)
variety of natural resources catering to adventure tourism. Majestic
mountains, winding rivers, cascading waterfalls, breathtaking caves
and hot springs are being developed for tourist activities such as
mountain trekking, camping, spelunking and white water rafting.
The rich and distinctive cultural heritage of the Ifugao people

complements the natural beauty of the place. Anchored on the
traditional rice production cycle, the province offers 14 major
annual cultural festivals in which tourists can participate. These
festivals are not only intended for tourists but are also aimed at
reviving and revitalizing the cultural heritage of the Ifugaos.
Aside from the rice terraces, a significant number of other natural

and cultural resources remain untapped but can be developed for
tourism purposes.
34
Natural and Cultural Tourism Assets as Tourist Attractions
Banaue
Three major terrace clusters are situated in the municipality of
Banaue: the main terrace cluster encompassing the town of Banaue
and the terrace clusters in the villages of Batad and Bangaan.
Banaue Rice Terraces

Best seen at the viewpoint in Banaue, the rice terraces rise steeply
from the base of the mountain range to a height of a few thousand
feet. The viewpoint is a short 15-minute drive from the Banaue town
centre. Unlike other rice terraces that are stone-walled found else-
where in Ifugao, the Banaue rice terraces are walled with plain soil.
Bangaan Village and Rice Terraces

Surrounded by scenic terraced rice fields is a picturesque village
whose inhabitants continue to preserve their traditional way of life.
Unfortunately, the indigenous architectural assembly of traditional
Ifugao huts is undergoing a transformation with the construction of
new houses using modern materials and designs.
Batad Rice Terraces and Village

An amphitheatre-like rice terrace cluster that resembles a stairway
to the sky, the Batad rice terraces have suffered damage from natural
calamities, but are being restored by the joint efforts of the local
community and the provincial government. Traditional lifestyles
and cultural practices are still maintained by the local community.
Tappiyah Waterfall
This spectacular waterfall drops to a natural swimming pool. A visit
to Batad would not be complete without enjoying a dip in the cool
and refreshing waters of the Tappiyah waterfall.
Hungduan
Hapao Rice Terraces

This terrace cluster is one of the few stone-walled terraces of the
province that date back to 650 A.D. The stone walls protect the rice
terraces from erosion caused by the meandering Hapao River.
Bakung “Spider Web” Rice Terraces

This rice terrace cluster is located in Poblacion, Hungduan. From an aerial
view, the Bakung rice terraces appear like a spider web. However, many
Rice terrace cluster in Hapao, Hungduan parts were damaged from bombing during World War II while other
(Photo: Harley Palangchao) portions were abandoned due to erosion caused by natural calamities.
35
Mount Napulawan
This historic mountain is believed to be the last refuge of General
Tomoyuki Yamashita, the commander of the Japanese imperial
army during World War II. Towering at 2,642 meters above sea
level, Mount Napulawan is the highest mountain peak in the
municipality and the second-highest in the province. It is the habitat
of indigenous flora and fauna. The mountain has become a popular
destination for trekkers and campers.
Dakkitan Rice Terraces and Natural Pool
Mount Napulawan, second-highest mountain of

Situated beside the road at Poblacion, Hungduan is the Dakkitan
Ifugao and the last refuge of the Japanese Imperial Rice Terraces where tourists can participate in agricultural activities,
Army during World War II before their surrender such as planting or harvesting rice. Near the terraces is a natural
(Photo: Armand N. Camhol) pool with water flowing from the foot of Mount Napulawan.
Maggok Rice Terraces

Popularly known as one of the last refuges of Japanese forces
during World War II and a possible repository of treasures hidden
by the Japanese, the Maggok rice terrace cluster is unique for the
continuing practice of traditional organic agricultural practices,
such as the pingkol (mulch-mounding) and inado (terrace slope
gardening). These traditional methods represent best practices
in the sustainable use of very limited land resources and should
therefore be preserved.
Mayoyao
Mayoyao Rice Terraces

Interspersed with the rice terraces are traditional farmers’ hamlets.
Traditional Ifugao architecture is still evident in the farmers’ huts.
However, the traditional thatch roofing is gradually being replaced
by galvanized iron sheets.
Afo-or Burial Tombs

