INVESTIGATING

RECONSTRUCTING AND
PRESERVING
THE PAST

Issues of reconstruction and conservation

Italian and International contributions

Impact of Tourism
 3. Investigating, reconstructing and
preserving the past
• changing methods and contributions of
nineteenth and twentieth century
archaeologists to our understanding of
Pompeii and Herculaneum
• changing interpretations: impact of new
research and technologies
• issues of conservation and reconstruction:
Italian and international contributions and
responsibilities; impact of tourism
• ethical issues: study and display of human
remains
 Issues of conservation and
reconstruction: Italian and
international contributions and
responsibilities; impact of tourism.
 Sample question

How are the issues of preservation and

conservation being addressed by a variety
of groups since the late 1990's? In what
ways is this an improvement over past
approaches to the archaeology of this
area? 10 marks
 Issues of conservation and
reconstruction – general points
1. Issues of conservation
Deterioration of the exposed parts of the sites.
• Lack of protective structures, theft, vandalism, poor
materials used to stabilise structures or protect
them, lack of funds.
The issue of whether or not excavation should continue.
2. Issues of reconstruction
Should buildings be left as found or reconstructed.
– Does reconstruction reduce the accessibility to
original remains, or create twentieth century
interpretations of remains.
– Why reconstruct? Protection or understanding, or for
tourism, spectacular?
 Deterioration: Some useful
details
• steel reinforcing beams exposed as poor concrete flakes off, have rusted
and expanded, causing more damage to buildings. Concrete cancer is a
problem in older restoration work - metal reinforcing within concrete rusts
and eventually the concrete collapses.
• Poor quality mortar has been used and in time has cracked, allowing water
and vegetation to penetrate the very walls it was designed to protect,
• Weeds such as brambles, take root in bare patches of earth, on the tops of
walls, in cracks in the ruins and gaps in mosaic floors; as they grow they
penetrate plaster walls and break up floors. It has been estimated that
thousands of square metres of floor surfaces, including mosaics, have been
destroyed by the invading weeds.
• In Pompeii approximately 700 houses have been uncovered. By 1990 only
100 were in a state of preservation which would enable a full archaeological
examination and recording
• By 1957 one-third of the known paintings had faded to the extent that they
were no longer visible. During the following 20 years almost half of the
images visible in 1957 also disappeared. Many of these were never properly
recorded.
 Light exposure of painted walls,
frescoes and paintings
• Problem with wall paintings is the high
calcium content which dissolves under
the influence of acid rain
• Artists in ancient Pompeii painted the
town red 2,000 years ago with a
brilliant crimson pigment that
dominated many of the doomed city's
wall paintings. They were protected by
a protective layer of “ punic wax”
• Scientists now believe that a chemical
reaction takes place between chlorine
elements in rain and either the wax or
the cinnibar to produce the blackening
• The wall at right shows the heavy
damage due to blackening of cinnabar
in the Poppea's villa in Oplontis
•
Frescoed walls absorb moisture from
the atmosphere. The moisture carries
to the wall soluble surface salts that
effloresce and injure the fresco
pigments. To halt such injury water-
permeable fixatives may be applied to
help stabilize the pigment and prevent
it from flaking off. A more drastic
treatment is transfer, by which the
mural and upper layer of plaster are
cut away from the wall altogether and
made fast to a new support.
 The roots of ivy are very invasive and
INVASION OF contribute to the disintegration of mortar
and plaster. The weight of such
Plants vegetation also damages unsupported
Amongst the species of plants
walls.
causing problems ,the acanthus
whose leaves adorn corinthian
columns and walls, wild strawberry,
ivy, lichen and mosses. Henry De St
Blanquet identified 31 types of
parasitic plants, which over time can
dislodge tiles and mozaics, weaken
mortar which destabilizes walls.
Large root systems can also
undermine foundations of buildings
and invade drainage systems, adding
to the existing problems of water
damage.
Solution: vegetation clearing
projects
 Reconstruction
projects– planting
original species
A research project was
designed by the University of
Sheffield to retrieve evidence for
the date, layout and landscaping
of this sanctuary. Work began in
1998 and was completed in
2007.

