Datasheet > july

2006

Residential Concrete Driveways

and Paths

1 INTRODUCTION 2 5 MAINTENANCE
5.1 Cleaning 10
2 PLANNING 5.2 Resealing 10
2.1 Footpath Area 2 5.3 Assessment of Cracks 10
2.2 Pavement Grades 2
2.3 Drainage 2 6 SPECIFICATION CHECKLIST 10
2.4 Trees 2
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2.5 Adjacent Structures 2 7 REFERENCES 12

2.6 Surface Finish 3

3 DESIGN
3.1 Concrete 3
3.2 Reinforcement 4
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3.3 Joints 4
3.4 Surface Tolerances 4
3.5 Permeable Pavements 4
3.6 Segmental Pavements 4
The basic function of
4 CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Subgrade Preparation 6 residential pavements such
4.2 Subbase 6
4.3 Reducing Friction Under the Slab 6 as driveways, paths and patios
4.4 Reinforcement Fixing 6
4.5 Formwork 6 is to provide safe, easy access
4.6 Addition of Water to Concrete 6
4.7 Placing of Concrete 7 onto or around a property.
4.8 Compaction of Concrete 7
4.9 Surface Finishes 7
4.10 Curing of Concrete 7
4.11 Joints 8
4.12 Joint Sealants 9
4.13 Surface Sealers 9
 Street Transition Pavement grade Transition Garage
2 m min 2 m min

Property boundary
Grade 0%
Grade
1 INTRODUCTION
The basic function of residential pavements such Grade = 12.5% + 0%
2
as driveways, paths and patios is to provide safe, 12.5% say = 6.25%
Grade* Grade (1 in 8)
easy access onto or around a property. Concrete is
5% say = 5% + 12.5%
typically used to not only provide a durable paving 2
surface, but one which can also incorporate a wide = 8.75%
range of decorative finishes to complement the
* The advice of the Local Authority should be sought to obtain grade
design and landscaping of the residence. requirements for the area between the street and property boundary.
While providing a concrete pavement on the
ground is relatively straightforward, there are Figure 1: Transition zones for driveways
many aspects of residential pavement design and
construction that need to be considered in order to
produce a finished product that will satisfy both the 2.3 Drainage
functional and aesthetic requirements demanded by The stormwater drainage system (including
home owners. pavement levels and/or falls) should ensure that
This Data Sheet provides guidance on the there is no ponding deeper than 10 mm on the
planning, design, construction, maintenance and surface 15 minutes after the cessation of rainfall.
specification aspects that need to be considered to Where a pavement can not be graded away
ensure a successful concrete paving project. from a building (eg driveways that slope toward the
house), a suitable drain should be provided adjacent
2 PLANNING to the building to divert stormwater runoff.
2.1 Footpath Area
Pavements between the kerb-and-gutter and 2.4 Trees
property boundary will generally have to comply The presence of trees adjacent to the pavement
with the requirements of the Local Authority in may cause soil movements that change the ground
respect of levels, grades and minimum details levels and result in cracking of the pavement.
(thickness, reinforcement and concrete strength). Particularly with expansive clays, the moisture
These should be determined initially, as they may drawn by tree roots can dry the soil, causing it to
affect the grades (and possible need for transition shrink and affect the pavement levels. More directly,
zones) for the remainder of the driveway, especially tree roots may find their way under the pavement
on steep slopes with short distances from the and cause damage by lifting sections of the slab.
boundary to the house. Further information can be found in BTF181.

2.2 Pavement Grades 2.5 Adjacent Structures

To allow adequate drainage of the surface, the Where driveways and pavements are constructed
recommended minimum grade or crossfall for a adjacent to houses and other structures, a number
pavement is generally 1 in 100 (1%), or 10 mm per of items may need to be considered:
metre. n Termite barriers. It is important not to
The maximum grade should not exceed 1 in 20 construct the pavement at a level that will
(5%) in the footpath area or 1 in 4 (25%) within obstruct any required visual termite inspection
the property boundary. Note that as the actual zone.
requirements may vary from these limits, especially n Finished levels. The Building Code of Australia2
in hilly areas, it is always advisable to check with (BCA) requires paved areas that have a slope
the relevant Local Authority. away from the building of at least 50 mm
Where grades steeper than 12.5% are necessary (25 mm in South Australia) over the first 1 m
for driveways or where vehicles have low ground from the building to be at least 50 mm (75 mm
clearance, a transition zone at either end of the in South Australia) below the finished surface
steep section may be required to prevent vehicles of the adjacent slab-on-ground. This minimum
from ‘bottoming’ on the driveway, see Figure 1. height may need to be increased if the required
slope can not be provided, there is a possibility
of flooding, or local plumbing regulations
require specific heights between the overflow
relief gully and drainage fittings and ground/
paving level.