The tombs are stone mausoleums containing the bones of the
town’s ancient elites and warriors of the Mayoyao ethno-linguistic
group. These stone catacombs were built without the use of cement,
reflecting the ingenuity of the Ifugaos.
Extensive rice terraces in Chaya, Mayoyao
(Photo: SITMo)
O’phaw Mahencha Falls
Also known as the Leap of Mahencha, the falls is comprised of a
series of three waterfalls. Legend tells that each waterfall represents
a leap of the maiden Mahencha as she tried to retrieve her native
necklace that fell while she was bathing.
36
Mount Amuyao
Situated within the juncture of the boundaries of Banaue, Mayoyao
and Barlig (Mountain Province), Mount Amoyao is the highest
mountain in the province and the eighth-highest mountain in the
Philippines. Towering at an elevation of 2,702 meters above sea
level, the mountain summit provides an unobstructed view of the
Cordillera mountain range and the provinces of Isabela, Nueva
Vizcaya, Mountain Province and Ifugao. According to folklore, the
first Ifugao couple, Bugan and Wigan, took refuge on this mountain
during a 40-day flood that inundated the province.
Kiangan
Philippine War Memorial Shrine

Following the architectural design of the native Ifugao hut, the
memorial shrine was built to commemorate the end of World War
II and the beginning of peace. From its rooftop, one can view nearby
villages and the pastoral scenery of the municipalities of Kiangan
and Lagawe.
Ifugao Museum
Within the same vicinity as the Philippine War Memorial Shrine is
the Ifugao Museum, which showcases native artefacts ranging from
farming and hunting equipment, household utensils, weaving and
Exploring the Pangaggawan Caves war implements of the olden days. The museum also displays an
in Bolog, Kiangan
(Photo: SITMo)
illustrated genealogy of the Ifugao ancestry.
Nagacadan and Julungan Rice Terraces

Bisected by a river, the rice terraces appear as two distinct ascending
rows. A significant portion of these terrace clusters have been
converted into vegetable gardens due to extensive damage of the
traditional irrigation canal systems.
Pangaggawan Caves
This cave system with fascinating stone formations is composed
of seven caves located at the Pangaggawan Mountain in Bolog,
Kiangan. To enter the caves, one has to climb down a rope for about
30 to 60 meters to reach the mouth of the cave system.
37
Intangible Cultural Assets
Indigenous knowledge systems and practices (IKSP) are under

threat from several related factors. Formal education in the
Philippines, patterned after Western education models, tends to
discourage the use of indigenous knowledge and the practice of
local traditions. Thus, Ifugaos are inclined to set aside their
indigenous knowledge systems as they gain more education. Ifugao
cultural practices have also been weakened by the indigenous
inhabitants’ acceptance and adaptation to Western culture and
religious beliefs, which were first introduced during the Spanish
and American colonial eras. Western culture is now regarded as
superior to the local culture. Traditional attire is now worn only
during special traditional occasions. Native songs have been
replaced by popular music. Youth no longer know how to dance
native dances such as the tayo (eagle dance) properly. Likewise,
Christianity has incessantly fought against the practice of
paganistic beliefs and practices, resulting in the near extinction
of the mumbaki, the custodians of Ifugao IKSP.
To revive vanishing Ifugao cultural traditions while at the

same time promoting tourism, the provincial and municipal
governments have started to organize cultural festivals within the
context of the traditional rice agricultural cycle. Cultural practices
are being revived through major cultural events, as follows:
Tungoh ad Hungduan
In the olden days, tungoh was a non-working holiday for rice-
farming villages. When the first thunder was heard or when it
rained after a long dry spell, the tumon-ak/ton-ak (local knowledge
holder of traditional agricultural practices) would shout early the
following morning to announce that nobody should work in the
rice fields on that special day.
To revive the practice, the municipality of Hungduan celebrates