The second image shows the

restored garden of the House of
Venus in the shell.
REPLANTING ORCHARDS
Archaeologist Wilhemina
Jashemski made an extensive
study of the gardens, orchards and
vineyards within the walls of
Pompeii. Using plaster casts of the
cavities, which formed around the
roots of trees and vines and the
analysis of pollen found in the
ash, Jashemski was able to
identify the plants that were
growing at the time of the
eruption.
This orchard includes olive and
fruit trees and grapevines. A
section of the city wall can be
seen in the foreground while
Mount Vesuvius dominates the
background.
 Deterioration issue: Poor site
management
Problem: Since excavations have frequently aimed
at speed rather than preservation there has not
been a comprehensive management plan for the
sites. The result has been considerable
deterioration of buildings and especially
paintings.
The solutions have been to introduce a
coordinated stabilisation and preservation plan
controlled by the Italian superintendanze who
also uses the support of archaeological teams
from all interested countries including Sweden,
Britain, the United States.
 Deterioration issue: Poor
Restoration and preservation work
– Problem because of past restoration work;
errors in materials (steel beams, poor quality
concrete, unsupported roofing), vegetation
damage
– Solution: development of appropriate
mortars, unobtrusive, use of plastics to protect
outdoor graffiti, removal of weeds, use of
aluminium roofing protective structures.
 Deterioration issues: The following
misconceptions are now being reversed
a) Previous belief: that the archaeologist is an excavator and not a
preserver. Current belief: The emphasis now is on preservation –
restriction on excavation
b) Previous belief: that leaving floors, walls, plaster and mosaics
partially exposed is preferable to covering them with modern
protective structures. Current belief: the emphasis now is on placing
protective covers over small features and large roofing over
buildings wherever possible. Researching better protective
measures. The major responsibility of archaeological groups in
Pompeii and Herculaneum lie in reducing the deterioration of
the remains.
c) Previous belief: that the general public should be allowed to explore
the remains without restriction. Current belief: barriers, rotating
access to buildings is a compromise measure to slow down the
deterioration caused by tourism.
 Reconstruction debate
• Reconstruction in both sites now
considered only as a means of stabilising
and protecting remains
• Computer aided images are an alternative
means of presenting impressions of
restored buildings.
• Digital recording of buildings, artefacts,;
computer technology important in
documenting remains, cateloguing
 Poor site management
Problem: Since excavations have frequently aimed
at speed rather than preservation there has not
been a comprehensive management plan for the
sites. The result has been considerable
deterioration of buildings and especially
paintings.
The solutions have been to introduce a
coordinated stabilisation and preservation plan
involving archaeological teams from all
interested countries including Sweden, Britain,
the United States.
 Italian contributions and
responsibilities
• Before 1997 the sites were under the control of the
general Italian archaeological ministry in Rome. In 1997
the Italian authorities allowed all revenue raised in the
Naples region to stay in Pompeii’s budget, and allowed
the superintendanza to actively seek private investment.
• Law N°352 of 8 October 1997 on Cultural Assets,
passed unanimously by the Italian parliament, granted
autonomy to the Pompeii Archaeological Office.
• From 1995 to 2009 The superintendanza Guzzo was the
overall manager of the Pompeii Archaeological Office;
this is the archaeological body responsible for all sites in
the Naples region. The superintendanzahas budgeting
and policy responsibilities. -organisational issues and
administrative and financial management,
• Guzzo established new Italian guidelines to address the
issues of conservation and preservation.
 Article: Pompeii rises again
• Article Dec 2003. – problem of tourism.
• Guzzo: Pompeii takes in about $35 millon a
year, plus the EU has contributed $30 million for
five year program of restoration.
• Guzzo policy: Focus shift to preservation, very
little excavation.
– By mid 1990’s only 14% of the site was open to the
public because of deterioration; now about 30% is
open to tourists. About 25 buildings. (40 years ago
the figure was 64).
– Roping off houses, rotating accessible buildings to
reduce damage of tourism.
• One policy expressed by Guzzo is the continuation of
tourism but introduction of management practices to limit
the damage caused by tourism. Another is the
acceptance of International cooperation under the overall
management of the Italian authority. Excavation has
been restricted within the walls of Pompeii, and limited
outside the walls; in the most recent years, excavations
have been carried out outside the Porta Stabia, and also
near the river Sarno. At Herculaneum, controlled
excavation at the Villa of the Papyri and on the perimeter
of the exposed insulae has also been allowed.
• Specific areas of Italian responsibility include the partial
excavation of the Villa of the Papyri and the stabilisation
works in the Marine Baths of Herculaneum.
 International contribution and
responsibilities
• 1996 World Monument Fund declared Pompeii one of he world’s
most endangered sites. 1998 UNESCO put Pomeii on the World
Heritage List.
• 1997 Italian government gave permission for Guzzo to accept
international funds and teams. These are answerable to the Italian
superintendanza i.e. not completely autonomous.
• In 2008 the Italian government declared a year long state of
Emergency in Pompeii and funded an evaluation of the situation of
"decay and careless management" in order to develop strategies to
manage the problems. Funding is a critical factor in enabling the
work - to Improve drainage from the area of the villa of the papyri in
Herculaneum, for example, cost 130,000 euros in one year.
International cooperation has been an essential component in
addressing the problems of both sites.
• Ownership of artefacts - the export of such material is now
prohibited by the Italian government.
 The Herculaneum project
• A collaborative project begun in 2001 to conserve and
enhance the archaeological site (cooperation of Guzzo,
Wallace Hadrill and Packard i.e. Italian superintendanza,
British school of Rome and Packard Humanities institute)
• 2 aims; to halt widespread decay and to develop a
sustainable conservation strategy
• First stage was to develop better conservation and
preservation techniques on a designated insulae at
Herculaneum (above Suburban baths)
• Prevent deterioration due to water, humidity, exposure,
poor restoration techniques of Maiuri period.
• Use of scaffolding, clearing of vegetation, new mortars,
 Achievements/ actions of the
Herculaneum project
• Development of stabilising measures including:
• * replacing gaps with light coloured concrete to prevent further
plaster pealing - stabilising crumbling plastered column remains.
• * placing covers over vulnerable remains such as ancient grafitti
slogans, and vulnerable buildings. Read this article about the
experiments with plastic covers. The poor quality of cover in the
1980's contrasts with the current transparent cover which is much
more effective in protecting the remains.
• * stabilising the edge of crumbling mosaics at the House of the
Telephus relief.