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 n Flashings and damp-proofing courses. The 3 DESIGN
BCA requires that the height of a damp-proofing 3.1 Concrete
course or flashing serving as a damp-proofing Strength – The majority of concrete used in residential
course be at least 75 mm above the finished pavements is ‘Normal’ class concrete with a minimum
surface level of the paving adjacent to the wall. strength of 20 MPa (ie N20 concrete). A higher
n Sub-floor ventilation openings. If any existing strength may be required in certain situations, viz:
sub-floor ventilation openings are covered by n Heavier Loads. If the pavement is being used
the paving, the BCA requires new openings to by vehicles between 3 and 10 t gross mass, and
be provided to reinstate the required ventilation infrequently by heavier vehicles that do not
area. exceed the statutory limits for tyre, wheel and
n Ground movement. In clay soils, the moisture axle loads, an N25 concrete is recommended.
content of the soil beneath areas of large n Abrasion Resistance. This is the ability of the
paving may change over time, possibly concrete surface to resist wear; it is directly
causing movement of the soil and consequent related to the strength of concrete and the
changes to the paving and adjacent building quality of the surface finish. An N20 concrete
levels. The possible effects of this movement is satisfactory for most residential paving
on the drainage and adjacent walls should be applications, including typical driveways. For
considered. use by heavier pneumatic-tyred vehicles up to
3 t, an N25 concrete is recommended, and for
2.6 Surface Finish vehicles over 3 t, an N32 concrete.
While the range of surface finishes possible with n Freezing and Thawing. An N32 concrete
concrete is too extensive to cover here, a surface should be used if the pavement is subjected to
finish appropriate for the application must be occasional exposure to freezing, and an N40
selected. Items to be considered when selecting/ concrete where more than 25 freezing cycles
specifying finishes include: occur each year. Also, an air entraining agent
n Grade of pavement. Steep pavements generally should be used in the concrete mix. (Note: air
require a coarse surface texture to provide entraining agent above 5% would make the
skid and slip resistance, especially if a surface concrete Special class.)
sealer is applied. Depending on the grade, n Salinity. If salts are present in the soil or
steel trowelled, polished, stamped and smooth groundwater, increasing the concrete strength
aggregate type finishes may be unsuitable. to provide improved durability is advisable3.
Coarse broomed, tyned, dragged and stencilled N25 concrete is recommended for moderately
finishes would be more suitable. Also, exposed saline soils, N32 for very saline soils and N40
aggregate finishes may require an angular for highly saline soils. Also, a plastic membrane
(crushed) stone instead of a smooth rounded should be provided under the pavement to
stone. reduce the risk of a white deposit of salts
n Slip resistance. Some surface texture is (efflorescence) developing on the surface.
required to provide slip resistance, particularly
in wet conditions. Note that if the pavement Other Properties – If properties other than strength
is subject to barefoot traffic (ie around a pool) are required, a ‘Special’ class (eg S20) rather than
the texture should not be too coarse. Suitable normal-class concrete should be specified. For
finishes for these applications include wood coloured and decorative pavement finishes, some of
float, light broom and pebblecrete. the properties (apart from the strength) that may be
n Cleaning. For pavements subject to spills (eg required include:
barbeque, outdoor kitchen and eating areas), n Colour pigments. Supplier, colour and
smooth finishes are the most appropriate percentage by weight of cement to be used.
since they are easy to clean and maintain. Use n Aggregates. Any information necessary to
of a surface sealer can prevent spillage from identify the stone required – size, type, texture,
penetrating the concrete and facilitate cleaning. colour (eg nominal 10-mm aggregate consisting
of 90% brown rounded river gravel and 10%
crushed white quartz).
n Cement colour. Normal grey, off-white or white.
Note that the availability of these should be
checked prior to specifying. An alternative to
achieve a lighter colour is the use of a titanium
white colour pigment.