Tungoh ad Hungduan, a week-long festivity held during the
third week of April in Namugong village or in the town centre
of Hungduan. Members of the local community participate in
Young women in native attire during the
Tungoh ad Hungduan 2008 festival
activities featuring authentic Ifugao costumes, ethnic sports and a
(Photo: Hungduan Municipal Government) night of traditional songs and dances.
38
Kulpi ad Asipulo
Every year during the third week of the month of April beginning
on a Tuesday is the Kulpi ad Asipulo.
Traditionally, kulpi is performed when rice planting in an agricultural

area is completed. The native priest or mumbaki conducts the
ritual invoking the souls of dead ancestors, calling upon the gods
and deities to accept the sacrificial offerings and bless the growing
plants for a good harvest. Villagers contribute chickens as offerings
during the main ritual which culminates in the agricultural chief ’s
granary where a public feast is held. The kulpi marks the end of
work in the rice fields.
Kulpi ad Asipulo is a three-day festival featuring indigenous games

and performing arts. The festival culminates on the third day with
jovial community dancing, public drinking of rice wine and a
sumptuous lunch of native delicacies.
Kulpi ad Lagawe
The capital town of Lagawe celebrates kulpi from Wednesday to
Friday during the last week of April each year. Highlights of the
festival are ethnic-inspired street dancing, float contests, indigenous
games and ethnic chants.
Gotad ad Kiangan
Originally, gotad was one of the phases of the uya-uy, a prestige
rite performed by Tuwali Ifugaos before they can be considered
kadangyan (wealthy aristocrats). The uya-uy was a big event
participated by nobility and commoners alike from nearby villages.
Before a gotad was celebrated, a member of the host community
was tasked to go from village to village, beating a gong, to invite
the nobles. Although not invited, commoners were also welcome to
attend. A whole day was spent drinking rice wine, dancing, chanting
and feasting.
Everybody attending a gotad would come in their best attire,

bedecked with their precious ornaments. The event provided the
Villagers performing an Ifugao war dance opportunity to distinguish the rich and powerful from the poor
during the Gotad ad Kiangan Festival through the costumes and ornaments that they wore.
(Photo: Nilo Manangan)
In 1996, the gotad was integrated into the activities of Kiangan’s

town fiesta held annually on the first day of May. The Gotad ad
Kiangan evolved into a four-day festival featuring gottadan (ethnic
parade), liwliwa (chanting of love songs), tayo (native dancing), rice
wine drinking and a public lunch. It has become a provincial event
as other municipalities participate in competitive events.
39
Gotad ad Hingyon
Gotad is part of a nine-day celebration a married couple hosts
before they can be considered kadangyan (wealthy aristocrats). It
consists of elaborate rituals, feasting and rice wine drinking.
The first Gotad ad Hingyon was organized in April 1994. It aimed

to strengthen camaraderie among community members and
to preserve cultural identity through ethnic sports and cultural
events.
Today, Gotad ad Hingyon is a three-day celebration during the last

week of April, marked with cultural parades, songs, dances and
ethno-modern games. An agro-industrial fair showcasing a wide
variety of Ifugao handicrafts has become a part of the celebration.
Gotad ad Ifugao
This week-long provincial-wide festival is the culminating
celebration of all the municipal festivals. Main activities include the
gottadan (ethnic parade), traditional sports, hudhud chanting (see
insert), ethnic dances and songs, gong beating and wine making,
among others. The province-wide event attracts the best athletes
and performers from all municipalities. The Gotad ad Ifugao takes
place during the third week of June to coincide with the provincial
Foundation Day celebrated on June 18.
Igkhumtad ad Majawjaw
The Igkhumtad ad Majawjaw, held every third week of April in
Mayoyao, features ethnic and modern-day sports, street dancing
and agro-industrial fairs. The event is loosely based on a mythical
tale of Aliguyon, the Ifugao literary/folk hero who one time in a
festival displayed extraordinary skills in ethnic sports, beating
other competitors. Hence, the festival is celebrated to showcase the
best of Ifugao talent, strength and skills.
Igkhumtad ad Aguinaldo
As in Mayoyao, the municipality of Aguinaldo celebrates a town
fiesta called igkhumtad to commemorate Aliguyon’s extraordinary
strength and skills in ethnic games. During the second week of April,
Young Ifugaos in Aguinaldo beating their
gongs during the Igkhumtad festival
community members of this Ayangan town enjoy a whole week of
(Photo: Ifugao Provincial Government) ethno-modern games, songs, dances and cultural performances.
40
Ammung Ad Alfonso Lista