• Using water permeable fixatives: Frescoed walls absorb moisture

from the atmosphere. The moisture carries to the wall soluble
surface salts that effloresce and injure the fresco pigments. To halt
such injury water-permeable fixatives may be applied to help
stabilize the pigment and prevent it from flaking off.
 Know a second international
project
• The Philodemus project is another
example of international cooperation
between American and British
researchers. Computer enhancement and
digital imaging has enabled the
researchers to piece together about 60%
of the scrolls found in the villa of the
Papyri. The 1800 carbonised scrolls
comprised the Greek library of this villa.
 Insula I project
• Insula I : an international effort. Insula I, 9 British School at
Rome/ University of Reading Pompeii Project In region 1
international cooperation is also occurring. Each national team is
focussing on a specific feature e.g. the Dutch are examining the
roads and insulae structure, the Spanish are studying the pre-
Roman features, and the Italians are examining the construction
history of Insula I 4. The British team are focussing on Insula I 9.
• A prime aim of the British Reading project has been to harness the
potential of the computer to store large quantities of data and
images, and render interlinked information easily and cheaply
accessible.
• Every wall and floor surface in the insula has been manually
measured, photographed, and recorded electronically as an
AutoCAD drawing, (images of measuring, photo of wall, CAD
drawing]. On this basis we can arrive at a picture of the main phases
of construction of a house.
Pressure from tourism
• Pompeii is an international tourist attraction with over two anda half
a million visitors to the site each year, and more than 20 000 on
Italian public holidays. Before 2003, no special walkways or viewing
platforms had been constructed so tourists walk along ancient roads
and footpaths. Any that are not paved with stone have been worn
down. A clear example of this is the footpath along the Via
dell'Abondanza which is being worn down, exposing pipes. Images
from the past show its height above the road before this erosion. As
footpaths were edged with volcanic tufa or limestone which is
relatively soft this edging needs replacing as it wears. In ancient
times they would have been replaced, but this is not happening
today. In some places ancient lead water pipes laid under paths
have also been exposed and damaged
• GUZZO: The correlation between the growing number of visitors and
the area open to the public, equivalent to 30% of the excavated
area, has shown human impact to be the main factor to be taken
into consideration on the Pompeii site.
 Each year Pompeii alone admits 2.5
million tourists through its gates.
The general movement adds to the
wearing down of street surfaces,
particularly in frequented areas like the
Forum complex.
Accidental brushing as well as deliberate
Some tourists have deliberately touching of walls, columns and frescoes
vandalised the site. Tourists have allows perspiration and body oils to react
been seen pushing over pillars, with the ancient surfaces.
writing graffiti on painted walls, and Flash photography in the past has
picking up pieces of mosaics, magnified the damage caused by light
plaster, pottery and marble. The exposure.
graffiti below defaces a fresco of Looting and vandalism has currently
Herculaneum. Graffiti covers a wall become a major security problem for
of a terrace of the House of Management.
Telephus (Herculaneum project).
Boardwalk in the House of the Stags
Graffiti in the House of the Telephus
Relief.
 solutions
• Less than ¼ of the excavated town is now accessible to the public. In 2006 only
16 monuments, villas and houses could be viewed as opposed to 60 in 1956.
The most frequented buildings are systemmatically closed to the public to
reduce tourist impact and enable restoration and conservation measures to be
applied.
• Walkways are now being constructed e.g. the House of the Stags at
Herculaneum-At Herculaneum, as part of the current move to protect what has