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 Thickness – Pavements for foot traffic only corners, especially where a re-entrant corner may
(eg paths and patios) should have a minimum be formed), and at any rigid structures (eg access
thickness of 75 mm. Pavements for vehicles less holes, pits, columns) that may prevent movement
than 3 t gross mass should have a minimum and increase the risk of cracking.
thickness of 100 mm. Pavements for vehicles Wherever possible, the location of joints should
between 3 and 10 t gross mass and infrequent use be planned. A typical layout of joints in the paving to
by heavier vehicles that do not exceed the statutory a residence is shown in Figure 2. Note that one aim
limits for tyre, wheel and axle loads, should have a should be to make the concrete panels defined by
minimum thickness of 150 mm. joints roughly square in shape. The ratio of width to
length should not exceed 1:1.5.
3.2 Reinforcement For decorative work, joints should if possible be
The use of steel reinforcement or mesh does not located to suit the proposed decorative pattern or
increase the load capacity of the pavement, or affect finish.
its thickness. Its function is mainly to hold tightly With all joint types, the angles formed at
closed any cracks that may form. In general, the edges and intersections of joints should not be too
amount of reinforcement required to provide the acute, as this increases the risk of cracking and/or
appropriate degree of crack control will depend on breaking off the tapered section of concrete. A good
the thickness of the slab and the joint spacing. detail in these situations is to keep at least 500 mm
For footpaths which typically have closely- of the joint at more than 75° (and preferably at right
spaced joints (up to 2 m), and hence little risk of angles) to the slab edge Figure 3.
cracking, either no reinforcement, or an SL52
mesh is generally appropriate. For 100-mm-thick 3.4 Surface Tolerances
pavements having joints spaced further apart (up Pavements generally have to meet two independent
to 3 m), a minimum SL62 mesh would typically be tolerance criteria: the ‘flatness’ of the surface and
used, and for 150-mm-thick pavements, SL82 mesh. ‘levelness’ or variation from the designed elevation.
Note that in some cases increasing the minimum Both of these should be specified.
reinforcement would be recommended. For example, The flatness tolerance gives the permitted
where decorative finishes are required, increasing variation from a 3-m straightedge placed on the
the mesh size by one or even two sizes, will provide surface. For hand-placed pavements, a reasonable
better control of cracking that may occur, so that it flatness tolerance is a maximum deviation or gap of
does not significantly affect the appearance. 12 mm under a 3-m straightedge placed anywhere
on the pavement, including on slopes.
3.3 Joints The levelness tolerance gives the permitted
Joints in concrete pavements fall into two basic variation of the slab surface from a fixed external
categories: those that allow movement (isolation reference point or datum. A reasonable tolerance for
and expansion joints) and those that control the surface of a newly-constructed pavement would
cracking of the concrete (control or contraction be ±10 mm from the designed level or elevation. For
joints). A further type, construction joints, used sloped surfaces, a maximum deviation of 10 mm
when there is a break in concrete placement, is from a line joining the ‘control’ points (ie the levels
rarely required in residential pavement work. at the top and bottom of the slope) is recommended.
Isolation joints are used to separate the Note that the minimum slab thickness should
pavement from any abutting buildings, existing be maintained.
pavements, or rigid structures such as drainage
pits, access holes or columns which may cause 3.5 Permeable Pavements
restraint of the pavement and thereby increase the For environmentally sensitive areas, permeable
risk of cracking. concrete which allows water to infiltrate through
Expansion joints are used in large areas of paving the pavement is available. Information on these
to accommodate expansion, primarily due to elevated types of pavements is outside the scope of this
temperatures during periods of hot weather. They document but can be found elsewhere4.
should be provided at maximum 15-m centres.
Control joints typically form a weakened plane 3.6 Segmental Pavements
at which the concrete cracks. Without them, drying Concrete segmental pavers ranging from small
shrinkage will result in random cracking. They brick-sized units to the larger flag pavers are
should be provided at maximum 3-m centres, at available in a variety of colours, finishes and textures.
any changes in shape (eg a narrow path attached to Information on segmental pavers is available from
a driveway), at any changes in direction (eg around the Concrete Masonry Association of Australia5.

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 CJ Residence

IJ
IJ
CJ
IJ
CJ
Path IJ
Double garage IJ
CJ Path
IJ
Potential crack IJ IJ Potential crack
if CJ used
IJ CJ CJ if CJ used W
instead of IJ instead of IJ

CJ CJ L (max) = 1.5 x W
Extend pavement here to
avoid acute angle

3 m max 3 m max

CJ Joints perpendicular to slab edge

to avoid acute angles
3 m max CJ

CJ

EJ if length greater than

15 m, otherwise CJ
EJ

3 m wide driveway

CJ
Provide IJ LEGEND
around access hole Isolation joint
IJ
Centre CJ on access hole Expansion joint
CJ EJ

Access hole Control joint

CJ

Property boundary
IJ
IJ IJ Footpath

IJ Kerb and gutter

Figure 2: Typical joint layout

4 CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Subgrade Preparation
The preparation of the subgrade (supporting
ground) for residential pavements is a relatively
simple process as typically the loads are light. All
topsoil (which may settle) should be removed and
the area levelled to provide a uniform platform for
the pavement. For heavy loads, the ability of the
subgrade to adequately support the loads without
excessive deflection and cracking of the pavement
needs to be considered.
Figure 3: Joint perpendicular to slab edge A reasonably uniform foundation is essential to