In Ifugao, ammung (a gathering or assembly of people) is a ritual
performed within the first three days of the birth of a child. The
mumbaki offers prayers for the good of the newborn. A dinner of
duck, crabs and fish are served to the participants.
Alfonso Lista, the biggest and most populous municipality in the

province, hosts the yearly celebration of the Ammung Ad Alfonso
Lista on May 11 every year. As the melting pot of different ethnic
cultures (Tuwali, Ayangan, Kalanguya, Kalinga, Ilokano, Bontoc
and others), Alfonso Lista is an appropriate location of the ammung
festival, which features ethnic games and performing arts from
different ethnic groups.
Keleng ad Tinoc
Keleng is a prestige rite performed by the Kalanguyas of Tinoc
to mark a villager’s entry to the village elite. It involves a lot of
merrymaking, wine drinking and feasting on meat and sweet
potatoes amidst dancing and singing.
Today, the Keleng ad Tinoc, a three-day festival based on this

tradition, is celebrated during the second week of April in Tinoc. The
festival showcases the customs and traditions of the Kalanguya tribe
through ethnic games, songs, dances and an agro-industrial fair.
Rambakan ad Lamut
Rambakan is a contemporary Ilokano (a lowland ethnic group)
term for a place where sporting events are held amidst a festive
atmosphere. The Rambakan ad Lamut festival, hosted by the
municipality of Lamut during the second week of April, showcases
ethnic games and cultural shows from different tribes.
Imbayah Festival and Urpih ad Banaue

Imbayah is traditionally a prestige rite performed by the elite of
Banaue to announce their ascendancy to the village aristocracy.
Urpih, on the other hand is a thanksgiving festival to celebrate the
work completed in the rice fields. Both festivities are marked with
merrymaking, like rice wine drinking, chanting and feasting on
sacrificed animals.
Ethnic villagers prove their strength in a
classic tug-of-war game staged during the
The municipality of Banaue alternately celebrates these two Ifugao
Imbayah ad Banaue festival festivities during the third week of April. The three-day cultural
(Photo: Ifugao Provincial Government) festival highlights ethnic games, sports and traditional crafts.
41
Box 3. The Hudhud Chants of the Ifugao
On 18 May 2001, UNESCO proclaimed 19 of the world’s most

remarkable examples of the oral and intangible heritage. Selected
by an 18-member jury, they were chosen for their outstanding
value as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity. The proclamation emphasizes the importance of
protecting this outstanding but endangered heritage (cultural
spaces and forms of popular and traditional expression) and of
preserving cultural diversity.
One of the 19 outstanding oral and intangible heritage included
in the First Proclamation of Masterpieces in 2001 are the Hudhud
Chants of Ifugao.
The Hudhud consists of narrative chants traditionally performed
by the Ifugao community. It is practised during the rice sowing
season, at harvest time and at funeral wakes and rituals. Thought
to have originated before the seventh century, the Hudhud
comprises more than 200 chants, each divided into 40 episodes.
A complete recitation may last several days.
Since the Ifugao’s culture is matrilineal, the wife generally takes
the main part in the chants and her brother occupies a higher
position than her husband. The language of the stories abounds
in figurative expressions and repetitions and employs metonymy,
metaphor and onomatopoeia, rendering transcription very
difficult. Thus, there are very few written expressions of this
tradition. The chant tells about ancestral heroes, customary
law, religious beliefs and traditional practices, and reflects the
importance of rice cultivation. The narrators, mainly elderly
women, hold a key position in the community, both as historians
and preachers. The Hudhud epic is chanted alternately by the
first narrator and a choir, employing a single melody for all the
verses.
The conversion of the Ifugao to Catholicism has weakened their
traditional culture. Furthermore, the Hudhud is linked to the
manual harvesting of rice, which is now mechanized. Although
the rice terraces are listed as a World Heritage site, the number
of growers has been in constant decline. The few remaining
narrators, who are already very old, need to be supported in
their efforts to transmit their knowledge and to raise awareness
among young people.
(First Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity, 2001. http://www.unesco.org/culture/
ich/index.php?topic=mp&cp=PH)
42
Tourism Organizations
Local Government-Led Organizations
Provincial Tourism Council (PTC)
Led by the Provincial Governor as Honorary Chairman, the