been excavated, board walks have been built in the House of the Stags and
(currently off limits to tourists) in front of the boat sheds over the old beach front.
• erecting barricades to protect buildings from too many visitors. Increased
supervision and restrictions on entry to project buildings is helping to reduce the
damage from tourism. The house of the labyrinth mosaic for example has been
off limits to tourists while it is being restored and stabilised. Teams of
archaeologists are now a common sight beyond barriers restricting public
access. 1. Closed road. 2. padlocked entrance 3. Closed brothel 4. fragile sign
on fresco in the house of venus in the shell.
• * A recurrent problem is theft. Tourists have taken small items which were on
display in homes; armed robbers stole over 250 objects including gold rings,
from a storeroom at Herculaneum. As a result of the danger of theft, in 2003 a
plan to move all pottery, capitals, columns and decorations to museums began.
The plan also included fitting alarm systems in several houses.
 Sample answer

first part of answer; an overview of problems.

In the past two decades, there has been a growing recognition that
there is an international responsibility to preserve Pompeii and
Herculaneum. The issues of deterioration of the sites as a result of
exposure and the lack of protective measures, and of restoration
methods and motives have been exacerbated as a result of lack of
funding, increased tourism and overall site mismanagement. Since
the appointment of Pier Guzzo as director of the Superintendanza of
Naples, these issues have been addressed with increasing success.
Second part of Answer; Italian contributions.

The Italian superintendanza carries the overall responsibility for the issues of conservation and
restoration.. The Italian superintendanza has introduced higher entrance fees which allow access
to other sites as well as Pompeii which reduces concentration at Pompeii. Italian archaeological
teams have been assigned responsibility for the more significant sections of the sites including the
Villa of the Papyri and for the analysis of human remains. On all archaeological sites, the
superintendanza is responsible for the majority of stabilising and restoration projects such as the
House of the mosaics.
The Italian responsibility also includes management of tourist access. While tourism remains as part of
Guzzo’s policy of making the sites accessible to all, increased numbers have placed pressure on
the fragile remains. Temporary and permanent barriers to tourist damage, board walkways over
mosaic floors and directed tourist traffic flow have been part of the Italian contribution to site
maintenance and management. Italian Conservators working in the most significant of the
buildings in both towns including the Suburban baths of Herculaneum, have also replaced gaps
with light coloured concrete to prevent further plaster pealing and have placed covers over
vulnerable remains such as ancient graffiti slogans and vulnerable buildings Additionally, in the
case of recently restored areas, visits are by reservation and street level erosion is being
minimised by creating new visitors routs and erecting barricades.
The third area of Italian contributions concerns the overall management of international contributions.
Over recent years a coordinated stabilisation and preservation plan involving archaeological
teams from all interested countries including Sweden, Britain & the US has reduced the
occurrence of poor site management and provided an additional source of funding and expertise..
As Guzzo, states, “Our responsibility lies primarily in taking all necessary measures to slow the
inevitable deterioration and conserve as much as possible for future generations”. This
coordinated effort is hoping to achieve this goal - to preserve and conserve Pompeii and
Herculaneum. The “newly established relationship with scientific and research institutions”
encouraged by Guzzo is a component of this cooperation.
Third part – International contributions.