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 Concrete pavement

Polyethelene membrane
or sand layer (recommended)
the long-term performance of a concrete pavement.
Subbase (recommended for
An assumption that a concrete pavement will
highly-expansive clay sites)
bridge over a poor subgrade could lead to a false
sense of security. Thus, any poor, saturated, highly Subgrade or natural ground
compressible or otherwise weak areas should
be removed and replaced with suitable subgrade Figure 4: Typical pavement cross-section
or roadbase material, adequately compacted
with a plate compactor or small roller, to avoid
subsequent settlement. The same applies to the concrete directly on a plastic soil such as clay, the
backfilling of service trenches. frictional force – and hence restraint of the slab –
A level area also minimises the friction between can be more than halved. This allows the concrete
the pavement and ground. This reduces the slab to move more freely as a result of factors such
restraint of the pavement, and in turn, the risk of as drying shrinkage and thermal volume changes,
unplanned cracking. thereby reducing the risk of cracking.
If using sand, it is important that the percentage
4.2 Subbase of fine material such as silt and clay be limited
On highly expansive clay subgrades, significant to about 5%, so that the material does not bind
volume changes can occur in the soil resulting in together, thereby restricting movement of the slab.
non-uniform support of the slab, and subsequently
early slab failure. Potential problems can be 4.4 Reinforcement Fixing
minimised by appropriate pavement design, the The reinforcement (usually mesh) should be
provision of a subbase, or stabilisation of the located within the top half of the pavement, and
subgrade material. have a minimum 30 mm of concrete cover to
The function of the subbase (or cover layer) of the top of the slab. It should be fixed in position
low-volume-change soil is to minimise moisture using suitable supports or bar chairs, spaced at
migration under the pavement, and hence maximum 800‑mm centres to prevent sagging of
changes in the moisture content and volume of the the reinforcement during concrete placement. Note
underlying expansive soil Figure 4. It also provides that for light meshes, the spacing may need to be
more-uniform slab support by equalising minor reduced to prevent sagging.
subgrade defects. The appropriate thickness of the Mesh should not be walked into position
non-expansive subbase layer depends on the site or lifted to height using a hook during concrete
conditions and local experience; in the majority of placement. Nor should the concrete truck be driven
cases, a 100-mm thickness is recommended. over it to gain access for concrete discharge.
Alternatively, a layer of the existing clay soil Where sheets of mesh are joined, they should
may be stabilised (generally with lime or cement) to have a minimum overlap of two cross wires (ie
enhance its stability under conditions of alternate the two outermost cross wires of each sheet are
wetting and drying. overlapped).

4.3 Reducing Friction Under the Slab 4.5 Formwork

Providing polyethylene sheeting or a 20-mm-thick Formwork should be secured accurately in position
layer of sand beneath the pavement is an effective to maintain lines and/or shape during concrete
way of reducing the friction between the slab and placement, and set to the correct levels so as to
subgrade/subbase. Compared to placing the provide a guide for the finished surface levels and
tolerances.

4.6 Addition of Water to Concrete

No water (in excess of the mixing water) should be
added to the concrete mix as this will increase the
water-cement ratio, resulting in a lower strength
concrete that is less able to resist the surface
abrasion and wear caused by traffic.
Also, excess water will generally increase the
drying shrinkage of the concrete which may result
in either unplanned cracking, or crack widths wider
than would normally be expected.