Provincial Tourism Council is a multi-sectoral body composed
of the different tourism stakeholders in the province. The Council
is responsible for promoting and marketing provincial tourism
products and services, developing policy recommendations and
monitoring and enforcing tourism policies and regulations.
Municipal Tourism Councils (MTCs)
At the municipal level, the Municipal Tourism Councils are the

municipal extensions of the Provincial Tourism Council. The
local government units of the municipalities (Banaue, Hungduan,
Mayoyao and Kiangan) have organized their Municipal Tourism
Councils to provide advice, enforce tourism policies, and undertake
tourism promotion and marketing. The Council in Banaue is most
active since that is where tourism activities in the province are
concentrated
Private Sector-Led Organizations in Banaue

Banaue Association of Food and Lodging Establishments (BAFLE)
As its name implies, the organization was created to advance the

interests of the owner-operators and to foster cooperation.
Banaue Handicraft and Sellers Association (BHSA)
The association coordinates the activities of both the producers and

the sellers of local handicrafts.
Banaue Operators and Drivers Association (BODA)
The transport sector is a vital part of the tourism business. In Banaue,

separate groups are responsible for the two vehicle types: public utility
jeeps (PUJ) and tricycles. The association makes arrangements for
the transportation needs of tourists and locals anywhere in Luzon.
Eight Wonder Tri Wheels Association
The organization of tricycle owners and drivers ensures the orderly

transport of visitors to any tourist destination within Banaue and
nearby Hungduan using the popular mode of local transportation.
43
Banaue Trekkers and Tour Guides Association
This association provides tour guide services to tourists. All members

are trained as tour guides by the Department of Tourism.
Batad Environmental Tour Guides Association (BETGA)
This association facilitates upgrading of the quality services offered

by tourism-related establishments in Batad and promotes healthy
competition among them.
Private Sector-Led Organizations in Emerging Tourism Sites

In Hungduan and Mayoyao, there are peoples’ organizations
that were not purposely established to cater to tourism activities.
However, the increasing awareness among both the public and
private sectors of the need to conserve the rice terraces and the
momentum generated by conservation programmes particularly
the Save Ifugao Terraces Movement (SITMo), provided new
direction and a role for the following organizations, including the
provision of services to the increasing number of visitors to the two
municipalities. They have been assisted by SITMo, which recognizes
the need to build up the capacity of people’s organizations in
managing tourism-related activities in their communities.
Bayninan Farmers Association (BFA)
The tiny village of Bayninan in the Kiangan municipality is home

to a proud group of farmers, indigenous knowledge holders and
cultural performing artists. Bayninan is also host to a popular rice
cake-making tour called Bakle’d Kiangan and a land preparation
tour called Lodah. From an obscure farmers’ organization, the
association has been mainstreamed into cultural programmes and
tourism activities.
Ujah Heritage Village
The Ujah Heritage Village, located between Banaue and Hungduan,

was established to implement livelihood and reforestation projects
with local and Japanese assistance. Its activities expanded to the
development of a community-led tourism industry with the
construction of spacious native huts under a home-stay programme
for tourists and the mobilization of young members of the
community to provide cultural performances. Ujah has become
a popular destination for tourists.
44
Heritage Preservation Efforts
Pochon Group
The Pochon Group is responsible for developing community-based

tourism in Mayoyao and for organizing Bfoto’, special tours that
enable participants to experience harvesting activities, which have
effectively placed the municipality on the ecotourism map.
C. Heritage Preservation Efforts

Government Initiatives for IRT Management
Ifugao Terraces Commission (ITC)
The first special body tasked to manage the Ifugao Rice Terraces
(IRT) was created on 18 February 1994 under the Executive Order
(EO) No. 158 of then President Fidel Ramos. The Ifugao Terraces
Commission (ITC) was responsible for advising the President on
matters pertaining to the IRT. Initially, the Commission was created
to cover the affairs of the four municipalities where rice terrace
clusters inscribed on the World Heritage List are located (Banaue,
Hungduan, Kiangan and Mayoyao). Later, its jurisdiction was
expanded to cover the other municipalities of Asipulo, Aguinaldo,
Hingyon, Lagawe and Tinoc, under Executive Order 178 dated
23 May 1994. Chaired by the Secretary of the Department of
Tourism (DOT), ITC’s membership included the Secretaries of the
Departments of Agriculture (DA); Public Works and Highways
(DPWH); Environment and Natural Resources (DENR); Education,
Culture, and Sports (DECS); Interior and Local Government
(DILG); Trade and Industry (DTI); Agrarian Reform (DA); the
Head of the Presidential Management Staff; the Congressman of
Ifugao; the Provincial Governor; mayors of the nine municipalities;
Chairman of the then Cordillera Regional Assembly (CRA) and
Executive Director of the then Cordillera Executive Board (CEB).
The ITC formulated two conservation Master Plans – a three-