International archaeological teams from countries such as Britain, Sweden, the

USA & Germany are contributing to the cataloguing of buildings and
artifacts and improved approaches to conservation. In region 1 international
cooperation is occurring & each national team is focusing on a specific
feature. For instance, the Dutch are examining the roads and insulae
structure, the Spanish are studying the pre-Roman features and the Italians
are examining the construction history of the insula. Additionally, insula 9 is
also receiving special attention. The British school of archaeology at
Pompeii has used computer application in order to electronically record the
dimensions of Insula 9, which covers more the 3000 metres square. Each
surface in insula 9 has been measured, photographed & recorded
electronically as an AutoCAD drawing. Such measures are an improvement
over past approaches to the archaeology as they ensure that the uncovered
remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum are properly catalogued and
preserved in order to attain an overall picture of what life was like in
Campania. Corporate sponsorship has also allowed for the responsibilities
of restoration and conservation to be addresses. For instance the
NEAPOLIS project sponsored by IBM, Italia and Fiat Engineering has
allowed for a vast database of all known archaeological remains &
documents relating to Pompeii to be created.
International cooperation has been most successful through the acceptance of
specific projects. The Pompeii Forum Project is acollaborative research venture
which electronically documents architecture & decoration. It seeks to produce
more accurate plans, photographs & computer models of the standing remains.
Beginning in 1994 documentation has been performed using a total station that
interfaces with AutoCAD. The data can be transformed on-site into plans and
models using a laptop computer equip with AutoCAD. Such research ventures
and technological advancements has allowed for the remains to be catalogued
and recorded more thoroughly.

The Philodemus project is another example of international cooperation between

US & British researchers. This project is supported by a major grant from the
National Endowment for the Humanities and by the generous contributions of
individuals and participating universities, and uses computer enhancement &
digital imaging to piece together 60% of the scrolls found in the villa of the
Papyri. This project is an example of how much science technology is aiding
archaeologist in preserving and conserving Pompeii and Herculaneum. Without
such technologies, archaeologists would not have been able to gain as much
understanding about the daily lives of Romans.
At Herculaneum, The British School at Rome announced that an $18-million
preservation project will be launched. This project was made possible
through the application of a law that allows private organizations to work at
state owned sites. Additionally, the Herculaneum Conservation Project was
conceived in 2000 and it has been a significant step towards creating a
unified goal in terms of conservation and restoration. This project aims to
prevent the decay that afflicts all parts of the site through measures such as
using scaffolding to stabilise collapsing structures, consolidate crumbling
plaster surfaces and disintegrating mosaics, eradicating weeds and
excluding pigeons. These measures will help to reduce decay, however,
they are also helping to develop a conservation strategy to safeguard the
survival of the site. This requires a multi-disciplinary collaboration of
archaeologists, conservators, architects & engineers. Thus, the
Herculaneum Conservation Project has been a significant step towards
creating a more efficient preservation and conservation program as it aims
to prevent all sources of deterioration and also develop a strategy which will
ensure the site will continue to survive.

Additionally, in 2003, two companies in New York sponsored a meeting in

Pompeii that brought together a range of archaeologists, conservators,
architects and other specialists to compare ideas and help the restoration
and conservation effort to continue in a more unified manner. Such
unification is important as it ensures that all archaeologists have a common
 conclusion
The development of a coordinated international effort which includes specialist
archaeological teams from across the world has improved the approaches to
archaeology to the area as it has allowed particular teams to focus on their specialist
areas, and has also allowed for a variety of groundbreaking technology from
particular countries to be used in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The convergence of
archaeologists from a range of countries has also benefited Pompeii and
Herculaneum as it has allowed for archaeologist to put forward their own unique
ideas and opinions about how best to excavate, stabilise or conserve a particular
area.