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 4.7 Placing of Concrete 4.8 Compaction of Concrete
Concrete placement should commence from one Adequate compaction of the concrete significantly
corner of the pavement and proceed continuously reduces its porosity, increases its strength,
out from that point, with new concrete always enhances the abrasion resistance and general
being deposited onto the face of the concrete durability, and minimises the risk of cracking.
already placed to ensure interblending and avoid While any deeper sections of the pavement
segregation, ie the separation of the aggregate from such as edge thickenings and downturns should be
the cement paste within a concrete mix which may compacted using an immersion vibrator, for slabs
lead to honeycombing in the hardened concrete. on ground that are 100 mm or less in thickness,
When placing concrete the following should be adequate compaction can usually be achieved
considered: through the placing, screeding and finishing
n Transport. The majority of concrete is moved processes. Sometimes, surface vibration will be
from the concrete truck to its final location by used in the form of a small hand-held vibrating
a concrete pump. If a wheelbarrow is used, a screed. Immersion vibrators are not recommended
typical placing rate of about 1 to 1.5 m3/h can be for 100-mm-thick slab-on-ground construction as
achieved, the travel distance is limited to about the slab depth does not allow proper immersion
50 m for continuous work, and a relatively level, of the vibrator head, and the plastic membrane (if
smooth access is required to avoid jolting and present) may be damaged.
possible segregation of the concrete.
n Water. Any water ponding on the ground should 4.9 Surface Finishes
be removed prior to placing the concrete to Slip- and skid-resistant concrete surfaces can
avoid problems with increasing the water- be achieved by the appropriate texturing during
cement ratio, segregation and washing out of the finishing operations. The term ‘slip’ refers to
cement paste from the aggregate, all of which pedestrian traffic while ‘skid’ is the term used for
can affect the strength and durability of the vehicular traffic.
concrete. A wooden or sponge float finish is generally
n Segregation. Segregation should be avoided suitable for foot traffic on level or near-level paving.
by placing concrete as near as possible to its Broomed finishes can produce a greater degree
final location; concrete should not be made to of skid resistance, suitable for vehicular traffic.
flow into its final position through the use of For greater skid resistance on ramps, a steel-
say immersion vibrators, or be dropped from tyned comb can be used to groove the concrete
heights of more than 2 m. surface. Compacting the surface of the concrete by
n Slopes. Concrete placement should commence trowelling will improve the strength and abrasion
at the lowest point. resistance, thereby assisting to maintain the skid
n Hot and cold weather conditions. Concrete resistant properties of the surface. It is important
should not be placed at ambient temperatures therefore that, where possible, the surface be
higher than 30°C or lower than 10°C without trowelled either prior to the finish being applied (ie
taking the appropriate precautions; if broom finish) or during the process of applying the
temperatures exceed 35°C or fall below 5°C finish (ie colour surface toppings).
concrete placement should not be undertaken. Given the range of decorative products, finishes
In hot weather, the main concerns are and finishing techniques available, the suitability
cracking of the surface due to rapid drying of the finish for the intended purpose should
and loss of strength due to inadequate curing. be confirmed with either the manufacturer or
Flaking of the surface may also occur as the applicator.
rate of drying may exceed the rate of bleeding, Where a surface sealer that may affect the
leading to premature finishing of the slab or texture is applied, care should be taken to ensure
the application of subsequent surface coatings/ the finished surface provides the necessary slip
treatments. The use of wind breaks, shade and skid resistance. Incorporating silica dust or
covers and application of an evaporative retarder carborundum dust in an applied sealer is another
such as aliphatic alcohol should be considered. technique to either maintain or improve the slip/
In cold weather, delayed setting and skid resistance.
finishing times, slower strength gain and even
freezing of the surface are of concern. Concrete 4.10 Curing of Concrete
should be protected from freezing for at least Residential pavements for foot and light vehicular
24 hours after finishing. traffic should be cured for a minimum period
of 3 days. This should be increased to 7 days if

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 Height to allow clearance to Abuting structure or
weep holes, flashings, other pavement
damp-proofing course,
termite barriers etc

Suitable silicon or
located near the coast (within 1 km) and/or subject 30 mm cover to mesh polyurethane sealant
to heavier traffic. Curing allows the concrete to to prevent ingress of dirt
achieve its potential strength and durability. When
concrete is not cured (ie is allowed to dry out 10-mm thick compressible
quickly), a significant reduction in its strength filler material for full depth
40 mm
of pavement
results. The reduction of concrete strength has end cover
a significant effect on abrasion resistance of the
surface of the pavement when used by vehicular
traffic. One of the main contributors to surface wear
and dusting problems is the reduction in strength Figure 5: Typical isolation joint
due to inadequate compaction and curing.
Typical methods of curing concrete pavements
0.5 L Suitable silicon or
include: covering the concrete with an impermeable
polyurethane sealant
membrane (eg plastic sheeting, chemical curing Dowel to prevent ingress of dirt
compound); or keeping any exposed surfaces (length, L)
continuously wet (eg ponding or spraying with 40
30 mm cover to mesh
water). Wetting at intervals (eg in the morning and
afternoon) does not keep the concrete continuously
t
moist, particularly in hot weather conditions and Bond-breaking
0.5 t
is therefore not regarded as an adequate method. compound
25
Black plastic should not be used for curing of
external surfaces, as this may increase heat gain
10-mm minimum thickness Cap required
and cause problems with slab curling. compressible filler material for expansion
Coloured concrete pavements should not be for full depth of pavement
cured with plastic sheeting, damp sand or wet
hessian, as these materials may promote uneven Figure 6: Typical expansion joint
colour or staining. Chemical curing compounds
Saw cut, insert or tooled joint
compatible with the sealer, or the sealer itself if (no
Sawsealant required)
cut, insert or tooled joint
complying with the requirements of a chemical 50 50 (no sealant required)
curing compound, should be used for these types of 50 50
decorative pavements.
0.25 to 0.33 t 30 mm cover to mesh
4.11 Joints 0.25 to 0.33 t 30 mm cover to mesh
Isolation joints Figure 5 should not impede any t
relative movement. This may be horizontal, vertical t Induced crack
or both and may include rotation. While movement Induced crack
from concrete drying shrinkage will normally cause
the joint to open with time, temperature changes (a) CRACK-INDUCED JOINT (SAW CUT, INSERT OR TOOLED)
may give rise to joint closing movements. (a) CRACK-INDUCED JOINT (SAW CUT, INSERT OR TOOLED)
Expansion joints Figure 6 typically have dowel
bars connecting the slabs to provide load transfer Optional coloured cover strip
and avoid changes in the levels from one slab to (no sealant
Optional required)
coloured cover strip
another. As a guide, for 100-mm-thick pavements 40 40 (no sealant required)
intended for vehicles less than 3 t gross mass, 40 40
12-mm-diameter dowels at maximum 400-mm
centres would be satisfactory. 30 mm cover to mesh
Control joints Figure 7 can be made by: 30 mm cover to mesh
n inserting a pre-moulded strip into the concrete
as it is being placed; Propriety pressed-metal
n use of a grooving tool immediately after the key joint topressed-metal
Propriety suit slab thickness
concrete has been placed; or key joint to suit slab thickness
n sawing a groove when the concrete has (b) KEY JOINT (PRESSED-METAL OR FORMED)
hardened sufficiently to prevent raveling. (b) KEY JOINT (PRESSED-METAL OR FORMED)
n Using a proprietary pressed metal key joint. Figure 7: Typical control joint