year plan and a six-year plan – which were approved by President
Ramos on 2 September 1995, exactly three months before the Rice
Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras were inscribed on the World
Heritage List.
45
Banaue Rice Terraces Task Force (BRTTF)

With the change of national leadership in 1998, the new President
Joseph Estrada, under Executive Order No. 77 dated 4 March 1999,
abolished the Ifugao Terraces Commission and replaced it with
the Banaue Rice Terraces Task Force (BRTTF). The Task Force had
a mandate similar to that of its predecessor, but with a reduced
budget. The Secretary of the Department of Tourism retained
his Chairmanship of the Task Force, though the Department of
Agriculture (DA), Department of Energy and Natural Resources
(DENR), and the Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) were represented by their Undersecretaries. Among the
municipal mayors, only the President of the League of Municipal
Mayors retained a seat on the Task Force.
Ifugao Rice Terraces and Cultural Heritage Office (IRTHCO)

Under Executive Order No. 72 dated 11 February 2002 of President
Gloria M. Arroyo, and the devolution of local governance under
the 1991 Local Government Code, the Banaue Rice Terraces Task
Force was abolished, and its functions devolved to the Provincial
Government of Ifugao. To support activities pertaining to the
development and conservation of the rice terraces, the President
authorized the release of a PHP 50-million grant through
the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA).
Implementation of the grant was covered under a Memorandum
of Agreement signed by the provincial government and the NCCA.
To act as the Secretariat and coordinating body, the Ifugao Rice
Terraces Cultural and Heritage Office (IRTCHO) was created under
Legislative Resolution No. 2002-679. Under the grant, an Ifugao
Rice Terraces Master Plan (2003-2012) covering conservation
policies for the Ifugao Rice Terraces was formulated.
Ifugao Cultural Heritage Office (ICHO)

When the NCCA grant was exhausted in 2006, the Provincial
Government issued Provincial Ordinance No. 2006-032 and
abolished and replaced IRTCHO with the Ifugao Cultural Heritage
Office (ICHO). The new office is mandated to: (i) safeguard the
tangible and intangible cultural heritage of the Ifugao people, (ii)
ensure the protection, preservation and conservation of the local
cultural and historical heritage of the Ifugao people, (iii) guarantee
the implementation of activities for the promotion, development,
protection, transmission and conservation of local culture and arts,
including the transmission of intangible heritage within the local
communities in Ifugao and (iv) encouraging the development of
culture and arts down to the grassroots level.
46
At present, the head of ICHO and all other personnel are hired on
a contractual basis. However, with the release of the initial PHP 29
million franchise tax from the revenue of the Magat Dam project,
the Provincial Government plans to regularize the employment of
the staff members of ICHO.
Non-Government Organization (NGO)