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 Reinforcing mesh Stop board to form joint and
continuous across joint allow compaction of concrete

30 mm cover to mesh

Note that:
n If joints are saw cut, these should be installed
prior to shrinkage cracking occurring. As a Roughened first-cast face
guide, saw cuts should be made not more
than 12 hours after finishing of the slab if
temperatures exceed 25°C, and not more than Figure 8: Typical construction joint
16 to 18 hours after finishing of the slab for
lower temperatures. To avoid delays, early-age
saw cutting (ie the same day) is possible using n Joint geometry. For typical joints, the cross-
specialised equipment. The surface should be sectional depth of the seal should be at least
thoroughly cleaned after cutting. half the width, and never greater than the width.
n If joints are wet-formed by scoring the plastic n Backing systems. To perform adequately when
concrete with an edging tool (tooled joint), the pavement moves, sealants should adhere
ensure that the groove does not fill with cement only to the sides of the joint. While the joint filler
slurry and render the joint less effective. will normally ensure this, a backing rod may
n If joints are formed by using proprietary pressed sometimes be necessary to achieve the required
metal key joints, they should be securely fixed joint geometry.
in position to maintain straight lines during n Setting time. The setting time of the sealant
placement of the concrete. determines when it can be brought into
n While reinforcing mesh will normally be service, or when the pavement can be used.
terminated 50 mm away from control joints, it Polyurethane sealants will cure at a rate of
may extend across the joint to provide better about 2-3 mm of depth per day in temperatures
control of movement on, say, highly expansive over 5°C. Fast-curing and two-part products will
clays. In this case, 50% of the mesh should be marginally faster. Silicones skin quickly but
be cut to assist in the formation of a plane of have a slower cure-through-depth time.
weakness at the joint location. To allow some
tolerance in the location of the saw cut, crack 4.13 Surface Sealers
inducer or tooled joint, the ends of cut wires Sealers are used to prevent staining and to facilitate
should be at least 50 mm clear of the proposed cleaning of the concrete surface. They should
joint location. be applied after the curing period and when the
A construction joint Figure 8 is used to concrete has dried out sufficiently to allow the
accommodate an unplanned break in concrete sealer to penetrate into the concrete surface. Note
placement. The joint should be formed to allow that some sealers may also function as a chemical
adequate compaction and finishing of the concrete curing compound and should be applied after
along the edge. Once the concrete has hardened, finishing. Some sealers may also be tinted and thus
the formwork is removed, the edge roughened to provide both a seal and a coloured finish.
provide aggregate interlock across the joint and the As the penetration of sealers into the concrete
new concrete placed against the existing edge. surface varies, their suitability for a particular
application should be discussed with the
4.12 Joint Sealants manufacturer. Steep driveways warrant special
Many types of joint sealants are available. For consideration; non-penetrating sealers that form
pavements, high-performance sealants such as a film on the surface can reduce slip and skid
polyurethane or silicone should be used. They are resistance, and are thus generally not suitable for
supplied in cartridges for easy use with a caulking this application unless the surface texture applied
gun, come in a range of colours to suit various to the concrete is coarse enough to still provide
decorative finishes and are UV light resistant. adequate slip and skid resistance. Penetrating
While the life of the sealant depends on a sealers or those with slip-resistant properties are
number of factors, the following basic rules recommended for steeper grades.
concerning their use should be observed to achieve
adequate performance:
n Joint preparation. The surfaces should be clean,
dry and primed if necessary. Applying sealants
to ‘green’ concrete can result in bubbling and
loss of adhesion. The surface temperature
should be above 5°C.

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 5 MAINTENANCE 6 SPECIFICATION CHECKLIST
5.1 Cleaning The following provides guidance on the main items
Cleaning should be undertaken as soon as possible that may need to be considered in the specification
following contamination or staining. Extending for the construction of residential driveways and
the area to be cleaned may also be necessary to paths.
achieve a uniform surface appearance.
High-pressure water is typically used for Planning
general cleaning, with a range of chemical cleaning n The Local Authority’s requirements for grades
products such as bleaching agents and acid-based and pavement details between the property
solutions available to remove specific types of boundary and kerb should be ascertained.
stains. Consideration needs to be given to the n A sketch or drawing should be prepared
environmental effects along with the corrosiveness indicating the location, dimensions, levels and
of the chemical and its effect on surface sealers or grades of the pavement and any associated
and/or the colour and texture of the surface. drainage and Local Authority requirements.
For colour-sensitive situations, the use of mild
detergent and steam cleaning should be considered Subgrade
initially. Milder chemicals such as oxalic acid, n All topsoil, vegetation, debris and other foreign
should then be tested before resorting to harsher matter should be removed from the location of
chemicals. the proposed pavement.
n Any soft, weak, saturated or otherwise

5.2 Resealing unsuitable material should be removed and

Numerous sealers in a range of categories are replaced by good quality material from the site
available, each offering different degrees of or by imported roadbase, and compacted in
protection. Depending on the extent of abrasion layers using a rammer plate/upright compactor.
and wear, and performance of the sealer itself, n All service trenches and other excavations
replacement after a number of years will be should be backfilled with good quality material
required. Note that penetrating sealers permeate from the site or other suitable trench filling
and close off the small pores in the concrete, and material and compacted in layers using a
are thus protected by the abrasion resistance of the rammer plate/upright compactor, to avoid
concrete itself. future settlement.
Due to the different types of sealers available, n The subgrade should be dampened prior to
the sealer used should be noted so that a compatible placement of the concrete. Note that this is not
sealer can be reapplied at a later stage if required. required if a membrane and/or subbase is used.

5.3 Assessment of Cracks Subbase

While adopting good design, detailing and (Recommended for highly reactive clay sites)
construction practices as outlined in this document n A minimum 100-mm -thick layer of low-volume-
will minimise the risk of cracking, there will be change material (roadbase or similar material,
situations where cracks may occur as a result but not sand or gravel) should be provided under
of movements in concrete due to changes in its the slab.
moisture content and temperature. Pavements may n Subbase material should be compacted using a
also be subjected to excessive loads that may result rammer plate compactor or small roller.
in cracking. n The subbase should be dampened prior to
If cracking does occur over time, it is important placement of the concrete.
to identify the cause, and then assess whether the
cracking is acceptable, or needs repair. While the Plastic Underlay
visual acceptability of cracks is very subjective, (Optional – to reduce friction under the slab or
a 0.3-mm-wide crack should be regarded as ingress of salts in saline environments)
acceptable. Cracks wider than 1 mm should be n A 200-μm (0.2-mm) thick polyethylene film
assessed on an individual basis in terms of possible should be provided under the entire slab area.
effects on durability and performance requirements n Any joins in the plastic membrane should be
and, depending on the surface texture and finish, lapped 200 mm minimum and taped.
also on aesthetic requirements.

Page 10 of 12 > RESIDENTIAL Concrete Driveways and Paths

 Sand Layer Finishing
(Recommended – to reduce friction under the slab) n The type of surface finish should be specified.

n A 20-mm layer of sand should be provided If proprietary products are involved such as
under the entire slab area. dry shake colour hardeners, the coverage and
n The sand should have no more than 5% of silt application should be in accordance with the
and clay particles. manufacturer’s/supplier’s recommendations.
n The surface levels and flatness should be

Formwork specified. As a guide, the deviation in levelness

n Edge formwork should extend the full depth of can be specified as ±10 mm from the designed
the slab. level, and flatness by a maximum deviation or
n The vertical alignment should be within 5 mm gap under a 3-m straightedge of 12 mm.
for each 100 mm of height.
n Formwork should be fixed rigidly with pegs Joints
to prevent movement during placement of n Isolation joints as shown Figure 5 should be

concrete. provided wherever the slab abuts existing

n The position of formwork should be within buildings, pavements, or rigid structures such
±5 mm of the location shown on the drawing(s). as drainage pits, access holes or columns.
n The formwork levels should be set to a Specify colour of sealant if required.
tolerance of ±5 mm from the designed level. n Expansion joints as shown Figure 6 should
be provided at maximum 15-m centres in any
Reinforcement direction. Colour of joint sealant if required and
n The appropriate mesh size for the particular slab dowel size and spacing should be specified.
thickness and joint spacing should be provided. For 100-mm-thick driveways, 12-mm-diameter
n The mesh should be located in the top half of dowels at maximum 400-mm centres along the
the slab with minimum (30 mm) cover. joint would be satisfactory.
n The mesh should be supported on bar chairs at n Control joints as shown Figure 7 should be
maximum (800-mm) centres. provided at maximum 3-m centres, and at
n Mesh should have a minimum overlap of 2 cross locations where there is a likelihood of a crack
wires (ie the two outermost cross wires of each occurring (eg at re-entrant corners). The type
sheet are overlapped). of control joint should be nominated, along with
n One N12 trimmer bar should be provided any requirements for saw cutting, or cutting of
around all penetrations such as access holes. the mesh if continuous across the joint.
n 40 mm of cover should be provided to all n Joints should be located so that the longer
isolation and expansion joints, and to all slab dimension of any slab panel is no more than
edges. 1.5 times the shorter dimension.
n If the mesh is discontinuous at control joints, it n Any angle formed between joints, or a joint and
should be terminated 40–50 mm away from the the slab edge, should not be less than 75° to
joint Figure 7 depending on the joint type. avoid tapered and narrow sections of pavement.