Initiatives
To date, the only non-government organization in the Philippines
that is focusing its energies to safeguard the culture that nurtures
the IRT is the Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement (SITMo). It was
established in 2001 as a federation of individuals and local civil
society groups that share the same vision for the Ifugaos. In recent
years, the organization worked as an initiator and coordinator
of actions that complement local government’s programmes on
sustainable development. SITMo’s initiatives cover ecotourism,
the rejuvenation of indigenous knowledge systems and practices
(IKSP), renewable energy and the enhancement of indigenous rice
production.
Students learn the basics of building a native house On farming, SITMo’s efforts are geared towards increasing rice
without the use of nails from an IK ‘‘professor’’ production by enhancing indigenous agricultural practices with
(Photo: Rachel Guimbatan) sustainable farming technologies from other places. Current
rice production levels in heritage areas are relatively low which
is the main reason for the abandonment of rice farms. Yet the
conservation of the IRT depends on the continued planting of the
indigenous varieties of organic tinawon rice which can be planted
and harvested once a year. Some farmers have resorted to planting
non-indigenous high-yield rice varieties which can be planted and
harvested twice a year. This new system has proven to be destructive
to the indigenous rice culture and has accelerated poisoning of the
rice terraces by the use of highly toxic pesticides and inorganic
chemical fertilizers. In response, SITMo has embarked on studies
designed to increase the annual tinawon rice yield in the IRT
without compromising the fields’ organic and environmentally-
friendly nature. This would discourage a shift to double cropping
using high-yield rice varieties. Initial experiments using enhanced
farming systems are promising.
Under its renewable energy programme, SITMo is providing micro-

hydro dams that enable remote villages in Hungduan and Kiangan
to generate cheap and affordable electricity from their rivers. The
low-impact and environmentally-friendly generators have uplifted
the quality of life for the villagers, providing them with an incentive
to stay and nurture their rice fields instead of migrating to places
where such services are available.
47
To encourage the development of pro-poor, community-led

tourism industry in Ifugao, SITMo has initiated programmes and
activities in heritage sites utilizing readily-available indigenous
knowledge and oral traditions to attract visitors. This is in response
to the inequitable distribution of economic benefits derived from
tourism in the Philippines. Only those who are directly involved in
tourism activities profit. In Ifugao, tourism revenue does not filter
down to the farmers, who are the custodians of the rice terraces, the
main tourist attraction in the province.
Since 2005, SITMo began to organize special tour packages that

are timed to coincide with the planting, harvesting and other
agricultural activities that occur in accordance with the traditional
agricultural cycle so that visitors can participate in agricultural
activities and rituals.
For the last two years, the ‘‘rice cycle’’ tours have attracted hundreds
of domestic and foreign tourists, creating awareness of the need
to preserve the Ifugao rice culture. The challenge is to maintain
momentum and to capture a larger share of the tourism market. To
achieve this, ownership of these ecotourism ventures is gradually
being transferred to the custodians of the rice terraces themselves,
the farmers, who in turn are encouraged to work harder to sustain
their rice terraces, thereby increasing tourist inflow.
Aligned with the programmes of the ten-year IRT Master Plan,

SITMo had initiated an indigenous knowledge transfer project
supported by the National Federation of UNESCO Associations
in Japan (NFUAJ). The initiative, titled “Nurturing Indigenous
Knowledge among the Young Generation of Ifugaos (NIKE)”, was
designed to respond to the discontinuity of traditional knowledge
from the elders to the youth, particularly on land management,
watershed protection, construction technology and related belief
systems, through the institutionalization of informal and formal
indigenous transmission mechanisms. In order to sustain actions
on informal education, the project capitalizes on IKSP as a product
of education tourism in the IRT. It has initiated cultural mapping
of knowledge systems and their practitioners, collating written
literature on ethnic practices and the establishment of a pilot school
where farmers act as indigenous knowledge ‘‘professors’’ to transmit
traditional resource management systems to their youth. The
project also lobbied local government units for budget allocations
and advocated for the mainstreaming of indigenous knowledge
systems and practices into the curricula of local schools.
Through a series of advocacy campaigns and workshops,

policymakers and civil servants in the government and education
sectors are gradually appreciating the relevance of transmitting
Ifugao traditional knowledge from a handful of remaining experts
48
and holders to the youth who are ignorant of the skills required
to nurture the rice terraces. The youth, through the pilot school
and school exhibits, have started to rediscover the skills of their
forefathers. Even young professionals involved in the transmission
efforts have acquired a deeper level of knowledge, understanding
and respect for things once considered mundane and unimportant
in today’s modern world. The rice farmers and custodians of the
muyong involved in the initial stages of the pilot programme have
realized the importance of their skills and knowledge with the
attention and appreciation given to them by the students. The concern
of the international community for the need to conserve the Ifugao
rice terraces have added another dimension to the consciousness of
An IK ‘‘professor’’ explains traditional rice variet- the Ifugao people that the rice terraces do not only provide food for
ies during a workshop organized to transfer their them, but are also of exceptional beauty and universal value, and
knowledge to the younger generation of Ifugaos can provide economic benefits from sustainable, community-based
(Photo: NIKE Project-SITMo)
tourism. Unfortunately, some segments of the local communities,
particularly the well-educated, are still not convinced of the need
to ‘‘return’’ to the old ways in order to preserve the rice terraces.
At the time of this writing, the provincial government is making
progress in adopting the initiative as a government program.
On land management, SITMo had facilitated the finalization of