Concrete Sealing of the Surface

n The concrete strength should be nominated n The sealer should be specified, along with its
(N20 minimum). use in accordance with the manufacturer’s
n For special-class concrete all required recommendations.
properties such as strength (S20, etc), colour,
aggregates and cement colour should be
specified.
n The minimum slab thickness should be
specified (100 mm usually).
n Slabs and areas thicker than 100 mm should be
compacted using an immersion vibrator.
n Concrete should be continuously cured for at
least 3 days from the completion of finishing
operations, and then allowed to gradually
dry out.
n Excess water should not be added to the
concrete on site.

Page 11 of 12 > RESIDENTIAL Concrete Driveways and Paths

july CCAA OFFICES
SYDNEY OFFICE:

2006 Level 6, 504 Pacific Highway

St Leonards NSW Australia 2065
POSTAL ADDRESS:
Locked Bag 2010
7 REFERENCES St Leonards NSW 1590
1 Building Technology File (BTF) 18 Foundation TELEPHONE: (61 2) 9437 9711
FACSIMILE: (61 2) 9437 9470
Maintenance and Footing Performance:
A Homeowner’s Guide, CSIRO (formerly BRISBANE OFFICE:
Level 14, IBM Building
Information Sheet 10–91). 348 Edward Street
Brisbane QLD 4000
TELEPHONE: (61 7) 3831 3288
2 Building Code of Australia, Volume 2, Housing FACSIMILE: (61 7) 3839 6005
Provisions, Australian Building Codes Board,
MELBOURNE OFFICE:
2005. 2nd Floor, 1 Hobson Street
South Yarra VIC 3141
TELEPHONE: (61 3) 9825 0200
3 Guide to Residential Slabs and Footings in
FACSIMILE: (61 3) 9825 0222
Saline Environments (T56) Cement Concrete &
PERTH OFFICE:
Aggregates Australia, 2005. 45 Ventnor Avenue
West Perth WA 6005
TELEPHONE: (61 8) 9389 4452
4 Permeable Concrete Pavements Data Sheet,
FACSIMILE: (61 8) 9389 4451
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2004.
ADELAIDE OFFICE:
Greenhill Executive Suites
5 Concrete Masonry Association of Australia 213 Greenhill Road
Eastwood SA 5063
website www.cmaa.com.au. Information on
POSTAL ADDRESS:
Concrete Segmental Pavements and Concrete PO Box 229
Flag Pavements can be found under technical Fullarton SA 5063
TELEPHONE: (61 8) 8274 3758
publications. FACSIMILE: (61 8) 8373 7210
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES OFFICE
FURTHER INFORMATION PO Box 243
Henley Beach SA 5022
CCAA Data Sheets: TELEPHONE: (61 8) 8353 8151
Hot Weather Concreting FACSIMILE: (61 8) 8353 8151
Cold Weather Concreting TASMANIAN OFFICE:
Download from www.concrete.net.au. EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES OFFICE
PO Box 246
Sheffield TAS 7306
The Housing Concrete Handbook (T53) Cement TELEPHONE: (61 3) 6491 2529
FACSIMILE: (61 3) 6491 2529
and Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
WEBSITE: www.concrete.net.au

Guide to Concrete Construction (T41/HB64) EMAIL: [email protected]

Cement and Concrete Association of Australia Layout: Helen Rix Design
and Standards Australia, 2002.
Disclaimer: Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia is a not for profit organisation sponsored
by the cement concrete and aggregate industries
in Australia to provide information on the many
uses of cement and concrete. This publication
is produced by CCAA for that purpose. Since
the information provided is intended for general
guidance only and in no way replaces the services
of professional consultants on particular projects, no
legal liability can be accepted by CCAA for its use.

CCAA respects your privacy. Your details have

been collected to provide you with information on
our activities, publications and services. From time
to time your details may be made available to third
party organisations who comply with the Privacy
Act such as affiliated associations, sponsors of
events and other reputable organisations whose
services we think you may find of interest. If you
do not wish to receive information from CCAA or
wish to be taken off the database please write to
the Privacy Officer, CCAA, Locked Bag 2010,
St Leonards, NSW, 1590

Page 12 of 12 > RESIDENTIAL Concrete Driveways and Paths