land use plans in the Nagacadan cluster which is part of the World
Heritage site. As a result, zoning regulations have defined site
development areas that have been hosting tourism activities in the
last three years.
Through resource mobilization and networking with international

funding agencies, SITMo has made appreciable progress though
there is still a lot to be accomplished. Linkages with both the
government and the local private sector have provided valuable
assistance for its programmes and advocacy. Close interaction with
communities at the grassroots level has contributed much to the
success of the programmes, as manifested in the numerous national
and international awards these initiatives have garnered in the field
of community empowerment.
49

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Understanding the Heritage of the Ifugao Rice Terraces

A. Understanding the Heritage of the

The terraces are composed of clusters of inherited properties built

made a positive impact on the site is still debatable. Meanwhile,

The recognition of the IRT as both a World Heritage site and

However, the sustainable management of the site in the long

Any conservation effort of the IRT has to understand these

World Heritage Recognition

According to the Operational Guidelines of the 1972 Convention

While oflcially referred to in the World Heritage List as the “Rice

Map 2. Location of Communities Hosting the Five Represen-

Source: Rachel Guimbatan

These are the Nagacadan terrace cluster of Kiangan, the Hungduan

Box 1. World Heritage Inscription Criteria

Criterion (iii): The rice terraces are a dramatic testimony to a

Criterion (iv): The rice terraces are a memorial to the history

Criterion (v): The rice terraces are an outstanding example

Figure 3. Variations of Land Use and Indigenous Zoning

Source: Rachel Guimbatan

fte following comprise the primary areas of Ifugao IKSP:

Natural Resource Management

are practiced to ensure the continuity and vigour of the muyong

Immediately below it are the rice terraces maintained for food

Land-locked tenure and primogeniture customary laws govern private

Soil Conservation Technology

Figure 4. Agricultural Calendar. The timing of the rituals and

Source: Rachel Guimbatan

The second stage is land preparation, which starts in October.

Afterwards, the plants need protection from pests, including rodents,

Finally, the fifth stage occurs in May-June, when the rice is

Box 2. Pingkol: A Best Practice in Agriculture Among the

One of the often overlooked aspects of the IRT is the pingkol

pingkol with an accompanying recommendation for farmers

The pingkol practice is endangered at present. Once prevalent in

So far, the most destructive pest wreaking havoc on the pingkol,

This pest was unleashed into Ifugao’s farming areas by enterprising

The Hongan di Page (Agricultural Cycle Rituals)

Upon invitation of the kombale (male household head, literally

Various animals are sacrificed in the rituals, depending on the

According to myth, the Nabugbugan di Paged Kabunyan and Dalom

The following are the rituals performed in the annual agricultural

Lukya (“To clear/open”)

In-apuy (“Firing up”)

Lokan di Binong-o an Datag

Tikom ( “The closing”)

The Value of the IRT to the Ifugaos

The entry of Western culture and its emphasis on formal education

Perhaps, the ‘‘discovery’’ of the IRT by outsiders saved it from total

In the municipalities where the rice terrace clusters are inscribed as

B. Tourism in Ifugao: A Situational

The local tourism industry in Ifugao is analyzed here using Kot-

The beginnings of tourism in the province can be traced back to the

Source: DOT-CAR and the Ifugao Provincial Tourism Profile (2006)

Like any other tourist destination, Ifugao province is not isolated

aggressively showcase and promote its outstanding natural and

Figure 6. Tourist Arrival Contribution by Municipality (2006)

Source: Ifugao Provincial Tourism Profile (2006)

Compared with other regions in the Philippines, the Cordillera

In 2006, tourist arrivals in Ifugao comprised domestic travellers

Figure 7. Ifugao Tourist Arrivals by Category (2006)